BICOL COLLEGE

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Sagpon, Daraga, Albay

“ROAD DESIGNS THAT CONTRIBUTES TO ROAD

ACCIDENTS”

In partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Criminology

SABDAO, ABRAHAM JR. R.

201700207

DRIVING – PE5DRIV B

Mr. RAMILO E. CADAG

ABSTRACT

In this research the main objective is to identify what are some road designs that
may contribute to accidents and put the life of drivers or passengers in danger. It also
includes a brief history about roads and its origins and innovations. Aside from the
driver itself there are also some factors that causes accident such as animals,
recklessness of others, man, weather, road, and etc. But in this topic we will focus
mainly on the road factors or designs that may lead to road accidents which may
causes damage of life and property. While most car accidents seem to be caused by
the usual factors such as alcohol and drugs, speeding, fatigue and general
inattentiveness, a fair number are caused by poor road design. Car accidents do
occasionally occur from a poorly placed sign or inadequately maintained roadway,
among other roadway flaws.  Often Car Accidents can lead to legal malpractice cases. 
We work with victims of car accidents and legal malpractice cases.

Most roadways are designed and maintained by the states or the government or
local municipalities that may put up signs or fix potholes or remedy other hazards. A
poorly designed ramp or misplaced sign, however, along with other flawed design
features, can lead to devastating injuries to unwary motorists.

For me road should be user-friendly from any time of the day because some road
designs may put the driver’s safety in danger especially during night times. Road should
be tested safe for driving even at what weather it is because some roads are not safe
depending on the weather.

At this modern time, we have countless road innovations that’s why we study
road safety designs to avoid accidents.
Table of Contents

I. Introduction
(Main Body)
II. Discussion and Conclusion
III. References
INTRODUCTION

Roads

Roads and highways, traveled way on which people, animals, or wheeled

vehicles move. In modern usage the term road describes a rural, lesser traveled way,
while the word street denotes an urban roadway. Highway refers to a major rural
traveled way; more recently it has been used for a road, in either a rural or urban area,
where points of entrance and exit for traffic are limited and controlled.

The most ancient name for these arteries of travel seems to be the antecedent of
the modern way. Way stems from the Middle English wey, which in turn branches from
the Latin veho (“I carry”), derived from the Sanskrit vah (“carry,” “go,” or “move”). The
word highway goes back to the elevated Roman roads that had a mound or hill formed
by earth from the side ditches thrown toward the centre, thus high way. The
word street originates with the Latin strata (initially, “paved”) and later strata via (“a way
paved with stones”). Street was used by the Anglo-Saxons for all the roads that they
inherited from the Romans. By the Middle Ages, constructed roads were to be found
only in the towns, and so street took on its modern limited application to town roads.
The more recent word road, derived from the Old English word rád (“to ride”) and the
Middle English rode or rade (“a mounted journey”), is now used to indicate all vehicular
ways.

Modern roads can be classified by type or function. The basic type is the
conventional undivided two-way road. Beyond this are divided roads, expressways
(divided roads with most side access controlled and some minor at-grade intersections),
and freeways (expressways with side access fully controlled and no at-grade
intersections). An access-controlled road with direct user charges is known as a tollway.
In the United Kingdom freeways and expressways are referred to as motorways.

Functional road types are local streets, which serve only adjacent properties and
do not carry through traffic; collector, distributor, and feeder roads, which carry only
through traffic from their own area; arterial roads, which carry through traffic from
adjacent areas and are the major roads within a region or population centre; and
highways, which are the major roads between regions or population centres.

The first half of this article traces the history of roads from earliest times to the
present, exploring the factors that have influenced their development and suggesting
that in many ways roads have directly reflected the conditions and attitudes of their
times. The road is thus one of the oldest continuous and traceable metaphors for
civilization and society. The second half of the article explains the factors behind the
design, construction, and operation of a modern road. It is shown that a road must
interact closely and carefully with the terrain and community through which it passes,
with changing vehicle technology, with information technologies, and with the various
abilities, deficiencies, and frailties of the individual driver.

Road crashes have been in on an increasing trend in the last decade or so. This
has led the researchers to think of this problem and find possible causes and
precautionary measures to prevent crashes from happening. This field of transportation
engineering is more commonly recognized as traffic safety and management. These
researches have led to development and discovery of new models predicting road
crashes accurately. This paper combines many important models and discusses the
theory involving the discovery to that model. It also compares and contradicts the
models developed by different researchers. Road accidents are very common all over
the world and annual global road crash statistics (Association for Safe International
Road Travel, 2013) states that, nearly 1.3 million people die in road crashes each year,
on average 3,287 deaths a day with an additional 20-50 million are injured or disabled.
More than half of all road traffic deaths occur among young adult ages between 15 to 44
years. Road traffic crashes rank as the 9th leading cause of death and account for 2.2%
of all deaths globally. Road crashes are the leading cause of death among young
people ages between 15 to 29, and the second leading cause of death worldwide
among young people ages between 5 to 14 years. Unless action is taken, road traffic
injuries are predicted to become the fifth leading cause of death by 2030.

What are the Causes of Poor Road Design Accidents?

 Medians

Medians separate motorists traveling in different directions to prevent an out of control

vehicle from entering the opposite traffic lanes. Medians that are too low or not situated
properly can allow such vehicles to cross and lead to tragic results. Some median
barriers may be too rigid, crushing a vehicle or sending it back into traffic.   Some
medians lack sufficient reflectors to warn drivers at night.

 Signage

Signs warn motorist of existing road conditions, speed limits, rules of the road,
irregularities in the road or of other hazards. Signs that are old or damaged are
sometimes not replaced or new hazards may appear that a sign may not address. A
poorly situated sign may not be seen or overgrown foliage can obscure a sign from
view.

 Shoulder Design

A significant shoulder drop-off can create a danger for motorists who may lose control of
their car and cross over the median and into oncoming traffic.

 Off and On Ramps

Ramps that are too short or do not allow motorists to exit or enter highways safely can
create a dangerous situation for motorists who are not used to the ramp or fail to
compensate for its flaws.

 Improper Grading

A roadway that is not properly paved or graded can allow pools of water to accumulate
and cause cars to hydroplane and motorists to lose control.

 Highway Construction Zones

Lane changes, uneven pavement, and poor visibility at night or in snowy conditions can
render road construction zones as particularly hazardous.

Different Types of Roadway Design Issues

 Blind curves
 Roads not properly treated for show or ice
 Damaged or missing signs
 Poor lighting
 Broken guardrails
  Steep or no shoulders leading to rollovers or drop offs
 Landscaping which obstructs vision
 Curves not graded properly
 Poorly designed intersections
 Road not maintained

Poor road conditions can lead to more than just a bumpy ride. Roads can deteriorate
to the level where they become dangerous. This includes potholes, uneven road
surfaces, broken concrete, exposed rebar, sinkholes, and road cracks. If a driver hits a
large pothole, it could burst the tire causing the vehicle to veer into another lane,
colliding with another vehicle. Uneven road surfaces can cause a driver to lose control
of their vehicle, leading to a crash or rollover accident injuring the driver, passengers,
and pedestrians.

Poor road quality can be a major factor in an automobile accidents. Even if they
were not the cause of the auto accident, they can make the accident much worse.
Roads can be affected by bad weather such as heavy snow and rain, which can cause
the roads to be very slippery, especially if they are untreated

Another common poor road condition that can contribute to an auto accident is that
actual condition of the road. Some roads aren't properly managed over the years
and that negligence can be dangerous and can lead to auto accidents.

Depending on where you live, another common poor road condition that can lead to
serious car accidents are ice patches. Ice patches can even form when there is no snow
or rain.

However, most roads are safe for ordinary travel, but all of us have seen roadway
locations that were dangerous due to the way they were built or maintained. At highway
speeds serious injuries, including those involving brain and spinal cord damage, can
occur when dangerous roadway conditions are not made safe.

Here are some basic requirements of a safe road designs.

HUMAN FACTORS REQUIREMENT NO 1: GIVE ROAD USERS ENOUGH TIME

The time it takes an average driver to adapt from one traffic situation to the next, or to
adjust to new requirements, is much longer than what is stated in many current
guidelines. Because humans are not constantly alert and searching for new information,
they need more time. This is especially true when information is difficult to find or is
unusual, or when the driver is confronted with complex decisions or when unusual
manoeuvres are required. Instead of one or two second (simple "stimulus-reaction
time") it takes the average driver at minimum 4-6 seconds to adapt to a new driving
requirement ("anticipation-response time." PIARC Report 2012R36EN). At 100 km/h,
the distance covered before the vehicle can be brought to a complete stop is up to 300
m, allowing for braking distance (note that this may take longer if braking is slow due to
a wet road or other circumstances).

Figure 8.4 Intersection not visible 125 m

ahead: unexpected braking and high speed
cause of rear-end collisions (Source: Birth,
Sieber, and Staadt, 2004
A user-friendly road will give drivers the
necessary time to adapt to new and
unexpected situations. It will give them the
time they need to safely reorganise their
driving program. That is why it is not
enough to provide the driver with a reaction
time of 2-3 seconds (Stopping Sight
Distance, SSD, with manoeuvre section
and response section). The design should also provide an anticipation section with a
minimum 2-3 seconds to identify an unexpected or unusual situation with more complex
decision demands (Decision Sight Distance, DSD). In situations that are more complex
or involve higher speeds, it is recommended to have an advance warning section with
proper signing and instructions. 

Figure 8.5 The six second requirement - Source: PIARC, 2015.

The usual ways to avoid this situation in practice are to:
 eliminate the problem by providing an unobstructed view of the critical locations.
Remove visual obstacles such as crests, curves, vegetation and buildings prior to
crticial locations. If useful, construct well detectable traffic islands;
 reduce the problem by implementing treatment that guide a driver's attention
directly to the critical driving demand (if the problem cannot be eliminated) Use
attention guiding clues such as coloured road surfaces, pavement markings, and
other advisory treatments;
 minimise the problem, if attention cannot be drawn to the critical point warn road
users by installing traffic control devices such as speed limits, pedestrian crossing
facilities, road markings or signs to prevent overtaking.
Additional good solutions and best practise examples can be found in the PIARC Report
(PIARC 2012b) "Human Factors in Road Design. Review of Design Standards in Nin
Countries."

REQUIREMENTS NO 2: THE ROAD MUST POROVIDE A SAFE FIELD OF VIEW

Monotonous, clouded, deceptive or distracting impressions affect the quality of driving.

The road, together with its surrounding field, offers an integrated field of view. This can
either stabilise or destabilise the driver; it can tire or stimulate them. It can also result in
either increased or reduced speed. Speed, lane-keeping and reliability of direction are
functions of the quality of the field of view.

A user-friendly road will give drivers a well-designed field of view with sufficient
contrasts to increase alertness. It will provide good optical guiding and orienting facilities
with symmetrical and orthogonal impression.

A good-quality field of view safeguards the driver and keeps him from drifting to the
edge of the lane or even leaving it. Misleading eye-catching objects in the periphery of
the field of view activate subconscious changes in direction. The most serious
consequences arise from eye-catching objects that differ from the road axis. These lead
in extreme cases to a horizontal swing of the complete field of view: The driver has the
feeling that the road and its surroundings are moving while he is in an unmoved
position. Such objects lead to gross mistakes in steering. At minimum they lead to
disturbances in lane-keeping, though these can mostly be corrected (for this reason
billboards near interurban roads that catch driver’s attention to a wrong direction should
be forbidden like in Germany).

An experienced and Human Factors trained designer will avoid monotony in curvature
and visual appearance. They will avoid optical illusions or misleading objects that
destabilise drivers and negatively impact their driving and will take advantage of the
optical perception to influence the driver's choice of speed.

Factors that are forming a safe field of view include the following characteristics:

a)  Density of the field of view

The amount of information also influences driver’s speed. The term used for this
is density of the field of view. It is a function of the number of objects that contrast with
the background. The presence of very few contrasting objects leads to monotony as
well as reduced performance and reactivity. To avoid monotony the driver
subconsciously changes his driving activities in order to increase information input: he
swerves, brakes or – in most cases – increases speed. Consequently, it is desirable to
achieve an optimal level of brightness and color-contrast (optical density) to support the
correct choice of speed. That is why efficient speed management relies on changing
brightness and color contrasts to avoid subconscious speeding up.

Figure 8.6 Density of the field

of view is low; monotonous
and long straight-ahead
section stimulate
subconscious speeding up
(Birth, et. al 2004)

b) Lateral space structure

It is proven, that the lateral field of view and its information provide the most important
information to master the difficult task to hold balance on the road like on a balance
beam.

If designers fail to take this fact into account, they may not make the right prediction
about how the finished design will influence lane-keeping. To hold balance on the road
(as on the balance beam) drivers need a clear orthogonal orientation out of objects in
their periphery. Orthogonal objects or structures calibrate the equilibrioception of road
users that is needed for lane-tracking. Equilibrioception is the perception of the position
of an organism in the space with the help of the eyes (visual system), ears (vestibular
system) and the body's sense of where it is in space (proprioception). Structures over
the road like bridges, advertising, signaling and toll facilities should be symmetrical, of
equal height, and the angle of skew to the own road should be less than 15° from
perpendicular.

It was found at accident spots that asymmetrical posts of a bridge or pitched

bridges/advertisements confuse and disorientate drivers with regard to lane-keeping
and result in run-off-road accidents.

Driving reliably through a curve also critically depends on the quality of the field of view
and a clear distinguishable Gestalt of the curve. Best driving results are achieved when
the driver has an unobstructed view over the inner curve and the outer curve has a
closed optical framing that provides with its Gestalt a clear instruction that there is a
curve at all. It provides also clear information about the sharpness of the curve.
Figure 8.7 Complete frame of the outer curve and unobstructed view of the inner curve
stabilise the driver (Birth, et. al, 2004)
c) Depth of the field of view
The driver orientates themselves in the environment that surrounds them. To estimate
their position relative to the road and to their surrounding and to other drivers,
they depend on their changes of position, the changing view axis and the changing
points/lines of reference in the environment. The most serious consequences arise from
eye-catching objects that differ from the road axis. These lead in extreme cases to a
horizontal swing of the complete field of view.

Figure 8.8 Depth of space structure: Dominant eye-catching object (church) in

competition to a subdominant railway crossing
All lateral orientation clues should be parallel to the road edge, regularly spaced and
equally sized to stabilise lane-tracking. This is important for markings, hard shoulders,
side strips, safety barriers, snow and wildlife fences, plantings, bicycle ridings and
rescue paths and also for public maintenance roads. It was found at black spots that
non-parallel orientation lines lead to the impression of prolonged (if lines are
converging) or shortened (if lines are diverging) distances up to critical locations. Optical
illusions cause subconscious swerving, sudden driving manoeuvres and technically
“unexplainable” run-of road accidents. The word illusion comes from the Latin
verb illudere meaning "to mock.” Illusions are the result of the complex information
processing of the brain and the visual system that tricks us into perceiving something as
different from what it actually is. Thus what we see does not correspond to physical
reality.
Figure 8.9 Distance Illusion at an accident point
These mistakes can be addressed by following measures:

 eliminate the problem by redesigning the road and its field of view: create
sinuous “rhythmic” road alignment against monotony; create symmetry of
superstructures by constructive measures, etc.
 correct the field of view (if the problem cannot be eliminated), e.g. by the use
attention guiding eye-catching objects along the view axis, cover eye-catching
objects that differ from the road axis, create a complete framing of outer curves,
avoid visibility barriers in inner curves, cover non-parallel optical guiding lines that
lead to optical illusions, etc.
 minimise the risk by warning road users (if satisfactory correction cannot be
achieved) by installing traffic control devices such as speed limits, prohibiting
overtaking or pedestrian crossing facilities.
Additional good solutions and best practise examples can be found in the PIARC’s
Report (PIARC, 2012b)“Human Factors in Road Design. Review of Design Standards in
nine Countries”.

REQUIREMENTS NO 3: THE ROAD ENVIRONMENT MUST CORRESPOND WITH

THE ROAD USERS’ PERCEPTION LOGIC

Drivers follow the road with an expectation and orientation logic formed by their
experience and recent perceptions. These affect their actual perception and reactions.

The same principle applies when climbing stairs. After only a few steps the motion
balance adjusts to the sequence of steps just perceived. In most cases, this is a
subconscious process. However, if one step is of a different height, the motion balance
will become considerably disordered - possibly resulting in a stumble or fall. Adjustment
of driving programme on the road is similarly subconscious.

The perception of the lane, the edge of the lane and the lane periphery produces a
general sensual impression. Drivers react to these road elements with their actions, in
the same way as the person climbing stairs reacts intuitively to the height, depth and
width of the steps. Unexpected objects disturb the automatic sequence of operations,
possibly causing the driver to “stumble”. After several critical seconds the disturbance
can be handled. Therefore, planners and designers try to keep road characteristics
flowing in a logical sequence. They should introduce inevitable changes as early and
clearly as possible and exclude any sudden changes that would confuse the driver.

Figure 8.10 Continuous and discontinuous curves in a road

When choosing their speed, drivers rely on their previous and recent sensory
impressions of the last driven 5-10 minutes. Breaking the consistency and the
experienced logic of the design causes operational mistakes which can lead to driving
mistakes and accidents.

Road design and safety have improved greatly in the past several decades, but
sometimes mistakes still occur. The hazard is often not in plain sight, and there is a flaw
somewhere in the design of the road. Car accidents caused by poor road design tend to
be extremely dangerous for drivers and often result in serious injuries to the driver and
passengers. These injuries range from broken bones, internal bleeding, paralysis, and
brain damage to death. These accidents are difficult to prevent because the hazard
goes unnoticed until a fatality occurs.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

According to Dr. Adrian Mernilo Tamayo of University of Mindanao, road accident

is commonly attributed to the collision of vehicles, pedestrian, or with an object that will
result to death, disability and damage to property. Road accidents were caused by
driver’s errors (26%), mechanical defect (12%), over speeding (18%), drinking spree
before driving (1%), damaged roads (5%). Daytime traffic accidents were found higher
than in the night. The study focused on the occurrence of the traffic accidents from
period 2001 to 2006 and events were evaluated using the factors that contribute into the
accidents. An empirical model was constructed to forecast the number of accidents
using the causes of accidents and the period of occurrence. Road accident is a rare
event with which number of occurrence is expressed in positive integers, hence,
Poisson Regression analysis was used in this study to examine the number of events
given the causes of traffic accidents and the period of occurrence.

According to an article written by Cherryl Anne Cruz, The World Health

Organization (WHO)'s Global Status Report for 2018 reported that around 348 serious
road injuries happen daily in the Philippines. What's more, there are around 35 road
fatalities that happen each day, with most of these casualties related to motorcycle
deaths.
This comes to no surprise: motorcycle riders have been the top victims of road crashes
in Metro Manila since 2010. According to statistics from the Land Transportation Office
(LTO), the total number of registered vehicles in 2015 was 8.7 million. Around 4.9
million of these are from registered bikes alone--so that's almost half the entire
registered vehicles in the country. No wonder motorcycle road deaths are a common
occurrence in Philippine roads today.
It also said that, Road crashes and deaths can be avoided with the Proper Road
Design.
Another common cause of vehicular accidents is the limited visibility caused by different
factors, such as the weather and limited lighting. Drivers all over the world can agree
that the rain makes it much harder to drive. The slippery, treacherous road conditions
caused by heavy rains, contributing to the low visibility of the road ahead can be a
recipe for disaster.
Based on 2013 data from the Philippines' Department of Public Works and
Highway-Traffic Accident Recording and Analysis System, 1,513 people have died due
to road accidents.
Poor highway design can cause serious and fatal accidents. Poor highway
design is more common than many people believe. These defects and flaws in the road
can cause serious and fatal accidents. Mistakes can occur at any point during the
design, building, or maintaining of the highways. Construction errors can lead to joints
popping up on the road, faulty repair jobs can result in increased potholes, and design
flaws can result in sharp and deadly turns. There are a multitude of ways in which a
road design may be unsafe. A failure to include proper traffic control devices can result
in confusion, and a lack of illumination can cause an inability to see dangers in the
roadway or to properly judge distance. A lack of barriers on a highway between
opposite lanes of traffic can cause dangerous turns from one lane to another. Blind
curbs and exit and entrance ramps that are too short may leave drivers without
sufficient time to react properly to the traffic conditions. Roads that do not have
shoulders or that have narrow shoulders can present a danger to drivers who need to
pull over and drivers passing stopped vehicles.
There are many factors related to road accidents such as the weather and road
problems in the Philippines as well as the foot and vehicle traffic.
In my humble opinion road designs should be user-friendly because not all
drivers are disciplined enough to use the road and not all drivers are competent enough
to use our roads. Aside from being user-friendly it must also be safe enough for the road
user to use these roads because not all accidents are caused by the drivers that’s why
we should always assume that that there are always other factors that may have cause
the accident such as poor road designs.
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