Full Written Report

I. Full Report Organization and Content

The next several pages describe the required organization and

content of the form of the Full Reports required in this course.

The purpose of technical writing is to convey information to the

readers. Always try to remember this concept when you are writing: try to
put yourself in the reader’s position. Strive to select and present only the
pertinent material and to keep your report short.

We require rather specific formats for the reports in this course.

Each format is neither unique nor necessarily superior to other formats, but
they are ours. Even though some specifications may seem arbitrary
(indeed, some are), follow them. Nearly every organization has specific
format specifications that need to be followed.

II. Format Requirements

All reports must be produced using a wordprocessor.

A) Cover: Manila file folders are standard for all reports. The report
shall be loose in the folder. The student’s name and project title
must appear on the tab of the folder and on the front of the folder.
B) Paper: It is requested that white bond paper, 8-1/2 x 11 inches be
used. Use only one side of the page. Double-space all text. Single-
space notes and long quotations.
C) Margins: On all pages a margin of not less than one inch should be
kept at all edges. An illustration, including graphs, curves, and
designs on coordinate paper or blueprint paper should conform to
this requirement as nearly as possible.
D) Paging: The pages of the text, including graphs and figures, should
be numbered in sequence using Arabic numerals. Numbering
starts with the page following the Title Page.
E) Type Size: A font size of 11 or 12 (not 10) should be used for all text.
A larger size can be used for headings.

III. Form of the Full Written Report

Engineering reports presented to the Faculty of the Department of

Chemical Engineering, to meet the report-writing requirements of this
course, must be in conformance with the outline given below.

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 Depending upon the assignment, certain sections may need to be
expanded. The writer must always exercise judgement to make the report
adequately and specifically present the information to the reader.
Reports should be written so that a knowledgeable BS-level chemical
engineer can understand them. Write your reports as if you are
communicating with a peer.

The titles of the required sections of the Full Written Report are as follows:

1) Title Page
2) Table of Contents
3) Executive Summary
4) Introduction (with Background, Experimental Summary, Theory and Equation
Development, and Calculation Flowchart as titled subsections)
5) Results
6) Discussion of Results
7) Conclusions and Recommendations
8) Bibliography
9) Appendices
- Table of Nomenclature
- Operating Instructions
- Sample Calculations
- Results of Computer Simulations
- Physical Properties Data

IV. Specifications for Each Section

1) Title Page
Requirements: Center the following items on a page.
• Title of the experiment
• Course name and number
• Group Name
• Student name
• Date
• Instructor name

2) Table of Contents
Requirements: Give a sequential list of the headings and subheadings with the
page numbers for each section.

3) Executive Summary (maximum length of one to two pages)

Engineers often write reports that are read by various levels of
management. Sometimes managers read only the Executive Summary of a
report. The Executive Summary gives a concise description of the problem

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examined, the results obtained, and what the engineering team recommends
as the best course of action. This section is of primary importance because it
summarizes the rest of the report. We recommend that you write this section
after you have written the whole report. The Executive Summary is brief. Use a
matter-of-fact tone. Make strong statements for your recommendations without
being negative or judgmental.

Requirements Approximate Length Verb Tense

Describe the goal One to two sentences Past or Present
Describe the work done One paragraph Past
Report the Results One to two paragraphs Past or Present
quantitative and
qualitative
Report the conclusions One paragraph Present
Make recommendations Two to three sentences Present
Highlight the remaining Up to one paragraph Present
report contents

4) Introduction (approximately four to eight pages)

The purpose of the Introduction is to give the reader sufficient information
to understand the intent of the report. Thus, the writer should provide an
interesting discussion of the general field to which the work applies. Give
background information that addresses the general field of theory and the type
of equipment under evaluation. Describe the experimental apparatus by
summarizing the equipment, addressing the ranges of operating parameters,
and note the procedures in general. Introduce the relevant theory by
developing a brief set of equations that are used to evaluate the experimental
measurements. Refer the reader to the appendix where you include a detailed
set of operating instructions. Include the Calculation Flowchart.

Use a sufficient number of subheadings to clarify this section. Do not

include results or a discussion of trends at this time. Cite all important references,
including quotations, and those from which the equations have been obtained.
For detailed derivations that are available elsewhere, refer the reader to a list of
suggested readings that you include in one of the appendices.

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Requirements for Introduction
Suggested Sub-Headings Comments
Background • Describe the general field, including
(one to two pages) applicable equipment and
pertinent industrial information (e.g.
shell and tube heat exchangers)
• Tell why it was done by stating the
goals given by the problem
statement
• Tell what was examined
experimentally and numerically (not
an explanation of the experiment or
the simulation, etc.), and the goals
of the work

Experimental Apparatus and • This section is not a complete set of

Procedures operating instructions, but a short
(one to two pages) description of the experiment of the
apparatus and measurements
• Briefly describe the experiment,
chemical system, and the
experimental apparatus, including
dimensions, manufacturer
information, materials, and
measurement devices
• Include a sketch or flow diagram of
the apparatus with equipment and
conditions labeled (required!)
• Give a table of the ranges of
operating parameters (flow rate,
temperature, concentrations, etc.)
with measured uncertainties
• Describe the pitfalls of the
experimental methods
• Refer the reader to the appendix
containing Operating Instructions

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Safety • Mention safety procedures and
(one to two paragraphs) relevant chemical hazards, with
references to applicable Material
Safety Data Sheets

Theory • This section is not a Calculation

(approximately two to six pages) Flowchart or a step-by-step
calculation procedure.
• It is a description and a
development of the applicable
theory that helps one to analyze
and interpret the results of the
experiment.
• It is presented with an aim at
instructing the reader, similar to the
format found in many textbooks.
• First, describe the general area
of theory in words using references
from textbooks and other reference
media.
• Relate the theory to the work
your team has performed. For
example, tell the area of heat
transfer or chemical kinetics, etc.
• Present basic mass and energy
balance equation, using standard
scientific nomenclature, and lead
the reader through a detailed
development of the pertinent
equations.
• Use words to introduce each
equation, and do not present
multiple equations at once.
• Do not assume that the reader
understands each equation. Give
an explanation of the importance
of each equation.
• Number each equation; refer to
each one descriptively in words and
by the equation number in your
writing
• Identify the specific equations
that are used to answer the specific
points in the problem statement.
• Refer the reader to the table of
nomenclature in the appendices
and use symbols in your discussion.

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Assumptions • Provide the major underlying
(one paragraph with an introductory assumptions (e.g. isothermal,
sentence followed by a bulleted list) atmospheric conditions, free
convection, constant density,
steady state, constant molal
overflow, etc.).

Calculation Flowchart • This section is a copy or a revision of

(one page with an introductory the flow chart or diagram prepared
sentence) by the Group Leader.
• The flowchart shows how the
equations are used to calculate
specific quantities.
• It should show the use of the
measured data and any algorithms
used to convert the data.
• The calculation pathway through
the set of equations should show
decision points.

5) Results
For technical reports, the emphasis is placed on the quantitative,
calculated values and comparisons, in addition to qualitative (words only)
assessments. Thus, assemble the calculated results into a set of graphs and
tables to present in this Results section. Use headings and subheadings to clarify
the presentation. Make sure to evaluate and present each result as a function
of a varied or measured parameter. For instance, use flow rates instead of “Run
#” or “Rotameter Setting.” Refer the reader to the Appendix for raw data and/or
detailed spreadsheets. Avoid a discussion of trends or conclusions in this section.

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Requirements for the Results Sections
Suggested Headings Comments
Calibrations • Tell the reader which pieces of
(one paragraph per calibration with equipment were calibrated.
graphs or tables) • Don’t describe the calibration
procedure (should be in the
Operating Instructions).
• Use graphs and/or tables.
• Give an experimental correlation
(e.g. a regression equation)
developed from the data – this is
required!
• Discuss the accuracy of the data
(note the calculated errors with error
bars or with a stated range), and
address any adverse effect on the
experimental measurements.

Experimental Results • Tell the reader in words what results

(two to three pages) are presented. For instance, state,
e.g. “the tray efficiencies are shown
as a function of heat input in the set
of figures (or table) to follow.”
• Present your results clearly,
preferably in figures and/or tables.
• Exclude any raw or unnecessary
data.
• Do not describe the experimental
procedure again.
• Do not use spreadsheet tables.

Figures/Graphs • Use an x-y scatter plot to relate the

(as needed) calculated results to a measured or
varied operating parameter.
• Do not use a run or trial number as
the abscissa parameter. Do use
e.g., flow rate, time, height, etc.
instead.
• If applicable, develop an equation
that correlates the experimental
results.
• Give each figure a number (e.g.
Figure 1.) and a caption located at
the bottom of the figure
• Refer to the figures descriptively in
words and by the figure number.
• Use symbols and error bars for
experimental results and solid lines
without symbols for theoretical
7 calculations
 experimental results and solid lines
without symbols for theoretical
calculations

Tables • Give each table a number (e.g.

(as needed) Table 1.) and a title located at the
top of the table.
• Exclude any raw or unnecessary
data.
• Include a table that lists the
measured uncertainties and
calculated errors
• Sort the table entries. List the entries
in ascending order of the variable
parameter instead of the trial or run
order.

6) Discussion (two to four pages plus graphs and figures)

This section is used to analyze the agreement with theory, discuss the
trends in the data, evaluate the effect of significant experimental errors on the
results, answer the questions posed in the problem statement, and give
conclusions regarding the validity of the results. The discussion needs to be
factual and convincing. Thus, eliminate negative comments or judgments.

Use words to refer the reader to specific figures that were presented in the
Results section. State the values of those results or correlations that agree or
disagree with the theory. Always use quantitative (number) values to assess the
results. For instance, use percentages, differences in the values of the slopes, the
magnitude of calculated errors, the difference in the values for heat capacity,
viscosity, thermal conductivity etc.

Requirements for the Discussion of Results

Suggested Headings Comments
Trend Analysis • Accurately comment on the trends
(two to four pages; use different of the results displayed in the figures
subheadings for each analysis (e.g., “the temperature increases
discussed) with time,” or “the hot water flow
rate shows no correlation with
cooling water flow rate”).
• Give the ranges of values shown in
each figure using units and the
calculated uncertainties.
• Note the agreement or
disagreement with applicable
theory and equations or correlations.
For example, does the theory
8 predict an increase in concentration
with flow rate, while the
experimental results show no
 theory and equations or correlations.
For example, does the theory
predict an increase in concentration
with flow rate, while the
experimental results show no
discernable pattern? Give possible
reasons for any discrepancies.
• Give information from the literature
that supports your findings.
• Discuss specific values and results
from the figures and tables. Give
quantitative comparisons to values
expected from theory. For instance,
state that the overall heat loss is 9.3
W ± 0.2 W, compared to a predicted
value of 10 W, and note the
percentage difference. Comment
on the results of error analyses.
• Refer to peculiar trends and propose
possible, realistic explanations.
• Provide a conclusion for each figure,
table or topic.
• Use a different heading for each
topic.
Discussion of Experimental Objectives • Discuss the results of the specific
(one to two pages) questions stated in the problem
statement, if different from discussion
in Trend Analysis to avoid
redundancy
• Discuss the results of numerical
analysis and simulations. Use tables
to summarize these results and
discuss in detail.
• If required, discuss any proposed
new designs, scale-up calculations,
or modifications to the experiment,
as required in the problem
statement or by the Instructor.
Include drawings to illustrate your
points.
• Give a detailed, quantitative
analysis of the answers. Refer to
figures in the Results sections.
Incorporate new figures to
emphasize your reasoning.
• Note any discrepancies and give
plausible reasons. For instance, was
the experiment difficult to maintain
at steady state? Did the simulation
9 indicate an alternative solution?
 the experiment difficult to maintain
at steady state? Did the simulation
indicate an alternative solution?
• Give suggestions for improving or
modifying the experiment
Error Analysis • Discuss important sources of error,
(approximately one page) listing the magnitude of error on the
measured quantity. For instance, tell
that the temperature probe had an
uncertainty of 1 °C, or that the
accuracy of the measured time was
±2 seconds.
• Describe briefly the types of error
analyses performed .
• Required: Choose one or two
measured uncertainties (e.g. ∆T, ∆m,
etc.) and evaluate its effect on the
magnitude of an important
calculated result. For instance,
assess whether a 2 % increase in the
accuracy of the measured
temperature has a significant effect
on the calculated heat loss.

7) Conclusions and Recommendations (one page)

Requirements/Suggested Headings Comments

Conclusions • Summarize the report and major
(one paragraph) conclusions in one paragraph.
• If the conclusions are numerous
(i.e., three or more ideas), use a
bulleted or numbered format to
improve the readability this section.
• Do not give new results here.
Recommendations • Give action recommendations as a
(one paragraph) consequence of the results of the
experiments.
• State whether you recommend that
the work be repeated to verify a
particular conclusion.
• Note if any equipment
modifications are warranted.
• Give recommendations for any
related work, such as a cost
evaluation.

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8) Bibliography
A bibliography, or a list of source materials, must be provided in each
report. A reference must be cited for the development of any equations, the
background, theory or applications, and for evidence referred to in the report
that supports the results or conclusions. For the citations in the report, use square-
bracketed notation placed before the end punctuation of a sentence or phrase
(refer to the table below). Although the format for a bibliography entry varies
between publications, we recommend that you use the following guidelines for
the Full Report.

Requirements Comments and Examples

Bibliography list • List the references in alphabetical
(one page) order
• Note that when references are
made to passages in books, the
exact page number must be cited.
• Use square brackets to cite the
work in the report.
Format of textbooks in the bibliography • Bird, R.B., W.E. Stewart, and E.M.
list Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena,
Wiley (1960).
Citing the textbook in the report • [Bird et al., p.260]
• The et al. means that there are
more than two authors.
Format of reference books in the • Perry, R.H, and C.H. Chilton, ed.,
bibliography list Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,
Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill (1973).
Citing the reference book in the report • [Perry and Chilton, 10-16]
Format of journal articles in the • Clough, D.E. and W.F. Ramirez,
bibliography list “Mathematical Modeling and
Optimization of the
Dehydrogenation of Ethylbenzene
to form Styrene,” AIChE Journal 22,
1097-1108 (1976).
Citing the journal article in the report • [Clough and Ramirez, 1976]
Format of internet articles in the • Homepage Template,
bibliography list http://home.netscape.com/ho
me/gold3.0_wizard.html

Citing the internet articles in the report [Homepage Template, 1999]

Format of discussions with peers or • Miller, C.D., Cornell University,
professionals in the bibliography list private communication (January
1994).
Citing the discussion in the report • [Miller, 1994]

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9) Appendices
Most students put too much information in the appendices that would be
better located in the main portions of the report. Follow this general rule of
thumb: If you discuss it in the report itself, place the information (all tables,
figures, sketches, equations, etc.) in the report. Note that any information that
you mention in the Results or Discussion of Results that are located only in the
Appendices may not be viewed by the instructor, and you may not receive
credit for it.

So, what information is suitable for the appendices? For this class, make a
separate appendix section for each included topic – A) Table of Nomenclature,
B) Operating Instructions, C) Sample Calculations, D) Raw Computer Output,
and E) Physical Properties Data.

Note: you may choose to include only one or two of these sections. For instance,
if you desire, you may use an alternative protocol for the nomenclature.
Namely, each variable name is defined directly following its introduction, usually
after the equation in which it is used. Also, you may not have any computer
output to include in the report. Separate the appendices into several sections
and label them Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. and give each a title, e.g.

Appendix A
Table of Nomenclature

Recommendations/Titles Comments
Table of Nomenclature • Refer to it in the body of the text
• All units must be stated
Operating Instructions • 1st draft written by Group Leader
Final version edited by each team
member
• Include a sketch of the experimental
apparatus with the equipment and
conditions labeled (can be same one
as used in the main body of the report;
use two copies for clarity.)
• Use a numbered or bulleted, step-by-
step procedure to describe the start-up,
operation, and shutdown of the
experimental apparatus.
• A brief paragraph to introduce or
conclude the procedure may be
necessary.
• Start each direction with the same word
form. The command form of a verb is a
good choice (e.g. “1. Separate....,” “2.
Mix...,” “3. Decant...,” etc.).

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 Mix...,” “3. Decant...,” etc.).
• Be detailed! Do not assume that
“common practice” is applicable.
• Keep chronological order.
• State the range of operating conditions,
including any limits.
• Note the safety procedures that should
be followed.
• This set of instructions should be detailed
enough so that someone else can
repeat the experiment that your team
performed.

Raw Data/Sample Calculations • Present experimental data and/or

sample calculations in handwritten or
spreadsheet format. This can be a
copy of the graded and corrected
Calculations previously turned in.
• Present other material not conveniently
included in the body of the report (e.g.
a sample interpolation from a chart).
• Include enough explanation in words so
that the reader can follow the
calculations.
• Identify the experimental run singled out
for the example calculations.

Raw Computer Results • Highlight and annotate all computer

printouts, adding units and comments
to clarify the data.
• A summary of computer results must be
in table format (or graphed) and
included in the Results section.
List of Physical Properties Data • Sources of physical data and equation
need to be referenced in the
bibliography and cited in this section, as
previously described.
• Provide a table that lists the values of
the physical properties.
• If you discuss these data in the report
itself (e.g. a comparison of the time
required to heat pure water vs. an
aqueous sucrose solution), then you
must state the values in the report and
refer the reader to this appendix.

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 Units

SI units are the standard for lab reports. Many of our measuring instruments
are not in SI, but are in customary engineering units. The original data are
recorded in the units in which they are read. Sample calculations must be in SI
units. Also, all values are presented in the main body of the report must be in SI
units. Tables and/or graphs are in SI units except some calibrations where the
actual reading is not an SI unit.

If clarity demands a non-SI unit (cgs, English, or industry convention, i.e. a

darcy or a barrer), these non-SI units appear in parentheses after the SI units. For
instance,

1000 kg/m3 (1 g/ml)

0.009 m2 (1 darcy)

The A-Z’s of Tables, Figures, and Graphs – A Reference Guide for

Presenting Technical Data or Results

A. Place tables and figures in the body of the report. They should follow the
page on which reference to them is first made and should be referred to by number)
“as shown in Table 3”. The pages on which they appear are numbered in sequence
with the other pages of the report(e.g., “see Figure 1,” followed by “see Figure 2”.
B. In addition to an informative title, sufficient subtitles or legends should be provided
so that each table or figure is self-explanatory. There should be no need for the
reader to refer back to the text for necessary information. This is very important.
C. No labels can be upside down when the report is held in the normal reading
position, or when it is held with the left edge at the top. Most graphs and
drawings, with proper planning, can have all lettering running horizontally.
D. Figures and tables requiring a page size larger than 8-1/2 x 11 inches should
be folded carefully to prevent wear on the folded edge and corners and to
fit within the folder.

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 Example 1: Technical results are best displayed with x-y plots.

Use labels and Vary the symbol shape

equations Use symbols for and line pattern to provide
experimental data needed distinction
0.7
y = 1.22x ± 0.5
0.6 Use lines to
show trends
0.5 Measured or theoretical
behavior
Force (lb)

0.4 y=x

0.3 Predicted

0.2

0.1

0
Figure caption
fully describes 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
the graph, and it Displacement (in) Axis font size ≥ text
is placed font size
beneath the
graph Figure 1. The displacement of the test spring is shown
for various forces added. The results suggest that the
design is not optimized .

E. Figures that are graphs are very important to the report because they
represent the result in the most easily understood manner – a graph. Graphs
should include not only the experimental results, but also any theoretically
derived curves.
F. If several different curves are to appear on the same plot, you must
distinguish between the different points and curves. Use different symbols,
line colors, and line weights as well as a clear legend to guide the reader.
G. Experimental data are shown as symbols on graphs. Points calculated from
theoretical or empirical equations are not shown as symbols, but a line
connecting the points is shown instead.
H. Make the curve take up as much space on a graph as possible by using the
appropriate ranges of values for the ordinate and abscissa, unless the results
are distorted.

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 I. The coordinates must be labeled with the correct quantities and units.
J. Scale units should be chosen for easy plotting and readout.
K. Curves should be carefully drawn. Spreadsheet plots and other computer
packages that produce graphs are encouraged.
L. For figures, make each figure large enough to be clearly read. Avoid
postage stamp-sized figures. Each figure can occupy a separate sheet or a
placed within the text. At the bottom should be typed or lettered the figure
number and the title (for example:” Figure 10. Reaction Chamber for
Oxidation of Methane.”)

Example 2: Often bar graphs are used to show a variety of data, including
frequency data.

Use patterns Use a legend to clarify

and clearly 35 information
different
shades to 30
distinguish
between 25 Jan
sets of data.
Feb
20 Mar
15 Apr
May
10 Jun

0
Food Gas Motel
Number consecutively Expense Categories

Figure 2. The costs for food, gas, and motels are shown.

M. In complicated drawings with many parts, use numbered labels to identify

the individual components with arrows leading to the part concerned. The
text should refer to these parts by name and by number. For example: “The
catalyst support (item 16) was constructed of platinum.” It is necessary to use
“item” to distinguish these references from bibliographical references.
N. If you use numbers to identify parts of a drawing, be careful to not follow the
style of the “Wonderful Inventions of Boob McNutt.” These read something
like, “The drummer, A, hit the drum, B, frightening the nervous cat, C, etc….”

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O. Should a drawing be so complicated as to make numbering necessary, list
the number, with the appropriate names, as a table on the page with the
drawing.
P. All figures must have a caption and figure number. A correct title is one that
tells the reader precisely the entire story of the figure. A title “Pressure Drop
vs. Flow Rate” means nothing, since this title would be applicable to an
infinite number of systems. However, a title such as “Pressure Drop as a
function of Flow Rate for Water at Approximately Room Temperature Flowing
though a 40 Foot Length of Schedule 40 Steel Pipe” tells the reader the entire
story. It is appropriate to have lengthy descriptions within the figure caption.
Q. Plot the values of the independent variable (the one controlled in the
experiment) on the abscissa (the horizontal axis). Plot the dependent
variable on the ordinate.
R. A graph by itself does not constitute a basis for discarding any piece of data.
If a given point does not fall on the curve as dictated by the other points, this
is not justification for ignoring the point. You must give a realistic explanation
for the deviation in the text. The only justification there is for discarding a
point (data) is that there was something amiss during the experiment. This
condition must be appropriately noted on the experimental data sheet.
S. Usually, the most probable line is a simple smooth curve without “waves” or
“saw teeth.” The line may not actually pass through any of the observed
points if the scatter of data is appreciable. In general, do not have more
than one or two points of inflection on your curves. Where extrapolation is
doubtful, draw the curve as a dotted line.
T. The use of smooth curves is illogical for certain observations, and in such
cases a point-to-point is used to connect the actual data points. The
resulting plot has a saw tooth appearance. For example, if one were plotting
price of sulfuric acid vs. day of the year, a jagged line (not a smooth one)
would result. A few classes of calibration curves fall in this category.
U. No data on a graph should appear that are not tabulated elsewhere in the
report, but it is not usual to present the same data in both graphical and
tabular form in the results section of the report. Spreadsheet compilations of
data located in the appendix can suffice.
V. Do not plot on the same graph curves that are not in some way related.
W. If too many curves are plotted in the same graph, the result can be very
confusing. Select carefully those curves to be plotted on a single graph so
that they clearly complement one another in the interpretation of the data.
X. Do not plot a graph of data just for the sake of having one in your report.
Y. Plot a graph of data to help explain trends that tabulated values cannot
clearly convey.
Z. If tables are less than a page long, they may be inserted into the text. Avoid,
insofar as possible, continuing tables from one page to another.
Abbreviations may be used in the column and row heading, but the nature
of the quantities being listed must be clear. Tables are numbered serially with
Arabic numerals.

17
 Place titles at the top
Example 3: Present non-graphical information in tables. of tables

Table 1. Equipment list of materials provided for the high school

outreach project A conducted in ECCH 1B70.
Material Notes Quantity
Poster Board 3/16” thick 4 - 32” x 40” sheets
per team
Rubber bands various sizes; some strong 12 per team
Colored construction paper Red, yellow, black, blue _ pack per team
String 1 ball
Straight edges Heavy-duty 2 per team
min. 36” long
Pencils 6 per team
Straight pins Large-headed 1 box per team
Hot melt glue sticks 20 sticks per team

Consecutively number
tables. Use sufficient white
space between
Table 2. List of measured quantities for the high school tables and figures
for clarity.
outreach project B.
Measurements Minimum Maximum
Flow Rates, gpm 0.5 5
Temperature, °C 0 100 Provide units and
ranges when possible
Frequency, Hz 0 60

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