SECTIONC

CLIMATOLOGY

(a) Distinguish between weather and climate

(b) Explain how any two elements of weather are measured at a weather station.
Approach
 Define both concepts and give their elements
 Identify and select any two elements and describe how they are measured at a
weather station.
 State the name of the apparatus used and the units used
Answer guide
Weather is the state or condition of the atmosphere of a given place at a particular
time.
It is recorded over a short period of time.
The weather elements include rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloud cover and sunshine.
Weather affects a small or localized area and may vary from time to time and from
place to place.
Weather elements can be observed and recorded.
Weather can be described as being rainy, sunny, hot, cool, windy, foggy, frosty, misty
e.t.c.
Where as
Climate is the average weather condition of the atmosphere of an area recorded over a
long period of time of atleast 30-35 years.
Climatic conditions tend to remain relatively stable over a long period of time though
with minor variations.
Climate affects a large area or region
Types of climate include, equatorial climate (hot and wet), tropical climate, montane
climate, desert climate, Mediterranean climate, tundra climate e.t.c
Elements of weather and how they are measured
Rainfall
Rainfall is the amount of water droplets received at a particular point in time.
It is measured using a rain gauge, a metallic cylinder with a copper funnel placed at
the top and a collecting jar inside the cylinder.
Rain falling in the funnel trickles into the jar below and at the end of a 24-hour period
is poured into a graduated measuring cylinder marked in millimeters.
The readings are recorded in millimeters or inches.
A rain gauge is sunk into the ground so that 30 cm of it sticks up above the ground
level to prevent rain drops from splashing into it from the ground, and also to prevent
the sun’s rays from causing excessive evaporation of the water already collected in the
jar.
The rain gauge is also placed in an open space to prevent any run-off from buildings or
trees from entering the collecting jar.
Diagram
Temperature
Refers to the degree of sensible heat or cold within the atmosphere.
 Air temperature is measured using a maximum and a minimum thermometer or the
six’s thermometer which detect the highest and lowest temperatures per day
respectively.
Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (0c)
The six’s thermometer consists of a u- shaped glass like tube with two scales
containing mercury, alcohol, a vacuum and indexes inside.
When temperature rises the alcohol in the left-hand limb expands and pushes the
mercury down this limb and up the right limb.
The alcohol in this limb also heats up and part of it is vaporized and occupies the space
in the bulb.
As mercury expands, it pushes the metal index up-ward in the right limb and the
metal index stays at the maximum level.
The end of the metal index nearest to the mercury gives the maximum temperature,
recorded usually at 3:00 p.m and read from the scale on the right hand limb.
When the temperature falls, the alcohol in the vapor in the conical bulb liquefies,
causing the mercury in the right hand limb to flow in the reverse direction, there by
pushing the metal index in the left limb up high and the figure nearest the bottom side
of the index is read usually at 9:00 a.m and the minimum temperature is recoded from
the left hand limb.
The index metal is re-adjusted using a magnet.
Diagram
Atmospheric pressure
Refers to the force or weight pressing down on any object on the surface of the earth.
It is measured using a barometer, which could be mercury or an aneroid barometer.
It is expressed in millibars.
The mercury barometer consists of a tube about one meter long filled with mercury.
The glass tube scale is at the upper end and opens at the lowest end. The lower end is
inverted in a container of mercury whose surface is exposed to air.
This causes the mercury to drop to approximately 760 mm high. The pressure of air on
the mercury in the container balances the weight of mercury in the column.
As the pressure changes, the level of mercury in the tube rises or falls accordingly.
The pressure is then measured from a scale placed at the side of the glass tube.
Aneroid barometer.
It is an instrument which consists of a small metal box with very little air inside.
The top of this box bends slightly under the influence of any change in atmospheric
pressure.
The movement of the box top is conveyed by a system of levers to a pointer which
moves a cross a graduated scale.
When pressure rises, the top of the box bends inwards and when the pressure falls, the
spring pushes the top outwards.

Sectional view of an aneroid barometer.

Humidity
Refers to the amount of water in gaseous form in the air.
It is measured using a simple hygrometer.
A simple hygrometer consists of a wet thermometer and a dry thermometer kept in a
Stevenson screen.
The bulb of one is wrapped in a piece of muslin dipped in a container of water. This is
called the wet bulb thermometer. The other thermometer is not dipped hence called the
dry bulb thermometer.
When air is not saturated, water evaporates from the muslin and cools the wet bulb
and causes the mercury to contract.
The dry bulb thermometer is not affected in the same way hence the two thermometer
show different readings
When air is saturated, there is no evaporation hence cooling hence the two
thermometers show the same readings, an indication of humidity of the air.
When the readings on the thermometer show;
No difference---------air is saturated
Small difference-----high humidity
Large difference-----humidity is low
Diagram
Sun shine
Refers to the amount of solar radiations received at a particular place at a given
moment in time.
It is measured using a sun shine recorder or the Campbell stokes apparatus and
Expressed in hours and minutes
The Campbell stokes apparatus is a glass like sphere , partly surrounded by a metal
frame on the inside with a sensitive card/ paper marked in hours and minutes from 1-12
when it is expected to shine.
As the sun moves, the glass concentrates the rays and a trace is burnt on the sensitive
card while it is shining.
When it shines intermittently, the sensitive card shows a continuous burnt line.
However, when it’s cloudy, the sensitive paper shows gaps of unburnt sections
At the end of the day, the lengths of all burnt parts are added to obtain the total hours
of sunshine received at a location.
Diagram
Wind speed
Refers to the velocity of moving air in an environment.
It is measured using an anemometer which consists of 3-4 small cups attached to a
rotating shaft by spokes
As the wind blows, it pushes against the cups hence generating a resisting force, which
propels the movement of the rotating shaft.
As the shaft rotates, it generates a weak electric current which is calibrated on a speed
meter in km/ hr.
However, the speed recorded is not absolutely accurate because, as the wind ceases,
the rotation continuous under its own momentum.
Diagram
Wind direction
Is determined by using a wind vane
It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on a vertical shaft.
The rotating arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other end.
 As wind blows, the arm swings until the pointer on the wind vane faces in the
direction from which the wind blows and the wind is named after this direction.
The directions, North, East, South and West are fixed firmly on the pipe below the
vertical shaft.
Diagram
Others include; cloud cover and visibility.

(a) Distinguish between solar radiation and terrestrial radiation

(b) Examine the factors which influence the amount of solar radiation received in a
place.
Approach
 Define both terms
 State the differences between the two terms
 Explain the factors that cause a variation in solar radiation received.
Answer guide.
Solar radiation refers to the amount of heat energy that comes from the sun, travels
through space and atmosphere to the surface of the earth.
It passes in the atmosphere inform of short waves with temperature estimated to be
60000c but only 45% of it is absorbed by the earth.
Solar radiation occurs only during the day and inform of light energy.
The amount of solar radiation received in a place varies from time to time and place to
place depending on a number of factors.
While
Terrestrial radiation refers to the energy transferred from the earth’s surface into the
atmosphere after receiving solar radiation.
Terrestrial radiations are transferred back in form of long waves.
It’s responsible for heating the atmosphere through radiation, conduction and
convention and its measured and recorded at a weather station as temperature.
It occurs all the time both during day and at night.
The amount of terrestrial radiation varies with the type and nature of the surface.
For example, land emits a lot of terrestrial radiation than water surfaces such as oceans.
The amount of solar radiation received in a place varies due to the factors explained
below.
Nature of the atmosphere. The atmosphere consists of permanent components such as
nitrogen, oxygen, inert gases e.t.c and variable components like water vapor, dust,
volcanic ash e.t.c
These components reduce the amount of solar radiation from reaching the earth’s
surface.
For example clouds through reflection cause about 30% heat loss, back scattering 10%
while absorption by ozone cause a heat loss of 15%. Consequently the three processes
cause a total loss of 55% and only 45% reaches the surface.
Therefore when the atmosphere has few variable components, a lot of solar radiation is
received than when the atmosphere has a lot of components.
Cloud cover. Clouds influence the amount of solar radiation received through reflection
and absorption which account for 45% energy loss.
Consequently areas with dense cloud cover such as equatorial regions receive low
solar radiations while areas with clear skies such as desert and semi-desert areas receive
a lot of solar radiations due to absence of obstacles.
Nature of the receiving surface for example;
Bright surfaces like Snow have high albedo (the reflective ability of a body) hence
reflect back a lot of solar radiation which results into low temperatures.
Dark surfaces like forests have low albedo hence high temperature.
Plain land surface absorbs heat very fast than water surface. There fore solar radiation
is high over the land during day and low over the sea.
Revolution of the earth and its tilt also cause differences in the amount of solar
radiation received. For example;
When the sun is over head tropic of Capricorn in December, the southern hemisphere
receives high solar radiations in December, January and February while the northern
hemisphere receives low solar radiation at the same period.
When the sun is over head tropic of cancer in June, the northern hemisphere receives
high solar radiation in June, July and August while the southern hemisphere receives
low solar radiation.
Both hemispheres receive the same amount of solar radiation twice a year when the
sun is over head the equator. That is on 21st march and 23rd September.
This is because the angle of incident and the distance traveled by Solar radiation
change with the revolution and tilt of the earth.
The apparent movement of the sun due to revolution of the earth brings differences in
the length of the day. That is; during summer, day light hours are longer than nights.
Consequently, there is more insolation in summer than during winter where the
nights are longer and days are shorter in temperate regions.
Latitudinal differences. The distance traveled by solar radiations varies according to
latitudes. Solar radiations travel short distance to reach the surface at the equator but
long distance at higher latitudes.
Consequently the combination of short distance and influence of the over head sun at
the equator leads to more solar radiations in low latitudes and low solar radiation at
high latitudes like the northern and southern poles. High latitudes receive high solar
insolation only when the sun is over head.
Increasing emission and concentration of green house gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane e.t.c from industries, deforestation and other human activities have led to
depletion of ozone layer and creation of large holes in the atmosphere for example over
the Antarctica and arctic through which un filtered solar radiations pass hence increase
temperatures on the surface and increase aridity.
Sun spot activity such as dead parts on the sun also contributes to variation in solar
radiation.
Aspect refers to the direction of the slope in relation to the sun. Aspect influences solar
radiation received mainly in temperate latitudes.
In the northern hemisphere, the south facing slopes receive more solar radiations than
north facing slopes. In the southern hemisphere, the north facing slopes receive more
solar radiations than the south facing slopes.
In low latitudes, aspect is relevant only in the mountainous areas of Atlas in North
Africa, drankensberg in South Africa, mountain Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori and Kenya in
East Africa.
(a) Differentiate between mini annual temperature and annual range of temperature
(b) Account for the variations in mean annual temperatures over the African
continent.
Approach
 Define both concepts
 Explain the factors in details showing the existing variations in the mean annual
temperatures over the African continent.
Answer guide
Mean annual temperature is the final figure obtained when the sum of mean monthly
temperatures for 1 year is divided by 12 months.
Where as
Annual range of temperature is the difference between the highest and lowest mean
monthly temperatures in a year.

Causes of variations in mean monthly temperatures are;

Apparent movement of the sun north and south of the equator. That is;
An over head sun in the northern hemisphere causes high mean annual temperatures
in July while at the same time causing low mean annual temperatures over tropic of
Capricorn in the southern hemisphere.

On the contrary, an overhead sun over the southern hemisphere in January ensures
higher mean annual temperatures over Capricorn but low annual means over the
cancer at the same time.

Latitudinal location .This determines the angle of incidence of solar isolation, distance
traveled and areas heated by them. For example, near the equator solar radiations strike
the earth’s surface at a wider angle and not only travel over a short distance but also
heats a smaller area. This ensures higher mean annual temperatures over the equator
than areas a distance away.

Prevailing winds .these influence annual mean temperatures depending on their origin
and fetch e.g.
The North trade winds originate from the Arabian Desert and bring desiccating effects
responsible for arid conditions characterized by high mean annual temperatures in
North Eastern Uganda, North East North west and Northern Kenyan.

The South East trade winds bring moist conditions from Indian Ocean hence cause
low mean annual temperatures in the coastal regions of Tanzania e.t.c.

Large water bodies such as oceans, lakes, wet lands e.t.c also have a cooling or
moderating effect on mean annual temperatures through the combined effect of breezes
and on shore winds on the adjacent land masses consequently, areas near water bodies
have low mean annual temperatures e.g. lake Victoria basin while those far from water
bodies have high mean annual temperatures e.g. karamoja.
Ocean currents such as the warm Mozambique, Guinea and Aghulas have a warming
effect which raises the mean annual temperatures of adjacent land masses. On the
contrary cold ocean currents such as the Benguela and canaries tend to have low mean
annual temperatures on coast lands adjacent to them.

Cloud cover. Presence or absence of cloud cover also affect mean annual temperatures.
Thick cloud cover traps out going terrestrial radiations leading to high mean annual
temperatures as the case with equatorial areas while arid and desert areas have clear
skies which let all the outgoing radiations escape freely hence low mean annual
temperatures.

Nature of the receiving Surface influence mean annual temperatures due to ability of
such surfaces to reflect or absorb solar radiations. For example,
Snow capped mountains such as Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori and the Atlas experience low
mean annual temperatures because snow has a higher albedo than bear land surface
such as deserts.
Coastal areas have low mean annual temperatures because the effects of land and sea
breezes while areas located far inland have high mean annual temperatures of absence
of land and sea breeze. e.g. ice surfaces such as on Rwenzori e.t.c reflect heat hence low
mean annual temperatures whereas dark land surfaces absorb isolation leading to high
mean annual temperatures.

Altitude. High altitude areas such as Drankenburg, Atlas Mountain, Rwenzori e.t.c
have low mean annual temperature throughout the year because temperatures decrease
with increase in altitude. Conversely, low altitude areas such as the rift valley areas and
the coastal plains such as Mombasa have high mean annual temperatures.

Nature of vegetation .Equatorial regions such as Congo basin, Gabon e.t.c have low
mean annual temperatures because of high rate of evapo-transpiration which has a
cooling effect on temperature while arid and semi arid areas have high mean annual
temperatures

Man’s activities such as Industrialization, burning of fossils, bush burning, and

deforestation have increased the concentration of Green House Gases in the atmosphere
and depletion of ozone layer. This has resulted into global warming responsible for
increasing mean annual temperatures.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
(a) Examine conditions under which temperature inversion occurs
(b) Examine the influence of temperature inversion on weather and human activities.
Examine the causes and effects of temperature inversion in East Africa.
Approach
 Define and explain temperature inversion
 State and explain the types of temperature inversions
 Explain the effects of temperature inversion on weather and human activities.
Answer guide
Temperature inversion is an atmospheric condition in which air temperature increases with altitude
/height from the ground level in the troposphere.
It’s the reverse of the normal environmental lapse rate where temperatures decrease with altitude at a rate
of 6.50C for every 1000metres of ascent.
With temperature inversion the higher you go, the warmer it becomes. However in the troposphere, the
increase in temperature with altitude is up to a certain level referred to as the temperature inversion point
or level. Beyond this level, the normal lapse rate applies.
In the atmosphere, temperature inversion is also a temporally phenomenon.
It is experienced in morning hours. As temperatures rise or as the sun warms up the air the condition later
disappears.
There are basically two forms/ levels of temperature inversion. Namely
a) Low/ ground level inversion common in hilly areas due to rapid loss of radiation or when warm air is
advected over a cold surface
b) High level inversion that occurs due frontal convergence.
Graph showing temperature inversion
Temperature inversion in East Africa occurs in mountainous/ hilly regions such as Kigezi in south
western Uganda, chaaga land on the slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, Uluguru area in southern Tanzania
and areas of limited cloud cover marked by air stability or calm weather for example semi arid regions
like Karamoja, northern and north eastern Kenya.
Conditions under which temperature inversion occurs in East Africa/ causes
When there is rapid loss of heat from the earth’s surface at night inform of terrestrial radiation in semi
desert areas where cloud cover is absent or limited. This excessive loss of heat results into a cold surface
that cools the air immediately above it meanwhile the air layers further above are warmer since some of
the heat is retained by the green house gases ( GHGs), water vapor and dust particles.
This type of inversion is some times referred to as nocturnal radiation temperature inversion and occurs in
arid areas such as Karamoja, chaldt in northern Kenya e.t.c
When there is subsidence of cold dense air from top of highlands down slope to the valley by gravity.
During night, hill tops and upper slopes lose heat by radiation. The air becomes cold and dense and
descends down slope into the valley bottom by gravity; displacing the warm and light air from the valley
bottom upwards to warm the upper slopes while the cold dense air creates cold conditions in the valley.
The subsidence of cold dense air resulting into temperature inversion is also referred to as katabatic
effect or valley inversion common in the Kigezi highlands, Ankole hills e.t.c
Diagram
Temperature inversion also occurs when a current of a warm air mass flowing horizontally blows over a
cold surface. The lower layers of the warm air mass will be cooled by the cold surface while the overlying
layer remains warmer. For example when warm trade winds flow over cold ocean current.
The air in contact with the cold surface may be cooled to form advection fog.
This type of inversion is called advection inversion and occurs along coast lines washed by cold ocean
currents.
Occurs when two air masses of different characteristics meet at a front. That is, the meeting of a warm
light air mass and a cold dense air mass at a frontal zone.
The warm air mass being lighter is lifted above the cold dense air mass leading to temperature increase
with altitude.
This is referred to as frontal / cyclonic temperature inversion and occurs within the inter tropical frontal
zones in East Africa.
 Temperature inversion also occurs due to trade winds blowing at different altitude. That is trade winds
blowing at a higher level or altitude tend to be warmer than the air close to the surface. This therefore
results into a situation of temperature increase with altitude.
Temperature inversion also occurs due to increase in altitude. It occurs in the stratosphere about 40-
50km from the surface.
The presence of ozone in this layer absorbs ultra-violet materials from the solar radiations and therefore
increases the temperature in this layer than in the troposphere below.
Temperature inversion also occurs due to industrial pollution. The fumes discharged into the
atmosphere are warm and rise faster than the cold air and spread horizontally to create smog- a dusty
cloud leading to warm conditions at higher level and cool conditions below it.
Effects of Temperature Inversion on Weather
- Temperature inversion by advection and valley leads to formation of mist/ foggy conditions
especially in the morning on the adjacent coast and highland regions respectively.
- Advection inversion prevents evaporation of warm moist air to condensation level which results
into low rain fall and aridity.
- Fog and mist caused by valley and advection inversion results into invisibility for example in
Kigezi.
- Valley inversion results into formation of frost in valley bottom
- Valley inversion leads to cold / cool conditions in valleys or low lands such as in Kigezi.
- Temperature inversion hinders vertical movement of air masses causing stability in the
atmosphere.
- Temperature inversion causes air pollution in form of smog which keeps the upper layers of the
atmosphere warmer than those below leading to cold conditions in countries like Britain, German,
china, France and industrial cities in East Africa such as Hima, Kampala e.t.c
- Leads to warm conditions at higher altitudes.
Effects of Temperature Inversion on Human Activities
- Very cold or Frosty conditions discourage the growth of some crops such as bananas due to
destruction of the flowers of such crops. Other crops destroyed in valleys include fruits and
vegetables for example in Kigezi.
- The cold/ frosty conditions limit morning working hours for example in highland regions.
- Occurrence of cold related diseases such as pneumonia, cold, asthma e.t.c while smog- a form of
air pollution is dangerous to the health of urban dwellers.
- Cold / frosty conditions discourage settlements in valley bottoms.
- Over population and congestion on upper slopes due to warm rising air
- Fog and mist reduces visibility hence affect transportation and pose a risk of accidents on land,
water and air
- Low rain fall and aridity associated with advection inversion discourage settlement and
agriculture.
- Foggy or cold conditions may favor the growth of crops such as pyrethrum, tea and sorghum
- Temperature inversion results into easy spread of industrial pollutants at higher levels for
example smog.
HUMIDITY
(a) Distinguish between absolute humidity and relative humidity.
(b) Account for the variation in humidity in East Africa.
Approach
 Define both terms
 Give the characteristics of each concept
 In part (b) explain the factors responsible for the variation in humidity in East Africa.
 Give examples where possible
Answer Guide.
Absolute humidity refers to
 - the actual amount of water vapor present in a given quantity of air at a given time.
- It’s expressed in grams per cubic meter
- Absolute humidity varies according to temperature and pressure
While
Relative humidity refers to
- the actual amount of vapor present in a given volume of air expressed as a percentage or ratio of
the maximum it could contain when saturated.
- Relative humidity depends on temperature and pressure.
- Relative humidity decreases as temperature rises and decreases as temperatures fall.
- It is high during day than night
- Its also high in the tropics than at the poles
The variation in humidity in East Africa is caused by the following factors;
Temperature. High temperatures encourage high rates of evaporation leading to high humidity while low
temperature lead to low rates of evaporation leading to low humidity. Therefore areas with high
temperatures and with water sources such as Lake Victoria basin experience high humidity than areas
with low temperatures such as highlands like Kigezi, mountain Elgon, Kenya, Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro.
Influence of Water bodies. Water bodies such oceans, lakes, rivers and extensive swamps provide large
amounts of moisture to the atmosphere through evaporation leading to high humidity. Therefore coastal
areas, the northern shores of Lake Victoria basin and other areas near sources of moisture experience high
humidity than areas with limited water bodies or far away from water bodies for example Miombo,
Karamoja, Turkana, Marsabit e.t.c
Altitude. This is the height above sea level. Humidity reduces with increase in altitude. Consequently
there is high humidity at low altitude because of
- high temperatures,
- being near sources of water vapor like water bodies and
- because water vapor molecules are pulled downwards by gravity.
On the other hand areas at high altitudes experience low temperatures which prevent evapo- transpiration
resulting into low humidity for example Kigezi, mountain Elgon, Kenya, Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro.
Influence of Vegetation. Areas with forest vegetation experience high rate of transpiration leading to
high humidity in the atmosphere for example Mabira, Bwindi e.t.c.
On the other hand areas with semi desert and desert vegetation such as scrub, bush and thickets give off
inadequate moisture to the atmosphere through transpiration leading into low humidity For example
Karamoja, Miombo, Rift valley areas, Ankole Masaka corridor, marsabit and wajir in north eastern
Kenya.
Influence of Air masses or winds
Winds have the ability to transport water vapor from one area to another thus influencing amount of water
vapor in a given place for example;
- The South East trade winds pick a lot of water vapor from the southern part of Indian Ocean and
deposit it at the coast leading to high humidity on the East African coast such as Mombasa,
Kilwa, Dar-es-Salaam and low humidity inland for where they get when they are dry for example
the Miombo in Tanzania.
- The westeries pick a lot of water vapor from the southern part of Atlantic Ocean and the vast
Congo forests leading to high humidity over highlands in western Uganda such as Rwenzori
(Nyabirongo), Kigezi and some parts of Rukungiri.
- North East trade winds are dry after losing their moisture on the windward slope of Ethiopian
highlands leading to low humidity in northern, north eastern Kenya and Karamoja region.
Influence of warm ocean current. The Mozambique warm current washing along the coast of East
Africa raise temperatures of South East winds blowing over it leading to high evaporation and humidity
in the coastal areas around Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam, Kilwa e.t.c while areas far inland have
low humidity for example Karamoja and marsabit.
Influence of Human activities. Environmentally friendly activities such as afforestation, re-afforestation,
cloud seeding, protection of moisture sources e.t.c increase humidity through evapo-transpiration
On the other hand, areas where human activities degrade moisture sources reduce evapo-transpiration
leading to low humidity. For example deforestation, swamp reclamation, sinking bore holes, bush
burning, over grazing, industrialization e.t.c for example Karamoja.

Continentality effect or distance from the sea or ocean. Coastal areas in the path of
trade winds experience high humidity than areas located far inland because they are
near source of water vapor and winds carry humidity and deposit it to the coastal areas.
For example Malindi, Kilwa, Tanga e.t.c

Influence of earth’s revolution and tilt results into seasonal variation of humidity
depending on where the sun is over head. That is, when the sun is over head a certain
region, there are high temperatures which increase evapo-transpiration leading to high
humidity. In addition high temperatures create a low pressure zone that attracts the
North East and South East trade winds that bring humidity from their sources leading
to high humidity. While areas where the sun is not over head experience low humidity.

Time of the day. Humidity is high during day because of high temperatures which
cause high evaporation and evapo-transpiration from water bodies and vegetation
respectively. At night there is no sun’s heat hence no evaporation to increase moisture
content in the atmosphere leading to low humidity.

Influence of relief. Windward sides of highlands have high humidity because of the
influence of moist winds ascending over the mountain barrier and condense into
orographical/ relief rainfall. The lee ward sides have low humidity because of the effect
of dry descending winds.

RAIN FALL IN EAST AFRICA

East Africa experiences three types of rainfall. Namely, Relief/ Orographic rainfall, Convectional and
frontal rainfall.
(a)Differentiate between Orographic rain fall and convectional rain fall
(b)Explain the factors leading to the formation of convectional rain fall in East Africa.
Approach
 Define Relief/ Orographic rain fall and convectional rain fall
 Describe how each type of rain fall is formed
 Draw diagrams
 Give examples of areas where each type of rainfall is experienced
 In part (b) explain the factors leading to the formation of convectional rain fall in East Africa
Answer guide
Orographic rain fall is a type of rain formed when moist moving air or wind meets a mountain.
Moist air is forced to rise up over the mountain and in the process is forced to cool at dry adiabatic lapse
rate of 6.50c per 1000 meters of ascent until dew point is reached. The air continues to rise and cool at the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate of 4.5 0c per 1000 meters.
The cooling releases latent heat which makes the atmosphere more unstable and this force the air to
continue rising leading to formation of Cumulo-nimbus clouds resulting into rainfall received on the
windward side of the mountain.
For example the south east facing slopes mountain Elgon, Kenya, Kilimanjaro e.t.c in the path of the
south East trade winds.
The leeward side of the mountain lies in the rain shadow and dry due to desiccating effect of the dry
descending winds For example Kasese and Semliki on the lee-ward side of Rwenzori Mountain,
Karamoja, Northern and north eastern Kenya on the lee-ward side of Ethiopian highlands.
Diagram
While
Convectional rainfall is a type of rainfall which occurs when the ground surface is heated leading to
upward movement of warm moist air.
 Warm moist air rises and cools to form strato- cumulus clouds. As condensation continues latent heat
is lost and instability occurs. The rising air continues to rise and cools to form Cumulo-nimbus clouds.
These clouds result into rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightening if it has taken long without
raining.
Convectional rainfall is received throughout the year at the equator and during summer in mid latitudes
when there is intense heating.
 Convectional rainfall usually falls in the afternoon and characterized by unstable atmospheric
conditions which occur due to heavy Cumulo-nimbus clouds.
Convectional rainfall is also experienced adjacent large water bodies and forested areas such as Mabira,
Kalangala, Mukono, Kisumu and areas on the Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin
Diagram
FACTORS FAVOURING FORMATION OF CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL IN EAST AFRICA
The formation of convectional rainfall in East Africa is explained by the following factors
Latitude. East Africa lies astride the equator. As a result it experiences intense heat and temperature
which spark off convectional currents in areas near the equator. Rising Air cools leading to formation of
clouds resulting into torrential rain fall.
Presence of water bodies such as Indian Ocean, Lake Victoria, Kyoga, Tanganyika e.t.c provides
large amounts of moisture/ humidity into the atmosphere through evaporation leading to formation of
clouds resulting into rain fall.
Vegetation cover Vegetation- high evapo-transpiration rates from thick vegetation cover such as Mabira
also recharges the atmosphere with water vapor that cools and form clouds resulting into rain fall.
The meeting of trade winds such as the North East and South East in the low pressure belt called the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z) triggers off the up- ward movement of warm moist air which
condenses into clouds resulting into rain fall.
Man’s activities such as afforestation increase moisture emitted to the atmosphere from the planted
forests. That is planted forests enhance evapo-transpiration, water goes to the atmosphere cools and forms
clouds resulting into rain fall.
Study the table below showing mean monthly rain fall for selected stations in East Africa and
answer the questions which follow:

STATIO J F M A M J J A S O N D
N
MASAK 52 61 112 180 167 46 36 52 87 100 97 88
A
VOI 34 31 76 97 32 09 03 09 12 23 96 130
IRINGA 120 104 126 72 20 02 - - 02 06 32 154
Adapted from E.w and Mottam, B.H. (1985). A course in working Geography. East Africa; Physical
Regional and Human 3rd Edition page 76 -100
(a)Describe how mean monthly rain fall is obtained at a weather station
(b) Explain the factors which have influenced the rain fall patterns at the three stations shown in
the table above.
(a)The rain gauge is used to measure rain fall received in a place and units applied are millimeters.
Rain fall is collected daily for one year. The total amount of rain fall for each month is recorded every
year for a period of 30-35 years. The total amount of rain fall for each month is then divided by 35 years.
The mean monthly amount of rain fall is then obtained.
The factors responsible for variation of rain fall received include; water bodies, trade winds, I.TC.Z,
continentality effect, relief and human activities as shown below.
MASAKA
- Has an equatorial location and the mean rain fall is high \heavy and well distributed thought the
year.
- Bimodal distribution with peaks forming soon after passage of inter Tropical Convergence Zone
- Lake Victoria recharges the South East trade winds hence cause rain fall on the North western
shores of Lake Victoria
- Influence of Lake Breeze cause rain fall
- Low rain fall amount in the middle of (July) caused by sun’s location over the northern tropic
- Low amount in January when the sun is over the southern tropic
- Lower amount usually in June and July followed by heavy convectional rain fall
- Effect of vegetation cover. That is, tropical rain forests along the shores of Lake Victoria increase
rain fall through the process of evapo-transpiration.
Voi
- Has a bimodal distribution due to equatorial location
- Low annual amount of rain fall caused by incursion of semi-desert conditions in North Eastern
Kenya
- Very low monthly rains fall in middle of July- October. This is the prolonged dry season.
- Beginning of year has low mean monthly rain fall and end of year has heavy rain fall
- Drought is caused by incursion of North East dry winds from North Eastern Kenya
- Winds blow parallel to the coast hence low rain fall inland.
- Voi far inland than Mombasa.
- Human activities like deforestation, over stocking and over grazing e.t.c lead to limited humidity
in the atmosphere hence low rain fall
- Rain shadow effect from the Kenyan highlands.
IRINGA
- Has low annual amount of rain fall
- Orographic uplift causes a little precipitation because of the high elevation
- Rain fall is seasonal / wet and dry
- Heavy rain fall from December – April caused by over head sun on southern tropic/ hemisphere
- Prolonged Dry season from May –October when the sun is over head the Northern Hemisphere
- Effect of continentality partly account for low amount of rain fall.
Convectional rain fall and frontal rain fall
(a)Differentiate between convectional rain fall and frontal rain fall
(b) Account for the variation in the rain fall received in East Africa.
Approach
 Define convectional rain fall and frontal rain fall
 Describe how each type of rain fall is formed
 Draw diagrams
 Give examples of areas where each type of rain is experienced
 In part (b) State the rain fall patterns experienced in East Africa and
 Explain the factors responsible for the variation in the rain fall received in East Africa
For convectional rain fall refer to the question above.
Frontal rain/ depression or cyclonic rain
Depression rainfall occurs when air masses of different characteristics in terms of temperature and
humidity meet at a front. For example the warm moist air from the tropics and cold air mass from the
poles.
When these two air masses meet, they don’t mix easily due to differences in temperature and humidity
instead remain separate with a gently sloping boundary surface called a front.
The warm air being light rises while the cold dense dry air descends below it.
The rising warm air under goes adiabatic cooling until it reaches the condensation level to form heavy
Cumulo-nimbus clouds resulting into torrential rain fall and thunderstorms.
The condensation process releases a lot of latent energy which maintains a stormy cloud characterized
by heavy rain fall accompanied by lightening and thunder storms and at times causing flooding
In East Africa, cyclonic rain fall occurs along the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone where the south
East and North East trade winds meet such as the northern shores of Lake Victoria basin.
Diagram
Rain fall patterns in East Africa
East Africa experiences two major types of ran fall patterns. That is, the double maxima pattern/
bimodal pattern and mono modal pattern.
The bimodal pattern occurs on the northern shores of Lake Victoria basin and consists of two rainfall
seasons.
The first season is short and starts from March to May while the second season starts from September to
November.
It is associated with high temperatures and humidity throughout the year.
There is no marked dry season.
The mono modal type consists of one short wet season and one long dry season.
The wet season comes when the sun is over head the tropics in the northern and southern hemisphere.
Factors that influence rainfall patterns in East Africa
The apparent movement of the sun 231/2 north and south of the equator and revolution and tilt, creates
low pressure zone called inter tropical convergence zone where trade winds converge forming clouds
resulting into rainfall. That is;
Where the sun is over head, high temperatures create a low pressure zone which attracts the North East
and South East trade winds to converge in the low pressure zone.
The south east trades are recharged with moisture as they cross Lake Victoria.
The hot ground heats the moist air; rising until dew point is reached and condenses into Cumulo-nimbus
clouds resulting into convectional rain fall accompanied by lightening and thunder storms and comes
mainly in the afternoon.
When the sun is over head the equator in March and September, convectional rain fall is received in
areas along the equator fore example in Entebbe and other areas on the Northern shores of Lake Victoria.
When the sun is over head in the southern hemisphere, much of the southern and central Tanzania
receive rain fall during December and January.
When the sun is in the northern hemisphere, northern and North Eastern Uganda and northern Kenya
receive rain fall in the months of June and August.
Difference in altitude. Highland areas of East Africa experience heavy rainfall as opposed to the areas of
low altitude such as the coastal belt and the rift valley areas.
This is because high altitude causes adiabatic cooling of warm moist winds at dry adiabatic lapse rate of
6.50c per 1000 metres until dew point is reached to form Cumulo-nimbus resulting into relief rain fall on
the wind ward side of the mountain such as Rwenzori, Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Muhavura e.t.c
Influence of relief. Areas with high relief such as mountains like Rwenzori, Kenya, Kilimanjaro,
Muhavura and highlands such as Kigezi receive heavy relief rain fall because mountains act as barriers
which force moist winds to rise over and in the process undergoes adiabatic cooling and condensation
forming clouds which result into Orographic rainfall on the windward Side of the mountain.
On the other hand Areas without or limited mountains receive low rain fall less than 500mm per year
because of absence of Orographic effect for example Karamoja, rift valley areas such as Albert flats,
northern and north eastern Kenya. In addition these areas are affected by dry descending winds.
Influence of prevailing winds. Areas in the path of moist trade winds experience heavy rain fall than
areas in the path of dry trade winds.
Fore example;
- The South East trade winds from the southern part of Indian Ocean deposit a lot moisture in form
of heavy rain fall in the coastal areas, and the Northern, North Eastern lake shores of Victoria
basin.
- The westeries from the southern part of Atlantic Ocean and the vast Congo forests bring heavy
rain fall over highlands in western Uganda such as Rwenzori (Nyabirongo) and Kigezi highlands.
- On the other hand, Areas in the path of dry North East trade winds receive low annual rain fall
for example Karamoja, Northern and North Eastern Kenya e.t.c
Influence of Water bodies. Areas adjacent large water bodies such as Indian Ocean, Lake Victoria and
Tanganyika, rivers, and extensive swamps receive heavy rain fall because large water bodies provide
large amounts of moisture to the atmosphere through evaporation, and recharging of trade winds resulting
into convectional rain fall.
On the other hand, Areas with limited water bodies or far away from water bodies are devoid of these
effects leading to low rain fall for example Karamoja, Turkana, Marsabit e.t.c
Influence of Vegetation cover. Areas with dense vegetation cover receive heavy rain fall through the
process of evapo-transpiration for example the tropical rain forests like Mabira, Kalangala islands,
Bwindi and mangrove forests in the coastal areas.
On the other hand, Areas with semi and desert vegetation such as Bush and thickets receive low rain fall
because of limited transpiration for example Karamoja, Rift valley areas, Ankole Masaka corridor,
Marsabit and wajir in north eastern Kenya.
Influence of warm ocean current. The coast of East Africa is washed by the Mozambique warm current
which recharges the South East winds blowing over it resulting into high temperatures, evaporation and
heavy rainfall around Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam, Kilwa e.t.c
Influence of Human activities. Areas where environmentally friendly activities such as afforestation, re-
afforestation, cloud seeding, protection of moisture sources e.t.c receive heavy rainfall because such
activities increase evapo-transpiration.
On the other hand, areas where human activities degrade moisture sources reduce evapo-transpiration
leading to low rainfall. For example deforestation, swamp reclamation, sinking bore holes, bush burning,
over grazing, industrialization e.t.c for example Karamoja.
Coastal configuration or alignment. This means the shape of the coast in relation to the direction of
prevailing winds. The North Eastern coast of Kenya for example, lies parallel to North East winds which
are forced to blow off-shore for a considerable distance leading to limited rainfall in the adjacent areas.
On the other hand, coastal areas in the direction of South East trade winds from the southern part of
Indian Ocean experience heavy rainfall because the winds blow on-shore for example Mombasa, Kilwa,
Malindi, Dar-es-Salaam e.t.c.
Continentality effect or distance from the sea or ocean. Coastal areas in the path of trade winds
experience heavy rain fall than areas located far inland. This is because moist winds deposit moisture in
the coastal areas for example Malindi, Kilwa, Tanga and continue loosing it as they travel inland leading
to low rainfall for example Karamoja and Miombo in Tanzania.
Coriolis force effect. This is a deflecting force at the equator created by earth’s rotation. The Coriolis
Effect affects the south east trade winds in the southern hemisphere deflected to the left and recharged
with moisture by lake Victoria leading to heavy rainfall on the northern and north eastern shores of lake
Victoria basin.
-On the other hand, this deflection results into aridity on the North Western shores of Lake Victoria
(Ankole-Masaka corridor)
Perturbation. This is the situation where low-pressure is created over the Indian Ocean and high pressure
over the mainland. The low pressure created in Indian ocean attracts air/ wind from the interior to Indian
ocean leading to heavy rainfall in islands such as Zanzibar and Pemba; leaving the main East African
landmass especially Northern Eastern Kenya deprived of rainfall hence aridity.
To what extent does inter tropical convergence zone influence rain fall distribution in East Africa.
Approach.
 Define the term inter tropical convergence zone
 Explain how it is formed
 Give the 1St evaluation and explain how I.T.C.Z influences rain fall distribution in East Africa.
 Give the 2rd evaluation and explain other factors that influence rain fall distribution in East Africa.
Answer guide
- Inter tropical convergence zone is a low pressure belt associated with low equatorial latitudes.
- The I.T.C.Z is characterized by high temperatures and low pressure and its formation follows the
apparent migration of the sun 231/2 north and south of the equator and it is responsible for rainfall
distribution to a larger extent as explained below.
- Where the sun is over head, high temperatures create a low pressure zone which attracts the North
East and South East trade winds to converge in the low pressure zone.
- The hot ground heats the moist air, rises and condenses into Cumulo-nimbus clouds resulting into
convectional rain fall accompanied by lightening and thunder storms and comes mainly in the
afternoon.
- The sun is over head the equator twice per annum in March and September.
- The first appearance occurs in March, creates the first rain season from March, April and may.
The second appearance occurs in September, creates the second rain season from September,
October and November. Fore example in Entebbe and other areas on the Northern shores of Lake
Victoria.
- When the sun is over head in the southern hemisphere, much of the southern and central Tanzania
receive rain fall during December and January.
- When the sun is in the northern hemisphere, northern and North Eastern Uganda and northern
Kenya receive rain fall in the months of June and August.
Other factors that influence rain fall distribution in East Africa include; altitude, relief, ocean currents,
water bodies, continentality effect, air masses, perturbation, human activities, coastal alignment e.t.c
 Remember to explain these factors.
Research question
To what extent has altitude influenced the distribution of rain fall in East Africa?

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND LAND AND SEA- BREEZES

(a)What is atmospheric pressure?
(b)Explain the causes of variations in atmospheric pressure in a particular region.
Approach
 Describe atmospheric pressure
 In part (b) explain the factors responsible for the variation in atmospheric pressure.
Answer guide
Atmospheric pressure is the force or weight exerted by air per unit area under the surface of the
earth.
Mathematically, it’s expressed as pressure= force
Area
It is measured at a weather station using an instrument called a barometer.
The standard units for measurement are called millibars (mb).
 It is often corrected to the average of 1013 millibars at sea level.
Lines drawn on the map to join places of equal pressure are called isobars.
The pressure varies with temperature. Areas of high temperature have low pressure and areas of
low temperature have high pressure.
Pressure also varies with altitude. High altitude areas have low pressure while valleys have high
pressure.
It also tends to be higher in cold air than in warm air. This is why it decreases with height in the
atmosphere.
Factors that influence atmospheric pressure
Differences in temperature. High temperatures cause a fall in pressure while a low temperatures
lead to high pressure. When air is heated, it expands, the pressure of its molecules spread
outwards over a larger area and the pressure of the air decreases. When air is cooled, it contracts
and the pressure of its molecules spread over a smaller area which leads to arise in the pressure
of the air.
This is the reason why cold air masses and cold ocean currents flow from high pressure regions
to tropical regions of low pressure.
Latitudinal differences. Atmospheric pressure is low in the tropics because of high temperatures
caused by the over head sun and low at higher latitudes such as the poles because of low
temperatures or cold conditions.
Altitudinal differences. The pressure of air at ground level is higher than that of air on mountain
tops such as the Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro and Kenya.
This is because air descending down slope exerts greater weight on the air at the surface.
Consequently, the molecules of the air at the ground push outwards over a larger area and its
volume increases with a force equal to that exerted above.
In contrast, air at the top of a mountain has less weight exerted on it, its molecules spread over a
smaller area, and its volume decreases.
Combined effect of earth’s rotation and temperature create variation in pressure at different
latitudes. For example, the rotation of the earth is very fast at the equator than at the poles. This
combined with high temperatures create a low pressure belt at the equator.
The rising air from the equator is deflected, cools and sinks back to the surface to form a high
pressure belt at horse latitudes 300 north and south of the equator e.t.c.
Differences in the heating capacity of water and land surfaces create different pressure zones
between land and water. That is;
In temperate regions, land heats and warms faster in summer than ocean hence a low pressure
zone on land and a high pressure zone over the sea or ocean. In winter, land cools very fast than
the sea hence a high pressure zone over land and a low pressure zone over the sea.
In tropics, daily heating creates pressure zones in form of land and sea breeze. That is, land
warms faster than the sea during day hence a low pressure zone over land and a high pressure
zone over the sea.
At nigh, land cools rapidly than the sea hence a high pressure zone over land and a low pressure
zone over the sea.
Change in seasons due to the apparent movement of the sun and revolution and tilt of the earth
on its axis create variation in pressure. That is; where the sun is over, there is intense heating of
the ground leading to high temperature hence low pressure, and low temperatures and high
pressure where the sun is not over head .The sun is over head the tropics at different time of the
year. For example;
When the sun is over head tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere in December, its
summer hence low pressure and its winter in the northern hemisphere hence high pressure
When the sun is over head tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere in June, its summer
hence low pressure and winter in the southern hemisphere hence high pressure.
Time of the day- influences variation in pressure during day and night in the tropics. That is, the
earth is uniformly heated at 12:00 a.m .Therefore, from 9:00 a.m- 4:00 p.m pressure is low in
low latitudes and high from 7:00 p.m – 6:00 a.m
Differences in the force of gravity- cause variation in pressure. Pressure is high in areas with
high gravity such as mountain tops, Polar Regions and low in areas with low gravity such as
valleys and equatorial regions.
Depressions and anticyclones. A depression is a mass of air whose isobars form circular shape,
where pressure is low at the centre and increases towards the outside while an anticyclone is a
mass of air with high pressure at the centre and decreases towards the out side.
Therefore, a depression creates low pressure where it is formed and a high pressure in the
surrounding areas while an anticyclone creates high pressure where it is formed and low pressure
in the surrounding areas.

LAND AND SEA BREEZES IN EAST AFRICA

(a)Account for the formation of land and sea breezes.
(b) Explain the effects of land and sea breezes on weather in East Africa.
Approach
 Define land and sea breezes
 Identify areas where they occur in East Africa
 Explain how each breeze is formed
 Draw diagrams showing the movement of winds in each case
 Explain the effects of each breeze on the weather.
Answer guide
A breeze refers to the air that blows from areas of low temperatures to areas of high
temperatures.
Land and sea breezes are local winds developing as a result of temperature differences on land
and sea (water bodies) during night and day respectively.
They blow on a daily basis and occur in areas where land is lying in close proximity to the
water body for example;
around the northern shores of Lake Victoria basin, the coast of Kenya and Tanzania, and islands
in Indian ocean such as Zanzibar and Pemba.
Causes of land and sea breezes
They are a result of diurnal differential heating of land and water.
Differences in the mobility of heat. That is, mobility of heat in water is greater than land which
is solid. That’s why water takes long to warm up.
Differences in heat transmission through water which is transparent as opposed to land which is
opaque.
Differences in the reflecting capacities of heat between land and water.
They occur in a clear weather.
SEA-BREEZE (day time) - process of development
A sea breeze refers to a body of dense air that blows from a water body to replace the warm
rising air on land.
It blows when there is intense heating of coastal land during day.
Land warms faster than the sea hence temperatures are high over land and colder over the sea.
Air above the ground heats up, forming convection currents of warm air rise over land and
create low pressure at the surface.
The rising warm air condenses to clouds leading to occurrence of rainfall usually in the
afternoon.
Cool and moist winds from the sea (sea-breezes) blow towards land to replace the warm rising
air. That is from high pressure to low pressure.
on the Eastern shores of lake Victoria during day, the sea breeze and the evening prevailing
Easterly winds cause a mild convergence leading to heavy showers in the late afternoon and
evening.
Diagram
Effects of sea breeze on weather
Brings Cool temperatures on land in late afternoon and evening, for example around Lake
Victoria (Kampala) That is, moderate temperatures are experienced.
Moist air may cause rain fall drizzles in the land adjacent to water bodies.
LAND BREEZE (night time) - process of development
A land breeze refers to dense air that blows during night to replace the warm rising air on the
sea.
It blows during night when there is rapid Loss of terrestrial radiations in the coastal areas.
Land cools faster than the sea hence temperatures are cooler overland than over the sea which
retains much of its heat absorbed before sun set.
Low pressure is created over the warm sea and high pressure over the cold land
Wind blows from land to the sea to replace the warm rising air. That is, from high pressure to
low pressure. Hence formation of land breeze.
The rising warm air condenses into clouds leading to occurrence of rainfall usually in the
afternoons.
Along the shores of Lake Victoria on the western side at night, the prevailing winds (Easterly
winds) drift the clouds over the land where it may cause early morning showers.
Diagram
Effects of land breeze on weather
▪Cools temperatures over the sea because of the cool breeze from the land to the sea
▪Temperature inversion may occur over the sea leading to the formation of fog.
▪Land breeze results into light early morning showers.

MONSOON WINDS
(a)Explain the causes of monsoon winds over the Indian sub-continent.
(b)Describe the weather conditions associated with monsoon winds.
Answer guide
Monsoon winds are seasonal winds which blow across Asiatic continent in the northern
hemisphere and the Indian ocean in the southern hemisphere at an interval of six months.
They occur on the Asian continent around china, Japan, Indian sub-continent and some parts of
south East Asia.
Monsoon winds can be called land and sea breeze between Asiatic land mass and Indian ocean.
The word monsoon is derived from an Arabic word “mausim” which means seasons.
Monsoon winds are caused by;
Specific heating capacities between land and water, creates differences in pressure and
subsequent wind movement.
During December-January, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter. The low
temperatures lead to creation of a high pressure zone in the Punjab region within the Asiatic
landmass.
In the same period, the sun is in the southern hemisphere where its insolation effect (heat),
leads to high temperatures and low pressure.
Difference in pressure caused by the apparent migration of the sun compels the wind
movement from the cold regions (high pressure zone) in the Northern Hemisphere to drift
towards the hot regions (low pressure zone) in the southern hemisphere.
This takes place in January and is called the January monsoon or North West monsoon.
DIAGRAM
During summer in the Northern hemisphere, and winter in the southern hemisphere, high
pressure builds up in the southern hemisphere because of extreme cold conditions while a low
pressure belt builds in the north because of high temperatures (summer)
Wind is compelled to move from the southern hemisphere towards the equator, it is deflected
to the right and converges in the Punjab region within the Asian landmass across the Indian
Ocean.
This is called the July monsoon or south East monsoon.
DIAGRAM
The differences in temperatures are thought to be brought about by the apparent movement of
the over head sun over the tropic of cancer and Capricorn triggers the movement of trade winds
across the Indian Ocean.
Weather associated with monsoon winds
▪Hot conditions as they originate from the tropical latitudes and blow over a warm ocean.
▪Humid conditions because winds blow over a warm ocean
▪Monsoon winds are associated with heavy torrential rainfall with thunder and lightening to
many parts like Bombay in Asia. In East Africa, they bring some rain on the coast around
Mombasa, Malindi, Kilwa and Dar es Salaam.
▪The rainfall on the Indian coast is due to the ascent of the monsoon winds over the Himalayas
and
Some times due to the collision with other winds especially cold ones from the north. For
example Cherrapunji receives about 10,798mm per year making it the wettest place on earth.
▪Unfortunately, this rainfall is received in one short season (June-September), causing severe
floods and destruction properties, leaving the rest of the year dry.
▪During the inter monsoon period; winds are light and variable, making morning skies clear
leading to development of thunderstorm in the afternoons.
▪The winter monsoons bring clear dry weather, and winds that flow from land to the sea.

CLIMATE
(a)Differentiate between weather and climate
(b)Explain the factors which influence the climate of East Africa.
Approach
 Define both concepts and give their elements
 In part (b) identify the different types of climate of East Africa and where they occur
 Explain the factors influencing the climatic conditions in East Africa
  Give relevant examples.
Answer guide
▪Weather is the state or condition of the atmosphere of a given place at a particular time.
▪Weather is recorded over a short period of time for example hour/ day.
▪Weather elements include rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, cloud cover and sunshine.
▪Weather affects a small or localized area and may vary from time to time and from place to
place.
▪Weather elements can be observed and recorded at the weather station.
▪Weather can be described as being rainy, sunny, hot, cool, windy, foggy, frosty, misty e.t.c.
Where as
▪Climate is the average weather conditions of the atmosphere of an area recorded over a long
period of time of atleast 30-35 years.
▪Climatic conditions tend to remain relatively stable over a long period of time though with
minor variations.
▪Climate affects a large area or region for example Lake Victoria basin, northern Uganda e.t.c
▪Types of climate include, equatorial climate (hot and wet), tropical climate, montane climate,
desert climate, Mediterranean climate, tundra climate e.t.c
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE CLIMATE OF EAST AFRICA
Although East Africa lies astride the equator, it does not experience uniform climate.
TYPES OF CLIMATES IN EAST AFRICA
East Africa experiences varied climates fore instance;
Equatorial climate- experienced over the Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin, south western
Uganda, parts of coastal areas in East Africa
Moist tropical / modified equatorial climate- experienced in most parts of central and western
Uganda, slopes of mountain Rwenzori, Elgon, Kenya and Kilimanjaro, central and western
Kenya and some coastal areas
Tropical savanna- experienced in most parts of Northern and central Uganda, southern
Tanzania e.t.c
Semi desert/ desert/ arid climate or dry tropical climate experienced in northern Kenya
(Chalbi desert), southern Kenya (Nyeri desert), southern Nyika plateau, Eastern and western Rift
valley regions, north eastern Tanzania, Karamoja region in north eastern Uganda, Ankole –
Masaka corridor,
Tropical monsoon/ moist tropical climate- experienced in coastal areas such as Mombasa,
Eastern parts of Pemba and Zanzibar islands due to the monsoon / seasonal winds blowing from
the Indian Ocean.
Montane / Alpine climate experienced on the mountain peaks of Elgon, Kenya, Meru,
Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori, Mgahinga, Muhavura, Sabiniyo e.t.c due to high altitude
Alternatively, the candidate may draw a sketch map of East Africa showing the climatic
zones.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE CLIMATE OF EAST AFRICA
The factors that influence the climate of East Africa are physical and human in nature for
example;
Altitude, latitude, relief, prevailing winds, distance from the sea, nature of vegetation, water
bodies, coastal configuration, corioris force, perturbation, ocean currents, and human activities.
Altitude (height above sea-level). Areas at high altitude such as Mountain Rwenzori, Kenya
e.t.c experience cooler / lower temperatures and heavy rainfall as opposed to the low altitudinal
areas as the coastal belt and the East African rift valley. This is because temperatures reduce with
increase in altitude at a normal lapse rate of 6.5 0 c for every 1000m of ascent. This is the reason
why mountain peaks of Rwenzori, Kenya and Kilimanjaro over 4500 meters above sea level
experience snowfall.
In addition, high altitude areas experience low atmospheric pressure as opposed to low altitude
areas.
Influence of relief. Regions composed of highlands experience cool temperatures and relief rain
fall on the windward side as opposed to areas on the lee-ward side and areas composed of
plateaus and low lying relief. This is because highlands/mountains act as barriers to moist winds;
forcing them to rise over, cool and condense into clouds resulting into Orographic/ relief on the
windward side. For example the south Eastern slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, Elgon and
Kenya, and arid conditions on the leeward side for example Northern Kenya on the leeward side
of the Ethiopian highlands, Kasese and parts of Fort Portal on the lee-ward side of Mountain
Rwenzori.
Latitudinal location. The low latitudinal position of East Africa explains the tropical nature of
climate generally characterized by high temperatures since the sun is always near the earth at the
equator; sun’s rays travel short distance and hit small areas raising temperatures easily.
The high temperatures also create a low pressure zone called Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(I.T.C.Z); attracting air masses leading to formation of convectional rainfall received over the
Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin, southern Tanzania and Northern Uganda when the sun is
overhead the tropic of Capricorn and cancer respectively.
Influence of air masses/ prevailing winds. East Africa experiences moist and dry air masses
which bring humid and arid conditions for example;
▪The south East air masses are moist because they originate from the southern part of Indian
ocean; pick moisture and deposit it inform of heavy rain fall in the adjacent coastal areas around
Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam, Kilwa and the Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin
after deflection at the equator.
They also bring arid/ dry conditions to central Tanzania and Ankole – Masaka corridor due to
deflection at the equator by the Coriolis force.
▪The westeries also moist -originate from the southern part of Atlantic Ocean pass via the Congo
basin; bring in heavy rainfall to south western Uganda in areas such as Nyabirongo, Rukungiri,
Kabale and Bushenyi and dry conditions in Kasese e.t.c
▪Tropical Continental air masses such as North East and Harmattan are dry; bringing arid
conditions over parts of northern Uganda, Karamoja region and northern, north eastern Kenya
e.t.c
Distance from the sea / continentally effect or nearness to water bodies. Areas adjacent
Large water bodies such as Indian Ocean, Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika experience heavy
rainfall, moderate temperatures and small diurnal temperature range due to high evaporation and
land and sea breezes, for example the northern shore of lake Victoria basin. On the other hand
areas located far away in the interior of the continent don’t experience such hydrologic processes
leading to arid conditions for example Karamoja and Marsabit in Kenya.
Influence of Mozambique warm ocean current-The coast of East Africa is washed by the
Mozambique ocean current which raises the temperature of the South East winds blowing over it
resulting into high temperatures, humidity, heavy rainfall and high pressure in adjacent areas
such as Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam, Kilwa e.t.c
Influence of vegetation cover. Areas covered by forests experience high rates of evapo-
transpiration resulting into heavy rainfall and cool temperatures for example Mabira, Budongo,
Bwindi and the Mangrove forests at the coast. On the other hand areas covered by savanna
grassland and semi –desert vegetation experience limited evapo-transpiration resulting into
aridity for example Karamoja, Ankole-Masaka corridor, central Tanzania, Northern, and North
Eastern Kenya e.t.c
Coastal configuration or alignment- it refers to the shape of the coast in relation to the
direction of prevailing winds. The alignment of the coast North of Mombasa is parallel to North
East winds which are forced to blow off-shore for considerable distance leading to aridity in
north eastern Kenya.
On the other hand, the alignment of the coast south of Mombasa lies in the path of South East
trade winds hence blow on-shore; bringing high humidity, heavy rainfall and high pressure in
adjacent areas such as Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam, Kilwa e.t.c
Coriolis force effect-coriolis force is a deflecting force at the equator created by the earth’s
rotation. It deflects winds in the Northern hemisphere to the right and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The Coriolis force deflects the south East trade winds to the left as they approach
the equator; making them on-shore winds on the northern shores of Lake Victoria basin leading
to high humidity, heavy rainfall and cloud cover. The deflection however deprives the south
western part of Lake Victoria of moisture leading to aridity in areas such as Ankole – Masaka
corridor.
Perturbation. This is the situation where low-pressure is created over the Indian Ocean and high
pressure over the mainland. The low pressure created in Indian ocean attracts air/ wind from the
interior to Indian ocean leading to heavy rainfall in islands such as Zanzibar and Pemba; leaving
the main East African landmass especially Northern Eastern Kenya deprived of rainfall hence
aridity.
Influence of human activities. Environmentally unfriendly human activities such as
deforestation, bush burning, wetland reclamation, bore hole drilling, industrialization, over
Grazing and other poor farming methods lead to desertification characterized by low humidity,
rainfall and high temperatures. On the other hand, afforestation and other environmental
conservation practices increase humidity, rainfall and moderate temperatures.
(a)Describe the characteristics of Equatorial type of climate.
(b) Explain the factors that have led to the occurrence of an Equatorial climate in East
Africa.
Approach
 Identify areas that experience equatorial type of climate
 Describe the characteristics
 Explain factors favoring its occurrence.
Answer guide
Equatorial type of climate is experienced over the Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin , south
western Uganda, parts of coastal areas in East Africa, Amazon basin in south America, parts of
south East Asia such as Malaysia, Indonesia e.t.c
Equatorial type of climate is characterized by;
Generally hot temperatures throughout the year
Great uniformity of temperatures throughout the year ranging between 250c- 280c on average
Maximum temperature is 380c while the minimum temperature is 150c depending on location
The diurnal range of temperature is small and so is the annual range
Convectional rainfall is usually received during afternoon and evenings, accompanied by
thunderstorms and lightening
Receives heavy rain fall and is well distributed throughout the year
Two maxima rainfall with peaks in March and November (Bi-modal pattern)
Rainfall totals range between 1000-2000mm per annum on average
There is no clear / marked dry season
Humidity is high over 80% due to high rate of evapotranspiration
Cloud cover is thick throughout the year due to high rates of evapotransipiration and
condensation
Presence of low pressure belts in Areas dominated by air masses that converge at the I.T.C.Z
hence a region of calmness-light winds.
Impression marking …………………………………..max………..10mks
Factors that have led to the occurrence of an Equatorial climate in East Africa
Altitude- areas below 1000m above sea level tend to experience equatorial climate in terms of
hot temperature. Generally the altitude of East Africa especially plateau are below 1000m a.s.l
for example the coastal plains
Latitude- areas lying between O0 to 50 N or S of the equator and below 1000m above sea level
experience an equatorial climate due to high sun’s insolation received
Vegetation cover-East Africa has tropical rain forests such as mabira which increase humidity,
cloud cover and rain fall due to high evapotranspiration
Water bodies- East Africa has large water bodies such as Lake Victoria, Indian Ocean, rivers
and extensive swamps which cause micro-climate effects through land and sea breezes and
increased evaporation; leading to high humidity, cloud cover, rain fall and small diurnal range of
temperature.
Influence of air masses/ winds where the south east trades are onshore, they maintain an
equatorial type of climate for example at the coast around Malindi, Mombasa, Tanga, Dar salaam
and Kilwa
Influence of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z) and the apparent movement of
the over head sun influences insolation and rainfall pattern. The temperature and rainfall
received varies with he position of the overhead sun
Cloud cover- thick cloud cover prevents heat loss in the space hence more heat is retained
leading to a small range of temperature.
Relevant diagrams should be drawn to illustrate the answer
Impression marking…………………………………………………….15 marks
To what extent is the Lake Victoria type of climate equatorial?
Approach
 State the characteristics of the equatorial type of climate
 Explain how these characteristics conform to those of Lake Victoria basin
 Give the 1St evaluation and Identify and explain areas of Lake Victoria basin which don’t
conform to equatorial climate
 Give the 2rd evaluation and explain other factors that modify the climate of Lake Victoria
basin.
Answer guide
Equatorial areas characterized by;
Temperatures are uniformly high through out the year. That is, between 240C – 270 C.
Heavy rain fall is received and well distributed through out the year averaging between 1500
mm- 2500 mm
The area is located astride the equator and receives a bimodal pattern of rain fall That is, March
and November.
The area is located where greatest insolation occurs with a small diurnal range of temperature of
between 20C – 30 C.
There is extensive and dense cloud cover.
Relative humidity is usually high throughout the year over 80%
The equatorial climate areas with no distinct dry season. So the area is almost wet through out
the year.
Areas that conform to the above characteristics on Lake Victoria basin are;
The Northern and north eastern parts of Lake Victoria have almost uniform high temperatures
through out the year of about 270C
Rain fall received in the northern and north eastern shores of Lake Victoria is heavy ranging
between 1250mm - 2000mm per annum.
Island areas of Lake Victoria such as Kalangala, Buvuma e.t.c receive about 2193 mm of rain
fall per year.
Bukoba receives 2030mm of rain fall per year.
Areas of Lake Victoria basin with little or don’t conform to equatorial climate/ modified
equatorial climate include;
The northern parts of Lake Victoria basin receives less rain fall and has longer dry season.
These areas experience high temperature ranges
Mwanza in the south receives very little rain fall of about 989 mm a year. This characteristic of
savannah type of climate
The eastern parts of Lake Victoria don’t reflect equatorial type of climate fore example Kisumu
has rain fall of 1220 mm per year.
Therefore, it’s to a small extent that the Lake Victoria basin has a true equatorial type of climate.
To a largest extent the climate of East Africa is not truly equatorial. It has been;
Modified by altitudinal elevation since the basin lies 1200 meters above sea level
Relief partly plays a role in modifying the climate of East Africa.
Man’s activities like deforestation, swamp reclamation, industrialization and urbanization, bore
hole drilling over grazing, bush burning e.t.c has also modified the climate of the Lake Victoria
basin.
EFFECTS OF MAN’S ACTIVITIES ON CLIMATE
The climatic anomalies in East Africa are a product of man’s activities”. Discuss.
Approach
 Define climate
 Show that East Africa is crossed by equator and therefore expected to have equatorial
climate.
 However this is not the case
 Explain the anomalies
 Give the 1St evaluation and explain the role of man in causing these anomalies.
 Give the 2rd evaluation and explain the role of other factors.
Answer guide
East Africa is crossed by the equator and therefore expected to have equatorial climate
characterized by;
Generally hot temperatures throughout the year
Great uniformity of temperatures throughout the year ranging between 250c- 280c on average
Maximum temperature is 380c while the minimum temperature is 150c depending on location
The diurnal range of temperature is small and so is the annual range
Convectional rainfall is usually received during afternoon and evenings, accompanied by
thunderstorms and lightening
Receives heavy rain fall and is well distributed throughout the year
Two maxima rainfall with peaks in March and November (Bi-modal pattern)
Rainfall totals range between 1000-2000mm per annum on average
There is no clear / marked dry season
Humidity is high over 80% due to high rate of evapotranspiration
Cloud cover is thick throughout the year due to high rates of evapotransipiration and
condensation
Presence of low pressure belts in Areas dominated by air masses that converge at the I.T.C.Z
hence a region of calmness-light winds. However this is not the case.
There are numerous anomalies in the equatorial region brought about by physical and human
activities. These anomalies include;
The Northern shores of Lake Victoria basin and highland areas such as Kigezi and Kenya
highlands are the wettest in the region with high rain fall of above 1500mm per annum and high
temperature of about 240C-280C other areas include Bukoba, Entebbe, Mukono, Jinja,
Kalangala/ Ssese islands, Nyanza province in Kenya, e.t.c
Some areas experience alternate wet and dry seasons thus receive heavy rain fall during the
wet season and a long dry spell characterized by high temperatures. Fore example central plateau
and southern parts of Tanzania, Northern Uganda for example Gulu e.t.c
Some areas are experience semi desert climate characterized by low annul rainfall of less than
500mm, high temperatures ,low humidity and clear skies Fore example Karamoja, North western
and north eastern Kenya, Ankole-Masaka corridor, e.t.c
Desert climate characterized by very low annual rain fall of less than 250mm, very high
temperatures, clear skies e.t.c for example central northern areas of Kenya, Turkana and
Marsabit (Chalbi desert).
Man through his activities is to a larger extent responsible for the above anomalies in the
following ways;
Deforestation- it refers to the cutting down of forests without replanting them. Deforestation
occurs because of the need for wood fuel, timber, land for settlement and agriculture,
industrialization e.t.c. Deforestation leads increase in carbondioxide in the atmosphere which
results into global warming. It also reduces the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low
humidity, cloud cover and rainfall. Deforestation is common in central Uganda, Kabale, Nyanza
and Central Kenya e.t.c
Overstocking and overgrazing. Overstocking is the rearing of bigger number of animals on
pastureland than what the pastureland can comfortably accommodate. Overstocking of livestock
leads to overgrazing; responsible for destruction of vegetation cover and soil degradation which
ultimately reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low humidity, low cloud cover and
rainfall and high temperatures, for example in pastoral areas such as Karamoja, Masai, Turkana
e.t.c
Repeated bush burning especially in pastoral communities so as to prepare for good pastures,
kill pests and diseases, create and expand farms e.t.c leads to destruction of vegetation cover and
soil degradation resulting into low rate of evapo-transpiration, low humidity, low cloud cover,
low rainfall and high temperatures, for example in Karamoja, Mbarara, Turkanaland, Masai,
Nakasongola, Miombo in Tanzania and other pastoral communities.
Sinking of boreholes and construction of valley dams especially in pastoral communities lowers
the water table and affects the hydro-cycle leading to low humidity, low rainfall and high
temperatures, common in semi-arid regions such as Karamoja, Miombo in Tanzania and other
pastoral communities
Swamp reclamation for agriculture, dairying, settlement, industrial development e.t.c has led to
disappearance of swampy vegetation, lowering of the water table and the hydro-cycle; leading to
low humidity, low rainfall and high temperatures, for example Nakawa-Banda swamp ,
Nalukolongo-Natete swamp and swamps in eastern, central and western and Uganda.
Industrial development- has led to increased emission of heat trapping gases such as
Carbondioxide in the atmosphere, depletion of ozone layer leading to global warming;
responsible for climate change. In addition, industrial has led to degradation of moistures sources
such as swamps and forests resulting into low humidity, low rainfall and high temperatures. For
example Namanve industrial park
mining and quarrying- involves destroying vegetation cover and soil structure which ultimately
reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low humidity, low cloud cover and rainfall and
high temperatures, for example in Mwandui (Diamond), Tororo (limestone and vermiculite),
Kilembe (Cobalt), Bamburi (cement), Gold, Tin, Wolfram in south western Uganda, murrum,
sand, e.t.c
Settlement/ urbanization and other construction works such as road construction in areas of
Kampala, Lugazi, Mukono, Nairobi, Kisumu, Jinja, Dodoma and other towns in central, Eastern
and south western Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania has increased degradation of moisture sources
such as swamps and forests resulting into low humidity, low rainfall and high temperatures.
Burning of fossil fuels such as oil increase carbondioxide and other heat trapping gasses in the
atmosphere leading to global warming and climate change
Physical factors are also responsible for climatic anomalies in East Africa also to a large
extent for example;
Trade winds, Influence of relief, Rotation of earth / Coriolis Effect, Poor vegetation cover,
Absence of water bodies, Nature of relief, Coastal configuration, Continentality effect/ distance
from the sea, Latitudinal location / influence of I.T.C.Z and Perturbation.
 Remember to explain these factors
ARIDITY IN EAST AFRICA
Examine the causes of aridity in East Africa
Approach
 Define aridity
 Identify arid areas in East Africa
 Explain the physical and human conditions that have caused aridity
Answer guide
Aridity is a climatic condition characterized by persistent lack of moisture, low seasonal and
unreliable rainfall, low humidity, high temperature and high diurnal temperature range, clear and
cloudless skies and scorching sun
Arid areas in East Africa include Northern, North Western and North Eastern Kenya, central
Tanzania, Karamoja region (North Eastern Uganda); and the leeward side of major mountains
such as Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori e.t.c
Aridity in East Africa is a result of physical and human factors for example latitude, relief,
prevailing winds, distance from the sea, nature of vegetation, water bodies, coastal configuration,
corioris force, perturbation and human activities.
PHYSICAL CAUSES
Nature of relief. Most arid areas in East Africa are generally flat and lack major highlands such
as mountains to cause Orographic lifting of moist winds to form relief rainfall.
In addition the flat relief limits condensation of moist winds leading to aridity for example Albert
flats, Karamoja e.t.c
The rain shadow effect- Most arid areas in East Africa lie on the leeward side of major
highlands experiencing dry descending winds incapable of forming relief rainfall. In addition, the
dry descending winds under go adiabatic expansion; absorbing moisture instead of releasing it,
lead to aridity. For example Kasese and Albert flats lie on the leeward side of mountain
Rwenzori. Karamoja, Northern and North Eastern Kenya lie on the leeward side of Ethiopian
highlands and Ankole Masaka corridor is partly dry because of leeward effect of Kigezi
highlands, Masai land is partly dry because of the leeward effect of mountain Kilimanjaro.
Long distance from the sea/ continentality effect. Most arid areas are located far away from
large water sources such as Indian Ocean, Lake Victoria e.t.c hence do not experience land and
sea breezes and evaporation which contribute to rainfall formation and moderate temperatures. In
addition, moist winds travel long distance; lose moisture to adjacent areas leading to arid
conditions to distant places far inland for example Karamoja, Marsabit, Ankole-Masaka corridor,
central Tanzania e.t.c
Absence or presence of limited sources of moisture- for example lakes, extensive swamps, and
permanent streams to increase moisture in atmosphere through evaporation, recharging of winds
and activation of land and sea breezes. This results into hot temperatures, low moisture, rainfall
and clear skies. For example Karamoja, Marsabit, Ankole-Masaka corridor e.t.c
Influence of prevailing winds bring arid conditions inform of hot temperatures, low rainfall and
cloud cover. For example
The North East trade winds and Harmattan winds are hot and dry; causing aridity over northern,
north eastern and north Western Kenya and North-Eastern Uganda.
The South East trade winds cause aridity over Northwestern shores of Lake Victoria (Ankole
Masaka corridor) after being deflected by Coriolis force caused by earth’s rotation.
Lastly, the westeries from the southern part of Atlantic Ocean and the Great Congo forests bring
aridity on the leeward side of mountain Rwenzori, western rift valley and Albert flats where they
descend and cause hot, dry and rainless conditions.
Coastal configuration or alignment. That is, the shape of the coast in relation to the direction
of prevailing winds. The alignment of the East African coast North of Mombasa is parallel to
North East winds which are forced to blow off-shore for considerable distance leading to aridity
in north eastern Kenya.
Presence of poor natural vegetation cover such scrub, shrubs and thickets cannot release
enough moisture to the atmosphere through evapo-transpiration for rain formation; results into
low humidity, cloud cover, rainfall and hot temperatures, for example Northern Kenya, North
Eastern Uganda e.t.c
Latitudinal location .some arid areas are located far away from the equator and in areas out side
inter tropical convergence zone (I.T.C.Z. consequently regions such as Karamoja, northern and
north eastern Kenya, faraway from the equator receive rainfall only once in a year when the sun
is overhead and dry conditions dominate most of the year.
Coriolis force effect. Coriolis force is a deflecting force at the equator created by the earth’s
rotation. It deflects winds in the Northern hemisphere to the right and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The deflection of the South East trades brings aridity to North West shores of Lake
Victoria (Ankole-Masaka corridor)
Perturbation. This is the situation where low-pressure is created over the Indian Ocean and high
pressure over the mainland. The low pressure created in Indian ocean attracts air/ wind from the
interior to Indian ocean leading to heavy rainfall in islands such as Zanzibar and Pemba; leaving
the main East African landmass especially Northern Eastern Kenya deprived of rainfall hence
aridity.
Influence of human activities. Environmentally unfriendly human activities such as
deforestation, bush burning, wetland reclamation, bore hole drilling, industrialization, over
Grazing and other poor farming methods lead to desertification characterized by low humidity,
rainfall and high temperatures. On the other hand, afforestation and other environmental
conservation practices increase humidity, rainfall and moderate temperatures.
To what extent are Trade winds responsible for aridity in East Africa?
Approach
 Define aridity
 State the arid areas in East Africa
 identify the trade winds which cause aridity in East Africa and their source
 Give the 1St evaluation (large extent) and explain the influence of trade winds
 Give the 2rd evaluation (larger extent) and explain other factors responsible for aridity in
East Africa

Answer guide````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
Aridity is a climatic condition characterized by persistent lack of moisture, low seasonal and
unreliable rainfall, low humidity, high temperature and high diurnal temperature range, clear and
cloudless skies and scorching sun
Arid areas in East Africa include Northern, North Western and North Eastern Kenya, central
Tanzania, Karamoja region (North Eastern Uganda); and the leeward side of major mountains
such as Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori e.t.c
Trade winds are prevailing tropical winds that blow from sub-tropical high pressure cells toward
the equatorial low pressure cells from the North East in the northern hemisphere or from the
southern hemisphere.
Those that blow in the Northern Hemisphere are veered to the right of their path to form the
North East trades.
The ones that blow from the Southern Hemisphere are veered to the left of their path to form
South East trades.
Trade winds are notable for their constancy of force/ speed and direction and f or this, they used
to aid traders hence the name trade winds.
▪East Africa experiences 3 types of trade winds namely; North East trades, South East trades and
westeries.
▪North East trades are hot and dry because they originate in the Arabian Desert to East Africa via
Abyssinia or Ethiopia.
▪South East trades originate from the southern part of Indian Ocean, which makes them warm
and moist. They keep changing as they blow over the main land areas.
▪The westeries blow from the Congo basin hence are moist laden and affect much of western
Uganda.
Trade winds are responsible for aridity of East Africa to a greater extent as explained below;
▪The North East trades because of their origin and fetch/, bring hot and desiccating conditions
over North Eastern Uganda, Northern, North Eastern and North Western Kenya. And at the time,
they bring similar conditions in Eastern Kenya where they blow off-shore.
▪The South East trades bring aridity to North West shores of Lake Victoria (Ankole-Masaka
corridor) when they are deflected by earth’s rotation.
▪The westeries from Congo basin bring aridity over lee-ward sides of Mountain Rwenzori, Rift
valley and Albert flats where they descend and bring hot, dry and rainless conditions.
Other factors that have contributed to aridity in East Africa include;
Low altitude, absence of mountains and other barriers to moist air, Latitude, distance from the
sea, nature of vegetation, limited water bodies, coastal configuration, corioris force, perturbation
and man’s activities.
 Remember to explain these factors
To what extent is man responsible for aridity in East Africa?
Approach
 Define aridity and Identify arid areas in East Africa.
 Give the 1St evaluation (larger) and Identify and explain the human activities that have
increased aridity in East Africa.
 Give the 2r d evaluation (large) and explain the role of physical conditions.
Answer guide
Man is largely responsible for aridity through his activities like;
Deforestation- it refers to the cutting down of forests without replanting them. Deforestation
occurs because of the need for wood fuel, timber, land for settlement and agriculture,
industrialization e.t.c. Deforestation leads increase in carbondioxide in the atmosphere which
results into global warming. It also reduces the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low
humidity, cloud cover and rainfall. Deforestation is common in central Uganda, Kabale, Nyanza
and Central Kenya e.t.c
Overstocking and overgrazing. Overstocking is the rearing of bigger number of animals on
pastureland than what the pastureland can comfortably accommodate. Overstocking of livestock
leads to overgrazing; responsible for destruction of vegetation cover and soil degradation which
ultimately reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low humidity, low cloud cover and
rainfall and high temperatures, for example in pastoral areas such as Karamoja, Masai, Turkana
e.t.c
Repeated bush burning especially in pastoral communities so as to prepare for good pastures,
kill pests and diseases, create and expand farms e.t.c leads to destruction of vegetation cover and
soil degradation resulting into low rate of evapo-transpiration, low humidity, low cloud cover,
low rainfall and high temperatures, for example in Karamoja, Mbarara, Turkanaland, Masai,
Nakasongola, Miombo in Tanzania and other pastoral communities.
Sinking of boreholes and construction of valley dams especially in pastoral communities lowers
the water table and affects the hydro-cycle leading to low humidity, low rainfall and high
temperatures, common in semi-arid regions such as Karamoja, Miombo in Tanzania and other
pastoral communities
Swamp reclamation for agriculture, dairying, settlement, industrial development e.t.c has led to
disappearance of swampy vegetation, lowering of the water table and the hydro-cycle; leading to
low humidity, low rainfall and high temperatures, for example Nakawa-Banda swamp ,
Nalukolongo-Natete swamp and swamps in eastern, central and western and Uganda.
Industrial development- has led to increased emission of heat trapping gases such as
Carbondioxide in the atmosphere, depletion of ozone layer leading to global warming;
responsible for climate change. In addition, industrialization has led to degradation of sources
moistures such as swamps and forests resulting into low humidity, low rainfall and high
temperatures. For example Namanve industrial park
mining and quarrying- involves destroying vegetation cover and soil structure which ultimately
reduce the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to low humidity, low cloud cover and rainfall and
high temperatures, for example in Mwandui (Diamond), Tororo (limestone and vermiculite),
Kilembe (Cobalt), Bamburi (cement), Gold, Tin, Wolfram in south western Uganda, murrum,
sand, e.t.c
Settlement/ urbanization and other construction works such as road construction in areas of
Kampala, Lugazi, Mukono, Nairobi, Kisumu, Jinja, Dodoma and other towns in central, Eastern
and south western Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania has increased degradation of sources moisture
such as swamps and forests resulting into low humidity, low rainfall and high temperatures.
Burning of fossil fuels such as oil increase carbondioxide and other heat trapping gasses in the
atmosphere leading to global warming and climate change
Physical factors are to a large extent are also responsible for aridity in East Africa for example,
latitude, relief, prevailing winds, distance from the sea, nature of vegetation, limited water
bodies, coastal configuration, corioris force, and perturbation.
 Remember to explain these factors.
AIR MASSES
(a)Describe the characteristics of an air mass
(b)Explain the formation of air masses.
Approach
 Define air masses
 Give the characteristics of air masses
 Identify the major air masses
 Explain how air masses form.
Answer guide
An air mass is a large body of air with uniform horizontal temperature and humidity conditions.
Characteristics of air masses
▪They have definite source region/ latitudes for example tropical region, high latitude (Polar),
Arctic/ Antarctic
▪They have uniform temperature conditions. That is warm (Tropical), cold (Polar), very cold
(arctic / Antarctic)
▪They have Uniform humidity conditions
▪They blow from high pressure to low pressure regions .That is, from the Polar regions towards
the Equator
May blow either over land (Continental) or over sea (Maritime) depending on the path
▪Have common or defined direction of movement from a defined source region
▪Converge at fronts/ Zones
▪Air masses may modify completely or partially conditions of areas they blow over.
Formation of air masses
Differences in temperature at the source region and surrounding areas lead to differences in
pressure triggering off air movement.
The direction of the air mass is determined by the barometric gradient. In addition, Earth’s
rotation creates the Coriolis force that drags the air mass from the source region
The Path taken by air that is, water surface or land determines the final character of the air mass.

An Air mass develops over an area which is extensive and uniform in build and shape fore
example desert surface such as Sahara and ocean surfaces.
Surface air mass may be caused by stagnation of air fore example areas of high and low pressure.
EFFECTS OF AIR MASSES ON THE CLIMATE OF EAST AFRICA
(a)What is an air mass?
(b) Explain the influence of air masses on the climate of East Africa.
Approach
 Define air mass
 Briefly explain how air mass is formed
 Give the characteristics of air masses
 Identify the air masses that affect the climate of East Africa
 Explain the climatic conditions associated with them
 Give examples of areas affected.
Answer guide
An air mass is a large body of air with uniform horizontal temperature and humidity conditions.
Air masses form when stationary air settles over a large uniform area for long, enabling it to
acquire uniform conditions in terms of temperature and humidity of that particular region.
Air masses have the following characteristics
▪They have definite source region/ latitudes for example tropical region, high latitude (Polar),
Arctic/ Antarctic
▪They have uniform temperature conditions. That is warm (Tropical), cold (Polar), very cold
(arctic / Antarctic)
▪They have Uniform humidity conditions
▪They blow from high pressure to low pressure regions .That is, from the Polar Regions towards
the Equator
▪They May blow either over land (Continental) or over sea (Maritime) depending on the path
▪Have common or defined direction of movement from a defined source region
▪Converge at fronts/ Zones
▪Air masses may modify completely or partially conditions of areas they blow over.
Air masses that affect East Africa include;
Tropical Maritime (South East trades) Tropical continental (North East trades and
Westeries)
They influence the climate of East Africa in terms of temperature, humidity, cloudless, rain fall
e.t.c as explained below;
The Tropical Maritime (South East) air masses originate from Indian Ocean and blow on shore
the adjacent coast. They have high humidity and cause the following characteristics;
▪Bring high humidity modified (warm) temperatures, cloudy conditions and heavy rain fall in the
adjacent coastal areas.
As they traverse main land Tanzania, they lose their moisture, there by bringing hot, rainless,
clear skies and dry conditions.
Over Lake Victoria, however, they are recharged with moisture and deflected rightwards at the
Equator, thereby ▪bringing high humidity, cloudy and wet conditions over the Northern, North
Eastern lake basin/ shores.
However, because of this deflection, they blow off Ankle – Masaka corridor, bringing arid
conditions characterized by ▪low humidity, high temperatures, clear skies, low and unreliable
rain fall.
Tropical Continental (North East) originates from the Asian land mass. As they blow over the
Ethiopian highlands, moisture in them is lost, rendering them hot and dry.
▪They bring Low humidity, high temperature, clear skies, low and unreliable rain fall over
Northern, North Eastern Uganda and Kenya.
After some time, the Tropical Maritime and Tropical Continental air masses meet at the Inter
Tropical Converge Zone (I.T.C.Z). In the process, the warm moist Tropical Maritime air mass is
forced to rise, giving rise to towering ▪cumulonimbus clouds, light variable winds and frequent
thunderstorms / convectional rain fall.
Tropical Continental (westerly) winds originate from the southern part of Atlantic Ocean and
blow over the Congo basin.
▪They are warm and moist. During their Eastward journey, they blow over highlands in western
Uganda (Rwenzori), bringing heavy relief rain fall for example Nyabirongo, Kigezi e.t.c
▪On descending on the lee-ward sides of the mountain, winds are characterized by low humidity,
clear skies, hot and rainless conditions in areas of Kasese, Ankole – Masaka, Lake Albert flats
e.t.c
(a)What is an anticyclone?
(b) Describe the weather characteristics associated with anticyclones.
Approach
 Define anticyclones
 Give the characteristics of anticyclones
 Explain the weather associated with anticyclones.
Answer guide
An anticyclone is a system of atmospheric pressure associated with the horse latitudes (sub-
tropical highs) in which there is high pressure at the centre and low pressure towards the
periphery of the system.
Characteristics of anticyclones
▪The movement of anticyclones is clock wise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti -clock wise in
the Southern Hemisphere.
▪Their general direction of movement is to the Eastern direction due to earth’s rotation.
▪Anticyclones may remain stationary or move slowly
▪Anticyclones affect a larger area on continent
▪Winds in anticyclones blow outwards from the centre.
Diagram showing the movement of an anticyclone
Weather conditions associated with anticyclones
Anticyclones are associated with light winds
The weather in an anticyclone tends to be dry, warm and sunny during summer.
During the winter season, the anticyclone is associated with light cloudy, cold, frosty and clear
(day) weather conditions.
It is associated with radiation surface cooling.
Anticyclones are associated with descending air which is warmed adiabatically and dried
thereby leading to stability in the atmosphere.
Clouds in an anticyclone don’t give rise to rain in summer. Only fog and clouds are formed in
winter.
Fog and smog formed during an anticyclone are associated with temperature inversion
Prolonged droughts occur when rains are expected
Hazy conditions occur due to the blowing of cold anticyclones over the Sahara towards the
low latitude.
OCEAN CURRENTS
There are two types of ocean currents, namely; warm current and cold current WARM OCEAN
CURRENTS
(a)Describe the characteristics of a warm ocean current.
(b) With reference to specific examples, explain the influence of warm ocean currents on
the climate of adjacent land masses.

Approach
 Define ocean current and a warm ocean current
 state the causes and characteristics of a warm ocean currents
 Show the distribution warm ocean currents descriptively or by using a sketch map
 Explain the effects of warm ocean currents on climate with examples of different warm
ocean currents.
Answer guide
Ocean currents are general movements or drifts of the surface water of the ocean in a defined
direction.
Oceans currents are caused by differences in density / salinity of the ocean water, winds, earth’s
rotation and the shape of the adjacent landmasses.
A warm ocean current refers to the drift which has relatively high temperature than the
surrounding areas.
Types of warm ocean currents
Mozambique/ Agulhas- on the Eastern coast of Africa
Guinea current- on the coast of Guinea
Brazilian current- on the coast of Brazil,
North Atlantic drift- on the western coast of Europe such as U.K and Norway
Gulf Stream current- flows north East ward along the coast of North America, Newfound land
and the coasts of the British Isles
Kuroshio- along the coast of Japan in western Pacific Ocean and the Australian current
CHARACTERISTICS OF WARM OCEAN CURRENTS
▪Warn ocean currents have high temperatures than the surrounding water
▪flow from low latitude near the equator to high latitude. That is, from the tropics to the poles.
▪They generally move in clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere fore example the
Kuroshio and the Gulf Stream drift. And anti-clock wise in the southern hemisphere fore
example Brazilian current and Australian
▪They generally flow on the Eastern side of continents in low latitudes fore example the
Brazilian current, Mozambique current , East Australian except for Guinea current.
▪In the mid latitudes and the high latitudes, they generally flow on the western side of the
continent. Fore example the Pacific current and the North Atlantic drift and Kuroshio.
▪They are characterized by low density due to high salinity in the water
▪They flow on the surface but loose temperatures and become under water towards the poles.
 Towards the poles, they gradually cool, become dense and sink down to form cold ocean
currents.
EFFECTS OF WARM OCEAN CURRENTS ON CLIMATE
Warm ocean currents tend to raise the temperatures of the adjacent landmasses. When on-shore
winds blow over the warm water, its temperatures are raised and in turn raises temperatures of
the adjacent landmasses.
For example the North Atlantic drift raises the temperatures of coasts of Portugal, France,
Netherlands, Britain, Norway and the ports remain ice- free in winter.
Durban on the East coast of South Africa washed by warm Mozambique has temperatures of
24.4. 0C compared to Port Nolloth on the west coast on the same latitude, has 15.5 0C because of
the cold Benguela current.
They increase the humidity of the adjacent land masses because high temperatures increase
evaporation from the oceans and the coastal areas. Fore example Natal, coast of Mozambique,
Dar es Salaam and Mombasa e.t.c due to the Mozambique current, Western Europe washed due
to the North Atlantic drift.
They increase cloud cover of the adjacent land masses. As winds blow over a warm current,
they absorb the moisture over that current and become moisture laden. As the winds reach the
shore, the vapor is cooled down to condensation level leading to formation of thick Cumulo-
nimbus clouds.

They facilitate the formation of heavy rain fall over the adjacent land because the on shore
winds carry a lot of moisture from the warm ocean current. Fore example Natal on the East coat
of South Africa, Mozambique coast, Dar es Salaam and Mombasa washed by the warm
Mozambique.
For example Beira gets 1521 mm per annum while Durban receives 1008 mm per annum.
In Western Europe, warm ocean currents lead to Formation of cyclonic rain fall when warm
moist laden air rises over cold dry air.
COLD OCEAN CURRENTS
(a)Describe the characteristics of a cold ocean current.
(b) With reference to specific examples, explain the influence of cold ocean currents on the
climate of adjacent land masses.
Approach
 Define ocean currents and a cold ocean current
 Give the causes and characteristics of a cold ocean current
 Show the distribution cold ocean currents descriptively or by use of a sketch map
 Explain the effects of cold ocean currents on climate with examples of different cold
ocean currents.
Answer guide
Ocean currents are general movements or drifts of the surface water of the ocean in a particular
direction.
Oceans are caused by differences in density / salinity of the ocean waters, effect of winds and
earth’s rotation and the shape of the adjacent landmasses.
A cold ocean current refers to a drift which has relatively low temperature than the surrounding
areas.
Types of cold ocean currents
The Canary- off the coast of North west Africa along the Moroccan coast,
Benguela current- off the coast of south West Africa along the Namibian coast,
Peruvian / Humboldt- off the coast of Chile and the west coast of Peru
Californian current- flows south wards on the western coast of North America
Oyashio/ kuril current
Characteristics of cold ocean currents
▪They are characterized by low temperatures
▪Cold ocean currents flow from high latitudes to low latitudes. That is, they flow towards the
equator from the regions of low temperatures.
▪They generally flow on the western sides of landmasses for example Benguela, Peruvian, canary
e.t.c in the low latitudes and
▪In the middle latitudes, they flow on the Eastern sides for example Labrador and Oyashio.
▪They are characterized by high density because of low temperature.
▪They are also characterized by up-welling along the coast.
As they flow towards the equator, they gradually become warm, light and up-well to form
warm ocean currents.
Effects of cold ocean currents on climate
Cold ocean currents tend to lower the temperatures along the adjacent coast due to the
influence of land and sea breezes. For example the Benguela current flowing north wards along
the coast of Namibia, lowers the temperature of the Walvis Bay to an average temperature of 16
0
C compared to Durban’s 25 0C although both places are at the same latitude.

They are associated with off winds and cause condensation leading to the development of
desert conditions fore example Sahara, Kalahari and Californian desert adjacent to the canary,
Benguela and Californian cold ocean currents respectively.
They are characterized by advection fog on the surrounding areas, formed when warm wind
passes over the cold ocean currents. Fore example the frequent fog at San Francisco in California
and North East Canada because of the Labrador Current, Namibian coast as warm south trades
cross the Benguela current.
They are associated with low humidity due limited evaporation
Low cloud cover because of limited evaporation resulting from condensation of moist winds.
CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS AND EFFECTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Examine the causes and effects of ocean currents on human activities on the adjacent areas.
Approach
 Define ocean currents
 Identify the types of ocean currents
 Give examples of ocean currents and where they are located
 Give the characteristics of each type briefly.
 Explain the effects of ocean current on man’s activities.
Answer guide
Refer to the questions above for the introduction
 Causes of ocean currents
Ocean currents are caused by wind, differences in density, differences in temperature, earth’s
rotation and shape of the landmass.
Wind is the major cause of ocean currents. As wind blows over the surface of the ocean, friction
is generated between the wind and the top water layers. Energy is transferred from wind to water
causing the water to move in the same direction as the wind. Fore example the westerly winds
produce the North Atlantic drift.
Differences in density of water. Sea water is salty/ saline and the salinity varies from one part
of the ocean to another. Salty water is dense and tends to sink while less saline water is light and
up- wells.
Differences in temperature- cause variation in water density. Water in the Polar Regions is cold
due to low temperatures hence dense, sinks to the bottom of the ocean and flows towards the
equator.
Water in equatorial regions is warm due to hot temperatures, light and tends to flow on the
surface towards the poles.
Earth’s rotation due to Coriolis Effect. Besides affecting the direction of the winds, the earth’s
rotation also tends to deflect ocean currents obliquely to the right in the Northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere. Fore example the Mozambique current, the Brazil current
and North Equatorial current.
Land masses. When ocean current moves towards a land mass, the current is deflected and some
times splits into two. Fore example the North Atlantic drift and the south Equatorial ocean
current.
Effects of ocean currents on human activities
The upwelling of cold water brings rich nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates vital for the
growth of planktons while the mixing of cold and warm ocean currents creates conducive
conditions which favor growth of planktons and fish breeding; leading to development of fishing
industry.
Fore example along the coast of South Africa, Morocco, Namibia e.t.c.
Fish canaries provide a wide range of employment to the people hence source of income and
foreign exchange from fish exports.
Warm ocean currents increase temperatures and induce heavy rainfall in the adjacent areas
which encourage plantation agriculture.
Fore example Sugar plantations in Natal due to presence of warm Mozambique currents while
Guinea warm current favor cocoa and palm oil plantations in West Africa, cloves in Zanzibar,
market gardening around ports of Mombasa, Dar-es-Salaam and port Durban.
Trade and commerce due to accessibility and ice free conditions of the ports. Fore example
ports in Western Europe.
Aridity along the coast washed by cold currents has encouraged nomadic pastoralism. Fore
example pastoral groups like the Fulani in the Sahel and Hontentos of Namibia. There is also
ranching inland.
Heavy rainfall along the coast of warm ocean currents supports equatorial rain forests hence
forestry and lumbering. Fore example lumbering in Rainforests in Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria,
Liberia, and Cote devour due to presence of Guinea currents. Forestry on the wind- ward side of
the Drankenburg.
The warm ocean currents washing along the East African coast create ideal conditions for coral
reef development; exploited for cement production. Fore example Bamburi cement.
There is also development of tourism due to warm conditions on the beaches of adjacent coast
washed by warm ocean currents fore example coral reefs at Mombasa and Dar es Salaam,
beaches in Durban e.t.c.
Irrigation agriculture is carried out enabling viticulture and market gardening fore example in
Namibia and in parts of Ghana.
Warm ocean currents create ideal conditions which facilitate urbanization. Fore example
Durban, Mombasa, e.t.c
North Atlantic drift facilitates water transport through accelerating the speed of ships.
Consequently, there is reduction in time taken by ships to reach to their destinations.