A CRITICAL STUDY ON CHRISTIAN MISSION WITH

SEPCIAL REFERENCE TO PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF

MIZORAM

By Lawmsanga

A thesis submitted to impartial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

University of Birmingham

Department of Theology and Religion

January 2010
 University of Birmingham Research Archive
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 SYNOPSIS

This thesis is an attempt to construct a relevant Mizo theology of mission in the Mizo

Christian context in Mizoram. The author has drawn theological hermeneutics from

the interaction of the Gospel and Mizo traditional religious and cultural elements such

as the concept of God-human-world with the aim of reinterpreting them to reconstruct

a Mizo Theology of Mission. Methodologically, the author mainly used the

postcolonial approach and synthetic approach to explore the interaction of the

Christian mission brought by the western missionaries and the Mizo traditional

religion and cultural practices.

Firstly, relevant Mizo religion and cultural elements, which will be utilized, are

introduced with a brief interpretation. Secondly, the study explores how, as a result of

the Colonial rule and the Mission enterprise, the life of the Mizo society was changed

in both constructive and destructive ways. In one way it liberated the Mizos from

unjust social and cultural structures in various ways. On the other hand, they started to

develop the idea that all that is associated with Mizo traditional religion and culture as

pagan, profane and secular and not fit for newly Mizo Christians. Thirdly, the author

outlines the way in which the accommodation of Mizo culture has been taking place

through the revival movement, to re-establish a lost identity. For instance, the

rediscovery of the value of Mizo poetical words in Mizo Christianity is a radical

paradigm shift because it is a complete change to the view of Mizo poetical words,

which had been totally rejected as anti-Christian elements and marginalised as

godless. These poetical words are being retrieved and used to compose Mizo

indigenous hymns for praising God. In reinterpreting and reclaiming the traditional

i
elements, the Gospel and Mizo culture have enriched each other. Fourthly, the study

shows that the impact of western theology has been so great that it has captured the

whole theological norms of the Mizo mission. Theologically speaking, dialogue

between Christianity and other religions is seen as unchristian and is totally rejected.

As a result, the strategies of the Mizo mission are threefold, namely converting,

saving souls and church planting. Since the western evangelical exclusive theology

which the Mizos inherited from the missionaries can no longer cope with the present

context with all its problems. The time has come to develop a relevant Mizo theology

of mission which will address the present reality by taking seriously the social,

economic and political problems for the transformation of the society. Finally, it is

shown that to construct a relevant Mizo theology of Mission, the Mizo Christians

must critically analyse their past religious and cultural traditions with the purpose of

rediscovering and discerning the revelation of God. This will re-root the Gospel and

contribute to ‘a theology of mission from below’ which addresses contemporary

realities and fosters participation in ‘Missio Dei’, in building the reign of God here

and now.

It is hoped that this study will contribute a new and relevant theology of mission to

Mizo Christianity in Mizoram.

Total words: 79896

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

‘Hold on to the instruction, do not let it go; guard it well, for it is your life. Then you

go on your own way in safety, and your foot will not stumble’ Proverbs 4:13; 3:23.

Upon the completion of this study, First and foremost I want to thank the Almighty

God for the unfailing grace and love for granting me good health in body, mind and

spirit to carry me through the journey of this academic research. Secondly, I would

like to give my profound gratitude to my home church, the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram for granting me study leave from the faculty development of Aizawl

Theological College (ATC), Mizoram, India. My special gratitude also goes to the

Council for World Mission, London, the Presbyterian Church of United States of

America (PCUSA) and the Presbyterian Church of Wales for their generosity in

putting resources together to enable me to pursue this study.

For this academic work, my supervisor, Professor R. S. Sugirtharajah, Department of

Theology and Religion, University of Birmingham deserves special thanks for his

guidance and support. I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt gratitude to Mr.

Edmond Tang, who gave me new insights and shaped my thoughts, without his

supervision this work could not achieve this level. My profound thanks go to my

examiners, Dr. T. Jack Thompson, Director, Centre for Study of Christianity in the

non-Christian World, University of Edinburgh and Dr. Garnet Parris, Director, Centre

for Black Theology, University of Birmingham, for their valuable comments and

suggestions. I am very grateful to Mrs. Chris Stonehouse, an English teacher in

iii
Birmingham, who has devoted much of her time in reading my work and do

suggesting corrections to my English.

I also express my gratitude to Maggie Dennis, Warden of Asbury Overseas House,

Birmingham, Rev. Dr. Dan & Sue Beeby, Rev. Edward & Rosemary Williams of

Malvern, who have all shown their love and care by helping us in many ways during

my studies. Furthermore, thanks to my friends Rev. Ngurliana, Lalhruaitluanga Ralte,

Rev. Dr. Lallawmzuala, Rev. Dr. Vanlalthlana (RIP), Rev. Dr. Vanlalchhuanawma,

Rev. Lalfakzuala, Zaichhawna Hlawndo and others for their valuable support in my

research work.

My acknowledgements cannot be concluded without mentioning my dear and loving

wife, Mamuani and our children Maruati, Fela and Rema for the patience, love and

support I have received from them. They have always prayed for my study and

provided the warmth and comfort I most needed, especially in times when I became

frustrated with the research work.

Lawmsanga

University of Birmingham

Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT

United Kingdom

iv
 ABBREVIATIONS

AAM Arthington Aborigines Mission

AIC African Initiated Church

ATC Aizawl Theological College

BMS Baptist Missionary Society

CWM Council for World Mission

ISPCK Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge

MPC Mizoram Presbyterian Church

PCUSA Presbyterian Church of United States of America

SAIACS South Asia Institute of Advanced Christian Studies

SCM Student Christian Movement

SMB Synod Mission Board

SPB Synod Publication Board

SPCK Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge

TRI Tribal Research Institute

UTC United Theological College

WCC World Council of Churches

YMA Young Mizo Association

ZBC Zoram Baptist Church

v
 GLOSSARY

Ai A religious ceremony on the hunter’s behalf to enable the spirits

of a dead person and animals killed to accompany him towards
pialral.

Bawi A slave, a bondman, a vassal.

Beirual A special united effort to win converts.

Chai The name of a dance in which young men and young women
form a circle round a man who serves out rice beer, and others
who play a drum and beat the horn of a gayal.

Chapchar kut The name of the Mizo spring festival held between the cuttings
and the burning of the jhums.

Chhinlung The name of the mythical rock from beneath which the
progenitors of the present Mizo races are said to have come out.

Fanodawi A communal sacrifice to god at the time of cultivating.

Harhna A revival, an awakening.

Hla A song or poem.

Hlimna Joy or happiness.

Inthawi Performing sacrifice.

Kawngpui siam A religious community sacrifice asking god to bless the village.

Kelmei A tuft of goat’s hair.

Khua A village.

Khuang A drum.

Khuangchawi The name of the public feast given by chiefs and other well-to-
do Mizos.

Khuanu A poetic name for God.

Khuavang The name of the guardian spirit.

Kut Festival

Lal A chief

vi
Lam To dance, to drill, and to spin.

Lengkhawm/ Gathering together for singing fellowship.

Zaikhawm/
Mual inkhawm

Lusei Lusei is one of the names of the tribes in Mizo community from
which the English word ‘Lushai’ is derived.

Mihring Human being.

Mithi khua Dead man’s village.

Mizo Literally means highlander.

Pathian God or a Supreme Being.

Pialral The Mizo paradise.

Puithiam A priest.

Ramhuai An evil spirit.

Ramhuai bia Propitiating evil spirits.

Rui Intoxicated, to be drunk.

Sakhua An object of worship, a god of the spirit who presides over the
house or household.

Saphun To adopt a new religion, a proselyte or a convert.

Thangchhuah The title given to a man who has distinguished himself by

killing a certain number of different animals in the chase or by
giving a certain number of public feasts. The wife of such a
man also shares his title.

Tlawmngaihna To be self sacrificing, unselfish, self-denying, persevering.

Zawlbuk The large house in a Mizo village where all the unmarried
young men of the community sleep at night.

Zawlnei A prophet.

Zirtirtu A teacher.

Zosap A white missionary.

Zu Rice beer.

vii
viii
MAP OF MIZORAM

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Synopsis i

Acknowledgement iii

Abbreviations v

Glossary vi

Map of Mizoram viii

INTRODUCTION: RESEARCH RATIONALE AND METHODOLOGY

1. Purpose of the Study 1

2. The Research Questions 2

3. Methodology 3

4. Scope of the research 12

5. Significance of the study 13

6. Problems and Limitations of the Research 14

7. Literature Survey 16

8. Outlines of the Study 18

CHAPTER I: PRE-COLONIAL MIZO RELIGION AND CULTURE

1. Introduction 21

2. The Mizos 21

2.1. Lusei or Mizo Language 22

2.2. Mizos belong to Mongoloid Stock 23

2.3. Settlement in Mizoram 23

2.4. Village Administration 24

2.5. The Practice of Head Hunting 25

x
3. Mizo Traditional Religious World View 27

3.1. Benevolent Spirits 28

3.2. Sakhua Spirit 30

3.3. Khaltu or Guardian Spirit 31

3.4. Malevolent Spirits 32

3.5. Human Being 33

4. The Role of Mizo priests in worship 34

5. The concept of life after death 36

6. Means of Salvation in Mizo primal religion 38

6.1. In Lama Thangchhuah 38

a) Sakung (Establishing Religion ) 39

b) Chawng sacrifice 40

c) Sedawichhun 41

d) Mithirawplam (Honouring Ancestors) 41

e) Khuangchawi 43

6.2. Ram Lama Thangchhuah 44

7. Community worship 45

7.1. Kawngpui Siam 46

7.2. Fano Dawi 47

8. Debate in the Postcolonial Period 49

8.1. Critique on Traditional Mission Approach 49

8.1.1. Historicization of Christian Faith 50

8.1.2. Approach to Animism 51

a) Dissuading approach 52

b) Deceiving approach 53

xi
 c) Adversary approach 54

9. Postcolonial approach to Mizo Religion 54

9.1. Theistic approach 55

9.2. Unknown God approach 57

9.3. Inclusive approach 60

9.4. Fulfilment approach 62

9.5. Henotheistic approach 63

10. The Mizos and Their Culture 64

10.1. The Institution of Zawlbuk 64

10.2. The Philosophy of Tlawmngaihna 66

10.3. Mizo Traditional Festivals 68

10.4. Traditional Dances and Songs 68

11. Conclusion 70

CHAPTER II: THE ADVENT OF COLONIALISM AND CHRISTIAN

MISSION

1. Introduction 72

2. The Socio-Cultural Situation before the British Rule 73

3. The British Administration and Changes 74

3.1. Prohibition of Savage and Barbaric Practices 75

3.2. Social Evils 77

3.3. Decentralization of Political Power 78

3.4. Abolition of Traditional Rights of the Mizo Chiefs 78

3.5. Circle Administration 80

3.6. Impressed Labour 81

xii
4. The Advent of the Missionaries and Cultural Changes 82

4.1. The First Christian Missionary in Mizoram 83

4.2. Arthington Aborigines Mission (AAM) 84

4.3. Welsh Calvinistic Mission 86

4.4. Baptist Missionary Society (BMS) 87

5. Interpreting Socio-Cultural Transformations 88

5.1. Positive Impacts of Changes 89

a) Religious Transformation 89

b) Socio-Cultural Transformation 90

c) Intellectual transformation 92

5.2. Negative Impacts of Transformation 93

a) Zu and Kelmei 93

b) Eating meat offered to Idols 94

c) Traditional festivals 96

d) Traditional songs and poetical words 97

e) Traditional dances 99

f) Traditional drum 100

6. Mizo Slavery System 102

6.1. The Colonial view of the Mizo slavery system 103

6.2. Mission view 104

6.3. Mizo Christian chiefs freed their slaves 106

6.4. Postcolonial reading of the controversy and change 106

7. Re-reading the abolition of Zawlbuk 111

7.1. Political approach 111

7.2. Religious approach 112

xiii
 7.3. Modernization approach 113

7.4. Postcolonial approach 115

8. Reflection on Medical Mission 118

9. Postcolonial Reflection on Educational Mission 120

9.1. Education was a means of Conversion 120

9.2. Diffusion Theory 123

9.3. Education as justification for Colonial rule 125

10. Conclusion 130

CHAPTER III: REVIVAL MOVEMENT: CULTURAL RESPONSE TO

WESTERNIZATION

1. Introduction 132

2. Meaning of Revival 132

3. Revival in Mizoram 134

3.1. The Welsh and Khasi Background 135

3. 2. Revival Stirrings 136

3. 3. Continuous or Sporadic Stirrings 140

4. Revival movement, Church and the Government 142

5. Harhna Hruaina (Revival Manual) 149

6. Impacts of the Revival movement 152

6.1. Khurh lam 153

6.2. Zawlthupuan (Clairvoyance) 155

6.3. Khurbing 156

6.4. Thiangzau 158

6.5. Singing traditional song 160

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 6.6. Traditional drum 162

7. Re-reading Revival from Postcolonial Perspective 164

7.1. Revival and Indigenization of Mizo Christianity 165

7.2. Identity formation 165

7.3. Evolution of Indigenous Hymns 167

7.4. Christianising traditional dances 173

7.5. Christianising traditional drums 176

7.6. Traditional poetical words 180

7.7. Lengkhawm 181

7.8. Beirual: New expression of tlawmngaihna 184

7.9. Promotion of Mizo language and national unity 186

8. Conclusion 187

CHAPTER IV: AN ANALYSIS OF THE MISSION OF THE PRESBYTERIAN

CHURCH OF MIZORAM

1. Introduction 189

2 A brief history of Presbyterian Church of Mizoram 189

3. Meaning of Mission 196

4. Paradigm Shift in the Theology of Mission 198

4.1. Colonial Ecclesial paradigm 198

4.2. Pietistic Evangelical paradigm 201

4.3. Ecumenical paradigm 203

4.4. Holistic paradigm 204

4.5. Critique on theological paradigms 205

5. Mission History of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram 207

xv
 5.1. Voluntary mission work 208

5.2. Mission as an integral activity of the Mizo church 208

5.3. Formation of Synod Mission Board (SMB) 209

5.4. Policy of Synod Mission Board 210

5.5. Mission Strategies 212

6. Motivating factors for Mission 215

6.1. Biblical and theological factors 216

a) Obedience to Christ 216

b) Constrained by love and Thanksgiving 217

c) Election 217

d) Eschatological factor 218

e) Missionary songs 219

f) Spiritual revival 222

6.2. Ethno-political factor 223

6.3. Socio-cultural factor 224

a) Principle of sharing in relation to mission 225

b) Ethical foundation of culture and mission 226

7. Financial Contribution for mission 227

8. Critique on the mission of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram 231

9. Conclusion 242

CHAPTER V: TOWARDS A MIZO THEOLOGY OF MISSION

1. Introduction 246

2. God-Human-World Relationship 247

2.1. Theological debate on God-human-world relationship 248

xvi
 2.2. The Mizo voice in the debate 250

3. Model of God-human-world relationship 252

3.1. Monarchical or Transcendental Model 253

3.2. Organic or Immanental Model 254

3.3. Communitarian Model 255

3.4. Significance for the Mizo Theology of Mission 256

4. Significance for Eco-Theology of Mission 259

4.1. Mizo traditional concept of land 260

a) Land is a Temple 260

b) Land is life 261

c) Community ownership of land 261

e) Land is a place 263

4.2. Significance for eco-theology from Mizo perspective 263

5. Significance for Mizo Feminist theology 271

5.1. Position of women in Mizo traditional society 272

5.2. Position of women after Christianity 273

5.3. Present position of women in Mizo churches 275

5.4. Vision of Mizo women for a new co-humanity 277

6. Reinterpreting Chapchar kut for Mizo theology of Mission 279

6.1. Honouring Pathian (God) 279

6.2. Peace and harmony 280

6.3. Cleansing 281

6.4. Sharing 281

7. Reinterpreting Tlawmngaihna for Mizo theology of Mission 282

xvii
 7.1. Meaning of Tlawmngaihna 283

7.2. Critical analysis of Tlawmngaihna 287

7.3. Validity of Tlawmngaihna for the Mizo Mission 288

7.4. Significance of Mizo Tlawmngaihna for Mizo theology of mission 290

8. Conclusion 295

CONCLUSION: EVALUATION AND PROSPECT FOR THE FUTURE

1. Introduction 298

2. Contribution to Mizo Christianity 298

2.1. Mizo Hermeneutics 298

2.2. God’s revelation in Mizo primal religion 300

2.3. Church theology and Academic theology 302

3. Evaluation and Prospect of the Future 303

4. Challenge for further Research 310

Appendix I 312

Appendix II 313

Appendix III 314

Appendix IV 316

Appendix V 318

Appendix VI 319

Appendix VII 320

Appendix VIII 321

Appendix IX 322

Appendix X 323

Bibliography 324

xviii
 INTRODUCTION

RESEARCH RATIONALE AND METHODOLOGY

1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:

The primary purpose of this study is to construct a relevant Theology of Mission out

of the interaction between the Gospel and culture in a Mizo context. The existing

theology in Mizoram is the traditional exclusive theology inherited from the Western

missionaries during the Colonial times which cannot cope any more with the present

context with all its problems. Moreover, the spread of British administration, the

conversion of the Mizos to the Christian faith and the rapid social change brought by

Colonialism and modernization has run through all the fabric of the Mizo life. While

admitting that change is a need of the society and irreversible process, this change has

also brought many problems. For Mizo theologian Lalsawma, the problems are so

serious that it shakes the foundation of the Mizo society and it alienates Mizos from

their culture.1 To address these problems and to cope with the present context, it is

imperative for Mizo Christians to construct a relevant theology to meet the challenges

of the present realities. However, as the existing theological paradigm is an exclusive

one which rejects the Mizo religio-cultural values and at the same time not opens to

dialogue or change. Therefore, a shift to contextual paradigm might be a radical shift

in the Mizo context. To engage in this work, this study will critically analyse the

interaction between the Christianity brought by the Western missionaries and the

traditional Mizo religion and culture for the past one hundred years. Mizo traditional

religious, social and cultural elements such as the concept of the Supreme Being,

1
Lalsawma, „The shaking of foundation in Mizo Society‟ in Rosiamliana Tochhawng, ed., Ground
Works for Tribal Theology in the Mizo Context (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 64.

1
human and the world view, chapchar kut2 (a Mizo traditional festival) and the Mizo

philosophy of tlawmngaihna3 (altruism) will be taken for theological hermeneutics.

2. THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

Firstly, even after celebrating the centenary of the Mizo Christianity, the interaction of

the Gospel and culture has continued to be the subject of debate among the Mizo

Christians. In fact, Christian theology has not been interpreted in terms of Mizo

religio-culture and thought forms which has led to identity crisis and displacement

and inadequate theology that is not open to change. Why did the Mizos have to

abandon their traditional religious, social and cultural practices when they converted

to Christianity?

Secondly, it was believed that the revival movements first started in 1906 and

continued occasionally in subsequent years were the backbone of Mizo Christianity

because they provides the Mizos with a setting for regaining and maintaining their

identity and selfhood against the prevailing process of westernisation. To what extent

did traditional cultural values and practices influence the revivalists? How far was the

revival movement in Mizoram responsible for reformulating or reinterpreting the

Mizo cultural elements to form indigenous Mizo Christianity?

Thirdly, with the inspiration of the missionaries and the revival movement in

Mizoram, Mizo Christians have been engaged in mission and evangelism work in

India. However, the resurgence of other religions (e.g. Hinduism) is perhaps the most

2
Chapchar kut was a thanksgiving festival celebrated by the Mizos in the month of March with feasts
and dances. Theological significance of chapchar kut will be given in chapter five.
3
Tlawmngaihna was an excellent custom in the social life of the Mizos by which one was duty bound
to help others. Theological significances and impacts of tlawmngaihna can be seen in chapter five.

2
significant feature of the contemporary religious context in India today which we did

not see in Colonial times. In such a context, the traditional colonial paradigm adopted

by the Presbyterian Church in her mission and evangelism work is seen by others as

having an intolerant and arrogant attitude. For example, the Mizo missionaries‟

activities among the poor people under the pretext of rendering social service are seen

as suspicious and are sometimes forbidden. How should the Presbyterian Church

confront this newly discovered world, a world inviting confidence rather than

distrust?

Lastly, we observe today that new ways of understanding the gospel have emerged.

Mizo Christians have started a search towards self-identity and begun to look at what

they have inherited as the gospel message and Christian culture. The Mizo Christians

have an awareness of the need to reinterpret the gospel anew in their own culture and

express it using idioms and concepts that make sense to their people. In this context

what will be the response of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram if they want the

gospel to take root deep into their culture and become effective?

3. METHODOLOGY:

In response to the research questions, the author will adopt a methodology which will

be the main interpreting tool to construct a Mizo theology of mission. Theological

methodology is here understood as a working principle used by theologians in the

articulation of theology with a view to achieving a theological vision of the

community of faith. Usually the choice of the methodology depends on the

theological vision of a particular theologian and the situation in which theology is to

be constructed. In response to the complex situation where identity crisis,

3
displacement and social injustice become the theological agenda, the concern is to

integrate both social transformation and inculturation of the Christian gospel. It is

these concerns which compel the author to employ two particular theological

approaches. The first one is postcolonial approach because of its comprehensive

critique of both colonial and neo-colonial practices and uncovering of hidden agendas

and meanings. It also provides alternative readings which is not only binary, but also

from the perspective of resistance and dissent, retrieval of heritage, etc. Secondly, we

have a synthetic model which is concern with the development of a new and relevant

theology from the synthesis of gospel and culture to compliment the postcolonial

discourse.

3.1. Postcolonial Approach:

The term „Postcolonialism‟ refers broadly to the ways in which race, ethnicity, culture

and human identity itself are represented in the modern era, after many colonized

countries gained their independence. Post-colonial as originally used by historians

after the Second World War designating the post-independence period. However,

from the late 1970‟s the term came to mean not only a simple periodisation after the

western countries dominated militarily, but also a methodological revisionism that

enables a wholesale critique of western structures of knowledge and power since the

enlightenment.4 Edward Said‟s critique of western representations of the Eastern

culture in his book „Orientalism‟ 5 is a seminal text for postcolonial studies. Said has

coined the term, „Orientalism‟, describing the binary between the Orient and the

Occident. This binary, also referred to as the East/West binary, is a key in

postcolonial theory. This led to what came to be called colonialist discourse theory in
4
Wong Wai Ching, „Postcolonialism‟ in Virginia Fabella and R.S. Sugirtharajah, eds., The SCM
Dictionary of the Third World Theologies (London: SCM Press, 2003), 169-170.
5
Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1979).

4
the work of critics such as Homi K. Bhabha and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, who

introduced terms such as „subaltern‟ and „essentialism‟. 6 Postcolonial theory deals

with the effects of colonization on cultures and societies. 7 It is essential for

theological reflection that one understands it as a critical tool addressing primarily

imperialism‟s general and continuing ideological roles in peoples and cultures of the

Third World countries. It is not simply concerned with salvaging past worlds, but

learning how the world can move beyond this period together, towards a place of

mutual respect. As suggested by R.S. Sugirtharajah, the term generates at least three

meanings.8

First, in a historical sense, it encapsulates the social, political and cultural conditions

of the current world order, bringing to the fore the cultural, political and economic

facts of colonialism, and aiding recognition of the ambiguities of decolonization and

the ongoing neocolonization.

Secondly, as a discursive practice, postcolonial criticism has initiated arresting

analyses of texts and societies. It provides openings for oppositional readings,

uncovers suppressed voices and more pertinently, has as its foremost concern victims

and their plight. It has not only interrogated colonial domination but has also offered

viable critical alternatives.

6
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Ranjit Guha, eds., Selected Subaltern Studies (Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1988), 3-34. See also Joanne P. Sharp, Geographies of Postcolonialism (London:
SAGE Publications Ltd, 2008), 109-130.
7
Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts (London:
Routledge, 2000), 186.
8
R.S. Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Reconfigurations: An Alternative Way of Reading the Bible and
Doing Theology (London: SCM Press, 2003), 4.

5
Thirdly, the term implies the political and ideological stance of an interpreter who is

engaged in anti-colonial and anti-globalizing theory and praxis. Applied to theological

studies, it seeks to uncover colonial designs in theological development, and

endeavours to re-read theology from such postcolonial concerns as identity, hybridity

and diaspora.

Hybridity commonly refers to the creation of new transcultural forms within the

contact zone produced by colonization. Hybridity has most recently been associated

with the work of Homi K. Bhabha, whose analysis of colonizer/colonized relations

stresses their interdependence and the mutual construction of their subjectivities.

Bhabha contends that all cultural statements and systems are constructed in a space

that he calls the „third space of enunciation‟. 9 Thus the new Mizo converts who used

to sing only translated hymns, composed new songs with a tune which was neither

exactly the western tune nor Mizo traditional tune; a hybrid new tune has emerged

which really satisfies the Mizo Christians. Diaspora, the term once used to describe

Greek and Jewish dispersion, has now been widened to include other, parallel

experiences, based on the transnational migrations which have been a major

consequence of the colonial project. In postcolonial terms, diaspora signifies the

formation of identities based on diversity and difference and is not necessarily seen in

terms of reconnecting with a reverential notion of homeland. It challenges the

territorially confined notion of national culture through the fact of wide-ranging

movements of people. Therefore, in constructing a vital and coherent theology

diversity and difference should not be minimized; rather it has to be held together as a

9
Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 37.

6
mosaic to enrich Christian theology. 10 As the society we live in is changing, a relevant

theology cannot be static. It is not possible to think of one theology for all ages and

places. It must be opened to critical evaluation and if necessary, to reconstruction to

meet the need of the context.

Postcolonial theory has various readings, the author intends to apply heritagist,

resistant and dissident readings which are in line with the proposed investigation.

Heritagist reading:

Heritagist approach is an attempt to find conceptual analogies in the Mizo concept of

culture, such as customs, religious and oral traditions which still exist from the past

and which have a historical importance and taking them in theological hermeneutics

for reinterpretations. It is an attempt to retrieve cultural memory from amnesia caused

by colonialism and missionaries. 11 Non-textual traditions such as the understanding of

god, world and stories which are part of the heritage of the Mizos will also be

reemployed and placed alongside biblical materials for the purpose of taking them
12
into hermeneutical implications. In addition postcolonial hermeneutics will be seen

as a corrective to cultural amnesia and will offer a form of resistance to cultural

impositions and silencing. The author will engage in the reinterpretation of the Mizo

religious concept and world view, stories, and legends as a remembered history of the

Mizo people in order to play corrective and supplementary roles to the inadequate

definitions and interpretations of the western missionaries and the Mizos as well. The

purpose of adopting the postcolonial approach is to identify the biblical ideas in Mizo

10
S. Wesley Ariarajah, Gospel and Culture: An on Going Discussion within the Ecumenical Movement
(Geneva: WCC, 1994), 35.
11
R.S. Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Criticism and Biblical Interpretation (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2002), 55. Hereafter cited as „Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Criticism‟.
12
Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Criticism, 60.

7
tradition, thought patterns and forms as a way of explaining the basic elements of

Christian Gospel rather than depending on the readymade western texts and writings.

It will connect the past Mizo thought-form and culture with the aims of reconfiguring

the new Mizo identity as a Mizo and as a Christian.

Resistant reading:

Resistant reading does not repudiate western rule, but made profitable use of a

paradigm provided by the colonizer. In the colonial context, the Bible became a

convenient cultural weapon for both the colonizer and the colonized. While the

missionaries saw it as a tool for civilizing and rescuing the degenerate heathen, some

at least, of the colonized employed it as a weapon of reprisal. For example, a young

Mizo chief named Khawvelthanga, who studied at the mission school became a

believer, used the Bible against the practice of slavery in Mizo society. He argued that

slavery went against the teaching of Jesus Christ and the Bible. He claimed that

people were set free from all bondage by the blood of Christ, and therefore should not

end up as slaves and private property of their fellow human beings. In this way the

colonized renegotiated the message of the Bible, and created a discourse of resistant

reading.

Dissident reading:

Dissident reading is a form of oppositional discursive practice undertaken by some

colonialists. Although located within and co-opted by the colonial system, what the

discourse of dissent did was to subvert it from within. It did this by indicating the

awful things that colonialism had done or was capable of doing to those who were

under its control. Prompted by both pangs of guilt and humanitarian motives, the

8
intention of dissident discourse was to ameliorate colonialism and temper its

predatory intensions. As a discursive practice, it could never hope to dismantle the

whole edifice of imperialism, but in its own innocuous way it caused unsettlement,

dislocation, and placed a question mark over territorial and cultural expansion. 13 The

issue of the slavery system in Mizoram posed by a Welsh missionary, Peter Fraser

was a relevant one in which the Bible played a vital role. His subversive challenges or

dissident approach could not change the edifice of the colonial administration at first,

but later liberated the Mizo slaves.

3.2. Contextual Theology:

While postcolonial critique is useful in rediscovering traditional cultural practices for

theology, it is not free from criticism due to its critical tendency towards Christianity

and western culture. In constructing theology there is a danger of the gospel being

domesticated and made captive to one particular culture. Rediscovery of traditional

values does not mean „culturalism‟ in which culture is romanticized and venerated

above the Bible. In this context, contextual synthetic approach will compliment the

postcolonial theory by re-rooting cultural expressions with mutual interaction and

positive contribution towards the wellbeing of the Mizo people. This is necessary

because the purpose of constructing a contextual theology is to help the community of

faith in a particular socio-cultural context to understand Christian faith.

Contextual theology, without ignoring the importance of scriptures and tradition,

considers culture, socio-economic and political issues and the struggle of the people

for their liberation as important sources of theology. Stephen B. Bevans specifically

13
Ibid. 44.

9
defines it as a way of doing theology in which one takes into account of the spirit and

message of the gospel; the tradition of the Christian people; the culture in which one

is theologizing; and social change in that culture, whether brought about by western

technological processes or the grassroots struggle for equality, justice and liberation. 14

K.C. Abraham an Indian theologian describes contextual theology as faith articulation

emerging from the experiences of the marginalised that are committed to altering their

struggle of injustice and bondage.15 K. Thanzauva, a Mizo theologian defines it as a

systematic and coherent articulation of how a community of faith confesses Christ in

a particular context.16 Contextualization is therefore, a process of interaction between

the hidden gospel rediscovered in Mizo culture and the gospel preached to the Mizos

by missionaries. Since, the gospel is present in every culture in an imperfect form, re-

discovery of the hidden gospel from one‟s own culture is necessary to interact with

the gospel received from outside, only then the Christian gospel be contextualized.

There are several models of contextual theology propounded by Stephen B. Bevans 17

such as transplantation, fulfilment, translation, dialogical, synthetic and praxis which

are all helpful for distinguishing various approaches. For instance, models like

fulfilment, translation and praxis have been used by the western missionaries and

Mizo church leaders. Zairema, a Mizo church leader, who has been greatly involved

in Bible translation, advocated the use of dynamic equivalence. In this study a

synthetic model will be used because this model is concern with the development of a

new and relevant theology from a synthesis of gospel and culture in a particular

14
Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (New York: Orbis Books, Revised and
Expanded, 2002), 1. Hereafter cited as „Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology‟.
15
K.C. Abraham, „Forward‟ in K. Thanzauva, Transforming Theology: A Theological Basis for Social
Transformation (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2002), x.
16
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community: Tribal Theology in the Making (Aizawl: Mizo Theological
Conference, 1997), 57. Hereafter cited as K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community‟.
17
Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, 30-110.

10
context to preserve the cultural identity of the people and to confess Christ in the way

they understand him.

Synthetic Approach:

Synthetic approach primarily assumes that culture is good and valuable, and that

within this culture God is working and revealing divine truth. Although Christ is

present in all cultures, unless the culture interacts with the truth revealed in Jesus

Christ, it is inadequate. It means the interaction makes the hidden presence of Christ

in culture more meaningful. In other words, without the interaction with the gospel,

cultural values are inadequate, incomplete and imperfect. According to Jose M. de

Mesa, a Filipino theologian, theology is born from the respectful interaction between

Judaeo-Christian tradition and the local culture. 18 The source of theology is the fusion

or interaction of the Judaeo-Christian tradition which came to the Mizos via western

culture with the recipient culture. A synthetic model searches for a new theology

resulting from the synthesis of the two or the fusion of two horizons. It is an honest

and painful interaction as it seeks to disclose the inadequacies and fallacies of

Christianity and other religions. As a result, a new form of Christianity or theology

emerges which is what a synthetic model is searching for.

The primary reason for choosing postcolonial-synthetic approaches is to respond to

the demands of the Mizo context. When the Mizos received Christianity from the

western missionaries, there was an interaction between the gospel and Mizo culture.

Therefore, it is proper to adopt these approaches to look at this interaction. The author

will first look at mutual enrichment and seek to discover a new theology born out of
18
Jose M. de Mesa, „Doing Theology as Inculturation in the Asian context‟ in James A. Sherer &
Stephen B. Bevans, eds., New Directions in Mission and Evangelism 3, Faith and Culture (Maryknoll,
New York: Orbis Books, 1999), 120.

11
the interaction between the gospel and Mizo culture. Secondly, there is a mutual

transformation by rejecting dehumanizing aspects such as head-hunting and adopting

liberative aspects such as the practice of community singing and dancing and Mizo

tlawmngaihna. Thirdly, it will also take the form of mutual reinterpretation, which

means reinterpreting culture in the light of the gospel and the gospel in the light of

culture. In this case, our criteria will be first of all truthfulness to the gospel, not in

terms of literal interpretation; secondly, faithfulness to the Mizo religio-culture and

finally, motivation for the transformation of the Mizo society.

4. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH:

This study covers a period from 1894 to 2008 and it is confined to the Mizo Christian

community living in Mizoram and in particular to the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram. Since the Presbyterian Church is the oldest and largest church in Mizoram

presently comprising 59% of the Mizo Christians,19 the author has sometime project

the above groups as representing the whole Mizo Christian community in this study.

This study deals with the religio-cultural context within which the changes took place

in Mizoram. In order to understand how the Mizo people reacted to these changes,

and how they developed a new cultural synthesis, it is also necessary to study the pre-

British history and culture of the people. This research will also contribute some

theological insights to other Mizo ethnic groups living in Myanmar (Burma) and

Bangladesh and neighbouring states of Manipur, Assam and Tripura. This study may

also be of help, it is hoped, to other tribal communities in Northeast India who have

the same religious and cultural background and experienced the same Colonial rule

and the western Christianity.

19
See Appendix II.

12
5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

Firstly, this research is significant for theological colleges which are the centres of

theological education in Mizoram. This study retrieves Mizo religious and cultural

elements for theological hermeneutics to interpret and criticize with the purpose of

bringing out a relevant Mizo contextual theology. In addition, this research will be

significant for new generation who will engage in theological studies because it

provides a new framework which proposes a theological paradigm shift from

traditional colonial paradigm to „theology from below‟ in the Mizo context.

Secondly, this study is significant for the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram and the

Mizo community as a whole. In the Mizo context, tension between the Gospel and

Mizo traditional culture is still problematic and debates are going on as to the extent

to which the Mizo Christian should abandon or retain their traditions, customs and

culture. This research gives new insights and confidence to the Mizo Christians to

decide which cultural aspects to abandon and which will be retained for worship and

for theological construction.

Finally, this study is significant for theological development because this research is

one of the few studies undertaken which gives a new way to look at Mizo Christianity

in the light of interaction between the Gospel and traditional Mizo culture. It gives

detailed study about revival movements in Mizoram, how the revival movement saved

the Mizos from complete British assimilation and provides the people with a setting

for regaining and maintaining their identity and selfhood by reinterpreting Mizo

socio-cultural values.

13
6. PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH:

A major problem of this study is the alienation of the gospel. Despite Christianity in

Mizoram being more than one century old, the gospel remains alien to Mizo

Christians. Theologically this alienation is the result of uncritical rejection of culture

and uncritical contextualization in the past history of the Mizo church. Paul G.

Hiebert points out that this kind of alienation or foreignness of Christianity is a real

hindrance to communicating the gospel. 20 K. Thanzauva, a Mizo theologian describes

the inadequacy of the Mizo theology in contemporary Christianity like this, „The

problem now is that what had happened in the interaction of the tribal culture and

Christianity in the past one hundred years is not theologically expressed. The theology

and dogma remain alien to the culture‟.21 All of this could be partly due to the

rejection of Mizo religio-cultural elements by the Mizos causing „self-alienation‟ and

theological inadequacies. To quote Thanzauva again:

A more serious problem is that, as we neither developed theology from what

had happened nor taught the churches, they have drifted away farther and

farther from their roots; theologically they are now in the capacity of

western theology. The theological task now is rediscovery and reconception

of liberating traditions of the tribal culture. 22

20
Paul G. Hiebert, „Cultural Differences and the Communication of the Gospel‟ in Ralph D. Winter &
Steven C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A Reader (Pasadena,
California: William Carey Library, 2004), 381-382.
21
K. Thanzauva, „Theologizing in the North Eastern Context: Methodological Issues‟ in J.
Puthenpurakal, ed., Impact of Christianity in Northeast India (Shillong: Vendrame Institute
Publications, 1996), 101-102.
22
Ibid.

14
With regard to limitation of the research, it should be mentioned that, as the Mizos

did not have written language in the pre-Christian era, most of the writings available

are recollections of oral traditions, myths, legends and stories. Consequently, most of

the available documents are written in the Mizo language and translation to English is

needed to present their content and relevant meaning. While the author has sought to

produce accurate translations, there may be alternative translations. This leads to

some limitations in investigation and deeper study in this research.

At this stage the contextual synthetic model which gives emphasis to the interaction

of gospel and culture is used for theological construction which is very relevant for

the present context. But like other communities, the Mizo community also encounters

different ideologies and new cultures emerging from modern science and

technologies. Increasingly they have been dissatisfied with the present missiological

approach adopted by the Presbyterian Church which condemned other religions and

eventually disrupted the harmony of the community. At a later stage, we may need to

apply a dialogical model which is concern with mutual co-existence through tolerance

and building new relationships with neighbours of other faiths23 for the construction

of Mizo theology of mission.

7. LITERATURE SURVEY:

The study of the history of the churches in Mizoram is not a new project as some

scholars have applied themselves to it and have done valuable work. J.M. Lloyd, the

23
S.J. Samartha, „Dialogue in a Religiously Pluralistic Society‟ in Israel Selvanayagam, ed., The Multi-
Faith Context of India: Resources and Challenges for Christians (Bangalore: The Board of Theological
Text Books Programme of South Asia, 1994), 6.

15
long serving missionary in Mizoram in his book, On Every High Hill,24 (1957) makes

an effort to relate Christianity to traditional culture. However, he reflects the

mission‟s paternalistic view of certain cultural values as anti-Christian. Hence while

acknowledging the conversion and deeper spiritual life of many Mizos as being the

result of the revival movement, he sees the rise of „Puma zai‟ (traditional song),

which in a modified form ultimately made its way into the revival, as „a sudden

resurgence of heathenism‟. It is very clear that Lloyd devalued the social and cultural

values of Mizo society and wrote the history of mission from European imperialistic,

colonial and political perspectives. His work needs to be re-examined from

postcolonial perspectives.

The most substantial book on the history of the church in Mizoram is the work of

Saiaithanga, a Mizo pastor and prominent church leader, ‘Mizo Kohhran Chanchin’ 25

first published in 1969. This book is still the most widely read mainly because of his

systematic arrangement, distinct and precise expression and comprehensive coverage

of different traditions. As one of the early pastors, he had an opportunity to work

closely with the western missionaries as a theological teacher and a pastor. He was a

representative of the church authorities who reflected the mission‟s ecclesiology in

their approach to the revival movement in Mizo church. Saiaithanga did not recognize

some elements of the revival particularly the traditional songs and drums, which are

important factors for the development of Mizo Christianity. Instead, he characterized

the revival movement as the cause of division, anarchy and the economic

impoverishment of the church. Consequently, a clear dichotomy of the revival

24
J. M. Lloyd, On Every High Hill (Liverpool: Foreign Mission Office, 1957), 55. Hereafter cited as
„Lloyd, Every High Hill‟.
25
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin [History of the Mizo Church] (Aizawl: Regional Theological
Literature Committee, 1969). Hereafter cited as „Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin‟.

16
movement and the church can be identified in his work. His perspective is identical to

that of J.M. Lloyd, who undoubtedly had considerable personal influence upon him.

C.L. Hminga‟s The Life and Witness of the Churches in Mizoram (1987) provides

some relevant theological issues such as the transformation of the Mizo concept of

God, faith and the establishment of the church and its growth and witness from the

church growth perspective. F. Hrangkhuma‟s research entitled „Mizoram

Transformational Change (1989) vividly describes the changes and transformation

that have taken place in Mizoram since the coming of Christianity in Mizoram.

Relevant theological issues such as concepts of God, Christ, salvation and

ecclesiology can be found in this research. Lalrinawmi Ralte‟s Crab Theology (1993)

clearly presents a view of Mizo women as it developed out of Mizo traditional and

culture. Religio-cultural issues particularly the feminist view of God are seen as

relevant and valid in constructing Mizo contextual theology. Mangkhosat Kipgen, a

church historian published his research under the title Christianity and Mizo Culture

(1995) which gives a historical perspective of the Mizo traditional culture and Mizo

Christianity.

K. Thanzauva‟s research published under the title Theology of Community (1997)

contributes a theological reflection on the traditions, experiences and concepts of the

tribal Christians in Northeast India. The most significant elements of his research are

the Godhead, ecclesiology and humanity. Lalsangkima Pachuau‟s research entitled,

Ethnic Identity and Mizo Christianity (2002) concentrates on ethnic identity and

Christianity in Northeast India. It deals with the interaction between the Mizo church

and traditional culture and the role of the revival movement in the formation of the

17
Mizo Christian identity. Vanlalchhuanawma‟s research published as Christianity and

Subaltern Culture (2005) clearly describes the Mizo traditional religion and cultural

practices before Christianity and changes in the Mizo society. These are relevant to

the present research because it deals with contextualization.

8. OUTLINE OF THE STUDY:

This study has five chapters with introduction and conclusion. The first two chapters

deal with the history of the Mizos before the coming of Colonialism and Christianity

followed by the change brought by the British administration and Christian mission in

Mizo life. The third chapter examines the revival movements in Mizoram, the

interaction between Christianity and Mizo socio-cultural practices and the way in

which revival movements are responsible for bringing indigenous Mizo Christianity.

The fourth chapter assesses the development of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram

and her missionary endeavour through postcolonial critique. The last chapter brings

out the propose Mizo theology of mission and ends with suggestion for further

research.

Introduction gives the purpose of the study, the research questions which the author

tackles followed by the methodology which the author intends to apply in this study,

scope and significance of the research. It also provides the problems and limitations

of this study and the outlines of each chapter and the conclusion.

Chapter One, „Pre-Colonial Mizo Religion and Culture’ presents the origin of the

Mizos, where they came from, their traditional religious and cultural practices such as

18
their concept of god, human, world, salvation and life after death. The author aims to

construct a postcolonial theological approach to the Mizo primal religion.

„The Advent of Colonialism and Christian Mission‟ is Chapter Two which deals

with the coming of the British rule in Mizoram and the change that has affected the

social and religious life of the Mizo society in both positive and negative ways. This

was followed by the Christian missionaries who converted the Mizos to Christianity

within a few decades. This transformation from traditional life to Christianity has

severely affected the Mizo life and as a result many of their cultural and religious

practices have been lost or abandoned. The author intends to retrieve the lost cultural

elements for theological interpretation in the present day Mizo context.

Chapter Three ‘Revival Movements: Cultural Response to Westernization’ looks

at the coming of the revival movement in Mizoram and how it helps the Mizos in

their response to Christianity and Colonial power. It explores the extent to which the

revival movement is responsible for recovering the lost or abandoned cultural

elements for the reformulation or reconstruction of the Mizo Christianity. Integrating

the Mizo cultural elements such as traditional drums, dancing and new indigenous

Mizo Christian hymns will be seen from the postcolonial perspective.

Chapter Four, ‘An analysis of the mission of the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram’ first traces the history of the Presbyterian Church and other

denominations. It also highlights the paradigm shifts in the history of Christian

mission. It outlines how mission work started within the Presbyterian Church, what

were the aims and objectives of doing mission among the people. It also shows

19
factors that motivated the Mizos for this task and how they met the financial needs for

this purpose. It will also analyse the mission of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram

from the perspective of a postcolonial approach.

Chapter Five is Towards a Mizo Theology of Mission. The main purpose of this

section is to reformulate or recreate a new and relevant theology of mission for the

Mizo Christians. Since our perception of God is determined by our understanding of

cosmology, the concern of this chapter is to rediscover the Mizo cosmology and

particularly their concept of God-human-world relationship as one of the

transformational motifs to be theologically constructed or rediscovered. Moreover,

since the issue of land is so fundamental in Mizo life, the relationship of the people

and their land is discussed under ecological theology. The relationship between men

and women is also examined in order to rectify and transform the Mizo

communitarian society to make it more liveable and effective. An attempt is also

made to rediscover the traditional festival of chapchar kut and ethical principle of

Mizo community called ‘tlawmngaihna’ for the construction of relevant Mizo

theology of mission.

‘Conclusion’ comprises the contributions this study has made for the Presbyterian

Church and to Mizo Christianity as a whole. This includes re-reading of the Mizo

religious and cultural practices with the purpose of finding contextual and

hermeneutical reinterpretation of the Mizo theology of mission. It ends with a brief

evaluation of each chapter and suggestions for further research.

20
 Chapter One

PRE-COLONIAL MIZO RELIGION AND CULTURE

1. INTRODUCTION:

In order to understand Christianity and the Church in Mizoram it is essential to know

who and what the Mizos were at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this

chapter the author will make an attempt to analyse the identity of the Mizos and their

pre-colonial Mizo religious institution which had been presented by the western

missionaries as no religion in the light of postcolonial theological perspectives. The

aim is to rediscover a relevant hermeneutics for interpretations in the present day

context and for the construction of postcolonial Mizo theology of mission. The author

will first introduce the background of the Mizo history and their traditional religion

and the Mizo world view; secondly, the concept of Supreme Being and active spirits;

thirdly, the traditional understanding of salvation; and fourthly, the concept of the life-

after and immortality of the spirit will be criticized. Finally, different approaches in

the postcolonial period will be analysed with the intention of retrieving the concept of

God for postcolonial theological interpretations. It is certain that Mizo religion was

far from perfect although there were some good elements, and these need to be judged

in the light of the Gospel.

2. THE MIZOS:

The word „Mizo’ literally means „Highlander‟ (mi for „people‟ and zo for „highland‟),

an apt term to describe the short, stocky, muscular people who, with great physical

21
vigour, easily climb the steep hills. 26 It is a generic term applying to all the Mizos

living in Mizoram. Mizos have been known as Lushai, Lushei or Lusei but this is

unfortunately a misnomer. The Mizos have been Mizos since time immemorial. But

the entire Colonial officialdom and the missionary records and reports before Indian

independence and up to the 1960s, represented the Mizos as Lushais. The most

prominent ruling clan at the time of the Colonial regime was Lusei, which was

incorrectly referred to as Lushai. It was the time when the Lusei rulers had extended

their influence over the whole of the present Mizoram. Their prominence, perhaps, led

the British elites to misrepresent the whole nation as Lushai. As various names were

adopted by the British for political or anthropological purposes, they contributed to a

division among the people who accepted such classifications at face value. This trend

not only distorted the homogeneous identity of the Mizos but also affected the people

in their response to social-cultural change.

2.1. Lusei or Mizo Language:

The Mizos had no lingua franca at the time of the British arrival. As the Lusei

proselytes naturally adopted the Lusei dialect, it was probably assumed that the Lusei

dialect was common to all the Mizo clans. On this pretext the Mizo alphabet, created

by the first two missionaries was based on Lusei dialect. The foundational Mizo

literature so happened to be Lusei literature. With the further development of that

literature and political awareness, the literary language came to be mistakenly known

as Mizo. The simple logic of this misinterpretation is that since the Mizo language is

the Lusei language, the Mizos are the Luseis. Therefore, the author will use the term

Mizo rather than Lusei throughout this study.

26
J.V. Hluna, Education and Missionaries in Mizoram (Guwahati: Spectrum Publications, 1992), 2.
Hereafter cited as „Hluna, Education and Missionaries‟.

22
2.2. The Mizos belong to the Mongoloid stock:

It is not necessary to be highly educated to tell that the Mizos belong to the

Mongoloid stock. Their physical features, mental disposition, social behaviour and

customs sufficiently bear the stamp of the Mongoloid racial origin. Even the early

foreign writers identified the appearance of the Mizos with the Mongoloid people

groups: „all the Lushei clans resemble each other and the Mongolian type of

countenance prevails‟. 27 This racial affinity of the Mizo clans is certainly an important

factor of identity. This theory of the Mizos belonging to the Mongoloid stock has

perhaps, received the widest acceptance amongst the Mizos. Lalbiak Thanga, a Mizo

historian and writer said that the fact of Mizos belonging to a Mongoloid stock is not

disputed.28 This may perhaps be a reassertion or acknowledgement of the theory of

former prominent writers such as Langkhaia, V.L. Siama and K. Zawla. 29

2.3. Settlement in Mizoram:

It is believed that the Mizos entered present Mizoram at three different times and

accordingly they were known by three names. Those who came first were called „Old

Kuki‟ and probably occupied the land no later than 15th century since they are

mentioned in the account of the Tipperah Raja, Chachag, who ruled at the beginning

of the 16th century and A. C. Soppit brings the date to the middle of the 16 th century.30

The second group „New Kuki‟ are the changsen, thado and some others. The third

group, the Lushais came to their present location between the 16th and 17th centuries

27
J. Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans (London: Macmillan & Co Ltd, 1912; reprint, Aizawl: Tribal
Research Institute, 1975), 1. Hereafter cited as „Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans‟.
28
Lalbiak Thanga, The Mizos: A Study in Racial Personality (Gauhati: United Publishers, 1978), 3.
Hereafter cited as „Lalbiak Thanga, Mizos‟.
29
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin [Mizo History] Aizawl: Hmingliani, 1938; reprint, Aizawl, LTL
Publications, 2002; V.L. Siama, Mizo History, Aizawl: Lengchhawn Press, 1991; K. Zawla, Mizo Pi
Pute leh An Thlahte Chanchin [History of Mizo Ancestors and Their Descendants] Aizawl: Hmar Arsi
Press, 1974. Hereafter cited as „Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute‟.
30
A. C. Soppit, A Short Account of the Lushai-Kuki Tribes on the North-East Frontier with an Outline
Grammar of the Hrangkhawl-Lushai Language (Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute, 1976), 7.

23
by driving out the second group the „New Kuki‟ and other tribes. 31 On their arrival at

the present Mizoram, they fought and defeated the earlier clans under the leadership

of the Sailo clan and this made the Sailo chiefs virtually the rulers over the Mizo

people.

2.4. Village Administration:

The Mizo villages are built along the ridges of the mountains on the top of the hills

where the air is fresh. These sites were originally chosen primarily considering the

strategy of defensibility against surprise raids of enemies. This of course has a

disadvantage because water supply was a perennial problem, and it had to be fetched

from springs below in bamboo tubes. Houses are usually built in two parallel rows

along the ridge, with a road in between. The chief‟s house and the zawlbuk were

constructed at the centre of the village.

Before British rule commenced in Mizoram, each village was an independent unit

under its chief, who was assisted by his council of elders and the priests. Decisions

were usually made by the consensus of this council which met in the chief‟s house.

The opinion of the strongest warriors of the village exerted considerable influence on

the decisions made by the chief and his council. Though the chieftainship in Mizoram

was abolished by British India in 1955, the old village council provided the basis for

local democratic organisation.

A strongly patriarchal hierarchy has been found in Mizo society. Men always

occupied high and respected positions not only in the family, but also in the social life

31
„History of Mizoram‟ [article online]; available from http://www.mizoram.nic.in/about/history.htm;
Internet; accessed; 11 August, 2008.

24
as a whole. They were solely responsible for their family affairs. Even the right to

inheritance was reserved for paternal descent. Women were oppressed and had no

rights either in the family or in society. In body, mind and spirit, women belonged

from birth till death to their fathers, brothers or husbands. Women had no voice in the

family administration and even if they raised their voices; their words were never

accepted simply because they were the words of the women. The burden of women in

the primitive Mizo society knew no bounds and they simply had to surrender

themselves to this as their lot.32

2.5. The practice of head hunting:

Until the British occupation in 1890 the Mizos were known to the outside world as

daring head-hunters, whose periodic raids were a source of terror to their

comparatively peaceful neighbours in the low hills and plains of Eastern Bengal and

Assam. The Encyclopaedia Britannica says about the Mizos (Lushais):

The main occupation of the people is hunting and warfare. From the earliest

times the Lushais have been notorious for their sanguinary raids into British

territory, which are said to be instigated by their desire to obtain human

heads for use at their funeral ceremonies. 33

The Mizos carried out head-hunting for various reasons. First, it was done not for the

sake of the head, but for the sanctity of the head as the seat of the soul. Secondly,

much warfare took place as a result of the ever-increasing cycle of revenge for

32
R. L. Hnuni, „Women in the context of the Bible and Mizoram‟ in K. Thanzauva, ed., Towards A
Tribal Theology: The Mizo Perspective (Jorhat: Mizo Theological Conference, 1989), 82. Hereafter
cited as „Hnuni, Women in Mizoram‟.
33
„Lushai Hills‟ (article online); available from http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/LUP_MAL; Internet;
accessed; 23 October, 2007.

25
previous killing. The more important motives for headhunting according to A. G.

McCall, Superintendent of the Lushai Hills were to propitiate the evil spirits, to attain

paradise (Pialral) after death, to prove prowess over enemies and to gain the respect

of a prospective bride. 34 A man who killed non-Mizos was given higher regard than

one who had not, therefore, when a man killed a person he had to bring home the head

to show that he was speaking the truth.35 If this was correct a great deal of their

apparent cruelties to the innocent tea planters could be explained and understood. The

much repeated and accepted dictum of Swami Vivekananda that all religions lead to

God if practised in all earnestness could then hardly be applied to Mizo religion. 36

This is a generalization that thoughtful people should consider carefully.

The Mizo religion then would appear to consist chiefly of ceremonies and sacrifices

that had nothing to do with moral conduct or behaviour. The evil spirits made no

moral demands and no sickness was due to immoral living. The slaughter of human

beings and cruelty to animals were considered as a crime displeasing to the Supreme

Being. Enemies had to be killed but retribution would come in one form or another.

What was feared most was this impersonal retribution rather than direct punishment

from the Supreme Being. The impersonal retribution could be realised through the

curtailment of longevity, childlessness or misfortunes to their children. There were

certain things unlawful to be done otherwise different misfortunes could come upon

the doers. For example, it was not right to build a house obstructing the public path. It

was perhaps this impersonal retribution that underlies the injunction.

34
A. G. McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, (London: Luzac & Co., 1949; reprint, Aizawl: Tribal Research
Institute, 1977), 38. Hereafter cited as „McCall, Lushai Chrysalis‟.
35
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 59.
36
Zairema, „The Mizos and their Religions‟ in K.Thanzauva, ed., Towards A Tribal Theology: The
Mizo Perspective (Jorhat: Mizo Theological Conference, 1989), 31-44. Hereafter cited as „Zairema,
Mizos and their Religions‟.

26
Mizo traditional religion was a religion without scriptures but practised traditionally.

If so, how could the Mizos practice this religion more than 300 years? Whom did they

worship and what was the object of worship? What were the purposes and elements of

worship? All these theological questions arose out of this study and it is not easy to

give exact answers immediately. An attempt will be made to give possible answers

under the topic of Mizo traditional religious worldview.

3. MIZO TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS WORLDVIEW:

Religious world view is used here to mean the Mizo concept of God and spirits in

connection with human beings, the world and the nature. This world view is culturally

structured and consists of assumptions and perception of realities and their responses

to it.37 All the primal worldviews are based on assumptions which they believe to be

true, but these assumptions must be scrutinized in the light of modern critique and

analysed using a postcolonial theological perspective. Mizo traditional religious world

view is given below for analysis of the Mizo understanding of God, human and the

world.

Supreme Being
Pathian or God who was worshipped and sacrifices were offered to Him.

Celestial beings
Pu Vana (Father Heaven), Vanhrika (Heavenly being), Vanchung Nula (Damsel of
the heaven) are active and have contact with human beings.

Benevolent spirits malevolent spirits

Khuavang, khuanu, khal, lasi, etc. Ramhuai, phung, khawhring, etc.

Human beings
God-human, human-animals, soul or the spirit of a person or animated objects.

37
Charles H. Kraft, Anthropology for Christian Witness (New York: Orbis Book, 1996), 52. Hereafter
cited as „Kraft, Anthropology‟.

27
In the Mizo world view heaven was above and the earth was below. They believed

that the abode of the Supreme Being and all other celestial beings was heaven, though

they frequently visit human beings and lived with them. Thus human beings who

lived on earth saw their existence in the midst of malignant spirits and so they offered

sacrifices to placate these spirits.

3.1. Benevolent spirits:

Pathian: The Mizos believed in the existence of Pathian or the High God, who is

distinctive above all else. Pathian probably means „holy father‟; holy in the sense of

pure and unmixed. Pathian was a remote being dwelling exclusively in heaven. While

sakhua and other spirits were closely involved in human affairs, Pathian was more or

less an onlooker from heaven. It was to him human beings prayed when they were

placed in extremely difficult situations. They used to say, „Pathian above is looking

down on us‟ or „our Pathian is good‟ meaning that he would ultimately help them.

When all else failed, it was to him they turned for help. Mizos highly respected

Pathian as a good spirit, who never harm nor demand anything from human beings.

Sacrifice was made to Pathian on the days of sechhun and khuangchawi.38 There was

no doubt that Pathian was the director of human destiny. It was he who ordained who

was to marry whom. Such couples are known as „Pathian samsuih’ those whose hairs

are joined together by Pathian.

Khuanu:

Mizos believed that khuanu, „mother of nature‟ to be the wife of Pathian and thus the

spirit was treated as a goddess. Again in the Mizo terminology, „nu‟ refers to feminine

38
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua [Mizo Religion] (Aizawl: Maranatha Printing Press, 1984; reprint, Aizawl:
R. Lalmalsawma, 1994), 2. Hereafter cited as „Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua‟.

28
character and „pa‟ signifies masculine form. The word „khuanu‟ is used only in poetry

and therefore can be considered as the poetical name of Pathian. It was also believed

that khuanu was sometimes identical to and sometimes distinct from Pathian. She was
39
believed to be the goddess who always blessed humankind as a mother does.

Khuanu was never thought to be feminine. This concept might be the recent opinion

of some sociologists like Chitta Ranjan Nag, who was dependant on the writing of

Mizo historian, V.L. Siama, who developed this concept in agreement with feminist

theology. It is not however, the original Mizo religious concept.

Khuavang:

Khuavang are the good spirits who never harm human beings but rather help in their

difficulties. Although their abode was not definitely stated, they were supposed to be

in the high places and mountains. Khuavang are believed to be inferior to Pathian and

they are concerned with the affairs of human beings. They are believed to be the

creators of all humanity and the spirit of kindness and greatness was attributed to

them. In a marriage ceremony, the chant uttered by the priest was addressed to the

khuavang asking for long life for the newly married couples, many children and that

they remain together till old age. 40 H.L. Malsawma, a Mizo sociologist has depicted

khuavang in a more Christianized one as follows, „Khuavang is the famous spirit of

kindness and magnanimity who could bring comfort to humanity on earth. Khuavang

is the keeper and dispenser of the blessing for those who ask for it. Khuavang is the

39
V.L. Siama, Mizo History, 10.
40
N.E. Parry, A Monograph of Lushai Customs and Ceremonies (Shillong: Assam Government Press,
1928; reprint, Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute, 1988), 31. Hereafter cited as „N.E. Parry, Lushai
Customs and Ceremonies‟.

29
father of nature. He gives blessings, and his name is invoked for blessings, comfort

and peace every time food is taken in the same way as grace is said before meal‟. 41

Pu Vana:

Literally speaking, the Mizo expression of „Pu Vana’ stands for „grand father sky‟.

V.L. Siama, a Mizo historian is of the opinion that Pu Vana was the grand father of

the Pathian family, probably the father of Pathian. He was believed to be the god of

nature with power, thunder and lightning. 42

Vanchungnula:

It was believed that Vanchungnula was the damsel in the family of Pathian and was

the goddess of rain and water. It was said that she was the daughter of Pathian. She

pours out water whenever human beings need water.43

3.2. Sakhua spirit:

The word „sakhua‟ is a combination of two words, „sa’ and „khua‟. „Sa‟ means the

creator and progenitor of tribe or clan or race; and „khua’ means protector who

dispenses wellbeing to human beings. 44 Sakhua was the family or clan god. In this

sense, the Mizo traditional religion was inseparably connected with his clans and

families. Since sakhua spirit was the being who created, built up, protected and cared

for the family, it was crucial to offer sacrifice to sakhua spirit. Negligence of sacrifice

certainly caused sakhua to be angry and it was necessary to please the spirit otherwise

41
H.L. Malsawma, Sociology of the Mizos (Guwahati: Spectrum Publications, 2002), 138. Hereafter
cited as „Malsawma, Sociology of the Mizos‟.
42
V.L.Siama, Mizo History, 10. See also Chitta Ranjan Nag, Mizo Society in Transition (New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1993), 47. Hereafter cited as „C.R. Nag, Mizo Society in Transition‟.
43
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 109.
44
James Dokhuma, Hmanlai Mizo Kalphung [Mizo Traditional Ways of Life] (Aizawl: J.D. Press,
1992), 42. Hereafter cited as „Dokhuma, Hmanlai Mizo‟.

30
the sakhua would withdraw protection from the family and the family would be

vulnerable to the attack of evil spirits. Frequent illnesses in the family were thought to

be a sign or an indication that sakhua had been neglected. When the sacrifice was

made only the very nearest relatives of the clan might share in the feast that followed.

Any Mizo male had traditionally adopted his family religion. Women were considered

to have no sakhua of their own; it was the sakhua of her parents or husband which

was responsible for her continued welfare and existence. Children took after the

sakhua of their fathers. If a man wished to embrace the sakhua of another clan, he

might do so after performing a certain ceremony and after this he had to sever all

connections with his relatives or clan members. Such a man is known as „saphun’

which means implanted into the new sakhua and clan. 45 No Mizo would embrace the

sakhua of another family or clan unless he was sure that the new sakhua would be

powerful enough to protect him from the evil spirits. 46

3.3. Khaltu or guardian spirit:

Another important spirit to whom sacrifice was made at one stage or other in life was

khaltu spirit, who can be described as a guardian angel of an individual. Khaltu was

not as exalted as sakhua but was intimately connected with the life and welfare of

individuals. Every living creature was also supposed to have „thla‟ (soul) and as long

as the soul remain in the body the person was a living being. If a person underwent a

frightening experience, such as being mauled by wild animals or being captured by an

enemy, the soul was similarly frightened and to restore proper and normal relations

with the khaltu, a sacrifice must be made. Until this was done, the soul would not be

45
Zairema „The Mizos and Their Religion‟, 35.
46
„Custom of Lushai Society‟ [article online]; available from
http://www.webindia123.com/Mizoram/People/Lushai20/religion.htm; Internet; accessed; 9 January,
2006.

31
free from fright and the body restored to normal living. When the experience was

really terrifying, a sacrifice of a goat was made; the tail was cut off and worn round

the neck with a string. To break off this string was very serious for the Mizos, perhaps

as serious as breaking the sacred tread for Hindus.

3.4. Malevolent spirits:

Apart from good spirits as discussed above, the Mizos strongly believed in the

existence of numerous malignant evil spirits who were believed to cause human

misery, suffering and misfortunes. Numerous spirits were mentioned in accordance

with their abodes. For instance, if a certain spirit is believed to be possessed by a tree,

it is called „tree spirit‟ meaning the malignant spirit of a tree. Some of the evil spirits

can be found below:

Ramhuai:

Ramhuai means „the malignant spirit of the forest or jungle‟ and they existed

everywhere in the forest, but were believed to be in certain places such as a spring,

banyan tree, cliff and water. They often haunted people and appeared in various

disguises.

Hmuithla:

This was an evil spirit which is equivalent to a ghost in English. It was believed that

they were wandering about usually at night causing mischief such as disturbing

people, animals and chicken in their sleep. Hmuithla was also said to be a fore- runner

of death who would hover round the house where death was approaching and who

could sometimes make strange, unusual noises.

32
Phung:

Phung was a group of evil spirits of dark complexion and gigantic appearance which

caused people to suffer from insanity and epilepsy. The Mizos called epilepsy as

phungzawl that means „possessed by phung‟. Convulsion or spasm in children was

also believed to be caused by the displeasure of phung.

Khawhring:

Mizos believed that khawhring spirits were in close touch with evil eyes on people‟s

food and drink, and thus conceived khawhring as „evil eyes‟. As these spirits

bewitched food and drink, the Mizos therefore offered a portion of food to evil spirits

before eating and drinking. If someone was believed to be possessed by khawhring,

killing that person was almost legal. 47 The Mizos believed that khawhring spirit is

contagious and hereditary, and takes the form of passing from the hostess to another

person, who speaks with the voice of the original hostess. Mostly women were found

to be possessed by these spirits. If someone was suspected to be such, they were

usually burnt alive or drowned for it was believed that contagious malignant spirits

could be extinguished only in these ways.

3.5. Human being:

Mizos believed in the existence of the body and soul. The soul must be inside the

body that enables a person to be a complete being. The Mizos believed that the soul of

the human being was superior to those of animals. If the soul of a person was out of

the body, there would be a physical ailment of some kind. Each human soul was

47
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 7-8; See also T.C. Hodson, „Lushai‟ in James Hasting ed., Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics Vol. VIII (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1915), 198.

33
believed to have a different guardian and guiding spirit called „khaltu‟ who took total

charge of all his or her well being. This concept of khaltu is almost identical to the

Jewish concept of a guardian angel and khaltu could be thought to be the apostle of

„sakhua‟ (religion).48 At death, the soul would leave behind the body and go to „mithi

khua’ (the village of the death) or ‘pialral’ (heaven). The status of the soul after death

was very much determined by the actions in this world. The status and destiny of the

soul in this world was much better than mithi khua. Some folktales of the Mizos tell

that the soul of the dead after living a painful and depressing life for a certain period

in mithi khua would escape in the form of dew that would evaporate and vanish away

forever.49

4. THE ROLE OF PRIEST IN WORSHIP:

Sakhaw biak or sabiak (religious worship) was family or clan worship of the spirit of

a clan. It is a kind of family worship of the good spirits like Pathian and others. This

was obligatory for every Mizo.50 In the Mizo religious worship the priests played very

important roles, the functions and roles of the priest can be described as follows:

Sadawt:

Sadawt was the title of the priest of the clan. Sadawt was usually elected and

appointed by the chief and his elders to take the religious responsibilities for all

communal religious sacrifices and worship. The primary duty was to perform all the

sacrificial rites in their particular ways, prepare the sacrificial animals, and all the

48
Zairema, „Kristian nih hmaa Mizo Sakhua‟ [Pre-Christian Mizo Religion] in H. Vanlalauva, Mizo
Miziaa Pathian Thu [Theology in Mizo Thought] (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1988), 36.
Hereafter cited as „Zairema, Mizo Religion‟.
49
R.L. Thanmawia, Mizo Poetry (Aizawl: Din Din Heaven, 1998), 18-19.
50
Laltluangliana Khiangte, Mizo Drama: Origin, Development and Themes (Delhi: COSMO
Publications, 1993), 190.

34
rituals for the worship. Worship to the clan deity could be performed only under his

guidance. The sadawt was an important official in the community and he was the one

on whom the chief always relied. 51

Thlahpawi:

Thlahpawi was the helper or assistant of the sadawt, but when the sadawt was absent

or unable to perform religious sacrifices due to sickness, the thlahpawi usually took

his place.

Bawlpu:

The primary function of the bawlpu was to perform sacrificial offering to evil spirits

that was intended to heal the sick through propitiation and exorcism. For the Mizos,

illness and evil spirits were connected because evil spirits were known as causing

sickness among the human beings. In this regard everyone who suffered from illness

consulted bawlpu. Thus bawlpu played a role of ambassador by acting as a go-

between evil spirits and human beings with his power of intervention. 52 Bawlpu was

common to all clans whereas sadawt belonged to a particular clan. Since the Mizos

had no permanent place for sacrifice, they prepared an altar at the time of religious

ceremonies with the guidance of the priest.

Zawlnei:

According to K. Zawla, there were two kinds of prophets in the pre-Christian Mizo

society. One was a real prophet and the other was an imitating prophet. There were a

51
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 11.
52
T. Vanlaltlani, The Experience of Pathian (High God) and Other Deities in Mizo Religion and Its
Influence on Mizo Christians (Bangalore: Unpublished MTh Thesis, United Theological College,
1990), 32.

35
number of prophets in Mizoram and these prophets visited villages and those who

were sick and in difficulties approached and consulted them. Traditionally they were

never considered as healers, but as the ones who could prescribe the right sacrifices to

offer through the priest.53 The zawlnei have their own terminology and all the words

uttered were mostly in poetical words. There was one assistant or helper who

interpreted the word of the zawlnei to people. This prophetic office had prepared for

the coming of Christianity to Mizoram for it was reported that one, Darphawka from

south Mizoram prophesied the coming of the British and the Christian mission over

50 years before their advent in Mizoram. 54

5. THE CONCEPT OF LIFE AFTER DEATH:

The Mizos had a strong traditional belief in the existence of life after death.

Immediately after the death the spirit left the human body and went to tungchaw, a

bed-post which has a hole to keep small articles) and after that it climbed up to the

beam of the house, from there to the back door and finally deserted the house. The

soul of the dead was supposed to wander around in the village for about three months

before leaving this world for an eternal place. His/her usual place at the family meal

was kept vacant and some food was set aside for the departed soul. The soul was then

taken to „Rih‟ lake in Chin Hills (Myanmar) about three kilometres from Mizoram.

From there the soul proceeded to „Hringlang‟ hill from where he could see his village.

He turned so frequently in viewing his village that he could not make progress on his

journey. He was then made to wear the „hawilo‟ flower and drink water called

‘lungloh tui’. He then lost all his longing for home and desire to go back and his

53
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 102.
54
Lalrinawma, Mizo Ethos: Changes and Challenges (Aizawl: Mizoram Publication Board, 2005),
120. Hereafter cited as „Lalrinawma, Mizo Ethos‟.

36
longing for family was also erased. He then swiftly proceeded to his eternal

destination.

The early Mizo society believed in the existence of two different abodes for the dead

people. One was called „mithi khua’ (village of the dead) and the other place was

called „pialral’ (paradise).

Mithi khua:

According to V.L. Siama, a prominent Mizo historian, Mizos believed that the earth is

eight layers thick and the mithi khua is in the last layer. 55 It was a dull shadowy place

where everything was on a much lower scale than in the present world. Life in the

mithi khua was miserable compared to this world. It was also believed that the souls

of the criminals and those who were anti-social would go to the mithi khua and lived

there eternally. They had no chance to escape from that place to another place. Mithi

khua was meant for those who did not performed thangchhuah.

Pialral:

The other place of abode for the departed soul was pialral (paradise). According to

traditional belief, there were only a few people who were entitled to enter pialral.

Those who performed thangchhuah sacrifice, the new born child who died in infancy

and the virgin. Those spirits would go to pialral where there was no more work to be

done. They would stay there forever enjoying all the good things and everything was

provided there free of cost or works. There would be no more pain, misery and

suffering and they attained eternal bliss.

55
V.L. Siama, Mizo History, 8. See also C.G. Varghese & R.L. Thanzawna, A History of the Mizos,
Vol. I (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1997), 326-327. Hereafter cited as „Varghese and
Thanzawna, History of the Mizos‟.

37
Theologically, Mizo religion therefore, was a religion for the rich people only because

for the majority of the poor people there was no way of performing the series of the

costly feasts or thangchhuah sacrifices. Therefore, in the Mizo traditional religion

only the rich and well-to do were entitled to enjoy the bliss of pialral and the poor

were destined to be at mithi khua.

6. MEANS OF SALVATION IN MIZO PRIMAL RELIGION:

The Mizos believed in the existence of soul and life after death and the main objective

of the primal religion was to enter into Pialral (paradise) after this worldly life. The

only means to enter into pialral was to obtain the title called „thangchhuah‟ which

means „extraordinary distinguished‟. There are two ways to obtain thangchhuah- one

was to perform a series of sacrificial public feasts (in lama thangchhuah) and the

other was by killing prescribed wild animals (ram lama thangchhuah). The main

purposes of thangchhuah are that the performer might be fed with rice in pialral

without any work to do. Secondly, that they might escape the pellet56 of Pawla on

their way to pialral and lastly, that they might earn honour and respect in the society

as long as they live.

6.1. In lama thangchhuah (Series of sacrificial feasts):

According to Mizo primal religion, there were about six stages to perform in order to

obtain the coveted title called „thangchhuah’ which means „extraordinary

distinguished‟. People who had performed these series of sacrificial feasts were

distinguished from ordinary people and were treated with more consideration than the

56
Pellet is a small hard ball made from any substance like iron, wax, clay, etc.

38
other people. A man had to perform the following series of feasts in order to be

entitled to the thangchhuah position.

1. Establishing religion (Sakung)

2. Chawng sacrifice

3. Mithun sacrifice (Sedawichhun)

4. Honouring ancestors (Mithirawplam)

5. Khuangchawi sacrifice

6. Second khuangchawi with mithun sacrifice

7. Completion of all religious rites (Zawhzaw-zo)57

In all these religious customs and ceremonies, drinking rice-beer was part of the

ceremonies and most of the traditional dances and singings were performed. J.

Shakespear clearly describes that all these feasts were performed with the idea of

pleasing God.58 It was not therefore, in their view, drinking bouts nor mere feasts, but

deeply religious to please God.

a) Sakung (Establishing religion):

The Mizos are deeply religious because none of the family existed without

establishing religious sacrifice. The most important sacrifice any Mizo new family

had to perform was „sakung’ or worship of the family or clan god. A castrated pig

always had to be kept by every family for this purpose. Sakung sacrifice was

performed by the sadawt priest and only members of the family could be present at

the ceremony. The sadawt having pronounced blessings to all the household members

57
N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 94.
58
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 69.

39
would kill the pig. The meat was cooked inside the house. When everything was

ready the sadawt, standing in front of the sacrificial post, recited the incantation

before offering the meat set aside for sacrifice to god. A day of rest would then be

observed.

Theologically the main purpose of the sakung was to establish one‟s family religion

with the aims of getting protection from the sakhua spirit who was the strong

protector. All kinds of sicknesses and illnesses were ascribed to the work of the evil

spirits and the main protection that they expected were perhaps from the torments of

the evil spirits.

b) Chawng sacrifice:

The chawng sacrifice was not only a religious and public sacrificial ceremony, but

ensured the good health of the performers. Two boars and a sow were killed, a boar

was for the sacrifice to god and the meat of the sow was for children. Sadawt was the

master of sacrifice and thlahpawi (assistant) also has a role to play. The sacrifice took

four days. After the chawng feast has been completed the performer has to continue

dawinochhui sacrifice which included the following – chung, vansen, hnuaite,

hnuaipui. But this need not however be done at once it could be any time within two

or three years. 59

59
Bimal J. Dev & Dilip Kumar Lahiri, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies (Delhi: Mittal Publications,
1983), 103.

40
The striking theological point for our present research is that the chawng sacrifice was

a sacrifice to god. According to Lalhmuaka, this sacrifice could be comparable to a

kind of praising God in Mizo Christianity today. 60

c) Sedawichhun:

Sedawichhun ceremony lasted for four days, the first day was inchhe siam ni, the

second day was zupui ni, the third day ruaipui ni and the last day was the chawng

sacrifice. One male young mithun or gayal (domesticated animal), one boar and three

small pigs were necessary. Religiously interpreted „khua’ was worshipped by

performing a mithun sacrifice and „sa‟ was worshipped by performing a boar

sacrifice. The Mizo family had to set aside the first biggest male mithun for this

sacrifice and it was no longer lawful to sell or do anything with that mithun except for

sacrifice.

The most striking point for our present study is worship of „sa‟ and „khua‟, which can

be regarded as the Supreme Being. After sedawichhun sacrifice minor religious rites

with its paraphernalia such as hnuaite, hnuaipui and others were again performed with

all their incantations. The whole process of sacrificial ceremonies signified the

worship of traditional god.

d) Mithirawplam (Honouring ancestors):

This sacrifice lasted for four days. The first, second and the fourth day were similar to

the previous sacrifice mentioned above. The most striking day was the third day

where mithirawplam was performed. The preparation and procedures were almost

60
Lalhmuaka, Zoram Thim Ata Engah [Zoram: From Darkness to Light] (Aizawl: Synod Publication
Board, 1988), 74. Hereafter cited as „Lalhmuaka, Zoram‟.

41
identical with the previous ceremonies except for the mithirawplam ceremony.

Therefore the author will describe only the significant part of it.61

Mithirawplam was an important step towards and part of a big khuangchawi festival

in honour of one‟s ancestors and deceased near relatives in which their effigies were

carried in a group and seated on the platform specially made for them. In the middle

of the effigies one „thlahpa‟ (ancestor) was made taller and bigger than the other

effigies. Thlahpa was the central figure in this ceremony representing the original

ancestor of the clan. At the inauguration, the performer gave all the effigies rice-beer

on the platform and started crying out loudly, calling their names. Then the platform

was carried to the centre of the village, beating with the gong. The whole villagers

were watching with great respect and awe. After that the mithun was again killed and

continued the feasts.

A modern Mizo socialogist H.L. Malsawma and Indian sociologist Ranjan Nag do not

hesitate to see mithirawplam in terms of ancestor worship. H.L Malsawma says that

ancestor worship which is a very ancient religious practice was practised also by the

ancient Mizos.62

The author‟s view and argument is that the primary purpose of mithirawplam was the

worship of god, who created their ancestors and also honoured their ancestors in their

worship of god. Furthermore in mithirawplam, not only the effigies of the deceased

ancestors were made, but also the images of infants and children were included.

Therefore, it could not be ancestor worship. In support of this view, Charles H.

61
N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 104-106.
62
H.L. Malsawma, Sociology of the Mizos, 144-145; C.R. Nag, Mizo Society in Transition, 48.

42
Kraft‟s critique maintains that the term [ancestor worship] is the product of western

worldview limitations, rather than an accurate designation of such customs. More

appropriate would be a term such as „ancestor reverence‟ or „ancestor veneration‟ or

even „ancestor cult‟.63

e) Khuangchawi:

Khuangchawi sacrificial feast was the final means to earn the coveted title

„thangchhuah‟. In the Mizo traditional religion, sakung, dawino chhui, sedawi and

mithirawplam were all prerequisite and preparatory steps in ascending order to the

khuangchawi feast. None of the steps were to be skipped for khuangchawi feast was

meritoriously honoured because it was essential for the attainment of a special title

thangchhuah, which customarily meant performing and fulfilling all the religious rites

and domestic feasts. Khuangchawi ceremony lasted for four days and the preparations

of feasts and its paraphernalia were exactly the same as previous feasts. The most

important point for our study is the worship of sa and khua for which the performer

should kill at least three grown up mithuns, two boars and two young pigs. He should

also kill a cow mithun for children. 64 According to Liangkhaia, a Mizo historian and

the prominent leader of the church stated that ‘khua’ was worshipped through

sacrificing two bull mithuns and‟ sa‟ was worshipped by killing a hog. A mithun was

killed for the public feast.65

The third day was the most colourful day. In the evening the performer, his wife and

children were placed together in a specially designed frame box called „khuanghlang’

63
Kraft, Anthropology, 204-205.
64
Sangkima, Mizo: Society and Social Change (Guwahati: Spectrum Publications, 1992), 57.
65
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin [Mizo History] (Aizawl: Hmingliana & Sons, 1948; reprint Aizawl: LTL
Publications, 2002), 49.

43
and carried around the street of the village. As they moved along, the couple threw

cotton, hens, brass pots, clothes and sometimes they included guns and gongs. People

scrambled for these gifts. This sacrifice was performed to propitiate good spirit called

„khuanu’, who was thought to look after the destiny and welfare of the people. One of

the most outstanding and colourful features of the feast was khuallam, a welcoming

dance performed usually by men.

After all the religious rites and sacrificial feasts were over, the performer became

„thangchhuahpa’. He was dubbed as zawhzawzo meaning „one who had completed

everything‟. Pialral was now virtually his place of abode when he died. He was now

entitled to open windows as wide as he pleased; to build house with veranda and to

wear a specially designed cloth in red and black stripes called „thangchhuah puan’.

6.2. Ram lama Thangchhuah (Killing prescribed wild animals):

Hunting animals had theological significance in the Mizo traditional religion for it

provided the way to obtain the prestigious title of „thangchhuah‟. In order to get this

title a person had to kill animals such as elephant, bear, wild bison, stag, barking

deer, wild boar and human ( after clan feuds and internecine wars were forbidden, the

killing of human being especially enemies was exempted). Besides these, king cobra

(viper),66 eagle and flying lemur were to be killed. One may have killed over a

hundred animals but unless he killed all the aforementioned creatures, he could not

earn the thangchhuah title. After killing each prescribed animal, a ceremony called

„ai’ had to be performed this required the killing of a domestic animal. 67 If he did not

perform this ceremony, the spirit of the tiger might haunt him or he could not have
66
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 14.
67
C.L. Hminga, Life and Witness of the Churches of Mizoram (Lunglei: Baptist Church of Mizoram,
1987), 36. Hereafter cited as „Hminga, Life and Witness‟.

44
any influence or power over the spirit of the tiger. The thangchhuah person possessed

the spirits of all the animals in order to take him safely to pialral (paradise).

From this it is clear that the Mizo expectation of pialral was not too high. This may be

due to the poverty and scarcity of food in the hill tracts that forced the Mizos to work

all day long to get enough food for the entire family. Therefore their poor daily lives

formed their expectation of pialral, where food is available without any labours; this

understanding made pialral as the place of bliss or paradise to the Mizo people.

In his concluding remarks about the Mizo Religion, Saiaithanga writes, „Mizo religion

begins and ends with the fulfilment of the prescribed religious rites without touching

any morality. Fulfilments were the primary concerns and even immoralities such as

telling lies or stealing were neglected for these immoralities could not negate the

performers of the feast of meritorious sacrifice to the entrance of pialral. The futuristic

expectations were neither based on righteousness nor justice, but on the prestige to

outdo others only.‟68

7. COMMUNITY WORSHIP:

In the primitive Mizo society the sense of community was so strong that they gave

priority to their community in their thinking and actions rather than to their individual

needs. Ultimately the Mizo identified himself or herself with the community and the

village community became their own identity. When a Mizo met a stranger, he would

ask the name of his/her village instead of asking his/her name. In reply the person

would tell the name of the village. Communitarian life was very strong in the Mizo

68
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 42.

45
society and as a result there were numbers of community worship practices in the

Mizo traditional religion which will now be discussed.

7.1. Kawngpui Siam:

Kawngpui siam was a public religious sacrifice which was performed every year as an

obligation. This was a religious community sacrifice asking god to bless the whole

village with animals and human (enemies) heads. 69 According to Malsawma, one or

two days before the festival, the village priest, the chief and the leading persons of the

village performed this ceremony together to invoke the blessing of Pathian for a

hunting party which was supposed to go on a hunt and provide meat for the feast as

well as for their families.70 This was done to ensure that in the New Year the villagers

would be lucky in hunting, trapping animals, capturing slaves, winning in wars and

taking heads of enemies and also that the crop would grow well.

A place was cleared on the road side or just outside the village and ash-sand was

strewn on it. Two posts were erected on each side of this place and a cane was hung

up between them across the road. The sadawt then sacrificed the pig and chanted all

the names of the animals except tiger. After the sacrificial meat was cooked, they

would offer certain parts of meat to the spirit and the rest would be eaten by the

participants at the sacrificial place. No leftovers were allowed. The road surface

between the two posts would be evenly dusted with ash in order to get the foot print

of any animals crossing that place at night. They all left the sacrificial place by

evening. On the night this ceremony was performed no strangers were allowed to

enter the village and if any strangers came, they were asked to go on elsewhere.

69
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 121.
70
H. L. Malsawma, Sociology of the Mizos, 126.

46
Absentees were liable to be fined „salam’. The chief and his party would sing and

drink rice-beer for the whole night.71

Early next morning, some young men would go to the place where ash was put to see

the foot print of animals and carefully scrutinize the place. If they happened to find an

animal foot print, they would interpret it as a good sign for success in hunting. On the

other hand, if human or tiger foot prints72 were found, these would be interpreted as a

harbinger of accidental death and they would have to perform the same sacrificial

ceremony again.

7.2. Fano dawi:

Fano dawi was an annual sacrifice to god at the time of cultivating with the purpose

of asking god to protect and bless crops so that they would have a luxuriant crop. This

was performed at the gate of the road leading to the jhum. Since it was a communal

sacrifice, any paraphernalia would be brought and performed by the sadawt priest.

After the incantation, sacrificial animals would be killed and feasting would take

place at the house of the village chief. A day was observed as a rest day, even

pounding of the rice was not allowed. By observing this they hoped to harvest good

crops and to have plants and vegetables which flourished.73 The first generation

71
Selet Thanga, Pi Pu Len Lai [Days of the Ancestors] (Aizawl: Zoram Press, 1975), 65.
72
For the explanation of the confusion on the issue of the footprint of an animal and a tiger, Lalsawma,
senior church leader and prominent writer has said that from the time of our ancestors, Mizos never
considered tiger as animal because it brought only tragedy and death to humankind. (Lalsawma,
Interviewed, Durtlang: 23 August, 2009). C.Rokhuma, senior citizen and well known writer also
emphasized that traditionally Mizos never included tiger in the family of animals. (C.Rokhuma,
Interviewed, Mission Vengthlang, Aizawl: 12 August, 2009). In support of this view, K. Hawla Sailo
has written that the tiger is an enemy to the Mizo people (K.Hawla Sailo, Mizo Ngaihdan Dek Che
Tham [That Moved the Mizo Thought], Kolkata: Author, 2001), 161. Moreover, Lalrinawmi Ralte has
also mentioned that the most feared and greatest enemy of the villagers was the tiger. (Lalrinawmi
Ralte, Upa Chalhnuna: Mizo Nun leh Kohhran [Elder Chalhnuna: Mizo Life and Church], Aizawl:
Shalom Publications, 2009), 47.
73
Dokhuma, Hmanlai Mizo, 33-34.

47
Christians did not participate in this sacrificial ceremony and did not even observe the

day as a rest day and thus problems started between the Mizo Christians and the non-

Christians.74

The Mizo traditional religion when examined from the heritagist reading can be seen

to have some elements which can be taken as theological hermeneutics such as the

concept of pleasing god. From the beginning to the end of all religious sacrificial

ceremonies a number of sacrifices were made to please god. Participation of the

whole community was evident in all these religious feasts. Children, youths and adults

received their own share in the ceremonies. Equality played an important part in all

the feasts uniting and integrating the whole village community except in the sakung

ceremony. In all other religious rites all clans participated equally and this gave a

sense of equality and brotherhood. The rights of children and women were

respected and they had their own share to enjoy without any guilt and shame. On the

day of khuangchawi, the first priority was given to the wife of thangchhuahpa, this

indicated that women were not looked down even though Mizo society was generally

patriarchal. Sharing by giving these feasts demonstrated the morality of the

performers, who had been benevolent to the poor and the needy. Sharing food and

wealth for everybody without guilt and shame were the morality of the thangchhuah.

However, the western missionaries failed to see all these good elements in the Mizo

primal religion like pleasing god, equality, and sharing and community participation

in all the religious feasts. They blindly disapproved and negated these as pagan

religion with drinking bouts and animistic practices.

74
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 27.

48
8. DEBATE IN THE POSTCOLONIAL PERIOD:

I have stated that the Mizo primal religion was, according to the view of the western

missionaries, crude and animistic. In other words from the 19th century missionary

paradigm, any tribal or primal religion was regarded as animism. In the colonial

period and in fear of the missionaries who were powerful and authoritative in the

administration of the church the native people preferred to be silent. In this

postcolonial period, the local churches including the Mizo church came forward and

started retrieving their primal religion in order to make theological reflections in their

context. Consequently, the ongoing debate among the Mizo theologians began as to

whether the Mizo primal religion was animism or not.

8.1. Critique on Traditional Mission approach:

This approach sees the Mizo primal religion as „animism or evil spirit worship‟. In

fact, this can be called a colonial missiological approach because it takes the

traditional mission paradigm which sees the validity of Christianity at the expense of

any other religions. All the western missionaries like J.H. Lorrain and H.W.

Savigde, 75 J.M. Lloyd, Lewis E. Mendus and the Mizo pastor Saiaithanga 76 held this

theological view in interpreting the Mizo religion. The Mizo primal religion was a

mixture of worship of the Supreme Being and making sacrifices to evil spirits in order

to placate their hostilities. The animistic approach reduces the worship of God and

maximises the worship of evil spirits as the main religion. The traditional mission

model emphasizes the transcendence of God and minimizes immanence of God. This

theologically biased image of the Mizo god was imbalanced and made room for
75
F.W. Savigde, „Religious without Scripture, the Religion of the Hill men‟ in Missionary Herald, Vol.
87, No. 7 July (London: BMS, 1907), 205-206.
76
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 1.

49
wrong interpretations. For example, J.H. Lorrain, the pioneer missionary to Mizoram

compiled a Dictionary of the Lushai Language, in which he defines the highest Mizo

religious performance khuangchawi as „the name of the public feast given by chiefs

and well-to-do Lushais‟.77 This definition nullifies the religious significance of the

Mizo religion because in khuangchawi, there was a sacrifice to god and it was the

climax of the Mizo traditional religion. 78 Lorrain left undefined all these religious

aspects of the Mizo primal religion.

8.1.1. Historicization of Christian Faith:

The missionaries understood that they had come to build the kingdom that was not of

this world. Therefore, to introduce Christianity they historicized the Christian faith at

the expense of rejecting the local religion. R.S. Sugirtharajah rightly delineates the

historicization of the colonial interpreters,

This heightened notion of historicity for Christian faith enabled

colonial interpreters to portray non-biblical religions as the pagan

„other‟ of Christianity, needing deliverance. The sacred texts of other

religions were treated as „mythological absurdities and amatory

trifles.

The Mizo did not have sacred text or texts, but they had their traditional religious

worships and practices. David Kyles, after describing Mizo religion as animism,

portrays the Mizos as having no religion at all. As he put it,

That is to say, they have no religion at all. They do not worship any

gods, or goddesses, but are keenly aware of the unseen spirit world
77
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary of the Lushai Language (Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1940; reprint Aizawl:
Tribal Research Institute, 1982), 266. Hereafter cited as „J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary‟.
78
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 49. See also N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 100,107.

50
 of which they are terribly afraid every moment of their lives. The

apostle describes their condition exactly when he says, „for as much

then as the children are partakers of flesh and blood, He also himself

likewise took part of the same; that through death he might destroy

him that had the power of death, that is the devil; and deliver them

who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage‟

(Heb. 2:15).79

This is a biased statement on the Mizo primal religion because the Mizos did worship

God (Pathian), but unfortunately that worship was seen as drinking bouts for drinking

rice-beer was part and parcel of the primal religious ceremony. 80

8.1.2. Approaches to Animism:

Colonial officers like J. Shakespear, A.G. McCall, 81 and missionaries like F.W.

Savidge, J.H. Lorrain, David Kyles, J. Merion Lloyd and others describe the Mizo

religion as crude animism. In one sense it is partially right to maintain this view

because the primitive Mizos offered sacrifices to the evil spirits in order to appease

and propitiate the evil spirits. But these sacrifices did not represent the Mizo religion

as a whole. Moreover, these sacrifices to evil spirits were not, firstly, obligatory for

the Mizos; and secondly, worshipping evil spirits was to divert and dissuade evil spirit

from tormenting men and women. Still further, these evil spirits were regarded as the

prime enemies of human beings. 82 It was really unlikely that the Mizos worshipped

79
David Kyles, Lorrain of the Lushais: Romance and Realism on the North-East Frontier of India
(London: The Carey Press, 1944), 6.
80
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 58.
81
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 197.
82
C. Rosiama, „Mizo Sakhua‟ [Mizo Religion] in B. Lalthangliana, ed., Hranghluite Sulhnu [Footprints
of the Heroes] (Aizawl: RTM Press, 1996), 79. Hereafter cited as „C. Rosiama, Mizo Sakhua‟.

51
their enemies, rather sacrifice to evil spirits indicated that they deceived their enemies.

Therefore, the author will develop three approaches to the so called Mizo animism in

order to substantiate a postcolonial theological perspective:

(a) Dissuading approach:

This approach sees that animism or worship of evil spirit was to dissuade evil spirits

from tormenting human beings with illness and various sicknesses. The evil spirits

were thought lower than the human beings and the spirits were treated as if they were

badly-behaved children who expected be coaxed. Therefore, it was not worshipping

rather it was like dissuading or coaxing the malignant spirits.83 J. Merion Lloyd makes

it clear and states,

„Lushai sacrifices were intended rather to divert or dissuade evil spirits

from tormenting men and women. An altar was made afresh every time it

was required. The odd thing is that when sacrifices were made everything

was in miniature. Evil spirits were believed to be small (rather like gnomes

and pixies). An altar was therefore, small- only a few inches high.‟84

Therefore, dissuading here means to persuade evil spirits not to harm or torment

human beings. It is; therefore, wrong to identify dissuading with worship in the Mizo

traditional religion.

83
J. Merion Lloyd, History of the Churches in Mizoram (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1991), 51.
Hereafter cited as „Lloyd, History of the Churches‟.
84
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 19-20.

52
(b) Deceiving approach:

In the deceiving approach the Mizo did not worship evil spirits through their

sacrificial offerings. In fact deceiving is neither worshipping nor submission to the

spirits. Deceivable beings are lower than human beings in knowledge. 85 In the Mizo

concept, the evil spirits were never thought to be superior to human beings; rather

they were inferior and could be out-witted and deceived. J.M. Lloyd delineates the

concept of deceiving in this way,

„Hens were killed and the beaks, the entrails and the claws sacrificed on the

altar. The evil spirit assumed that they were being given the hens

complete. Whenever a man was ill a clay model of a woman was made for

the evil spirits. Again when a woman was ill it was a model of a man that

was offered. There were other occasions when evil spirits were deceived.

If such a spirit was believed to be trying to take away a new born baby it

was promptly deposited in a neighbour‟s house. The parents would go

along to the house pretending it was not their baby but asking rather,

„Have you got a little slave baby that you don‟t want?‟ Ugly names were

also given to children so that the evil spirits would think them undesirable

and would not want to steal them!86

Viewed in the light of this approach, it can be advocated that the Mizo did not

worship evil spirits as God but rather deceived them in order to have a wholesome

healthy life from their capricious and malignant effects on human beings.

85
Lalnghinglova, Zoram Nghahchhan [Foundation of Zoram] (Aizawl: Saikungi, 2000), 121. Hereafter
cited as „Lalnghinglova, Zoram Nghahchhan‟.
86
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 20.

53
(c) Adversary approach:

This approach sees that the Mizo conceptualization of evil spirits as adversaries or

enemies who create in their minds constant fear in the world, who never do any good to

human beings. No adoration was shown and the meat offering to evil spirits were the

worst part which cannot be eaten by human beings. It was not based on love. Chapman

and Clark write,

„As was described earlier, the people lived in constant fear of evil spirits,

and the religion was mainly an attempt to ward off the malice of the spirits

by spells, taboos and sacrifices. They sacrificed animals, but usually

offered to the spirits the less edible portions. As Chani nu (Chani‟s

mother) once commented, what we gave to the spirits was only what we

ourselves did not want. Our old religion was not worth much, was it?‟ 87

In the light of this approach, the evil spirits are the main source of injustice, injury and

all kinds of suffering in the world. A destructive rather than a constructive attitude

towards human beings cannot necessarily lead to worship. How can the Mizos worship

these adversary spirits? It is therefore, not right to identify the Mizo traditional religion

as animism.

9. POSTCOLONIAL APPROACHES TO MIZO PRIMAL RELIGION:

As has been discussed in the previous section, Mizo primal religion was described as

animism. It is therefore, necessary to see the validity of the term in postcolonial

subaltern approaches. When we say postcolonial approaches, the author may includes–

87
Chapman E & M. Clark, Mizo Miracle (Madras: Christian Literature Service, 1969), 90. Hereafter
cited as „Chapman & Clark, Mizo Miracle‟.

54
a theistic approach, an unknown god approach, an inclusive approach, a fulfilment

approach and a henotheistic approach. The Mizo religious customs from sakung to

khuangchawi and community worship will be assessed in the light of these five

approaches with the theological hermeneutics in a postcolonial perspective. However,

the author does not claim that the Mizo traditional religion was a completed one without

Christianity; rather it had elements to take as theological hermeneutics for

reinterpretations in the light of the gospel.

9.1. Theistic approach:

This approach advocates that the Mizo traditional religion was theistic; they worshipped

the Supreme Being whom they called „Pathian’ and never worshipped evil spirits. It is

therefore not right to identify the Mizo religion as animism. Nevertheless, no one paid

any attention to these subaltern voices at the time of the colonial regime because they

dared not challenge the missionaries. It was Liangkhaia, the first generation Mizo

theologian and church leader, who defended this theological position in connection with

the Mizo primal religion. As Liangkhaia puts it, „in its truest sense the Mizo does not

worship evil spirits, but faithfully seeks God.‟88 K. Zawla, a teacher and lay leader in

the Mizo church was also the exponent of this theological position and he writes,

„The Mizo religion is not a sacrifice to evil spirits; rather it is a worship and

submission of the family to Pathian(God), who is the creator, guardian and

dispenser of blessing to human beings. It is not obligatory to do this

religious worship every year, although there are certain times to do so.‟89

88
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 49-50.
89
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 78.

55
A critical survey of the Mizo religious practices and ceremonies from the beginning

(sakung) to the end (khuangchawi) and community worship shows that there was

worship of Pathian (God). Sa (creator) and khua (protector) are corporately worshipped

by sacrificing pig and mithun or gayal (domesticated animal). Therefore, it is a valid

fact that the Mizos worshipped Pathian (God). However, it was not a perfect

understanding but a vague understanding, which was far from perfect in the light of the

gospel.

The colonial mission did not recognize that the concept of a Supreme Being had already

been in existence among the Mizos and did not incorporate it into theological

hermeneutics. Edwin Rowlands, the missionary to the Mizo people, who had deeply

studied and participated in the Mizo religious and social functions, accepted that the

Mizo people offered sacrifices to God. As he writes in the report in 1899,

During the first tour, we witnessed one of the Lushai feasts, in which as

they say, they worship their God. They generally sacrifice to demons, of

which they are in great fear; but two or three times a year they worship

their God. Two of these feasts are held; one after the clearing of the land

for sowing, and the other after the „harvest home‟. This was a slight

degradation of religion not to be forgotten; for two or three days the large

village was „given to drunkenness‟; old women and old men would mutter

in drunken accents, that they were worshipping God.‟90

90
K. Thanzauva, comp., Reports of the Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian Church of Wales on
Mizoram 1894-1957 (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1997), 7. Hereafter cited as „K. Thanzauva,
Reports‟.

56
This fact may be the proof of the worship of God by the Mizos. In the light of

postcolonial criticism, this theistic approach retrieves and rediscovers what had been

lost in the Mizo traditional religion and it highlights hermeneutical issues for

reinterpretation. As a matter of fact, the writings of the western colonial officers and

missionaries are challenged and corrected, and a close connection between a Supreme

Being (God) and human beings in the Mizo primal religion is reclaimed despite its

deficiencies. However, it does not deny the existence of many kinds of sacrifices to

evil spirits. It recognizes such practices but does not accept them as worship.

9. 2. Unknown God approach:

This approach holds the view that Mizo primal religion was „worship of the unknown

God‟, the supreme being whom they did not know. This view is similar to the

theological stance of St. Paul at Athens (Acts 17:16ff). While the Mizos were living

between the Run and Tiau rivers in Chin Hills, Myanmar, they sought to worship the

god of their parents in times of stress and difficulties. They did not know the name of

god of their parents and J. Shakespear describes the incantations of the Mizo priests in

their worship sacrifice as follows:

Ah- Arise from the village. Aw-w

And accept our sacrifice

Ah- Arise from the open space in the village, Aw

And accept our sacrifice.

Ah- arise from your dwelling place, Aw

Ah- Arise from the gathering mists. Aw

Ah- arise from below the hill. Aw

57
 Ah- Arise from the village. Aw

Ah- Arise from the floor. Aw

Ah- Arise from the earth. Aw

Accept our sacrifice.

Bless Luta‟s spirit (the householder‟s name),

Bless us with sons, bless us with daughters,

Bless us while in bed, bless us round the hearth.

Bless us while the sun shines,

Bless us while the moon shines.

May those above bless us, may those below us bless us.

Guard us from our enemies, guard us from death.

Favour us with flesh,

Favour us with the produce of the jungle.

Bless us in killing man, bless us in shooting animals

Guard us in the presence of men; guard us in the presence of animals.

Bless us in our old age,

Bless us when our heads are bowed down.

Those whom our grandmothers worshipped guard us,

Those whom our grandfathers worshipped guard us.

Bless us in spite of the faults in this worship…91

From the above incantations in the Mizo primal worship, it seems that the Mizos are

searching for god whom they did not know and addressing him in a theistic manner as

Pathian or Khuanu. Lianzika, a former Mizo religious priest (sadawt) of Mualpheng

91
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 71-72.

58
village agrees with this theological position. 92 Therefore, this idea of an unknown god

is not a new development in the Mizo religion but already existed as a hidden idea

during the colonial missionary period, but comes out as a new development in the

postcolonial period. In support of this, Saiaithanga also mentioned that the primitive

Mizos, who did not know what to call god used the following incantation,

„The Being whom grandma worshipped, accept our sacrifice;

The Being whom grandpa worshipped, accept our sacrifice.‟ 93

The incantation clearly indicates that although they worshipped the Being, they did

not know who the Being was. And in support of this, Kam lian Buai, a theologian

from Burma gave evidence from the conversion of the Mizos in the Chin Hills,

Burma. Early Christians from Mizoram visited the Mizos living in Chin Hills and

preached by using the unknown god approach. The Lushais were men of their own

blood, speaking the same language. Therefore, it was easy for the Lushai Christians to

tell their Hualngo brothers „what therefore you worship as unknown, this we proclaim

to you‟ (Acts 17:23).94

The validity of the unknown approach is evidence from the conversion of the Mizos

in Chin Hills without the help of western missionaries. What the Mizos worshipped in

their traditional religion was identified with the Christian God. Before the western

missionaries came to the Chin Hills, The Mizos had already been converted to

Christianity by their brothers and sisters from Mizoram. From a postcolonial

perspective, this approach takes Mizo religion out of the folds of colonial

92
C. Laitanga, Mizo Sakhua [Mizo Religion] (Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute, 1983), 11.
93
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 13.
94
Kam Lian Buai, Christianity in the Hualngo Country (Yongon-Insein: Unpublished BRE thesis,
Myanmar Institute of Theology, 1995), 86.

59
missiological interpretations called animism. It successfully retrieves the religious

element in Mizo religion and brings out theological hermeneutics, paving the way to

relate the biblical concept of the unknown God of Paul found in Acts 17:23.

9.3. Inclusive approach:

This approach sees the Mizo traditional religion in terms of the theology of

anonymous Christianity of Karl Rahner. God has long been revealing himself to the

Mizo people because our ancestors for many years worshipped God through their

primal religion. In other words, the traditional Mizo religion was not animism, the

Mizo traditional unknown god was made perfect in Christ, and the Mizos were

anonymous Christians.95

C. Rosiama, a Mizo pastor and theologian strongly advocated this theological stance.

He goes beyond the traditional missionary interpretations advocating the validity of

the Mizo primal religion in the light of Acts 17:26, 27 and Romans 16:26. He used

Acts 17:16 and 17 to justify how the Mizos had been searching for God and to show

the presence of God among the primitive Mizo people from time immemorial to the

present day as preparation for Christianity. In addition, the Mizo prophetic

announcement of the coming of the British and Christian mission was justified in the

light of Romans 16: 26 as a valid revelation of God among the Mizos. He also states

that the Mizo concept of pialral, expectation of life beyond in Mizo tradition was

identical to the Christian concept of heaven. Moreover, the moral and ethical

teachings in the Mizo tradition like murder, theft and self-sacrifice were advocated

95
C. Rosiama, Mizo Sakhua, 96.

60
with certain validity as the pre-existent Christian ethics and virtues. After pointing out

all these elements he makes a theological statement as follows:

Comparing all these similarities, God had already revealed himself among

the Mizos, and the Mizo traditional religion was what we now know as

Christianity. In primitive times, God was vaguely conceived and the Mizos

did some animistic practices like worshipping stones and trees. But when

they realized that Christianity was supposed to be their religion, Mizos

firmly stuck to it and never wavered.96

This inclusive approach however brought certain theological developments with

positive and negative results. It has been on the one hand, strengthening and

advocating the validity of God‟s revelation through different cultures of the world. On

the other hand, to identify the Mizo primal religion with Christianity would not be

acceptable in the strict sense of Christianity. Critical theological questions may be

addressed to this approach for verification. The author has some reservation in

accepting C. Rosiama‟s exposition of the Mizo primal religion for if all primal

religion must be categorized as a vague understanding of Christian religion this may

lead to subjective relativism that cannot be practiced in real life.

9.4. Fulfilment approach:

Fulfilment approach sees that Christianity fulfils what is missing in the Mizo primal

religion. Long before the western missionaries came to Mizoram, the Mizos had the

96
Ibid., 95-96.

61
concept of God, celestial beings and life after death and similar moral and ethical

teachings. All these accorded with Christian teaching. What the missionaries brought

to the Mizo people was Jesus Christ and Christianity. In support to this argument, J.V.

Hluna, a Mizo historian says:

„Critically scrutinizing the then existing concept of God, Pu Vana, van

pathian, khuanu and the concept of life after death and the moral laws such

as „committing murder, adultery and stealing‟ are against the

transcendental reality in Mizo primal religion approves that before we are

Christianized we have already accepted the moral teachings of

Christianity. What Christianity has added to the Mizo traditional religion

are Jesus Christ and Christianity itself.‟ 97

Again he continues to say that the primary reason for accepting Christianity by all the

Mizos lies in the common aspects of moral and ethical norms in Mizo religion and

Christianity. However, the fear of evil spirits prevented us from living out those moral

teachings in practical daily lives. Christianity brought Jesus Christ who overpowers

the evil spirits and we accepted the gospel tidings of Jesus Christ which liberated us

from evil spirits. 98

The Fulfilment approach is rather similar to the inclusive approach, but it does not

claim the possibility of anonymous Christianity. Rather it sees Jesus Christ and

Christianity fulfilling the inadequacies and weaknesses of Mizo traditional religion.

97
Lalnghinglova, Zoram Nghahchhan, 7.
98
Ibid., 8.

62
9.5. Henotheistic approach:

By the henotheistic approach, the author means the worship of a single god while

recognizing the existence of several gods but regards one particular god as the deity of

the family or tribe; makes him the centre of worship; and in its relation with him

neglects for practical purposes the existence of others.99 In fact, the henotheistic

approach stands mid-way between polytheism and monotheism. Monotheism is the

belief in the existence of one god, and monolatry restricts worship to a single god

while recognizing the existence of several gods but regarding one particular god as

deity of the family or tribe. The practice of the Mizo traditional religion was dualistic

worship maintaining the worship of Pathian (high God) and sacrifices to evil spirits.

It is therefore, henotheistic conceptually, believing in the existence both of one

theistic god and other gods like the faith of the Hebrew people when God said,

„worship no gods but me‟ (Exodus 20: 3). Among the Mizo theologians, Z.T.

Sangkhuma, a pastor and writer is of this theological stance. He believed that Mizo

religion was neither monotheism nor polytheism, nor animism; rather it was

henotheism or monolatry which restricted the worship to one god while recognizing

the existence of other gods as well. 100

In this sense, the Mizo primal religion could be reinterpreted as henotheism or

monolatry which would be more appropriate and more fit the Mizo religious and

cultural practices more closely. In Mizo traditional religion Pathian (God) was

worshipped and sacrifices were offered to evil spirits for healing from different kinds

of sickness and illness. Therefore, the author believes that Mizo primal religion

99
F.L. Cross, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
third edition, 1997), 750.
100
Z.T. Sangkhuma, Culture and Christianity [Seminar paper] (Champhai: Mizo Cultural Club, 27
October, 1997), 5.

63
should be categorized as „henotheism‟ in which the primary allegiance was given to

Pathian (God) and sacrifices to evil spirits were also offered for healing from sickness

and illness. 101

10. THE MIZOS AND THEIR CULTURE:

In this section the author will deal selectively and briefly with some aspects of Mizo

popular culture such as the institution of zawlbuk, (Bachelor‟s dormitory) the Mizo

philosophy of tlawmngaihna (self sacrifice), festivals and dances because all these

elements played an important part in the Mizo cultural change.

10.1. Zawlbuk:102

Lalbiak Thanga, a Mizo retired government officer who did extensive empirical study

believes that zawlbuk, which literally means „a big house built for young men to sleep

together and keep a vigil at night against enemies‟, was introduced in the Mizo

society after they occupied the present Mizoram. 103 Apart from the head-hunting and

inter-village feuds, the village life was often endangered by the constant attack of the

ferocious wild animals upon their domestic animals and human beings as well. To

ensure the security and peace of the village, they were compelled to organize such an

institution to immediately respond to the urgent call of the chief and anyone in

danger. Though security was its primary concern, the zawlbuk was also concerned for

the total welfare of the village community, and thus became the training centre of a

village. It was an institution from which the young men learned technique of war,

101
Mangkhosat Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture: The Encounter between Christianity and Zo
Culture in Mizoram (Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1997), 315. Hereafter cited as „M. Kipgen,
Christianity and Mizo Culture‟.
102
The picture of Zawlbuk is given in Appendix V.
103
Lalbiak Thanga, The Mizos, 1.

64
fighting, wrestling, singing, sex, traditions, customs, etiquette, religion and all the

essential things for their lives in their own context.

N.E. Parry, the then Superintendent of the Lushai Hills from 1924-1928 wrote that in

the villages where there were zawlbuks, the people were comparatively better

disciplined, more industrious and keener hunters than in the villages where there were

none. 104 In support of this, S.T. Das rightly expressed:

These are an excellent institutions and a distinctive feature of every tribal

village. In these clubs young boys have to serve and obey older boys,

besides being associated with agricultural, social and almost all other

activities of the village community instilled into the youths, respect for

and obedience to elders, a spirit of service to the community. 105

It is not certain how and why such an important institution has disappeared from the

Mizo society. There was no prohibition from the side of the government but the

emerging new culture which owed much to the British administration and Christianity

may have put the zawlbuk to an end. The head hunting and inter-village war ceased,

the new education system introduced by missionaries prevented many boys from

staying on in the zawlbuk and peace and tranquillity dawned in the Mizo society and

all these factors may have contributed to the extinction of zawlbuk. A.G. McCall, the

then Superintendent of Mizoram made a serious effort to revive the institution of

zawlbuk that was discussed in the Young Lushai Association conference in 1914. In

spite of his sincere effort, the institution of the zawlbuk died a natural death and could

104
N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 9.
105
S.T. Das, The Tribal of North East India (Delhi: Gain Publishing House, 1976), 51.

65
not continue to exist in its traditional form, but the spirit of zawlbuk was resurrected

in the Mizo society in a different form as Mizo ecclesiology.

10.2. Tlawmngaihna:

The most significant element of Mizo culture maintained by the zawlbuk was,

however the comprehensive Mizo philosophy of life called ‘tlawmngaihna’.

Tlawmngaihna literally means „self-denial for the cause of community and

individuals who were in need‟. Since tlawmngaihna was regarded as the highest

quality of life, everyone tried very hard to get the title ‘tlawmngai, which no one

officially granted but was conferred by the conventional judgement of the villagers.

The certificate was nothing but a cup of rice-beer called „tlawmngai No’ offered on

the occasion of social drinking as recognition of the contributions and sacrifices one

had made for others. A cup of rice-beer did not matter much, but the recognition of

one as tlawmngai was extremely difficult to attain and was highly regarded in the

Mizo society.

Tlawmngaihna implies a context of independence and self-sufficiency. The Mizos in

the pre-literature era hardly attempted to conceptualise or philosophise the term since

they tended to understand all socio-religious values in concrete terms and rarely

articulated tlawmngaihna as a theory. From this perspective, K. Thanzauva‟s

interpretation of the term as a carnal virtue seems quite authentic.106 The Mizos

normally considered tlawmngaihna not as an ideal but as some tangible quality of a

person or persons. In fact, any aptitude or activity, religious or carnal, wherein self

interest was subordinated to the interest of others collectively or individually was

106
K. Thanzauva „Mizo tlawmngaihna and Niskama karma‟ in United Theological College Annual
Magazine, 1984-85, Bangalore, UTC, 16-18.

66
considered to be the expression of tlawmngaihna.107 It was this principle which

compelled the Mizos to extend hospitality to unknown strangers or travellers, to

provide them food and shelter and with a lunch pack for their continuing journey.

McCall‟s description of the practical exhibition of this life principle displays much of

its social implications:

Crops of the sick would be tended by the strong; the chief‟s lands would

be weeded as a mark of support, help would be given to rebuild houses

accidentally burn down, warriors would volunteer when their help was

needed hunters would strive to be energetic in the chase, and in general

the good citizen was he who was foremost in meeting calls that were

really necessary for the good of the whole village. 108

Tlawmngaihna so overwhelmingly pervaded the whole life of the Mizo society and of

individuals in their private, social and religious enterprises that in certain contexts it

became synonymous with the generic term „Mizo‟. Thus when a man or a woman is

said to be un-Mizo, it means that he or she is lacking tlawmngaihna and there can

hardly be any remark more insulting to the people concerned. However, I notice the

uniqueness of the Mizo tlawmngaihna not in its teaching but in the degree of its

impact on the Mizo society. Tlawmngaihna is undoubtedly the inner core and

dominating life principle of the Mizo people.

107
Vanlalchhuanawma, Revival Movement and the Church in Mizoram 1906-1949 (Bangalore:
Unpublished DTh Thesis, Senate of Serampore College, 1998), 57. Hereafter cited as
„Vanlalchhuanawma, Revival Movement‟.
108
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 98.

67
10. 3. Mizo Traditional festivals:

Historically, the Mizo had three festivals Chapchar kut, Pawl kut and Mim kut. Owing

to the limitation of space, only the chapchar kut, the most important one among the

festivals will be highlighted here.

Chapchar kut was held every year in March or April after the jhum had been cut and

dried. This festival was celebrated to give thanks to God or Pathian for his protection

from all kinds of injuries and for all the blessing he bestowed on them during their

engagement in the forest. It lasted for about a week or more depending upon the

villagers who could afford to celebrate. Every family was expected to prepare rice

beer to cover the whole festival. Young people were not supposed to drink beer

except on this occasion. On the first day of the festival, the chief clan slaughtered the

pig and followed by others of the tribe on the following days. The young men and

girls participated in various chai dances and songs. Traditionally, the Mizos were not

allowed to have any quarrels between husbands and wives during this festival.

Therefore, chapchar kut was the happiest time in the life of the Mizo society. This

festival will be reinterpreted in the chapter five.

10.4. Mizo Traditional dances and songs:

Dances not only marked the socio-cultural, but also the religious life of the traditional

Mizo society. They were performed only on certain occasions like khuangchawi,

which was a religious custom and ceremony and festive days like chapchar kut. It is

also to be noted that beer drinking was traditionally and culturally compulsory in

singing and dancing. Dances were always accompanied by lively music using

instruments such as drum or gongs. But the Exclusive missionaries prohibited

68
participation in these functions because they perceived them as pagan practices. This

created cultural alienation in the Mizo context.

Before the coming of the British and the Christian missionaries, the Mizos developed

various folk songs, out of these the author will pick out the most relevant one „Puma

songs and communal dance‟ for our study purpose. Puma singing was a type of

singing and dancing having a particular tune and a way of singing. One particular

point worthy of note was that Puma singing moved the public to participate in the

dance. The spread of Puma singing was so popular and fast spreading that it could

really retard the spread of Christianity at that time. The Mizo church branded them as

anti-Christian songs associated with demonical power. J.M. Lloyd called it a „revival

of heathenism‟; 109 J.H. Lorrain branded it „Satanic opposition‟;110 Liangkhaia, a Mizo

pastor said it was „revelation of power of darkness‟. 111

Later, alongside Puma singing, a certain type of singing and dancing called „Tlanglam

zai’ which means communal singing and dancing became popular in the Mizo society.

Actually the Puma singing was gradually transformed into tlanglam zai in which

almost all the Mizo people engaged in dancing. Till 1947, it became the main type of

singing and dancing among the non-Christian Mizos. The author will substantiate how

these elements gradually indigenized into Mizo Christian hymns and dance in chapter

three.

109
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 54-55.
110
The Annual Reports of BMS on Mizoram 1901-1938 (Serkawn: Baptist Church of Mizoram, 1994),
48. Hereafter cited as „Reports of BMS‟.
111
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 196.

69
CONCLUSION:

In the Mizo primal religion there was the concept of a Supreme Being (Pathian), who

was worshipped by the people by performing different social and religious sacrificial

ceremonies. However, due to the inclusion of drinking rice-beer in their religious

worship, the western missionaries without having proper and critical assessment of

the concepts and teachings of Mizo religion, branded the Mizo traditional religion as

heathenism. In addition, there were some animistic practices in the Mizo primal

religion because they offered sacrifices to evil spirits for healing from illness and

sicknesses. The then missionaries failed to understand that in the Mizo primal

religious practices, there was „sakhaw biak or sakung’ which means „worshipping

God‟ and ‘ramhuai biak‟ which means „propitiating evil spirits‟. These two religious

practices should clearly be differentiated if we try to do theological hermeneutics in

the Mizo context.

All the postcolonial approaches mentioned above in one way or another assist and

support the postcolonial reading in order to retrieve and liberate the Mizo primal

religion out of the folds of the western colonial mission paradigm. Firstly, when the

missionaries branded the Mizo primal religion as animism, there was a concrete

element of worshipping the Supreme Being in the Mizo traditional religion.

Therefore, Mizo traditional religion cannot be categorized as animism even though it

was far from perfect and a more appropriate categorization should be „henotheism‟.

Secondly, all postcolonial approaches retrieve the revelation of God to the Mizo

people and this confirmed that the Mizo traditional religion was a religion of

epiphany, revelation of God to human beings out of Mizo primal religion.

70
Thirdly, the concept of Supreme Being and celestial god, and the concept of Khuanu,

Pu Vana pave the way to accept the classical Christian doctrine of trinity. Moreover,

the concept of khal (guardian spirit) also helps the understanding of angels in the

Bible and it reveals the close relationship of human beings to supernatural beings.

Fourthly, the concept of life after death and pialral expectation enabled the Mizos to

accept the concept of heaven in Christianity without much difficulty although the

purpose might be slightly different.

With respect to the traditional Mizo culture, the following points are vital: the

administration of the chief and council of elders in the village, the function and role

played by the institution of zawlbuk and how the tlawmngaihna shaped the Mizo

community life. It is worthwhile to point out that the concept of chieftainship later

contributed to the administrative structure of the Mizo church and the philosophy of

tlawmngaihna contributed to church growth and Christian ethics in Mizo Christianity.

Kosuke Koyama writes, „Theophany creates changes in human culture.‟ 112 Therefore,

how these elements in the Mizo context had been transformed, modified and used as

theological hermeneutics with the theophany brought by the colonial power and the

Christian missionaries will be critically examined in the following chapter.

112
Kosuke Koyama, „Participation of culture in the Transfiguration of Humanity: Forms of Ecumenical
Theology‟ in Asia Journal of Theology, Vol. 7, No. 2, October, 1993, 219.

71
 Chapter Two

THE ADVENT OF COLONIALISM AND CHRISTIAN MISSION

1. INTRODUCTION:

This chapter will deal with the transformation of the Mizo traditional religion, its

culture and political framework due to the advent of the British rule and Christian

missionaries in Mizoram. One of the popular concepts of the coming of the British

and the missionaries was the divine providence because of the prediction given by the

Mizo prophet Darphawka of Pukpui village, South Lushai Hills eighty years before

their arrival. 113 Historically, the author is convinced that the annexation of the Mizo

land to the British Empire was the result of the ferocious and oppressive Mizos, who

very often raided the British subjects living in the plain areas neighbouring to their

land. 114 As to the Christian mission, the coming of the western missionaries, who

dedicated their precious lives for the salvation of the Mizo people deserved due credit

for the transforming power of the gospel which they brought and preached to

enlighten the Mizo society. The assumption of the author is that since the missionaries

were the missionaries of the colonial times, there were constructive as well as

destructive social-political and cultural transformations within the context of the Mizo

society. These changes and transformations need to be evaluated, modified and

reformulated in the light of the postcolonial theological readings such as resistance,

dissident and subaltern readings.

113
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 189-190. According to Mangkhosat Kipgen, the prophet
was Darphawka, a man from Pukpui village in South Lushai Hills, who had a dream one night and a
voice saying, „a great light will come from the west and shine upon the Mizo land; follow the light, for
the people who bring it will be ruling the race… This light may not shine in my life time, but when it
comes, follow it- follow it.‟ When D.E. Jones, Welsh missionary in Mizoram visited the Pukpui
village, the two daughters of Darphawka, Lawmi and Khumi became the first Christians because of
their father‟s influence; H.L. Liansailova, Kum 30 Lai Rawng Ka Bawlna [A Missionary‟s
Autobiography: Thirty Years of My Ministry 1897-1926] (Aizawl: Lengchhawn Press, 1999), 36.
114
V.L. Zaithanga, From Head- Hunting to Soul-Hunting (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1981),10.
Hereafter cited as „Zaithanga, Head Hunting‟.

72
On the one hand, the British military officers imposed peace, prohibited various

savage and barbarous practices and at the same time preferred to continue the

administration of the Mizo chiefs to rule the people and made use of them as contact

persons to act on their behalf. On the other hand, the rigid missionaries completely

swept aside the existing religious traditions and allied practices and thus changed the

traditional Mizo society.115 As a result, the socio-cultural changes in the Mizo context

are two-fold, the British administrators imposed changes and the missionaries

convinced the people of the necessity of such transformations even though in certain

case the British administrators and the missionaries had different views and

sometimes clashed over changing social-cultural structures and institutions. The

author on the one hand will focus on the beneficial aspects of the Mizo society due to

the introduction of British rule and Christianity; on the other hand as Sugirtharajah

suggests that the colonial people also inherited the psychological, intellectual and

cultural domination which is the most damaging for the society from the colonial

power.116 The abolition of the slavery system, zawlbuk and chapchar kut in the Mizo

society will be read in a postcolonial perspective to contribute new approaches.

2. SOCIO-CULTURAL SITUATION BEFORE THE BRITISH RULE:

The socio-cultural situation of the Mizo society prior to the British annexation of

Mizoram was what anthropologists would call a „non-literate culture‟ and some would

say a „primitive culture‟ because the people had not developed a form of writing.

Since some of the important socio-cultural practices of the Mizos had already been

115
E.J. Thomas, Mizo: Bamboo Hills Murmur Change (Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. 1993), 46.
116
R.S. Sugirtharajah, Asian Biblical Hermeneutics and Postcolonialism: Contesting Interpretations
(Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Book, 1998), 126.

73
mentioned in the previous chapter we will not repeat what has been already discussed

instead we will go straight to the coming of the British Colonial power.

3. THE BRITISH ADMINISTRATION AND CHANGES:

The introduction of the British rule in Mizoram had great impacts on the life of the

Mizo people in both ways – positive and negative. The positive contribution of the

British administration to the Mizo people was that it transformed the primitive Mizo

society to the modern age and prepared the way for the coming of Christian

missionaries in Mizoram. Negatively, as McCall confessed the British administration

paralysed the social life of the Mizo society. 117

A retired Indian civil servant Animesh Ray, basing his argument on the warlike nature

of the Mizos concludes that the occupation of Mizoram was „a step against the British
118
economic interest‟. In addition to this view, R.Vanlawma, a Mizo veteran

politician and prominent writer recorded that the Mizo chief, Suakpuilala raided the

tea garden along the border of Cachar and also neighbouring Chittagong Hills Tract
119
and Tripura in defence of the land encroached upon by British planters. Zairema‟s

observation also supports this and he said that with the discoveries of Assam tea,

plantations started on the foothills bordering Mizoram. Gradually the forest gave way

to planters‟ axes. The Mizos were alarmed at the encroachment of lands they

considered theirs. To discourage such expansion they led a number of raids into these

tea gardens plundering and killing. 120 Zokima, a retired pastor and writer, shares a

117
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 196.
118
Animesh Ray, Mizoram: Dynamics of Change (Calcutta: Pearl Publishers, 1982), 16.
119
R. Vanlawma, Ka Ram Leh Kei [Me and My Country] (Aizawl: Zoram Printing Press, 1972)19.
Hereafter cited as „Vanlawma, Ka Ram‟.
120
Zairema, God’s Miracle in Mizoram: A Glimpse of Christian Work among the Head-Hunters
(Aizawl: Synod Press & Bookroom, 1978), 1. Hereafter cited as „Zairema, God‟s Miracle in Mizoram‟.

74
similar view with Zairema saying that the Mizos could not tolerate the tea planters

often encroaching upon their hunting ground.121 A.G. McCall, the British

Administrator of Mizoram summed up the primary reason for the invasion of

Mizoram as providing security for the commercial enterprise in the plains. As he puts

it,

After all, to provide security for commercial enterprise in the plains, the

Lushai people have been called on to pay the price, have been thrown off

their balance, their lives and social system invaded and dislocated.122

3.1. Prohibition of savage and barbaric practices:

The first aspect of Mizo cultural changes come through impositions and prohibitions.

Saiaithanga maintains the view of the coming of the British and the Christian

missionaries as „divine providence‟ because of the prohibitions of the deadly practices

and barbaric practices of the Mizo society. 123 The British administrators tried to

provide justice with highly civilized values and orders to curb the savage and barbaric

practices and imposed values with respect to human life. Mangkhosat Kipgen

categorized prohibitions as stated below:

(1) The prohibitions of raids or head hunting. If this happened the chief had to be

executed.124 The British government did justice in prohibiting this cruel

practice of the Mizo people. If a village launched a raid, the chief of that

village will be killed.

121
Zokima, Mizo Lal Ber: Kairuma [Mizo Greatest King: Kairuma] (Aizawl: VLP Press, 1993), 76.
122
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 65.
123
Saiaithanga, Mizo Sakhua, 8
124
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 150; Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 64; Chapman & Clark, Mizo
Miracle, 13,20.

75
 (2) Prohibition of elephant hunting. This prohibition, despite the fact that it was

really good for preservations of animals, paralysed the Mizo traditional

religion because it affected one of the means of salvation, „thangchhuah‟ in

which killing of elephant was one of the requirements.

(3) Burying alive of infant together with the dead mother. There was a belief that

the motherless baby could not live more than a year because the spirit came to

call the baby after one year. This belief caused the Mizos to have a custom of

burying a baby alive if the mother died.125

(4) The killing of those believed to witchcraft or magicians.126 Several tragedies

had occurred on account of the belief in witchcraft within the Mizo

community.

These savage acts were declared illegal and were made punishable with imprisonment

for more serious cases and fines for other minor ones. Other customary practice like

eavesdropping by the young friends of a newly married couple on their first night

while not made illegal were nevertheless discouraged by the Christian missionaries

and school teachers. But the prohibition of elephant hunting and killing of enemies

(not murder in the village) severely affected the Mizo religion since these were

requirements in „ram lama thangchhuah’ to earn salvation and a place in pialral

(heaven). Therefore, the Mizo religion was paralyzed when the British administrators

strictly prohibited raiding villages and killing elephants and one of the means of

gaining salvation collapsed. 127

125
Chapman & Clark, Mizo Miracle, 15, 29.
126
B. Lalthangliana, Zoram Encyclopedia (Aizawl: Remkungi, 2003), 140-141. According to A.G.
McCall, Keitawna was believed to be a magician, Thangvuka killed him and ate a piece of his liver to
alleviate or neutralize his magical power. See McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 71-72.
127
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 64.

76
3. 2. Social evils:

According to Liangkhaia, the British government gave orders to maintain law and

order and to do administrative justice among the Mizo society. The Mizo chiefs were

not without blemish for some of them were cruel, corrupted and capricious, and

persecuted and oppressed their subjects without any sympathy. These collections of

orders seem sometimes to have arisen out of the contextual situations.

1) No one is allowed to ill- treat, maltreat and loot others.

2) Every village has to clear their respective roads.

3) Every chief is a tax-collector in his village.

4) All the chiefs must regularly attend the durbar meetings.

5) It is strictly prohibited to accuse someone as evil eye (khawhring).

6) The chief is curbed from confiscating and plundering belongings of the

villagers. 128

7) It is not legal to gang rape a reputedly loose woman by young men.129

Liangkhaia positively commented that due to the implications of these orders the lives

of the poor and the oppressed people in the Mizo community were much relieved. The

advent of the British in this perspective was liberation for the oppressed people from

the injustices done to them by the corrupted chiefs.

128
Thanga, Hman Lai Mizo Awm Dan [Mizo Traditional Ethos] (Aizawl: Tlangveng Pringting Press,
1992), 192,194-195. Hereafter cited as „Thanga, Hman Lai Mizo Awm Dan‟.
129
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 150. This is very notorious custom in the Mizo society. The British
government did justice by prohibiting this evil practice because young girls of poor families sometimes
suffered this gang rape as they were helpless.

77
3. 3. Decentralization of political power:

Before the annexation of the Mizo land by the British, the lands belong to their

respective chiefs. J. Shakespear, the British administrator introduced the process of

decentralization of the political power of the Mizo chiefs and the chiefdom. The

policy seemed to be simple, if there are more chiefs, the powerful chiefs will lose

their political power and therefore, J. Shakespear then drastically increased the

number of chiefs from the existing 60 to 350 chiefs with the aim of decentralizing

political power.130 With the decentralization of political power of the chiefs, the

Superintendent of the Lushai Hills became more powerful and the Mizo chiefs had

fewer powers.

The Superintendent had final authority in appointing and removing the chiefs,

although most of the chiefs were appointed to their former positions. Moreover, lands

were apportioned to the chief by the government in accordance with the „indirect

administration‟; lands were made over to persons who had no pretence to

chieftainship under indigenous conditions. This again helped to lower the whole status

of the Mizo traditional chiefs.

3. 4. Abolition of traditional rights of the Mizo chiefs:

Mizo traditional chiefdom was often thought of in terms of the divine right theory.131

But now the divine right theory had been removed, superseded and supplanted by the

British administration. Consequently, the following traditional rights of the Mizo

chief were also arbitrarily extinguished to meet the exigencies of the situation:

130
Subhas Chatterjee, Mizo Chiefs and the Chiefdom (New Delhi: M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. 1995), 1.
131
Subhas Chatterjee, Mizo Chiefs and the Chiefdom, 3.

78
 a) Right to order capital punishment.

b) Right to seize food stores and property of villagers, who wish to transfer their

allegiance.

c) Proprietary rights over lands, now arbitrarily reserved by the government in

the interests of the public living in neighbouring areas in British India.

d) Right to tax traders doing business within the chiefs‟ jurisdiction.

e) Right to freedom of action in relation to making their sons chiefs under their

jurisdiction.

f) Right to help those bawis, who were by custom not open to redemption.

g) Right of freedom of action in relation to other kinds of bawis, who used to

constitute the means whereby the chiefs could cultivate and acquire the ability

to sustain their villages in peace and in war.

h) Right to attach the property of their villagers when they wished or deemed fit,

with or without fault on the part of the villagers. 132

As result of abolition of those rights, the Mizo chiefs became the British tax

collectors, agents and subjects who were at their disposal. The chiefs had no prestige

and power in their own lands. On the other hand, it was better for the Mizo people in

one sense that the government abolished the right of capital punishment. In spite of

this, some chiefs ruled their subjects with justice and dignity, while there were some

cruel chiefs who abused their rights. For instance, Chief Vanhnuailiana killed one of

his innocent Indian poor villagers, who was a captive and settled in his village without

132
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 202.

79
any reason.133 More people enjoyed liberation when the government abolished the

rights of capital punishment of the Mizo chiefs.

3. 5. Circle Administration:

A change of administration usually brings about social, political and cultural changes

in society. The British administrator introduced Circle administration and the northern

part of Mizoram was divided into 12 circles and southern Mizoram into 6 circles,

totalling 18 circles and a circle inspector was appointed to each circle to serve as a

channel between the Superintendent, Sub-divisional Officer, the chiefs and the people

in general. Under each circle an interpreter was appointed. In addition a village writer

called in Mizo „khawchhiar‟ was also appointed in every village to keep necessary

records and statistics of the village.

This system of administration ran properly till 1942 and it was extremely oppressive

to the people challenging the Mizo chiefs with their authoritative power. Knowing

that the colonial master had the power to make and depose the chiefs, a Mizo Circle

interpreter ill-treated the chiefs by composing the following song:

If thou art against the British employee like us,

Thou art no longer being a chief,

Just expect to end in smoke. 134

How bitter it was for the Mizo chiefs. Abusively using the colonial power, they

sarcastically and ironically sang a song which was detested by the Mizo people. This

133
Thanga, Hmanlai Mizo Awm Dan, 174-175, 195.
134
B. Lalthangliana, History and Culture of Mizo in India, Burma and Bangladesh (Aizawl: RTM
Press, 2001), 483. Hereafter cited as „Lalthangliana, History and Culture‟. The song in Mizo is as
follows: Sappui bawngte keini min tai chuan, Lal lai hrui ang in suih lo vang, In run romei kai rawh se.

80
clearly brought changes in social stratifications. The Mizo government employees

were now becoming the new elites in the Mizo society while they were detested by

the chiefs and their families.

3. 6. Impressed labour:

For the proud Mizo society, who had never been under any government oppression,

impressed labour was the most detested imposition they had ever experienced. The

Mizos would happily complete any voluntary work on the basis of tlawmngaihna, but

culturally resented any imposition or forced labour. Although it was termed as

„impressed labour‟ in the government record to avoid ensuing later criticisms, in

reality it was „forced labour‟ because it was forced by the colonial officers on the

Mizos to do this except for the village chiefs and their officials. 135 Village chiefs were

frequently asked to supply labours and if they failed to do so on time, heavy fines and

punishment immediately followed. While the Mizo society was suffering oppression

and insult from forced labour, the missionaries praised the colonial officers. To quote,

„The British government deserved great praise for the energy with which

they have been opening up better means of communication in the hills of

late years. This, as all the government work, is done by the impressed

labour. A message is sent to the chiefs saying, „we want so many men, for

such a work, on such a date‟ and the men have to be supplied.‟ 136

As stated earlier, the Mizos detested this forced labour but the British administrators,

to justify the issue of impressed labour used the propaganda that „the Mizos are
135
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 483.
136
Grace R. Lewis, The Lushai Hills: The Story of the Lushai Pioneer Mission (London: The Baptist
Missionary Society, 1907), 43-44. Hereafter cited as „R. Lewis, The Lushai Hills‟.

81
savage, head-hunters and always giving trouble to the British subjects and the British

government was forced to annexe their land‟. Sangkima quotes Shakespear words as

he states,

„You (Mizos) forced us to occupy your hills, we had no wish to come up

here but you would raid our villages, so we had to come, and so now you

have got (to) bear as much of the cost of the occupation as possible, you

cannot expect us to spend the money of the people of the plains on

importing coolies to do the work that you are too lazy to do except under

compulsion.‟ 137

The unexpected imposition of the Colonial rule in Mizoram shattered the

traditional social structure and cultural practices of the Mizo society and greatly

embittered the chiefs and the common people alike. But the colonial divide and

rule policy had considerable success in Mizoram and paved the way for

Christian Missions which followed on the heels of the British conquest to win

Mizoram „for God and Empire‟. 138

4. THE ADVENT OF THE MISSIONARIES AND CULTURAL CHANGES:

The socio-cultural changes through the advent of Christianity among the Mizos were

presented by Siamkima, a Mizo writer in his article, „Rih Lake and the Jordan River‟.

He identified Rih Lake with the Mizo traditional religion and culture and the Jordan
139
River with the advent of Christianity. Symbolically it may seem very relevant, but

this theological paradigm of western culture was unacceptable for postcolonial

137
Sangkima, Mizo: Society and Social Change, 78.
138
Reginald A. Lorrain, Five Years in the Unknown Jungles: For God and Empire (London: Lakher
Pioneer Mission, 1912; reprint, Guwahati: Spectrum Publications, 1988), 18.
139
Siamkima, Zalenna Ram [Land of Liberty] (Aizawl: M.C. Lalrinthanga, 2002), 46.

82
theological reflections because the River Jordan could not represent the advent of

Christian missionaries with the western culture.

4. 1. The First Christian missionary in Mizoram.

The first Christian missionary ever to set foot in Mizoram was William Williams, a

Welsh missionary working in the Khasi Hills. He became interested in Mizo after

seeing a number of Mizo chiefs in the British jail of Sylhet. He and his friends from

different backgrounds arrived in Mizoram in March 20, 1891.140 They had a

wonderful encounter with the Mizos, learned some aspects of Mizo culture, conducted

religious meetings and distributed biblical pictures. They left Aizawl, the capital, on

April, 17 with a strong determination to start a mission in the Lushai Hills.

Immediately after his return to Khasi Hills, Williams wrote a strong appeal to the

Home Board of Welsh Mission to start work in Mizoram. The appeal was taken up in

the General Assembly and with the recommendation of the Working committee, the

assembly of June, 1892 eventually adopted Lushai Hills (Mizoram) as its field for

missionary operations. As a result of the sudden death of William Williams in 1892

and the difficulty of arranging for another missionary as well as financial restraints,

the Mission Board could not make immediate arrangement to start mission work in

Mizoram. In the meantime the Arthington Aborigines Mission took advantage of the

withdrawal of the government‟s prohibition in 1893, to make their way to Mizoram

without knowing the intention of the Welsh Mission Board.141

140
Lalhruaitluanga Ralte, Interviewed, (Aizawl: Synod Press, 11 September, 2009).
141
K. Thanzauva, Reports, 1.

83
4. 2. Arthington Aborigines Mission (AAM):

The Arthington Aborigines Mission was a private mission of Robert Arthington of

Leeds that sends missionaries with the compulsion of „the imminent second coming of

Christ‟. His mission strategy was based on his conviction that „there are plenty of men

and women who are ready to care for the bodies of men; God has called me to care for
142
the souls of the heathen.‟ Being influenced by the second coming, preaching to

convert the people was the sender‟s primary purpose, not literature or translation

works. J. Herbert Lorrain and Frederick W. Savidge were sent to the Lushai Hills as

missionaries. They arrived at Aizawl, Mizoram on the 4th January, 1894 from Silchar.

Unlike other white soldiers, they came unarmed carrying their own baggage without

any coolies as they found none to carry their baggage. They entered into the residence

of Col. G.H. Lock, who was the Superintendent of the Lushai Hills and he helped
143
them to choose a place to build their house. In those days, the Mizo attitude

towards the whites was greatly pessimistic and the two new missionaries found no

one to help them in building their houses or in any work. The Superintendent then,

ordered all the shopkeepers not to sell salt without the consent of the two

missionaries. Then, only when the Mizos thought that the two missionaries were

powerful to control even shops, they were able to find Mizo people to help them in

their work.144

In spite of all dangers, the two English men toured the country preaching the gospel

and singing hymns. Hearing them in the streets, the people came round to see what

was happening. On seeing the two white men singing in the street, their first thought

142
A.M. Chirgwin, Arthington’s Million: The Romance of the Arthington Trust (London: Livingstone
Press, 1920), 11.
143
Lalhmuaka, Zoram, 95,
144
V. Hawla, Mizoram Hmar Chan Zosapte Chanchin [History of Missionaries of Northern Mizoram]
(Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1980), 17.

84
was that these two white men must be either drunk or fools because Lushais never

sing in the street in broad daylight except when they are drunk. But seeing no sign of

drunkenness in them, they took them to be fools who had run away from their

kinsmen. All the time the people looked at them as fools and in nearly every village

children were heard singing:

I see two fools, I see two fools;

Two real big fools I see;

I see them coming along the hills,

Aia, I e, u aw, aia e.145

Their stay in the Lushai Hills was rather short as Mr. Arthington, who supported

them, desired their removal to another field because Arthington had a prejudice

against institutionalization of missionary work; the primary task is proclamation and

as soon as a small Christian fellowship had been gathered in one tribe, the

missionaries should press on to regions as yet unreached, 146 even though the two

missionaries wanted to stay longer and continue their mission works. Knowing that

the Welsh Mission was planning to start their mission work, they begged the Welsh

Mission to accept them as evangelists but they were not accepted. Therefore, they

pleaded for Welsh missionaries to be sent immediately in order that they might assist

them in learning the Mizo language before they left for another place. It is true that

even in doing Christian mission; the rich people had the power to control the

missionaries. In a postcolonial perspective, the concept of the ruler and the ruled

could be seen in the work of Arthington Aborigines Mission.

145
Chuautera, „The two white Fools‟ in The Missionary Herald, (London: March, 1936), 63.
146
Donna Strom, Wind through the Bamboo (Madras: The Diocesan Press, 1991), 30. Hereafter cited
as „Donna Strom, Wind‟.

85
4. 3. The Welsh Calvinistic Mission:

The request of J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge was answered by the Welsh Calvinistic

Mission which sent its first missionary D.E. Jones, who arrived on 31st August, 1897

with Khasi evangelist Rai Bhajur and his wife. Lorrain and Savidge remained in the

Lushai Hills to the close of the year, giving valuable assistance to D.E. Jones. Within

four years of ministry (11th January, 1894 – 31st December, 1897), Lorrain and

Savidge had laid the foundation for the transformation of the Mizo people. Firstly,

they reduced the Mizo language into writing by using the Roman alphabet. Secondly,

the first school was opened on 1 st April, 1894; thirdly, they started translation of

Luke, John and the Book of Acts into the Mizo language; fourthly, they had seven

Christian songs (translated fron English and composed by themselves); and finally,

the first Mizo Primer was completed on 22nd October, 1895.147

Another Welsh missionary, Edwin Rowlands, came to Mizoram in December, 1898

and proved to be a great help for D.E. Jones. They lived and worked together and

complemented each other‟s deficiencies because of their different characters and

talents.148 The reinforcement of the Welsh Mission in the person of Edwin Rowlands

provided a dynamic addition to the missionary efforts. He was known to the Mizos as

a great teacher of the Mizo nation, a loyal missionary, a gifted poet and a liberator of

Mizo women. 149 A later fellow missionary, J.M. Lloyd generously remarks that it was

147
Lalthangliana, Zoram Encyclopedia, 491-492.
148
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 31.
149
C. Vanlallawma, Tun Kum Za Chhunga Mizo Hnam Puipate 1894-1994[Fathers of the Mizo Nation
of the Century 1894-1994] (Aizawl: Lengchhawn Press, 1993), 34.

86
Rowlands of all missionaries, who best grasped the genius of the Mizo character from

within. 150

The two missionaries soon gained the trust of the Mizo people who started calling

them „zosap‟ meaning „white people who belong to Mizo‟. The Lushais were fond of

hearing that Jesus Christ had conquered the devil and death. The first two converts

Khuma and Khara were baptized by D.E. Jones on December, 1898 along with two

Khasi tribesmen. 151

British officers at that time were supporting the mission works, and although the

native people would have liked all the military officers and their sepoys to leave, they

wished the missionaries and their shops to remain. In opening schools among the

Mizos, J.B. Fuller, Chief Commissioner of Assam, J. Shakespear, Superintendent of

the Lushai Hills and Major Loch had played vital practical roles and helped the

missionaries. The two Welsh missionaries had the whole of the Lushai Hills as their

field of service until the coming of the Baptist Missionary Society, who took over the

South Lushai Hills and started mission work in 1903.

4. 4. Baptist Missionary Society (BMS):

J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge went back to England for furlough and met Robert

Arthington. Arthington was not satisfied with their missionary work. Therefore, with

the support of their friends the two missionaries went to Abor-Miris people in Sadhya

(now Arunachal Pradesh). During this time, the south Lushai Hills was adopted by the

150
Lloyd, History of the Church in Mizoram, 44.
151
John Hughes Morris, The History of Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Foreign Mission, to the end of the
year 1904 (Carnavon: The C.M. Book Room, 1910), 231-232. Hereafter cited as „J.H. Morris, The
History of Welsh Mission‟.

87
Baptist Missionary Society (BMS) as their mission field. The Baptist Mission

immediately requested Lorrain and Savidge to return to Mizoram as the missionaries

of the BMS on condition that the BMS would send someone to continue their work

among the Abor-Miris, to which they agreed. They arrived at Lunglei in March, 13,

1903 more than five years after they had left Aizawl, headquarter of North Lushai

Hills. After selecting Serkawn village as their mission centre, they spent most of their

first two years supervising the building work and visiting the nearby villages from

their station.152

Lorrain and Savidge did not confine themselves to preaching the gospel alone; they

opened schools, hospitals, a printing press and other social projects that brought the

missionaries closer to the Mizo people. The arrival of the Baptist Mission marked the

emergence of the denominational churches in Mizoram, namely the Presbyterian in

the North and Baptist church in the south of Mizoram.

5. INTERPRETING SOCIO-CULTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS:

Interpreting socio-cultural transformations and changes in the Mizo Christian context

brings out fresh and new outlooks. When the missionaries came and converted the

Mizos to Christianity, the concept of saphun (traditional practice of conversion or

proselytization) still remained in the minds of the people. If the early Mizo

Christianity is interpreted in the light of this proselytization, then Mizo Christianity

can be seen as a change of religion that means from the inferior Mizo religion to the

superior religion of Christianity. It can also be understood as a change of clan or race

which means conversion from the Mizo traditional family into the more civilized

152
Hminga, Life and Witness, 55.

88
missionary‟s western race or society. Therefore this approach saw the missionaries as

the masters of Christianity and those who played advisory roles to sustain the life of

the church; whereas the Mizo Christian converts are seen as the subordinated, who cut

themselves off from their religion, abandoned their social and cultural traditions and

were completely committed to Christianity. If we look at the transformations of the

Mizo society from this perspective, it was not only the missionaries but also the Mizo

Christians themselves who were responsible for the changes and transformations of

the society. These changes and transformations had both positive and negative

impacts on the life of the Mizo society which can be discussed as follows:

5. 1. Positive impacts of Changes:

The positive impacts of these changes give allegiance to the gospel and accommodate

the message of the good news into the local cultural context and paving the way for

contextualization.

(a) Religious Transformation:

In adopting Christianity, some existing elements such as the concept of God

(Pathian), the concept of pialral (heaven) can be used as a vehicle for communicating

the message of the good news with new meaning. The Mizo traditional world view

was transformed by Christianity into a new set of doctrines and beliefs. The

traditional assumption of a Supreme Being, Pathian was identified with God; the

concept of „thangchhuah‟ or the means of salvation which needed several costly

sacrifices are superseded by faith in God; pialral has been transformed into eternal

heaven in the light of the gospel. D.E. Jones preached a gospel based on the Mizo

eschatological expectation as follows:

89
 „Believe on „Pathian‟ Jehovah and worship Him, then you don‟t need to

sacrifice to demons any more. Even when you die you shall go to „pialral‟.153

This preaching connected Pathian and pialral by faith but without costly sacrifices.

This gives new hope for all believers irrespective of their positions, and transformed

pialral into heaven with greater hope of enjoying eternal bliss. This new found faith

and doctrine prepared the Mizo people for psychological and intellectual

transformations and to abandon completely anything connected with their old

religion, culture and social practices. If we summarize the transformations and

changes in the life of the Mizo society in a single sentence, we may say that the head-

hunters are transformed into the soul- hunters.

(b) Social-cultural transformations:

There are quite a number of transformations in the social-cultural life of the Mizos

which can be summarized as follows:

The appearance of the villages in the past was controlled by the Mizo traditional

religious practices. When they became Christians, these changed as all the elements of

sacrifices and their paraphernalia such as small altars, stone platforms, posts on which

skulls of all animals killed were hung and sacrificial posts all disappeared and the

appearance of the villages was much better and cleaner than before.154 In addition

Christianity united the Mizos and there was a closer relationship and unity of society

in the villages.
153
Hminga, Life and Witness, 62.
154
H.S. Luaia, „The land of head hunters became the land of peace‟ in Missionary Herald (London:
BMS, April, 1960), 58.

90
Birth: In the pre-Christian custom, there was a belief that the motherless baby could

not live more than a year because the spirit of the mother came to call the baby after

one year. This belief caused the Mizos to have a custom of burying a baby alive if the

mother died giving birth. In addition, twins were regarded as dreadful and one was

supposed to be the incarnation of an evil spirit and they were left in the forest to die.

The gospel changed all these superstitious beliefs.

Marriage: Mizo Christians adopted western Christian marriage and its paraphernalia.

The Gospel eliminated two notorious customs of pre-Christian marriage- one was

throwing mud, water and rotten eggs at the bride‟s party when they were heading for

the bridegroom‟s house. Secondly, eavesdropping on the first night of the newly-

married couple was also stopped. Divorce was interpreted from the Bible and it was

not as easy as before to obtain a divorce, while pre-marital sexual relationship were

discouraged and did not fit with a Christian ethos. Polygamy was eliminated by

Christian teaching. 155

Death and burial: In the pre-Christian culture, dead bodies were usually buried in the

compounds and funeral services were done by old people. But this changed so that all

the dead bodies were buried in the burial ground outside the villages with Christian

funeral services. Pialral or mithi khua or life after death or eschatological expectation

was contextualized into a place called heaven where God reigns.156

155
Hminga, Life and Witness, 294.
156
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 164.

91
Morality: The Mizo moral and ethical principle of tlawmngaihna was redefined in

the light of the Gospel eliminating its negative impacts. Zawlbuk (bachelor house) the

foundation of tlawmngaihna was abolished, but tlawmngaihna survives in the

Christian context in a redefined form because tlawmngaihna, self sacrifice for others‟

and „doing good to others‟ remains in agreement with the Gospel.

Traditional festivals: In the place of Mizo traditional festivals, Christian elements

were introduced like baptism, the Lord‟s Supper, observation of Sunday, celebration

of Christmas, New Year and Good Friday. 157

(c) Intellectual Transformation: Although the Mizos were illiterate until the 1890‟s,

they thought of themselves as at the top of the world because of their isolation and

lack of knowledge.158 It was during the colonial rule that the Mizo language was

reduced into writing by the missionaries.159 This gave them education and intellectual

development within one generation was remarkable. Now the Mizos are highly

educated in both secular and theological fields. Zairema agrees with this and writes,

„Some of the Mizos have received their doctorate degrees with high commendations

and contributed some new knowledge to the world at large‟. 160

All these transformations are the results of the gospel in which the Mizos put their

faith and works. Positively these religious, social and intellectual transformations can

157
F. Hrangkhuma, ed., Christianity in India: In Search of Liberation and Identity (Delhi: ISPCK,
1998), 277. F. Hrangkhuma writes that all the non-Christian festivals have completely disappeared. But
Mizo traditional festivals are reappearing in the postcolonial era. Chapchar kut is celebrated every year
in Aizawl, Mizoram. Hereafter cited as „F. Hrangkhuma, Christianity in India‟.
158
Hminga, Life and Witness, 297.
159
Chitta Ranjan Nag, Post-Colonial Mizo Politics (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd,
1999), 19.
160
Zairema, God’s Miracle in Mizoram, 23-24.

92
be categorized as total transformations even though some cultural elements were

modified and transformed and reinterpreted with totally new meaning and

significances. However, there were some good elements which were left or

abandoned because of Christianity and these will be discussed as follows.

5. 2. Negative impacts of Transformation:

Postcolonial reading points to those rejecting, abandoning and discouraging one‟s

own traditions at the expense of adopting some elements from another culture. There

are some religious traditional and cultural practices which the Mizos abandoned and

rejected with the help of the missionaries after they embraced Christianity.

a) Zu and Kelmei: The first step the missionaries took was „doing away with drinking

rice-beer and sacrifices to evil spirits‟. As a matter of fact, drinking rice-beer (zu) was

a religious ritual and this was what the missionaries primarily focussed on. J.M. Lloyd

clearly described how the missionaries associated zu and the kelmei charm (a tuft of

goat‟s hair hanging from a string around the neck to ward off evil spirits) 161 with the

old religion of the Mizo and fought against the drinking rice-beer and kelmei charm.

In those days two acts in particular marked the sincerity of the convictions of a man

who desired to be baptised. Firstly he gave up drinking zu, secondly he surrendered

the kelmei charm. The former not only meant a pledge of total abstinence, it meant

also that a man gave up the practices of Lushai religious rites. Drinking zu was a

religious act. To desist from drinking therefore meant a clean break with the old

faith.162 To hand over the kelmei to the missionaries at that time meant that the owner

161
Picture of a Lushai man, wearing around kelmei charm is available in the journal of Missionary
Herald, London: August, 1905, page 391.
162
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 48.

93
of the kelmei has discontinued his belief in the protection of the spirits and that he

wished to be a Christian.

Before the coming of the missionaries, drinking rice-beer was not seen as sin, rather it

was used as nutritious food. But there were some excessive drinking which caused

trouble and problems. The psychological, intellectual and spiritual changes of attitude

towards drinking rice-beer resulted in this being viewed as sin. Abstaining from

drinking became the proof of good Christian, and anyone drinking was seen as un-

Christian. Although drinking zu is not encouraged, the new attitudes to drinking rice-

beer as sin made the Mizo Christian misunderstand the real teaching of Christianity.

For example, if a person stopped drinking, instinctively the Mizo would say, „he has

experienced religious conversion‟. Spiritual conversion and stopping drinking were

actually confused.

b) Eating meat offered to idols: In pre-Christian Mizo society, religion had an

integrating force and function and close relatives gathered together and worshipped

sakung. For that religious performance every house kept a pig for family worship and

only the very near relatives could share in the family feast that followed. The Mizo

traditional religion in this sense represented blood family ties and the integration of

nuclear family. But Christians were advised and forbidden to take part in this and cut

themselves off from the family ties. If we analysed the way the missionaries taught

„the more they cut off from Mizo religion, the more they became good Christians.‟ In

one sense, it is religion which exclusively claims that we are right, you are wrong.

Consequently Christianity was seen as causing disintegration of family ties. Zairema

writes,

94
 „Being new creations they felt that they should cut themselves off

completely from old religious practices. Every Mizo family kept a

castrated pig for family worship and only the very nearest relatives may

share in the feast that followed. Christians could not take part in this and

thus cut themselves off from blood family ties and adopted their fellow

Christian as their new family. The annual festivals were also associated

with some type of worship and as the Christians refused to take part they

were regarded as anti-social elements. Although they tried not to shirk any

social duties like contributing their labour in digging graves and helping

the sick, but when such duties involved some form of religious practice

they withdrew themselves. 163

This is clear evidence of affirming the Mizo concept of proselytization to be totally a

new creation in their new-found Christian religion. This led to separation; they could

not live in the same village with others. The first Christians were then persecuted,

beaten when they were having worship services and driven out of the village while

heavy rain was pouring down.164 This led to disintegration within the Mizo society

and sometime later the Mizo Christians lived together in one village.

There had been psychological and intellectual changes so that they saw their past as

something to be ashamed of and abandoned, but at the same time they found

themselves caught in a plight between two traditions which put them in a cultural

dilemma. Lal Dena writes,

163
Zairema, God’s Miracle in Mizoram, 10.
164
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 28; Lalsawma, Revivals: The Mizo Ways (Aizawl: Author,
1994), 39-40. Hereafter cited as „Lalsawma, Revivals‟.

95
 They acted and even preached that their ancestors were savages, head

hunters, so as to make their fellow tribesmen ashamed of their past. In this

way they began to uncritically imitate new pro-western values. This is not

to say that they were completely cut off from their traditional mores.

Rather they were caught in a contradictory situation- the simultaneous

adaptation to two contra-posing elements: one traditional and the other

western. Such being the case, they were in the continuous process of

nationalisation. The concept of nationalisation may be defined as a process

of a change in mental attitude that tended to despise one‟s national traits or

traditional ethos in preference to other cultures and then to imitate rather

than to create.165

The author‟s view is that all these identity crises within the Mizo society were the

result of Mizo traditional understanding of conversion to a superior religion. This led

theoretically to identification with the western missionaries but in practice this was

impossible. The Mizo Christians were caught in a plight between traditional and

western culture. As stated earlier, practically, it was difficult to be a proselyte to the

European race and to be cut off from the Mizo traditions and culture and to imitate

and adopt western culture. In other words, the result is confusing western culture with

Christianity. 166

c) Traditional festivals: Mizo society celebrated three major traditional festivals-

Chapchar kut, pawl kut and Mim kut with singing, dancing and feasts every year. In

165
Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism (Shillong: Vendrame Institute, 1988), 110. Hereafter
cited as „Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism‟.
166
H. Vanlalauva, „Mizo Christian Theology‟ in Mizo Miziaa Pathian Thu [Theology in the Mizo
Thought], 28-29. Hereafter cited as „Vanlalauva, Theology in Mizo Thought‟.

96
chapchar kut all kinds of chai songs and dances would be performed. But Mizo

Christians cut themselves off from all these festivals because they considered that

these were pagan. 167

The missionaries stressed that if the Mizo Christian individuals observed the rules of

the church, their souls would be saved. Observance of the rules was a means of

salvation. The first meeting of the church was called and decided to observe the

following:

1) To observe the day of rest.

2) Not to eat things sacrificed to demons.

3) To practice Christian giving.

4) Not to drink zu (rice-beer).

5) To start a Sunday school in every village where there are converts.

6) To give a tenth or more of all their crops to God year by year.168

This was very important in the history of the Mizo church as the initial step towards

Christianity started to bring cultural changes in the Mizo society. Traditional religion

was now completely abandoned. Traditional songs and dances were strongly

discouraged. Therefore, all the traditional festivals where singing and dancing were

performed had completely disappeared.

167
F. Hrangkhuma, Christianity in India, 277.
168
J.H. Lorrain, „Annual Gatherings of the Lushai Converts‟ in Missionary Herald (London: BMS,
April, 1904), 163.

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d) Traditional songs and poetical words:

Mizo may be one of the richest tribes in terms of poetical words. Spoken language

and poetical language are completely different and prose is never regarded as a song

or a poem or lyric. When the missionaries came, they did not realize that the Mizos

had both spoken language and poetical words to compose songs, solos and hymns.

They translated or composed hymns or songs in terms of prose and taught the first

generations Mizo Christians to sing. But this for the Mizos was not singing a song, it

was singing prose. However, the Mizo Christians thought that this was the way that

Christian had to sing, wholly distinctive in tunes and compositions. The first

generation Mizo Christians had perceived that Christian songs had to be in prose. 169

Any mixture of Mizo poetical words was not tolerated because they had been

proselytized to Christianity. The total fault lay not only with the missionaries, but also

the Mizo Christians themselves because they had the understanding that all the Mizo

poetical words were labelled as being of Satan consequently, they were disposed of

and abandoned. 170 Zairema writes,

The church was, however, strict and would discipline any member

who even hummed the music (Puma zai) unconsciously. 171

The missionaries insisted that Mizo Christians should compose Christian hymns and

songs with the Mizo poetical words, but the Mizos refused because their old religion

and culture were thought to be of no use in their new religion. Sangkhuma

surprisingly describes how the missionaries had attempted to adopt the Mizo

169
Liangkhaia, „Hla Thu‟ [Poetical Words] in B. Lalthangliana, ed., Hranghluite Sulhnu (Aizawl: RTM
Press, 1996), 99. Hereafter cited as „Liangkhaia, Hla Thu‟.
170
Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma [Footprints of the Missionaries] (Aizawl: M.C. Lalrinthanga,
1995), 150. Hereafter cited as „Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma‟.
171
Zairema, God’s Miracle in Mizoram, 18.

98
traditional tune and how Mizo Christians were antagonistic to adopting it. Sangkhuma

write,

„D.E. Jones, the pioneer missionary, probably traced the tunes and styles of

the Mizo traditional songs. He wanted to adopt the Mizo chai hla for his

newly translated song, „When I survey the wondrous Cross‟, but the early

Mizo Christians rejected the use of traditional tunes.‟172

In a postcolonial reading, rejecting one‟s own traditional tune is a sign of total

conversion which abandons the Mizo traditional tune for the translated song of the

missionary. Therefore, the Mizo converts who cut themselves off from the Mizo

traditions and culture rejected the use of traditional tunes in worship and instead sang

translated songs with western tunes and western music.

e) Traditional dances:

The Mizo traditional dances were interwoven with the primal religion. As described

earlier, all the activities done in the Mizo community can be interpreted as having

religious significances and cultural elements as well. However, the missionaries saw

the Mizo traditional dances as anti-Christian elements rather than seeing them as

hermeneutical tools for interpreting the Mizo tradition from a new perspective. In this

regard we cannot solely blame the missionaries, but the Mizo converts who cut

themselves from their own cultural dances. Ironically, they started criticizing their

own cultural dances and other cultural elements as satanic and worldly without

realizing how they themselves had been brought up within this very tradition and

culture. This created a radical loss of Mizo identity and the Mizos were later pushed

172
Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma, 180.

99
to find their own identities. Lalrinawmi Ralte, a Mizo feminist theologian created

Crab theology to reformulate and reclaim the forgotten and neglected cultural practice

like dance in this way:

„In crab theology we reclaim the neglected women‟s power as the source

of empowerment. Dance is a cultural expression of power for Mizo

women. Discovering that source of empowerment is the reconstruction of

theology. It is the theology of hope for all the Mizo people because every

Mizo person can relate the experience of Mizoness. It is a theology of

transformation because we appreciate our Mizo roots and establish that

root as a source of developing our theology of hope. Dance is not only a

survival of Mizo culture but points to a new way of experiencing

Christianity. Dance makes a connection between Mizo traditional and

religious life with the Christian life. In dance, Mizos are truly Christian

and truly Mizo at the same time.‟173

f) Traditional Drum (khuang):

A Mizo drum is a hollow cylindrical frame of dead wood with cow skins stretched on

both ends, which when beaten produce sounds. Mizo drums may be classed into three

groups according to the sizes. A small-sized drum will normally measure less than 12

inches in diameter. A medium-sized drum measures approximately 12-16 inches in

diameter. A large-sized drum measures anything more than the medium size. The

early Mizo Christians did not use the Mizo drum because of its old association with

173
Lalrinawmi Ralte, Crab Theology: A Critique of Patriarchy – Cultural Degradation and
Empowerment of Mizo Women (Cambridge, Mass.: Unpublished thesis for Doctor of Divinity,
Episcopal Divinity School, April, 1993), 192-193. Hereafter cited as „Lalrinawmi, Crab Theology‟.
The position of Mizo women may be revealed when we look at the Mizo traditional saying about crab
and women. „Crab‟s meat is not a meat, so women‟s word is not a word‟.

100
their traditional religion and cultural entertainments, and the missionaries also did not

give encouragement.174 H. Vanlalauva, a Mizo theologian clearly writes about

Christianity at the colonial mission as follows, „at the very outset, not only Mizo

traditional beliefs were rejected but forbade even the use of drums in the church.‟175

According to Liangkhaia, the early Mizo church leaders rejected the use of drum in

the church.176There are some truths in this as missionaries played advisory roles. For

instance, Chalhnuna, who was the most prominent elder in the Mission Veng church,

which was attended by missionaries, expressed the following observations about the

restriction of using drum in church. He said that the missionaries did not appreciate

using drums in church. „We dared not go against the missionaries and their interests

automatically became our interest‟.177 Muka, one of the church leaders did not

necessarily blame the Mizo church leaders for refusing to use of drums in church

because at that time the message was that the Mizo life was pagan, dreadful and

fearful. He concluded that it is true that the first church leaders tried their best to stay

away from the traditional Mizo life as far as possible. 178

But the Mizos could not resist forever the use of drums in church. The drum was later

adopted because the Mizo cultural instinct asserted itself through the excitement of

the revival. Since drum beating had never come into Christian worship in the early

days, when it made its entry into the church, it was strictly through the back door, not

readily accepted by the church leaders until the powerful force of singing and dancing

during the revival made it an essential complement of the upheaval. Now the use of

174
Lalsawma, Revivals, 78.
175
Vanlalauva, Theology in Mizo Thought, 24.
176
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 165.
177
Lalrinawmi, Crab Theology, 203.
178
Lalrinawmi, Crab Theology, 205.

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traditional drums has become so popular and widespread that the Mizo church

worship service without drums could be compared to a dish of food without salt in it.

When the Presbyterian Church in Mizoram celebrated its centenary in 1994, they

made one of the biggest drums in the world with a diameter of 7 feet. The idea of

having a drum was truly symbolical in various ways for the Mizo society. It shows

resistance to being called pagans and animists with all its negative connotations. The

drum has become a part of life in all religious and cultural activities.

6. SLAVERY SYSTEM:

The author wants to look at the controversy over the slavery system because it has a

connection with the gospel and culture in the Mizo context. The primary issue of

controversy was „are inpuichhung slaves real slaves or not?‟ What does the Lushai

word „bawi‟ means? Does it mean slave, pauper or other? The two opposing

dignitaries were Major Cole, Superintendent of the Lushai Hills on the one side and

Peter Fraser, a medical missionary of the Welsh Mission. The missionary Peter Fraser

used the Bible to liberate the slaves while Major Cole, the colonial administrator tried

to maintain the Mizo culture, especially the slave system. The author will take the

dissident and resistant readings or approaches to look at this controversy.

In order to have a clear perspective of the controversy, a review of the historical

development of slavery in the Mizo society is necessary. There were two kinds of

slaves – the captive slaves, those who were taken against their will during the inter-

tribal wars; the other slaves were non-captive slaves who entered the chief‟s house at

their own will to be the slaves of the chief. There were three types of the non-captive

102
slaves- chemsen slaves were criminals like murderers who took refuge in the chief

house to escape vengeance; the second type are called tukluh slaves, those who

deserted the losing side in war and joined the victor by promising to become slaves

with all their descendants; the last are inpuichhung slaves, those who had been driven

because of poverty, sickness or distress to take refuge in the chief‟ house to be

slaves.179 It was as a result of the last type of slavery „inpuichhung bawi’ that the

controversy arose.

6. 1. The Colonial view of the Mizo slave system:

Out of the three types of slavery mentioned above, the British government recognized

only inpuichhung bawi. The main reason for supporting this system was the

administrators like Major Cole saw the Mizo slave system as beneficial both to the

slaves and the chiefs. Customarily, the slaves were well treated and in return they had

to give all they could to the chiefs and worked for the chiefs. To get freedom the

slave‟s family or the slave had to pay Rs. 40/- or a mithun for ransom. It was at that

time a large sum of money that an ordinary family could not afford. This system of

slavery was fundamental to the economic sustenance of the chiefs. Therefore, British

administrators advocated the Mizo slave system and saw it as benevolent and suited to

the Mizo social-cultural context.

Despite their attempt to do justice and keep the Mizo customs alive, the colonial

officials did not realize there was actual selling of slaves. J. Shakespear, who

carefully observed the slave system among the Mizo people, did not see it as real

slavery. He wrote,

179
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 142.

103
 „The „boi‟ custom-Among the Thados and Chins real slavery used to exist,

men and women were sold like cattle. Among the Lushais this has never

been the case, but there is a class known as „boi‟ [bawi is the right

spelling, author] who have been miscalled slaves by those ignorant of their

real condition.‟180

J. Shakespear view was neither totally right nor totally wrong for the fate and

destinies of the Mizo slaves were solely conditioned by the chiefs and their masters.

All the British officers and the majority of the Mizo chiefs supported this view.

6. 2. Missionary view:

On the other hand, the missionaries recognized that the slavery system in the Mizo

society was real slavery, but they preferred to keep quiet. As the proverb goes,

„Actions speak louder than words‟. They did redeem some of the slaves out of their

oppressive positions with their own money.181 Despite their sympathy for the slaves,

the early missionaries dared not complain about the Mizo slavery system to the

colonial administrators. Peter Fraser came to Mizoram in 9th December, 1908 and saw

the Mizo slavery system as against the Bible‟s teachings (Exod. 20:3-7; Ezk. 3:7-21)

and the British Law under the influence of Pax Britannica. He raised the question of

why the slavery system still existed in Mizoram which was under the administration

of Pax Britannica. He pointed out that the British government prohibited slave trade in

1807 and in 1833 ruled that all slaves should be set free.

180
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 46.
181
According to Lalhmuaka, Edwin Rowlands ransomed Pawngi, Hlunziki and Challianbuki out of the
Zote chief‟s slavery with his own money. Lalhmuaka, Zoram, 103.

104
Unfortunately the way he interpreted the Bible is not available but it can be imagined

that his hermeneutical circle takes up the Ten Commandments and he seemed to

identify the hardened hearts of the Egyptian people with the colonial administrators

and the Mizo chiefs. He studied the Mizo slavery system and configured seven points

which clearly disclosed the injustice of the Mizo socio-cultural structure which his

friend Major Cole defended for the sake of administration. According to Peter Fraser,

„That the „bawi’ system is a system under which British subjects in Lushai

are deprived of their right to liberty and justice is evident from a perusal of

the following statements of slaves, evangelists, chiefs, missionaries and

others. Besides, bondage for life other evil features are seen: (1) The

inhumane separation of a mother from her child (2) The separation of

husband and wife (3) the separation of relatives (4) Intimidation, bodily

hurt (5) Temptation to immorality, (6) Opposition to slaves becoming

Christian (7) The selling and buying of people. 182

He further observed that it was real buying and selling of people under the

chieftainship. However, J.M. Lloyd, his colleague stated that there was no actual

selling and buying of human beings in the Mizo slavery system. 183 But the fact that

there were certain cases of the real buying and selling of slaves was confirmed by the

statement of R. Dala, an elder in the church who witnessed that Vanphunga was really

selling his slave to Laihangi. 184

182
Peter Fraser, Slavery on British Territory: Assam and Burma (Canarvon: W. Gwenlyn Evans & Son,
1913), 5. Hereafter cited as „Fraser, Slavery‟.
183
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 154.
184
Fraser, Slavery, 61.

105
6. 3. Mizo Christian chiefs freed their slaves:

Khawvelthanga chief of Maubuang attended the mission school at Aizawl and became

a Christian. He saw that the slavery system was incompatible with Christianity.

Khawvelthanga, therefore, set free all his slaves that he had inherited from past

generations. The non-Christian chiefs felt that it was going to shake their

chieftainship and it was against the Mizo custom to release the slave without any

ransom money. Major Cole together with Hmara and Tualtawma went to investigate

Khawvelthanga, and he was interviewed and questioned but found no need to take

action.185 Some Christian chiefs also released their slaves and did this as a public

testimony of their allegiance to Christ when they became Christians. 186

7. POSTCOLONIAL READING ON CONTROVERSY AND CHANGES:

Resistant reading sees that the slavery was a source of structural injustice in the Mizo

society and was against the Bible and the British law, although it probably contributed

benevolent things to the person concerned. Khawvelthanga wrote to Major Cole, the

Superintendent clearly stating that „the Mizo bawi system was incompatible with

Christianity or the teaching of Jesus Christ and the crown of the British Empire King

Edward. 187 He also gave letters to the slaves whom he freed saying, „From this time

in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the name of our King Edward, I free you

from slavery. From this time no one will be able to make you a slave.‟ 188

185
J.V. Hluna, Mizoram Hmar Bial Missionary-te Chanchin [History of Missionaries in Northern
Mizoram] (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 2003), 88. Hereafter cited as „Hluna, Mizoram Hmar
Missionary‟.
186
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 63.
187
Fraser, Slavery, 59.
188
Fraser, Slavery, 8.

106
Unfortunately, Major Cole who defended the cause of the Mizo chiefs and the

customs could not support the meritorious deeds of Khawvelthanga. Therefore, he had

to devise a method and recognized its limitations. Although Khawvelthanga totally

freed his slaves they would still be slaves in other villages until and unless they paid

the ransom fee. When Fraser, who himself ransomed over forty slaves out of his own

pocket learnt of the case, he thought it could be solved through a payment of Rs. 40/-

for each slaves. He then found Rs.200/- for five families and gave it to

Khawvelthanga as ransom money. 189 The motive was to legalize the process as the

Mizo customary law demanded the ransom money. Khawvelthanga neither demanded

the payment nor asked Fraser to do this. The slaves were then informed that their

ransom has been paid, and that they are now free from slavery.

Major Cole was supported by all the colonial officers, staff and the Mizo chiefs while

Fraser was supported by few like his partner Watkins Roberts, Khawvelthanga chief

of Maubuang village and R. Dala, assistant to Fraser in his medical work. The rest of

the missionaries secretly supported Fraser but dared not say anything. Although they

did not support outwardly, almost all the Mizos took the side of their beloved

missionary doctor.190

Meanwhile in 1909, Major Cole wrote an article about the Mizo bawi system in the

local monthly news called „Mizo leh Vai Chanchinbu’ (Newspaper of Mizo and

Indian). In the November issue he stated that what they call bawi (slavery) in the

Lushai Hills is not „bound‟ slavery. By paying ransom money they can be free

according to their pleasure. They can go wherever they like; for that reason it does not

189
Fraser, Slavery, 79.
190
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 494.

107
appear that they are real slaves. So, because they can do as they desire it is only

„membership of the household‟. Henceforth without calling it „slave price‟ (bawi

man) it is to be called „payment for board of house hold members‟ (chhungte

chawmman). So whoever wants to ransom himself if he gives to the chief „payment

for board of house hold members‟ (chungte [sic] chawmman) - forty rupees or a

gayal, one family will be allowed to ransom themselves. 191

Here Cole‟s statement was incompatible with the then existing Mizo customs. It was

this modified version and reinterpretation of the Mizo customs with which the Mizo

chiefs disagreed. Chief Khawvelthanga‟s letter to Cole makes the issue clear. On 29th

November, 1911, Khawvelthanga wrote that the reason he freed his slaves in the

name of Jesus Christ and in the name of king was the love of God and the king who

does not want the evil way of slavery. But the majority of the Lushai chiefs did not

allow their slaves to be free until they received Rs. 40/- from their slaves. This Rs.

40/- was not chawmman (payment of board), it is bawiman (payment for slave).

Khawvelthanga turned the order of Cole against him as Cole had not recognized the

payment and modified the Mizo custom by his authority.

King Edward VII died in 1910 and all the Mizo chiefs were ordered to light a fire on

the highest hill in their chiefdom as a sign and symbol of commemoration.

Khawvelthanga failed to comply with that order and the Superintendent; Major Cole

confiscated his double barrel gun. The Mizos thought that the reason behind this was

not because of the failure to comply with the order, but rather that he supported

Fraser‟s case in releasing the bawis. Major Cole wisely rationalized the case in order

191
Fraser, Slavery, 21; Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 494.

108
to evade the truth and justified his position historically. 192 On 8th November 1910,

Major Cole officially restricted the ministry of Fraser and Fraser sent a letter of

complaint to the Assam Chief Commissioner Sir Archdale Dharle, who defended the

cause of administration for the sake of peace. Fraser was asked to moderate his

statements which he flatly rejected and he was then asked to leave the Lushai Hills. 193

Sometime after Fraser was withdrawn from the Lushai Hills, the slavery controversy

was taken up and a settlement affected an order issued on 18 th of March, 1914 during

the time of J. Hezlett, Superintendent of the Lushai Hills. The main points were

briefly as follows:

1) The use of the word BAWI to be discontinued as far as possible due to its

association with the wider sense of slavery.

2) Claims by chiefs against parties alleged to be BAWIS should adopt the same

form as in all customary cases among the general public on which the issue

was recovery of the customary Rs. 40/- or 1 Mithan chawman or board and

lodging costs.

3) That in any case of CHEMSEN BAWIS and TUK LUT BAWIS, types which are

in any case fast dying out and which had never been recognised by the

Administration, any claims put forward would on decision be limited to the

specific amount of the consideration, if any, received.

4) The maximum liability of a BAWI on seeking freedom be accepted as Rs. 40/-

or 1 Mithan for a whole family.

192
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 501-502.
193
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 63.

109
 5) A BAWI might leave his benefactor at will, it being open to the chief then to

sue- he having no remedy to demand service, by force, pending the settlement

of the freedom price.

6) Questions arising out of disputes over BAWIS should, as far as possible, be

decided on the lines of Lushai custom as applied to ordinary cases of

chawman.194

There was no explicit order of a slavery system in the Mizo Hills, but Fraser, who left

due to this controversy, had come back to Lushai Hills to collect his materials, and

was applauded as if he had championed the cause of the Bawis successfully. Thanga,

who sat for the Matriculation examination in Shillong, heard the news of Fraser

coming back to Mizoram after he had been withdrawn imagined that Fraser had won

the case and composed a song which still popular even today among the Mizos. The

song goes like this:

We praise and honour thee o Lord Most High

Thou art living and Almighty God,

Friend of the oppressed, slaves, downtrodden and the sinners,

Lord, Father and God of the orphans and the poor.

If the bawi controversy is studied from the postcolonial perspective, the Colonial

administrators, with good intentions tried to protect the Mizo custom, tradition and

culture for administrative purposes. Fraser criticized the unjust social structure in the

light of the Bible and the British Law by pinpointing the slavery system. The

194
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 129; Lalhmuaka, Zoram, 288; Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 500-
501.

110
controversy was „are the mizo bawis really slaves?‟. Secondly, J.H. Lorrain had a

totally different view and he said that the word „bawi‟ must be translated as „pauper‟

or „retainer‟ and not as „slave‟. 195 But his classic Dictionary of Lushai Language was

published in 1940; he did not change „bawi‟ to „pauper‟ or „retainer‟ but still

translated the word as „slave‟. 196 Therefore, it can be concluded that the answer is

„yes, the bawis are slaves‟. It is significant to note that J.H. Lorrain might have been

traumatized by the administration of that period. However, the transforming power of

the Gospel which changes the socio-political structure finally abolished the oppressive

structure of the slavery system of the Mizo society. Fraser‟s subversive challenges

and Khawvelthanga‟s resistant approach could not change the edifice of the colonial

administration at first, but later practically liberated the Mizo bawis, who were bound

by tradition in the hands of the chiefs.

8. RE-READING THE ABOLITION OF ZAWLBUK:

The abolition of zawlbuk may be re-reading from the postcolonial perspective which

maintains those binary notions and interactions of colonial administration and the

missionary movements. Four approaches, political, religious, modernization and

subaltern will be developed in order to look at the abolition of the traditional zawlbuk

in the Mizo context.

8. 1. Political approach:

This approach sees that it was the colonial administration that directly or indirectly

led to the abolition of zawlbuk. N. Chatterji points out that both the advent of the

colonial power and the Christian mission were the primary cause of weakening the

195
Lalthangliana, Zoram Encyclopedia, 34.
196
J. H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 31.

111
operation and stability of zawlbuk.197 In the pre-colonial period, zawlbuk played

political roles in defending the community, giving security and peace. After the

annexation, clan feuds and village warfare were forbidden by the British government,

security, peace, law and order was restored to its maximum level. In other words, the

colonial administration had taken over the role of zawlbuk in the defence and security

of the villages and the importance of zawlbuk inevitably declined in the minds of the

majority of the Mizo people.198 J.M. Lloyd also agreed that when the British

administration took over the land and restored law and order, zawlbuk was no longer

necessary. 199

Although the colonial administration paralysed the institution of zawlbuk, the colonial

officials wanted to retain the zawlbuk institution. On 29th of November, 1937,

Assistant Superintendent, B.M. Roy sent a letter to A.G. McCall in favour of retaining

the traditional zawlbuk institution in Thakthing veng (Thakthing area) in Aizawl for its

contributions to the Mizo society. He even complained about the Lushai Christians

seeing their tradition and custom in a negative way. This clearly testified that the

British administrators were in a position to retain the traditional zawlbuk.

8. 2. Religious approach:

This approach favoured the abolition of zawlbuk which was supported by the

missionaries, the Mizo Christians and the school teachers. J.M. Lloyd believed that

the head hunting raids which made the Lushai notorious were planned and perfected

197
N. Chatterji, Zawlbuk as a Social Institution in the Mizo Society (Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute,
1975), 23. Hereafter cited as „N. Chatterji, Zawlbuk‟.
198
N. Chattterji, Zawlbuk, 23.
199
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 143.

112
in the zawlbuk.200 A.G. McCall observes that the prime movers in the abolition of the

zawlbuk were the mission employees. He writes,

„It was however, the Lushai mission employees who were the prime

movers in the matter of abandoning the ZAWLBUK system. The missions

were left to view the notion sympathetically or alternatively, to oppose it

with vigour. The latter alternative basically conflicts with their principle of

encouraging self-expression and Lushai initiative, and must be abhorrent

to the personnel of the missions.201

Meanwhile, David Edwards, a Welsh missionary also sent a letter to A.G. McCall in

support of the abolition of the zawlbuk from the Mizo society. Even though the

missionaries made use of the zawlbuk in their previous ministry for preaching and

learning the Mizo language, but later on, it was seen as a danger to their mission

works and supported the abolition of zawlbuk.

8. 3. Modernization approach:

In this approach the new elites in the Mizo society such as mission employees

including pastors, teachers and other church workers and the government servants saw

that the Mizo traditional ways of living were outdated and needed to be modernized

and updated and that the zawlbuk institution should be abolished. Besides there were

some 2000 Lushai Labour Corps, who went to France during the World War I, who

had been enlightened and changed in their outlook and they also supported the

abolition of zawlbuk. These people brought money with them and thus introducing the

new economy to the Mizo society. As Kipgen has mentioned in his book the new

200
Lloyd, Every High Hill, 47.
201
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 211.

113
economic system based upon monetary wealth was one of the reasons for the

abolition of the zawlbuk.202 It is therefore valid to claim that modernization was one

of the reasons for the abolition of zawlbuk in the Mizo society.

Another reason for the abolition of the zawlbuk may be the introduction of formal

education by the government and the Christian mission. J.M. Lloyd also agrees with

the introduction of education as the primary reason for abolishing the zawlbuk.203

According to H.L. Malsawma, the zawlbuk institution collapsed because of the

introduction of the education system by the missionaries. He writes,

„The institution of zawlbuk has disappeared due mainly to modern

education and not so much of Christianity. The necessity of having this

institution like the preparation for war, chapchar kut, emergency of

discipline is no more valid. Factors which contributed to the decline and

ultimate disappearance of this institution are many and varied. The newly

educated Mizo frowned upon all the customs and manners of the past.

„Down went into oblivion, golden years and traditions of adventure and

bravery‟. The opening of primary and middle schools in the villages

generated a clash between two interests and zawlbuk had to give way.

Missionaries and Superintendent had attempted once to revive it at

Thakthing veng, Aizawl, but the native people themselves objected the

attempt on many grounds and the proposal had to be abandoned.‟ 204

202
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 151.
203
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 278.
204
Malsawma, Sociology of the Mizos, 168.

114
8. 4. Postcolonial approach:

The Postcolonial subaltern approach sees zawlbuk as an institutional structure of

injustice and an oppressive tool for the chiefs to exploit their subjects. Zawlbuk was

the source of power for the chief in every Mizo village. There were conflicts between

the chief and the people concerning rights and dues of the chief and it was aggravated

at that time. Therefore the abolition of zawlbuk meant abolition of power of the chief

and structural injustice. When the Superintendent, N.E. Parry ordered the rebuilding

of zawlbuk in every village, some of the Mizos, under the leadership of Telela of

Kulikawn resisted the order by turning against the indirect administration.

Vanlalchhuanawma delineates the subversive questions of the subaltern Mizos as

follows:

Is the Superintendent endowed with the power to compel people to labour

without wages? Why does he order us rebuild the zawlbuk? Are the Mizos

under the British government or Lals [chiefs]? Is there any other tribe

under the rule of both at one and the same time? Should the

Superintendent collect fowl and eggs free from the poor subjects? etc.. 205

Again on 26th December, 1937, Thudikziakngama, (one who is not afraid to write the

truth) and who was in favour of radical changes, pointed out the weakness of zawlbuk

and its oppressive elements. He wrote an anonymous letter relating to the

improvement and advancement of the Lushai to Superintendent McCall pointing out

only the destructive roles in support of the abolition of zawlbuk as follows:

205
Vanlalchhuanawma, Revival Movement, 332-333. According to Vanlalchhuanawma, the
Superintendent branded them „Kulikawn Rogues‟ and the leading persons Telela, Thuama, V.Z. Biaka,
Saikunga, Chawnghnuaia, Chawngdailova and Zuala were kept in custody on 22nd October 1926 and
released them by the end of December. They were penalized by a fine of Rs.5000/-.

115
 „Zawlbuk has been destructive to the Mizos instead of improving. In fact, it

is making the Mizo worse. Children cannot be controlled, taught and

disciplined by their respective parents. Children not only learnt notorious

fun and jokes, but dirty scathing chats from the uneducated elders.

Children also suffered under strict disciplines under the supervision of the

elders. Zawlbuk naturally demands more compulsory community works

while lots of labour had to be devoted to the construction of schools and

churches. Men have wasted their time in the zawlbuk without helping and

assisting their wives at home. Zawlbuk therefore, is deteriorating, nothing

to do for the advancement and development of the Mizo society.‟206

Despite its various positive contributions for the betterment of the Mizo society, if

reading from the postcolonial perspective which advocates social justice, zawlbuk had

some negative aspects such as:

1) Miscarriage of social justice on the girls. This is a sheer injustice done to the

girls by the men folks.

2) The daily nocturnal visits of young zawlbuk dwellers to their sweethearts

enjoying easy uninhibited indulgence in their company as an accepted social

more.

3) Lack of any restraint on such activities by the parents and socially accepted

collective reprisals by the zawlbuk as a whole on any parents taking objection

to such free mixing, all contributed to the growth of natural hetero-sexual

206
The original letter is in Mizo language, and McCall, Superintendent asked Buchhawna to translate
into English. I suggest that this letter is prepared by the „Kulikawn Rogues‟ of that time. McCall
response can be seen in his book „Lushai Chrysalis‟. See McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 211.

116
 relations between man and woman in this tribal society. This could bring

about the dreadful „tlangsawi‟.

4) Gossips and clandestine love affairs received unhealthy encouragement as a

result of such weighted treatment in favour of men folks.

5) Another important weakness of the zawlbuk system was that the frequent

absence of young men folks from the family and also from the filial ties with

the parents.207

By abolishing the zawlbuk institution, discrimination against women has come to an

end. Men folks who wasted their time at zawlbuk now spent more time looking after

family affairs. Children also got freedom from the compulsory duty of collecting
208
firewood and they had time to go to school and received more care and attention.

On the other hand the abolition of the zawlbuk institution in one sense weakened the

unity of the village and there was no better substitute. Now the church is interpreted

as a substitute for the zawlbuk in various ways and utilizes it as a hermeneutic to

construct Mizo tribal ecclesiology.

To summarize from the postcolonial perspective, not only the advent of the colonial

power, Christian mission and modernization, but also the structural injustice based on

chieftainships in connection with zawlbuk were the primary reasons for the abolition

of zawlbuk. As a whole, a cultural institution that is against the gospel must be

transformed. Nowadays, zawlbuk no longer survives but the spirit of zawlbuk known

as tlawmngaihna still survives in every Mizo village and town. As a result in all the

villages and towns, „Young Mizo Association‟ a voluntary organisation is formed in

207
N. Chatterji, Zawlbuk, 21-22.
208
Sangkima, Mizo: Society and Social Change, 132.

117
order to help people in various ways. It therefore, right to maintain the view that even

in the postcolonial era, though no zawlbuk institution can be seen, yet the spirit of

zawlbuk together with tlawmngaihna is actively functioning within the Mizo

community. 209

9. REFLECTION ON MEDICAL MISSION:

In this section the author wants to present the medical mission which enlightened and

completely changed the philosophy of medicines in connection with sacrifices to evil

spirits in the Mizo context. The Mizo philosophy and world view before the coming

of the British and the Christian mission was that any sickness was ascribed or

attributed to the work of malignant evil spirits. John Hughes Morris writes, „The

average Lushais had more faith in a tuft of goat‟s hair or in a number of dog‟s teeth

strung around his neck, than all the medicines in the world!‟ 210 So the appeasement of

the evil spirits and offering sacrifices were the major means to cure sick people.

When Peter Fraser, the medical missionary doctor first explained that sickness and

illnesses were not the work of the evil spirits but germs and other harmful things, the

Mizos could not accepted his explanations. Mizo priests, who were the propitiators of

the evil spirits, challenged the medical explanation. But during his first year of

ministry in Mizoram, Peter Fraser treated about 24,000 patients.211 When he left

Mizoram after five years he had treated more than 50,000 patients.212 Thousands of

lives have been saved and the Mizo philosophy of medicine was gradually changed

when they found that a single dosage of quinine was more effective than the series of

209
N. Chatterji, Zawlbuk, 25.
210
John Hughes Morris, In the Step of the Good Physician: The Story of Medical Missions (Canarvon:
The Calvinistic Book Agency, 1938), 57. Hereafter cited as „Morris, Medical Missions‟.
211
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 46.
212
Lalhmuaka, Zoram, 161.

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sacrifices to the evil spirits.213 Medical mission not only brought physical healing, but

also changed the Mizo world view in terms of psychological, intellectual and spiritual

changes. Sacrifices to evil spirits for cure were more expensive than buying medicine.

The Mizo society greatly benefited from the medical mission and its education and

enlightenment in all spheres of life. In other words, it was the medical mission that

changed the minds of the Mizos and enlightened and transformed their attitudes to

evil spirits and this played a vital role in a transformation of Mizo culture and

religion. Communication of the gospel by means of medicine and prayer proved to be

a wise missionary method in a society where people associated sickness with evil

spirits and religion.

The Mission hospital (now called Presbyterian Hospital) was started with only one

missionary doctor and six beds in 1928. From this humble beginning the hospital

progressed slowly but steadily. When the Presbyterian Hospital celebrated its 80 years

of service in 2008, there were 23 doctors and 114 nursing staff and 300 beds. 214 The

hospital is a secondary level multispeciality, equipped with all the modern equipments

including a licenced Blood Bank. The hospital also has three outreach centres outside

the hospital campus. Besides the routine outdoor patients and ward facilities, a mobile

clinic team regularly visits the interior villages throughout Mizoram delivering health

services to those unable to obtain treatment elsewhere. The main objectives of the

hospital are: To render quality health care to all at all times without discrimination

and to train quality nurses with Christian principles.

213
Morris, Medical Missions, 57.
214
„Present‟ [article online]; available from derhkentlang.org/present.html; Internet; accessed; 20 July,
2009.

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10. POSTCOLONIAL REFLECTION ON EDUCATIONAL MISSION:

Some contributions of western education can be summarized in three or four

categories given below, although the impact of western education is still unfolding. If

churches and mission agencies are to reclaim their relevancy, they must explain why

missionary education failed to liberate people from ignorance, from hatred and the

spiral of exploitation and violence.

10. 1. Education was a means for conversion:

The term conversion has been used with different spectrums of meaning according to

the context in which it is used. It can mean conversion of currencies, change of

religious affiliation, and experience of inner change among Christians. The main

concern in this section is to study religious conversion from the perspective of Mizo

Christians, with a view to finding correlation between personal and social change. Let

us first briefly look at the matter of religious conversions and the deep theological and

sociological questions they raise. According to R.S. Sugirtharajah, religious

conversion means a shift from one religion to another, but also more importantly,

from one community to another. It is a change of outlook and an orienting of one‟s

life to a different focal point, but it also means leaving one‟s own cultural heritage and

joining a Christian community whose style of worship and church structure follows

western cultural patterns.215 Therefore conversion raises many theological issues such

as: Is one religion superior to the other? What aspects of culture and social life should

a convert be encouraged to preserve? In what way should he or she be helped to make

use of his or her rich tradition to interpret the new faith? Should one leave one‟s own

cultural social tradition entirely in accepting another faith?

215
R.S. Sugirtharajah, ed., Voices from the Margin Interpreting the Bible in the Third World (New
York: Orbis/SPCK, New Edition second impression, 1997), 307.

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Trusting in the power of the western education and the universality of English

literature, missionaries often ignored some of the burning issues of the day and were

concerned only about converting and Christianizing the people. For example, the

introduction of the Commission III Report of the World Missionary Conference in

1910 confessed that it considered education only as a means, either direct or indirect,

to fulfil the great commission in Matthew to make disciples of all nations and to

baptize them. 216 This observation was in agreement with a majority of educational

missionaries including Alexander Duff, who argues that the Colonial government was

a powerful force, sent by God to Christianize India and the government should do all

in its power „for the conversion of a hundred and thirty millions of idolaters‟.217

Jonathan Ingleby, who worked for more than twenty years in education in India,

agreed that the main British supporters of the Indian mission saw the conversion of

the heathen as the missionary primary task. 218 The long running debate as to whether

the men and women who gave themselves entirely to educational work were really

missionaries was an indication of this concern. The dispute between the Serampore

missionaries and the BMS had partly to do with the Serampore College offering a

general education which according to its critics had lost its evangelistic cutting edge.

This means that officers of the missionary societies wished to emphasise the task of

the missionary as first and foremost converting non-Christians and building up the

church. The failure to obtain conversions might have been expected to lead to the

216
Report of Commission III, Education in relation to the Christianisation of National Life, World
Missionary Conference, 1910 (Edinburgh and London: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier), 16.
217
George Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff, 291, quoted in Jacob S. Dharmaraj, Colonialism and
Christian Mission: Postcolonial Reflections (Delhi: ISPCK, 1993), 70. Hereafter cited as „Dharmaraj,
Colonialism‟.
218
Jonathan Ingleby, Missionaries, Education and India: Issues in Protestant Missionary Education in
the Long Nineteenth Century (Delhi: ISPCK, 2000), 368. Hereafter cited as „Jonathan Ingleby,
Missionaries Education‟.

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closing down of the schools and colleges and the diversion of resources into other

enterprises.

The primary object of the missionaries in Mizoram was also to convert the people into

Christianity. From their experience, the missionaries learned that mere religious

preaching would not bear much fruit nor could it take a deep root in the mind of the

Mizos. Unless they had education, these ignorant and primitive people could not

understand or appreciate the facts, evidences and doctrines of the scripture. This

factor would always stand as an obstacle to win them over to Christianity. It was

necessary to start schools to educate the illiterate converts so that they could read the

bible, a qualification that was essential for all Christians.

It seems clear from the experience of the Mizo society that conversion provides the

people with a new source of power, replacing the traditional source of power. This has

had a far reaching consequence in the life of the Mizo people. C.L. Hminga has

argued strongly that the Mizo conversion to the Christian faith changed the physical

appearance of the village, the social life, the customary practices and belief of the

Mizo people. 219 John Hughes Morris referring to the work of Presbyterian Church of

Wales in Mizoram said, „The story of our work in Lushai Hills forever remain an

inspiration to the Churches of Wales, and a clear demonstration of the saving and

transforming and uplifting power of the gospel of Christ‟. 220 Lal Dena correctly notes

with regard to Mizoram that „while conversion was essentially a religious issue, it

encompassed the whole aspects of one‟s or community‟s life. Therefore, the

219
Hminga, Life and Witness, 287-307
220
John, Huhges Morris, The Story of Our Foreign Mission (Liverpool: John Hughes Morris, 1930;
reprint, Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1990), 88.

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missionary view about the process of conversion itself ultimately amounted to a

whole theory of social change‟. 221

The conversion of the Mizos has made a significant contribution to the transformation

of the society. Today, in a situation where there is no more mass conversion from

primal religion to Christianity, in what way is conversion a powerful means of social

transformation? In the context of Mizoram, conversion is now experienced as a

dynamic and ongoing process of turning from sin to God. The importance and value

of the conversion experiences as a foundation for struggle for social transformation

should not be underestimated.

10. 2. The Diffusion Theory: E. Stanley Jones, a long time missionary in India

explained the logic of this theory; influence people who have influence in the

society.222 He argued that winning the educated upper class will automatically lead to

penetration into the social world of the lower classes. Therefore the missionaries

found justification in concentrating educational activities among the rich and powerful

sections in the society. In Mizoram from the beginning, it was only the children and

relations of the new rich that utilized the new and novel experience of middle and

higher education. This group included the mission workers and the salaried employees

of the government. In this way their children and relations enjoyed the advantages

which otherwise were not easily available to the ordinary and typical Mizos. This was

because their resources were meagre. It was in this way that a kind of oligarchy or

intelligentsia emerged which had no place in the indigenous society of the Mizos.

221
Lal Dena, Christian Missions and Colonialism, 86.
222
Jonathan Ingleby, Missionaries Education, 247.

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Soon education and Christianity began to be considered as a passport to salaried jobs

and a welcome relief from the wearisome toil of hard work. The mission education

brought about the creation of the privileged class. Black-coated occupations became

synonymous with progress and Christianity led towards black-coatism. 223 Thus,

according to McCall, a privileged class had been produced by the system of education

with which the Mizo background had little in common. 224

One of the reasons for imposing English as the medium of education from the middle

school stage in India and also in Mizoram was buried in this change of priority

informed by the diffusion theory. It also reflected the political interest in unifying the

emotions and ambitions of the colonized people. The English education was

introduced as a component of the prevailing political logic of imperialism. In his

famous thesis, Thomas Macaulay argued that the English education would promote a

cultural revolution and this would make Indians loyal to the crown. Once the

revolution was achieved, he wrote, „The Indian people will cease to opt for and aim

for independence. The native shall not rise against us and thus the energy will be fully

and harmlessly employed in acquiring and deffusing European knowledge and in

naturalizing European institutions‟. 225

The majority of educational missionaries were enthusiastic about the Macaulay

doctrine and for them teaching of the Bible and English language were inseparable.

However, language is not just a medium of communication or a symbol of civility but

an experience of reality. The language they speak puts them in touch with the basic

223
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 250.
224
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 206.
225
Jacob Dharmaraj, Colonialism, 69.

124
truths that every religion grapples with. 226 The language also determines the

explanation or understanding of the truth and thus directs the social praxis to realize

the perceived truth explanations. Furthermore, language is a medium of one‟s own

social reality, the reality of life. Therefore alienation from the social self was the

immediate ramification of imposing an alien language English in missionary

education. Moreover, depriving people of their mother tongue resulted in their

alienation from the truth of life, creating a structural inability in them to search for the

fundamentals of their own reality.

10. 3. Education as justification for Colonial Rule:

The other objective of education was to provide the logic which justified colonial

administration. One of the moral questions that missionaries sought to answer was

„what right did the Europeans have to occupy, dominate and to manage the people of

Asia, Africa and Americas?227

In seeking rational justification for education and occupation, missionaries proposed

two possible answers which later assumed the role of an official explanation of the

churches and the colonial political leadership. Missionaries argued that colonialism

was providential, allowing people to encounter the saving grace of God. The imperial

success therefore was integral to God‟s plan to bless the world. Secondly, occupying

other lands and educating their occupants was driven by a moral imperative to

226
Aloysius Pieres „Towards an Asian Theology of Liberation‟ in Virginia Fabella ed., Asia’s Struggle
for Full Humanity (New York: Orbis, 1980), 77.
227
Enrique Dussel, Beyond Philosophy: Ethics, History, Marxism and Liberation Theology (New York:
Ronman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003), 53-81.

125
modernize primitive economic relations and to civilize the barbarians. 228 Wilberforce

was not alone in isolating the people of non-western societies and positioning them at

the lowest rung of civilization. William Carey, a BMS missionary in India wrote that

all non-western societies are culturally inferior. The antidote to religious ignorance

and cultural lowliness is preaching of the gospel and the introduction of superior

western culture.229

Out of many constructive contributions, there were few imperial elements to be found

in the Mizo Primer. The Duhlian Primer published in 1915 had initially aimed at

curbing the traditional beliefs, taboos and the possession of the evil spirits, nomadic

life and strengthening moral and the social relationship. Moreover, there was an urge

to submission to the colonial power. For example:

Do not be nomadic.

Be a good slave.

There is no magic.

Do not resent impressed labour.

It is useless to offer things for the dead person.

It is not good to have a concubine.

Do not despise the servant.

Do not search lice on the street.

All deceased bodies must be buried.230[Trans, mine]

228
William Wilberforce said that Indian natives were barbarous and low in the scale of European
civilization. Speech of William Wilberforce, Hansard, 22 June, 1813, First Series, Vol. 26, 164, quoted
in Jacob Dharmaraj, Colonialism, 33.
229
William Carey, An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians, to use means for the Conversion of
the Heathens (First Published in 1792, reprint, Didcot: Baptist Missionary Society, 1991), 40-41.
230
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 561.

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These short, but powerful lessons changed the minds of the Mizo people. B.

Lalthangliana, a Mizo historian writes that the influence of these lessons on thought

patterns and the ways it enlightened the minds of the Mizos were so great that it was

beyond one‟s imagination.231 In fact, their fear of evil spirits and magic was driven

away; things offered to the dead were no longer necessary. At the same time there are

imperial indoctrinations. For example, „do not resent forced-labour‟. This seemed

against God‟s will and not in accordance with the Bible. In the Mizo history, forced or

impressed labour was one of the most disturbing and problematic impositions and

even resulted in severe disputes between the Mizo chiefs and the British

government.232

In addition, the missionary education laid a deep foundation of imperialist ideology

which was really effective in the Mizo context. In the Mizo Primer Book which was

printed in 1915 and 1929, these two sentences were included:

4. There are five kinds of people in the world: the black, the brown, the yellow

the red and the white people.

5. All are but one. Vast majority are the yellow people; the wisest and most

powerful are the white people.233[Trans, mine]

Again, B. Lalthangliana comments this, „It is wonderful to put these manifestations of

imperialist attitudes in the Mizo text book. These lessons were taught and the Mizo

society was indoctrinated in this way for nearly 50 years with the aims of colonizing

and brainwashing. The effect was really powerful and influential; it successfully
231
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 562.
232
N. Chaterjee, Mizo Chiefs, 116.
233
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 563.

127
inculcated the minds of the Mizos with the idea that the white people are the most

superior till today‟.234 But in the reprinted edition of the Mizo Primer in 1959 these

sentences were no longer included.

Furthermore, to enlighten the minds of the Mizos religiously in terms of superstitions

and taboos, the Mizo Primer was designed to educate the people as follows:

Things not haunted by evil spirits: gibbon‟s skull, 235 water spring (sih),236 a small pool

of water (tuivamit),237 crack in the earth (lei chat),238 a broken off tree (thing lu

bul),239 a stream flows into a hole (tui lut),240 accidental death (sarthi),241 a mound

resembling a grave (lei ruang tuam),242 a reddish deposit found at the bottom of some

pools or where water has run (chham ek).243 In fact, all these things were taboos and

superstitions, and had some significance in Mizo traditional ways of living. The

following sentences were constructed against the then existing Mizo taboos:

1. There is no evil spirit at the saddle of the hill.

2. Huge rocks and big trees are not haunted.

3. Zamzo flower can not protect us from evil spirits.

4. Water spring is not dangerous, but drinking dirty water.

5. Offering sacrifices at jhum is no use at all while God blesses hard labour.

234
Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 563.
235
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 101.
236
A spring is believed to be haunted by evil spirits.
237
J. H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 526. A small pool of water found in the jungle not usually far from a
stream. To have a jhum near such pool is considered unlucky.
238
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 291.
239
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 466.
240
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 525.
241
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 405.
242
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 292.
243
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 73.

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 6. It is no use to sacrifice animals to the dead person for animals have no spirit.

7. It is no use to observe public holiday due to village fire or someone killed by

tiger, but helping them to build houses and clearing jhum is far better.244

These enlightening lessons gradually convinced the mind of the Mizos and later they

almost abandoned their traditional taboos, which played vital roles in shaping the

moral and ethical life, for they were interpreted as superstitions. Zairema, the pioneer

Mizo theologian expresses the effect of this as follows:

„After we were Christianized, we taught ourselves to deride the traditional

beliefs which have been observed with deep respect. We were taught not

to be afraid of sarthi, leiruang tuam, thinglu bul, tuivamit, etc. that are

useful to keep the community life secure such as not to build house

obstructing the road or at the tributary of the spring, etc. These were all

despised as superstitions without any substitutions from the Christian

ethical teaching. This makes the Mizo community who fear neither God

nor human beings‟.245 [Trans, mine]

Zairema continues to point out that how obliterating and abandoning these traditional

taboos, morally degraded the Mizos and paved ways to materialism. He states that in

the Mizo Bible translation, 1 Tim 3:6 „godliness‟ was translated to mean

„religiousness in new found faith in Christianity‟. The Mizos therefore, in trying to be

religious, abandoned their traditional rites as superstitions and taboos without any

substitutions. Lack of these concepts perhaps virtually leads to materialism. The Bible
244
B. Lalthangliana, History and Culture, 562-563.
245
Zairema, Kan Bible Hi [Our Bible] (Kolkata: Swapna Printing Works (P) Ltd., 2003), 183. Hereafter
cited as „Zairema, Bible‟.

129
is so concerned with these rites and a person without religious rites will soon be

swallowed up by materialism. 246[Trans, mine]

Negation of a traditional knowledge system that communities preserved for

generations had created a vacuum for moral and ethical discourse in science.

Educational missionaries expected that the void created by the destruction of

traditional knowledge could be filled by Christian morality and faith. What emerged

in its place was an unethical and materialistic approach to social and physical realities.

In that process science was turned into an instrument of exploitation rather than an

agent to liberate the poor and the marginalized from the force of ignorance and

exploitation.

11. CONCLUSION:

The advent of the British government and the Christian missionaries inevitably

transformed the religious, social, political and cultural life of the Mizo society in

many ways. Consequently, the life of the Mizo society was paralysed by the

imposition of laws and orders by the British officials in an attempt to secure peace

and suppress savage practices. On the other hand it also liberated the Mizos from

injustice, social and cultural structures and oppression in various ways. As a whole

the works of the British government and the Christian missionaries made constructive

as well as destructive transformations and changes not only in physical appearances,

but also in psychological and intellectual areas. As a result, the Mizos started to

develop the idea that all that is associated with Mizo traditional religion and culture

was pagan, profane and secular and not fit for the newly converted Mizo Christians.

246
Zairema, Bible, 184

130
As a result, they abandoned their valuable social and cultural elements and regarded

them as secular and worldly and even profane while western culture and traditions

were automatically adopted as sacred, religious and pious. In other words, the Mizo

traditions and culture were alienated in the Mizo land and western culture and

traditions were becoming more influential. They began to look with disgust at their

traditional values through the glasses of their new European masters. If we look at all

of these in the light of the postcolonial perspective, it is a sign of pseudo-European

Mizos who had been proselytized to western traditionalism and ways of life. On the

other hand, reinterpreting the then rejected traditional cultural elements like the

zawlbuk institution bring reestablishment of lost identity and social and spiritual

transformation in the Mizo Christian context. The next chapter will continue to deal

with how these abandoned and lost traditions and cultural elements have been

regained and reformulated in the life of Mizo society through the waves of revival.

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 Chapter Three

REVIVAL MOVEMENT: CULTURAL RESPONSE TO WESTERNISATION

1. INTRODUCTION:

Christianity in Mizoram is best understood as the product of the interaction of revival

movements in the church. This interaction began in 1906 and continued till today.

The purpose of this study is to examine the causes of that tension with particular

reference to the possible influence of traditional socio-cultural factors. To what extent

did the traditional cultural values and practices influence the church and the Mizo

society as a whole? To what extent did revivalism reflect cultural reaction to alien

church structures? How did the church deal with the situation and with what

consequences? How have these abandoned, alienated or lost traditional and cultural

elements been regained and transformed in the life of the Mizo society. However,

born and nurtured in a revivalistic background and ordained to serve in a revivalistic

Christianity, the author is quite familiar with the nature of revivals in Mizoram

although the art of putting them down in writing is more complex. It may be difficult

to do justice when expressed in English. Since I have strived to represent those ideas

in their native settings, some translations and expressions become typically „Mizo‟

and may become obscure to non-Mizo readers. However, it is hoped that the main line

of argument will not be adversely affected by this.

2. MEANING OF REVIVAL:

Revival in a Christian sense is differently understood in various contexts. It generally

refers to rekindling of worn-out and insensitive souls to a fresh spiritual or religious

132
sensitivity. According to New Dictionary of Theology, 247 revival means God‟s

quickening visitation of his people, touching their hearts and deepening his work of

grace in their lives. It is essentially a corporate occurrence, an enlivening of

individuals not in isolation but together. „Revive‟ is the AV (KJV) word for this

process of spiritual reanimation (Ps.85:6); „revivedness‟ would be the appropriate

term to describe its result. Eifion Evans, a Welsh revival specialist refers to it as a

„season of refreshing from the presence of the Lord.‟248 In describing the general

atmosphere of revival Eifion again writes, „At the risk of over simplication it can be

maintained that the revivals of the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries came to an

apostate, declining, expiring church, while those of the seventeenth and nineteenth

centuries took place against the background of a dormant, listless and unconcerned

church.‟249 To Richard Owen Roberts, „Revival is an extraordinary movement of the

Holy Spirit producing extraordinary results.‟250 The movement associated with revival

is referred to as spiritual awakening, charismatic movement or revival movement.

This study attempts to reflect such movements in Mizoram in order to make apparent

an indigenous perspective. On the whole the revival movement in Mizoram should be

understood as an antidote to the relentless process of westernisation.

The term „revival‟ as used in this study refers to a phenomena marked by a state of

excitement accompanied by enthusiastic activities of singing, body movements,

preaching and even of social action. The revival joy is expressed by ecstatic actions

including dancing and varying forms, singing new songs to the accompaniment of

247
Sinclair B. Ferguson and David F. Wright, eds., New Dictionary of Theology (Leicester: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1988), 588.
248
Eifion Evans, Revivals: Their Rise, Progress and Achievements (Bridgend: Evangelical Press of
Wales, 1960), 6. Hereafter cited as „Eifion Evans, Revivals‟.
249
Eifion Evans, Revivals, 6.
250
Richard Owen Roberts, Revival (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale Publishing House Publishers, 1983),
17.

133
traditional drums, feasting, community gathering and group preaching. While it may

share features found in charismatic and Pentecostal movements, revival in Mizoram

has assumed a distinctive indigenous form and is closely related to Mizo Christian

identity. Harhna, the Mizo term for revival literally means liveliness or sprightliness.

Its cognate term Hlimna means joy or happiness. Generally speaking the two terms

denote not only a negative state of being awakened or revived from a state of

slumbering or slackening but a more positive sense of being energised and endowed

for a task. It is the source of the dynamics of all aspects of Mizo Christian life.

3. REVIVAL IN MIZORAM:

As already mentioned in the previous chapter, the colonial power came to Mizoram in

1889 followed by the Christian missionaries and revival happened in Mizoram when

the two powerful alien systems, the imperial government and the church had been

installed in Mizoram. The former aimed at securing peace, law and order while the

latter aimed at converting the Mizos from their traditional primal beliefs to those of

the Christian religion as interpreted from their stand point. The whole social structure

had been dislocated and the people, of necessity, addressed themselves to responding

to the changes brought about by the two systems. The Mizos were deprived of their

social and cultural heritage, their autonomous existence and their economic

independence. The Mizos faced an identity crisis251. McCall observes „Against these

varying contacts the Lushais had no equipment on which to fall back for strength,

except the traditions and the stories of their grandfathers.‟ 252 Yet having been

deprived of the minimal weapons they had to preserve their identity and autonomy,

251
L. Keivom, „Mizote khawvel pahnih‟ [The two Mizo world], [article online]; available from
http:/www.Mizobooks.com./keivom_2.htm; Internet; accessed; 2 October, 2007.
252
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 197.

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the revival movement came as the means available to them with which to respond to

the religious changes in particular and social change in general.

3. 1. The Welsh and Khasi background:

The revival movement in Mizoram commenced under the direct influence of the

Khasi revival which in turn was a spill-over of the Welsh revival, although the context

of revivals in Wales and Mizoram were quite different. The news of the revival in

Wales in 1904 spread far and wide. Moreover, the sister church established by the

same Welsh mission in Meghalaya started to experience a similar awakening at the

assembly in Cherrapunji, 1905. On hearing this news the missionaries pleaded with

the Christians to pray for such an awakening to come to Mizoram. They even

organised a special programme for revival and also sent 10 delegates from the north

and south of Mizoram to attend the Assembly at Mairang, Meghalaya in March, 1906.

The following report by an eye witness missionary gives a picture of the revival scene

of the assembly meeting:

The chapel was simply packed out, but we managed to get in through one

of the windows. They were singing the hymn , „All hail the power of Jesus

name‟, and I think that the singing of that one hymn must have taken

considerably over an hour, they sang it and re-sang it over and over again,

as if they would never grow tired of saying, „crown him Lord of all ….

Everyone seemed perfectly oblivious to everything but the sense of the

Divine presence. Nearly all were singing with eyes shut, their bodies

swaying to and fro in time with the music. Some were in trances, other

were dancing for gladness and joy; one felt that the Angelic choirs were

135
 joining in to „Crown Him Lord of all.‟ As soon as the singing ceased

prayer ascended simultaneously from all parts of the building. 253

3.2. Revival Stirrings:

As the delegates came back, revival is said to have started in Mizoram on April 9,

1906.254 That day a farewell meeting for the delegates from the south was organised

wherein it is said that hymn singing took hold of the whole congregation. A woman

then stood up to confess her sin concerning her divorce. That was followed by

confession of all kinds of sins by a number of people. A description of the scene by an

eye-witness is similar to those in Meghalaya and Wales.

Someone then began to sing a ringing hymn of victory, and the whole

congregation joined with great rejoicing – waving their hands, swaying

their bodies, and many keeping time with their feet. The meeting which

had commenced at 8 a.m. did not close until two o‟clock, and all felt that

the spirit of God was present. Another service of six hours‟ duration was

held in the evening.255

The revival manifestation during this first stirring appeared to be similar to the

features of the Welsh and Khasi revivals. The most prominent feature was conviction

and confession of personal sins. Everyone affected by the revival fervour resolved to

confess their sins. Most of the writers of Mizo history agreed upon the four dates on

253
John Roberts, The Revival in the Khasi Hills (Cherapoonjee: Mrs. John Roberts, 1907), 74.
Hereafter cited as „John Roberts, Revival in Khasi‟.
254
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity and Subaltern Culture: Revival Movement as a Cultural Response
to Westernisation in Mizoram (Delhi: ISPCK, 2006)171. Hereafter cited as „Vanlalchhuanawma,
Christianity‟.
255
John Roberts, Revival in Khasi, 81.

136
which revival stirrings came to Mizoram on a large scale during the first forty years of

Christianity. The years 1906, 1913, 1919 and the 1930‟s have been identified as the

first, second, third and fourth revivals. 256 In the ensuing years up to the period under

study, further revival stirrings happened in 1960‟s and in 1984 to early 1990‟s.

The emergence of the revival movements inaugurated a new era in the growth and

development of Christianity in Mizoram. The Mizo Christians in the north and the

south thus joined hands in welcoming the revival stirrings. Several individuals had a

new feeling through their experience of the Holy Spirit and joined Christianity on

their own initiative. Firstly, the significance of the revivals was recognized as the

main turning point in the growth of Christianity among the Mizos. It is claimed that

the entire population of the Mizos became Christians in about sixty years. The

Revival movement has been credited for this rapid increase in the number of Mizo

Christians.

Secondly, there was a growing sense of ownership and spontaneity among the Mizo

Christians. Previously Christianity was looked upon as something foreign, imported

and inculcated into the Mizo society by the white people and their native helpers.

But today revival movements brought a new dimension into Mizo Christianity;

spontaneity gives deeper feeling of the Spirit and this helps them to freely participate

in worship and other activities of the church. And their experience of revival further

leads to a new sense of ownership and gained new confidence that Christianity

belonged to them and the church herself was also their own. This new sense of

256
Lalsawma, Revivals; V.L. Siama, Mizo History; C.L. Hminga, Life and Witness; Lloyd, History of
the Churches; M.Kipgen, Christianity and Culture; Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin.

137
ownership as well as belonging to one another in the church was a result of revival

and gave them strength to grow up in maturity and spontaneity.

Thirdly, following from a new sense of ownership, the church in Mizoram became

more and more aware that the foreign forms of worship were insufficient in

expressing their Christian experience due to the new charismatic dimension brought

about by the revivals. They began to look towards traditional culture to find new

forms of expression. Thus the revival movements turned out to be vital in shaping

Christianity in Mizoram by a process of reasserting traditional Mizo culture in its

various forms. Certain revival features like beirual (united effort), lengkhawm or

mualinkhawm (gathering together for singing and prayer) and traditional music, dance

and drum became permanent features of Mizo Christianity. Therefore, revival

movements can be seen as the beginning of the contextualization of the Mizo

Christian theology of mission.

In analysing the revivals in Mizoram, it tends to be unique, although somewhat

comparable to charismatic or pentecostal movements in certain other parts of the

world. For instance, revival movements in Mizoram have some similarities and

dissimilarities to revivals in Africa.

Like Mizoram, the most amazing forces that have shaped the Christian faith in Africa

have been the African Revivals. Revivals spread like wildfire across Rwanda,

Burundi, Kenya, Uganda, Congo and Tanzania. The entire Great Lakes Region was

transformed. Men were falling, jumping, laughing, crying, singing, confessing and

138
some shaking terribly. 257 The message was one of repentance and public confession

of sins. Due to revival the church in Africa grew from around 10 million in 1900 to

over 200 million in 1980‟s. By 2000 that number is expected to reach 400 million,

half the population.258

The practice of giving testimonies is widespread all through in African revival just as

it is in Mizoram. It is considered to be so normative that hardly any serious gathering

can pass without people bearing witness to what God has done in their lives. There

were many who stood up in front of huge crowds and confessed their sin and

announced that they were turning their lives over to the Lordship of Jesus Christ.

These were not superficial testimonies with a comfortable and suitably religious

overtone. They were magnificent demonstrations of God‟s power to change lives. 259

3.3. Continuous or Sporadic Stirrings:

An interesting debate among the scholars is about the continuity or frequency of

revival movements in Mizoram. On this opinions differ. Continuity here means

something which continues for a long period of times without being changed or

stopped. There are certain remarks that denote the uninterrupted continuity of revival

in Mizoram, e.g. in regular intervals and each new revival building on the former. A

Welsh magazine, Y Cenhadwr (Missionary), April, 1935 carries the following

assertion about revival in Mizoram: „The fire spread from village to village, the

people started to flow to the churches but what is most amazing is that the fire did not

go out from that day until now. The history of the work on these hills is a series of

257
Geoff Waugh, „A History of Revival: Revival Fire‟ [article online]; available from
www.holytrinitynewrochelle.org/youth;18132.html; Internet; accessed; 21 August, 2009.
258
Ibid.
259
Bill Atwood, „Testimonies and the East African Revival‟ [article online]; available from
www.ekk.org/node/8; Internet; accessed; 21 August, 2009.

139
constant revivals‟. 260 Moreover, E.L. Mendus, former missionary to Mizoram, states

that revival in Mizoram „has continued almost uninterruptedly ever since in one part

or another of the hills‟. 261 Those who were in favour of the continuity of revival in

Mizoram like Mizo theologian, Vanlalchhuanawma, believed that the traditional

dating reflects only the years wherein revival hit the Mission compound Church. A

closure scrutiny reveals the outbreak of remarkable revival stirrings in different parts

of Mizoram in a chain, as an uninterrupted cycle of events.262

Obviously the traditional periodisation has been based on scholars who centred on the

Mission compound church. Undoubtedly they were influenced by the missionaries,

who intended to bring the revival movement under control which, according to them,

entailed some unchristian cultural elements was most probably responsible for

traditional periodisation. Vanlalchhuanawma argued that the traditional attempt to

identify specific revival stirrings as separate entities and to fix the dates for the

outbreak as a confusing enterprise was historically unsound. He believed that revival

movements in Mizoram were not intermittent occurrences but part of a continuous

movement.263 This continuity was also acknowledged in the Harhna Hruaina

(Revival Manual) which says, „the church in Mizoram is bred and nurtured by revival

from Wales which first came to Khasi country, and it remains in Mizoram to this

day‟.264

260
Vera Lloyd, „Needs in Lushai Hills‟ in Y Cenhadwr, April, 1935, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, ed.,
Mizoram Presbyterian Church: A History of Departments (Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 2007),
184. Hereafter cited as „Vanlalchhuanawma, Mizoram Presbyterian Church‟.
261
E.L. Mendus answer to questionnaire, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Mizoram Presbyterian
Church, 184.
262
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 455.
263
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 320.
264
North Lushai Assembly Committee, Harhna Hruaina [Revival Manual] (Aizawl: Presbyterian
Church, 1949), 2.

140
By sporadic the author means something happening or occurring at irregular intervals,

having no pattern or order in time. Though revivalism was always present, these were

the times during which the phenomena peaked into great waves and spread throughout

Mizoram as mentioned above. In the ensuing years to the period under study, other

stirrings were found with different impacts on the people. Writers like J.M. Lloyd and

M. Kipgen described the revivals as moving like a wave which rises to its peak and

falls to low ebb at intervals with an intervening lull. 265 This gives an impression that

revival movements in Mizoram alternately came and vanished. In support of this

view, it should also be noted that there were some years in which revival stirrings had

apparently stopped or ceased. There was a time where people, who came to the church

en masse during the revival stirrings, switched back to their old ways of life as the

revival excitement died down. Therefore, non-Christians who coined the saying were

very well justified when they said, „wild turmeric and Christians do not last through

the dry season‟. 266 That is, just as wild turmeric has the habit of flourishing during the

rainy days only to wither away again in the dry season, so also were those Christians

who fall back to their old ways of life when revival excitement has gone. The Mizo

church in the north and the south have encouraged each other and arranged special

programmes and prayer meetings week by week for the presence of revival stirrings

in Mizoram. Therefore, we may also say that revival movements in Mizoram were not

a continuous movement but sporadic stirrings which occurred at irregular intervals

and had no pattern or order.

We may conclude that revival stirrings in Mizoram have both the aspects of

continuity and of being sporadic. In order to have a firm conclusion about the

265
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 86; M. Kipgen, Christianity and Culture, 283.
266
Lalsawma, Revivals, 75.

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continuity and irregularity, one needs to have a deeper and further analytical study on

revival movements in Mizoram.

4. REVIVAL MOVEMENT, THE CHURCH AND GOVERNMENT:

Conflict between the revival movement and the church came to the fore with the

increase of theologically trained Mizo pastors and Christians. Those in the ordained

ministry normally adopted the mission perspective in their attitude towards the

indigenous revival movement. The natural tendency of the church under the

leadership of those pastors was to prefer the westernised new awakening to the

indigenous revival. For this same reason the indigenous revivalists tended to view

higher theological training as retarding higher spiritual experience and even as a way

to spiritual dryness. Conflict between the opposing groups became inevitable, and it

had become almost a permanent feature of the church‟s life. It caused one of the most

serious divisions in the history of Christianity in Mizoram. The division in the later

development resulted in the introduction of the Salvation Army and Pentecostal

church in Mizoram.267 It not only represented an extreme point of frustration with the

church but also reflected the continue tension between the official church and the

revival movement which then entered the consciousness of the Mizo Christians.

The revival movement in its fourth decade proved to be a watershed in the church-

revival relations. The decade has been known mainly for the divisions that took place

in the church. The missionaries and the church leaders found themselves unable to

bring about reconciliation among the various groups affected by the revival

movement. E.L. Mendus, a missionary expressed his frustration at being unable to

267
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 175.

142
win over the leaders of the revival movement who wanted to let people carry on as

they like or „as the Spirit moves them whatever it is.‟ In a letter to the Home Board in

Wales he wrote:

Well, Oliver, I can‟t stand this much longer. Some of them got rather

incensed because I said to one or two of them… it is not my religion.

These people don‟t mind what you think of it as long as you don‟t try to

stop them and express your mind clearly on it. 268

It became increasingly difficult for the church leaders to handle some of the

revivalists who began to break away. The Assembly was ultimately compelled to

intervene. The annual reports of the missionaries in 1938 refer this problem. „During

the excitement of the revival many of the converts were carried to extremes, and the

Assembly on the field was obliged to take measures to restrain them. As a result a

number turned their backs upon the church, refusing to recognise its authority; a

number of the extremists also came into conflict with the government.‟ 269 The

upheaval at Kelkang village, beginning in May, 1937 was probably the best known

incident in the revival history of Mizoram, chiefly because of the harsh interference

by the Colonial Government through the person of A.G. McCall, the then

Superintendent of the Lushai Hills. McCall treated the upheaval as open rebellion and

accordingly meted out punishments as follows: 270

a) Three „ring leaders‟ were arrested and imprisoned at Syhlet.

b) Two other unrepentant persons were banished from Kelkang village for 15

years.
268
E.L. Mendus letter to Oliver quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 413.
269
K. Thanzauva, Reports, 156.
270
Lalsawma, Revivals, 198

143
 c) The village chief Liannawla was fined Rupees 60/-.

d) Each family of the village had to pay a house tax of Rupees 4/- that year in

place of a normal levy of Rupees 2/-.

e) All the grown up Christians were together impressed to pay Rupees 200/-

worth of labour at Aizawl, by levelling grounds for military barracks.

f) All the guns in the village were confiscated for good.

g) The circle interpreter forfeited his one year increment of pay.

h) Kelkang was placed under the direct supervision of the Assembly standing

Committee for some time.

i) Pastor P.D. Sena was transferred to Zote and Pastor Chhawnvunga posted in

his place.

j) Teacher Dothuama was transferred to Zote and teacher Lalthanga was posted

in his place.

What were the issues that led the Government and the Mission to take the above

actions? The Mizo word „rui‟ could very well applied to the mental state of the

revivalists in Kelkang. It means to be intoxicated or drunk primarily with liquor, but

here applied metaphorically to people so completely bemused by revival excitement

as to have no care for anything. For example, for one full month starting from August

12 to a day immediately preceding the arrival of McCall on 12 September, all week

days were spent in feasting and dancing excitement.271

At the start both the missionaries and the Mizo Christians seemed to frown upon

McCall‟s involvement. Neither could agree with his extreme suspicion of the

271
Lalsawma, Revivals, 199.

144
revivalists to the extent of asking the missionaries to pass on to him any information

about any movements among the Mizos that might be termed as subversive. Lloyd

observes that „after Lewis Mendus return from furlough at the end of 1935, this

caused considerable tension between him and the Superintendent.‟272 Mendus

resented the idea since it amounted to expecting the missionary to spy on the

Superintendent‟s behalf. Katie Hughes, a lady missionary pointed out that both the

missionaries and the Mizos were unhappy about McCall‟s interference:

We feel that he has gone too far and so do most of the Lushais. I am trying

to keep them quiet. He has stopped the meeting of the new sect and

advised them to come back to us or go back to their own religion. They are

very sore of course and several deputations have been to the office to

object and to state their reasons for not wishing to come back to us!273

The option given to the Mizos was either to adopt the mission-oriented Christianity or

to remain satisfied in their traditional religion. The new sect referred to here was a

group of revivalists at Kelkang village, who were held responsible for causing tension

in and around Aizawl. The most shocking incident associated with the Kelkang

revival was the interference of the British administration. The Superintendent,

McCall‟s use of arms in suppressing the revival was not so much in keeping with the

British policy as with his personal reaction. The excuses he made for involvement in

religious matters were concerned with negligence of schooling for the children and

the villager‟s negligence of their jhum work. After having conducted enquiries and

hearings, the Superintendent announced his final judgement that all the three leaders

272
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 298.
273
Katie Hughes letter to Thomas, 8.10.1937, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 413.

145
of the revival would be imprisoned for three years; all the other villagers were forced

to pay a heavy penalty in terms of taxes and manual labour. Again Katie Hughes

refers to the severe pain the Superintendent‟s action brought to the Mizos:

The Lushais feel that the Superintendent has interfered too much with

mission work and been too severe in his criticism of the church workers.

They think that this is the beginning of Hitlerism. They think that the

Kelkang village had been punished too severely and that the missionaries

ought to obtain a reprieve for the three men sent to Syhlet jail to ask for

their release. This is just Lushai opinion. 274

The comparison of the Superintendent‟s rule with Hitlerism is an unmistakable

indication of the bitter indignation on the part of the Mizos. As the Mizo sentiment

was hurt, any structure after the European model including the established church

came to be viewed with considerable suspicion by the Mizos.

An obvious point of conflict between the Mission and the administration was the use

of military force. The missionaries were as perplexed as the Superintendent about the

stirring. In fact Katie Hughes privately advised Mendus to ask McCall to give

standing orders to the chiefs to stop extreme revivalists and make them responsible

for them. And the missionaries considered it appropriate that such an order should

come from the Superintendent and not from them. 275 But they regarded the

Superintendent‟s move to put down the stirring with arms as a great mistake because

274
Katie Hughes letter to Thomas 2.11.193, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 414.
275
Katie Hughes letter 26.6.193, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 401.

146
they thought that he could quieten everything with the stroke of a pen. 276 Referring to

the details of punishment meted out by the Superintendent, Hughes concludes that

McCall has no quarrel with us personally but with the Mission policy. 277

Another point of conflict focussed on the ecclesiastical model of discipline. McCall

regarded the missionaries‟ delay in taking disciplinary action against its employees as

well as the revival enthusiasts as a serious failure. To McCall dancing in the church is

not a Christian practice but „an unjustified repression‟. If it had been permitted in

Lushai by any Christian authority it was utterly wrong by custom, ethics or any other

order. He further criticised the missionaries especially for not disciplining their

pastors and teachers and regarded their apparent aloofness as „a surrender of

directional authority.‟278 He made this observation in connection with a reference to

an alleged plot against his own life, suggesting that the failure of the Mission was

responsible for such a scheme by Christians. But the missionaries were not convinced

about the plot because they could not find enough evidence concerning the plot.

Mendus wrote his independent opinion about the plot that McCall declared that there

was a plot by the villagers to assassinate him on his arrival, as he endeavoured to

impede their revivalism, which included at that time the giving up of the cultivation

and the slaughtering of their domestic animals in the belief that the second coming

was imminent. A false or exaggerated rumour was probably the explanation of his

belief in such a plot.279

276
Katie Hughes letter 25.9.1937, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 402.
277
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 402.
278
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 223.
279
E.L. Mendus Answers to questionnaire, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 403.

147
Another point of conflict seemed to have its root in McCall‟s imperialistic attitude to

the Mizos. Strangely enough, his western mentality occasionally got the better of his

social discernment. His description of Pasina, who was one of the leaders of Kelkang

stirring, was brought to him from a prayer spot, shows contempt:

All the way down to the camp a mile away this man clutched a Bible and

jumped about with dazed unseeing eyes like a hysterical monkey, talking

in tongues as he went. His appearance was suggestive of some creature

from the Nether World or some cursed victim of Zoanthropy.280

This was only one of the many such remarks that McCall made about the revival

dancers. In his attempt to influence the Mission he said that the Mizo church officials

were not to be trusted and that the Lushai salaried man is adept at making promises

but he makes no effort to implement them until his salary is in danger. Even the

missionaries undoubtedly perceived the Mizo revival and culture as primitive and

foreign. But their commitment to a religious cause and to the people apparently

constrained them to act with caution. Therefore the government and the Mission, in

spite of their similar perception of the Mizo culture and revival manifestations reacted

differently and chose to take different courses of action.

5. HARHNA HRUAINA (REVIVAL MANUAL):

Harhna Hruaina (Revival Manual) was the most explicit and comprehensive response

of the Presbyterian Church to the revival movement.281 It was meant, as its name

suggests, to provide the Christian public with guidance, and to discern the acceptable
280
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 222.
281
North Lushai Assembly Committee, Harhna Hruaina [Revival Manual] (Aizawl: Presbyterian
Church, 1949).

148
and unacceptable features of the revival. Some of the major factors leading to the

publication of this Manual are stated here. To begin with, the treatise reveals the

apparent contrasting natures of the revival which had been perplexing the leaders of

the church for several years. On the one hand, revival entailed cultural and emotional

elements which in the institutional church‟s view were „primitive‟ in character. On the

other hand, it consistently contributed to church‟s growth even though the credit went

to the church and the mission. This confusing situation was clearly expressed by

David Edwards, not long after the Superintendent‟s interference with the Kelkang

stirring in the following words:

At its best the revival has deepened to a phenomenal degree the personal

knowledge of Jesus as saviour and Lord, which has given it significance

and permanence far greater than any previous one. At its worst it has been

a revolt against authority in any shape or form and an attempt to live under

the anarchy of the spirit.282

Certain other factors leading to the drawing up of the Revival Manual are given in the

treatise itself. Firstly, since the Presbyterian Church had been established it had

experienced continuous revivals and was in a position to understand various

characteristics of the revival. Secondly, the Standing Committee of the Assembly

wished to make revival a real blessing to all. Thirdly, not all the revival features were

edifying to the Mizo church. Fourthly, not all the revivalists in different parts of the

world were the same, hinting perhaps, that the Welsh or English revivalists were not

comparable to the Mizo ones. Fifthly, the church, therefore, had a bounden

responsibility of giving guidance to the revival affected people within its fold.

282
David Edwards‟s letter to Thomas 13.1.1938, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 450.

149
Constrained by the above situations and factors, the Presbyterian Church strongly

urged its people that they should accept the Manual, however difficult that might be

for some, for the good of the whole Mizo church.

One obvious consequence of the Revival Manual was a division of opinion among the

leaders and members of the church. According to Liangkhaia, the revivalists flatly

refused to accept the Revival Manual saying, „I can‟t digest it at all‟ or „if this is seen

as dissent‟ or „who are they to guide the Holy Spirit?‟ 283 As a consequence, the

tension grew worse and the Mizo church was in danger of splitting. The Revivalists‟

insistence that the Assembly should amend the Revival Manual, however, fell on deaf

ears. Therefore, revival movement has led to the emergence of a large number of

indigenous Christian movements. Apart from these groups, major pentocostal

denominations like the Assembly of God and the United Pentecostal Church are said

to be increasing due to the revival movements in Mizoram. 284 While some revivalists

dropped out from the church majority remained to become the nucleus and cream of

the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram.

To the dissatisfaction of those who wanted not only to accept the Revival Manual as a

guide but also to supplement every article with biblical verses, the Assembly took no

step whatsoever to withdraw its publication. The Revival Manual remained as the

focal point of the church‟s reaction to the revival movement. It is true that after its

distribution in all the pastorates for consideration to accept or reject, the official

283
Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna, 54; Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 60.
284
Roger E. Hedlund, „Indigenous Pentecostalism in India‟ in Allan Anderson and Edmond Tang, eds.,
Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia (Philippines: Regnum Books
International, 2005), 236.

150
church made no more significant policy concerning revivalism. How far the Revival

Manual succeeded is difficult to assess accurately. A significant achievement was that

all the churches came to know the official Assembly‟s view of the revival movement,

although the revival elements chose to persist in a revival culture.

Though the Revival Manual stands as the most significant symbol of the persistent

tension between the revival movement and the established church, it also proves to be

a unifying force for the whole Mizo Christianity. Generally speaking, it tends to

discourage revivalism as a whole, since its disfavours the slightest possible signs of

Mizo revival such as the drum, dance and singing as primitive. Its widespread

disapproval signifies the indefinite majority of the Mizo Christians who favour

revivalism. Again it clearly affirms the practical democratic nature of Mizo

Christianity in that the decision of the majority prevailed over the decision of the

official leadership. This democratic nature is perhaps, the chief reason that most of the

revivalists chose to remain in the church, despite the Assembly‟s disinclination to

amend or rephrase the Revival Manual. It may be said that Mizo Christianity has been

unquestionably maintaining the revival culture in its all-round activities and system of

decision making.

It may also be said that the Mizo Christians chose to regard the Revival Manual as the

Assembly‟s general advice concerning revivalism in the church. The Mizo Christians

were by and large led to a deeper study of the biblical doctrine of the person and work

of the Holy Spirit. From the shambles of the scattered autonomous revival groups, the

Mizo Christians gradually learned the advantage of well-defined principles for the

church and maintaining the identity of the revival community. On the other hand,

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through the strong pressure and separatist tendency of the carefree revivalists, the

official church grew to be aware of the indigenous cultural values for its survival and

expansive influence. The publication of Revival Manual in an attempt to bring revival

movement to the terms failed to achieve its goal. Hence the Presbyterian Church tried

to keep the revival stirrings under control and then formed a committee called

„Harhtharlehna Committee‟ (Revival Committee) with a full time worker in 1977 to

look into the matters concerning revival. 285 Besides quenching the spiritual thirst of

many people, it served to bring churches in various places closer together.

6. IMPACTS OF THE REVIVAL MOVEMENT:

In spite of its tremendous influence and numerous conversions, the revival movement

was viewed by the church with open suspicion. This was due to the identification of

certain traditional practices as having anti-Christian attitudes within the revival. The

appearance of the new denominations particularly the Salvation Army and the Roman

Catholic Church as well as the increase of theologically trained Mizos who shared the

mission‟s ecclesiastical bias, led to a more systematic analysis of the viability of the

religious phenomenon associated with the revival. Some of the phenomena that

alarmed the church are discussed below.

6. 1. Khurh lam:

Khurh lam (the quaking dance) became a prominent feature in the revival which

caused serious division of opinion. D.E. Jones in his report writes,

285
Vanlalchhuanawma, editor-in-chief, Mizoram Presbyterian Church: A History of Departments
(Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 2007), 186. Hereafter cited as „Vanlalchhuanawma, Mizoram
Presbyterian Church‟.

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 The special character of the revival that visited Aijal (Aizawl) was that it

affected very young children more than others. In some meetings they

would sing and dance till they fell down utterly exhausted and swoon away

or become stiff like a dead body lying on the floor or a bench. It affected

some so terribly that they would tremble or quake at hearing a revival

hymn sung in a house at night. But there were some hymns which did not

affect them. 286

Jones saw many undesirable traits in the revival, yet the people were influenced to

come to the meetings and many were brought within the fold. Lalsawma gives a vivid

description of the phenomenon as follows:

It was a contagious quaking of nerve racking kind. The whole body

quaked and could be brought under control by no other means than

dancing. As the spirit of singing arose, some persons began to quake,

mildly first, and then it grew more and more intense till they were forced

out to dance in ecstasy. The quaking might pass on to the one in the back

row, and to the middle row, and to the corner or to several persons at once.

Refusal to dance might result into pains in the head, throat or stomachs or

it might even turn to paralysis of the whole or parts of the body.287

To the foreign missionaries‟ revival ecstasy appeared to be madness. Such a

conception is conveyed by former missionary to Mizoram, Imogen P. Roberts‟s

description of the phenomenon that it is a strange and wonderful sight to see the vast
286
K. Thanzauva, Reports, 67.
287
Lalsawma, The Work of the Holy Spirit and Tribal Religious Emotionalism (Jabalpur: Unpublished
MTh thesis, Leonard Theological Seminary, 1964), 86. Hereafter cited as „Lalsawma, Work‟.

153
congregation thus moved. At first the excitement was very great, amounting at times

almost to frenzy and many were carried out in hysterics. 288 She found that the people

were easily carried away by the ecstasy. The church, then under Mission supervision

had to tackle what it considered to be „frenzy or hysteria‟ which did not appeal to its

leaders at all. Lloyd gives his personal opinion that some dancers felt victim to

cataleptic trances but these were accepted as normal in the circumstances for it was

the Spirit at work.289

Discipline, decency and order seemed to have little place in the heat of the revival

meetings. E.L. Mendus, who had a memorable experience of revival in Wales arrived

in Mizoram in 1921 and was absolutely perplexed by his first experience of the

revival in Mizoram which was very different from what he had seen in Wales. He saw

the chapel benches removed through the windows to give room for the dancing,

people trembling in ecstatic joy and some swooning as the congregation sang.

Reporting a visit to one of the revival meetings near Aizawl, he writes,

The little chapel that evening was crowded. The heat of the revival was

intense. Three of us missionaries were there, though the congregation

seemed scarcely aware of our presence. Mr. Jones was calm as usual. I

ventured to suggest to one of the pastors that he should exercise some

control. „What‟ said he, „control the Holy spirit?‟ 290

A note has been made about how khurh lam adversely affected the peace of the

church both in the north and south of Mizoram. Broadly speaking the reactions to it
288
Imogen P. Roberts, Interviewed, (Bala, North Wales: 24 October, 2005).
289
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 193.
290
E.L. Mendus answer to questionnaire, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 253.

154
by the church in the north was more sympathetic than in the south of Mizoram. A

single example of the reaction of the church to quaking dance is Resolution No. 5 of

the summer Presbytery meeting on March 11, 1921. It was decided that the Presbytery

should send a circular to all village churches warning them against entertaining or

encouraging the quaking dance and its accompanying trances, visions and fortune-

telling in the name of Christ.291 This first reaction of the revival movement exposed

the tension between church and revival and anticipated more tensions yet to come.

6. 2. Zawlthupuan (Clairvoyance):

The most intimidating aspect of the revival to some people was the pronouncement of

penalties for disobedience to clairvoyant revelations claimed by certain revivalists.

Muka, one of the earliest Mizo evangelists and perhaps the closest lay associate of

successive missionaries wrote that since spiritual visions became popular „people

have had a great desire for supernatural things in the revival.‟ 292 The supernatural

things here mainly refer to the power of knowing God‟s will for some particular

person or group of persons in a given situation. The clairvoyant revivalists were said

to warn people to follow some course of spiritual activity, failure to do which would

bring misfortune to the people concerned. The pronouncement was often directed to

those who were supposed to stand in the way of the free exercise of revivalism. Muka

observes that „Threatening, nearly everywhere is practiced and this is one of the worst

forms known in revival (hlimna).293 According to Saiaithanga, some people claimed

to know the mind and thought of others as well as what was happening in distant

places.294

291
Lalsawma, Revivals, 139.
292
Muka, Revivalistic, 1.
293
Muka, Revivalistic, 2.
294
Saiaithanga, MizoKohhran Chanchin, 59.

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6. 3. Khurbing:

The most controversial feature of the revival was most probably, khurbing which

literally means „an exclusive pit‟. It is used to describe an exclusive relationship

within a small group of like-minded people. It has been noted that there was a strong

spirit of oneness and of strong feelings for each other among the revivalists. As

criticisms were levelled against different revival features, the community of those

inspired by the revival felt a need for each other‟s company. Lengkhawm (gathering

together for singing and sharing) was on the increase. The growing restrictions issued

from time to time by the church against the perceived excesses resulted in the

withdrawal of several revival enthusiasts from formal church services. Naturally the

hard core of the revival community continued to hold informal revival gatherings and

the term khurbing is sometimes applied to such small groups of revival enthusiasts.

But the term khurbing is most commonly used to refer to a special relationship

between two persons, usually a man and a woman, as well as to the people involved in

it. The relationship seldom happened between persons of the same sex. Hmangaih

rawngbawlna which means „ministration of love‟ was the more common term used by

the people who are involved. Dokhuma suggests that it was the leading revivalists

who wished to become involved in ministry who often fell into hmangaihna

rawngbawlna. 295 The relationship usually began with a man or a woman who

developed a serious feeling for someone else. The feeling might develop out of

extensive association or as a sudden flash of love. Lalsawma‟s description of

295
Dokhuma, James, Zoram Kohhran Tualto Chanchin [History of Sectarian Groups in Mizoram]
(Aizawl: Tlangnuam Press, 1975), vii.

156
khurbing as a „spiritual love affair‟ is appropriate to the relationship. 296 Some

adherents felt as if they were forcibly thrown into the furnace of the covenant.297

According to Saiaithanga the khurbing had a special attraction to each other and could

not spend a day without seeing or physically touching or shouldering each other.298

The depth of the feeling was inexpressible. A certain woman, according to

Liangkhaia, says of her feelings for her male partner, „As I see him I want to embrace

him hard. Not only so, I really wish that his body and mine be cut into pieces that the

pieces are thoroughly mixed together.‟299

It is presumed that as the spiritual nurturing progresses between the khurbing partners

human frailty often enters into the relationship. The intense mutual love in certain

cases ultimately leads to sexual perversion. It is alleged that children were born out of

such unions. As some people claimed to be drawn into covenant by the Spirit, remarks

Liangkhaia, they even dared to call such children „holy bastards.‟300 It is said that the

khurbing issue provided the pretext for the church to condemn the revival as a whole.

6. 4. Thiangzau:

The term „Thiangzau‟ is the combination of two words „Thiang‟ which refers to what

is lawful, permissible or acceptable in religious, moral or ethical realm; and „zau’

means wide, broad, inclusive or accommodative. Theologically the term is applied to

the teaching which tends to break with the rigid dogma and constitution of the

institutionalised church. As a matter of fact, a thiangzau is always the one who refuses

296
Lalsawma, Revivals, 191.
297
Z.T. Sangkhuma, Harhna Hi Le [Revival] (Aizawl: Synod Press, 1987) 75.
298
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 59
299
Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna Thu [Mizoram Revival] (Aizawl: V.L. Ringa, 1972) 43. Hereafter
cited as „Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna‟.
300
Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna, 44.

157
to adhere to the church‟s traditional beliefs and regulations. But structurally the term

has been applied not just to one particular group but to any revival-oriented individual

or group considered as thiangzau. The thiangzau by and large identified revival with

the Holy Spirit which they claimed, had left the institutionalised church which they

called the Mission church.

They had no written doctrine but oral teaching unlike the established church. The

principle of life was absolute obedience to the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The

greatest of all sins was the unbelieving heart which resulted in disobedience to the

Holy Spirit. „If the Spirit tells them to go naked,‟ observes Hminga, „it is a sin to

disobey; so they go naked!‟301 They would do anything they perceived to be the

guidance of the Spirit irrespective of the church‟s traditional attitudes towards it.

Concerning ethics, the thiangzau advocate controlled indulgence over abstention. For

instance, drinking beer with self-control and not abstention from it was victory over

beer drinking. For a person who does not consider beer drinking as sin, it was

perfectly right to drink and wrong not to. But addiction or becoming a slave to

anything was sin. This applies to sex and other ethical issues.

Structurally, they have priest or seers and the members normally learned of the

Spirit‟s will through their priests, although several of them claim to be prophets or

seers. Like the Quakers, they have no fixed programme for their meetings. Any

member with an inspiration may take any part in their informal meetings. So there is,

no set time, no set rule for them. Any member has the right to propose any

301
Hminga, Life and Witness, 199.

158
arrangement for conference, spiritual meeting feast and festivals and all would

willingly cooperate. This willingness to co-operation is the chief unifying factor for

the thiangzau movement.

The sacraments of thiangzau are highly contextualized. As a rule they used Mizo

traditional sticky bread and local rice beer in place of bread and wine respectively for

the elements of the Lord‟s Supper. They reason that if Jesus had lived in Mizoram he

would have certainly used the Mizo bread and beer. The sacraments sometimes

involve elaborate and expensive feasts depending on the seer‟s perception.

6. 5. Singing traditional songs:

Fervent hymn singing accompanied by two unequal sized drums, a prominent feature

of the revival movement again caused concern in the church. Sandy briefly remarks

about some extraordinary revival meetings in the initial stage at Mission veng church,

„the people sang nearly all the time‟. 302 After six weeks of such meetings he again

writes, „the special feature of the meetings is the hymn singing and at first the chapel

was crowded all day and all night with Christians singing the same hymn over and

over again.‟303 After two years D.E. Jones, fresh from his furlough observed the same

feature and wrote, „The most obvious thing in the meetings is the clapping of the feet

and hands to keep time when singing.‟304 Even five months later singing and beating

time with feet, hands and bodies was a prominent feature.

As a matter of fact, singing happened to take the largest part of the meetings

dominating if not altogether eliminating other elements of worship considered by the

302
Sandy‟s letter to Williams Dt. 30 August, 1919, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 255.
303
Sandy‟s letter to Williams Dt. September 28, 1919, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 255.
304
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 255.

159
official church as essential. The intemperate emphasis on hymn singing was believed

by church leaders to be a lopsided Christianity. Liangkhaia‟s observation that there

was something lacking in the revival, that deeper doctrinal teaching and instruction to

do good work in Jesus name was almost absent, 305 seemed to have represented the

official view of the church. Reflecting upon the general life of the church, D.E. Jones,

senior missionary, concluded that what the people needed was strong spiritual food,

given hot. It seemed that the spiritual food which Jones considered necessary for the

people was biblical and theological, while the people understood themselves to be

better nurtured by hymn singing and dancing in revival. Tension within the

community was inevitable.

Traditional inherited missionary theology branded Mizo traditional tunes as secular

and pagan and not worthy of being used to praise God. At first, the missionaries

forbade the singing of the traditional songs. Zairema writes of the attitude of the

church towards Mizo traditional songs as follows:

The church was, however, strict and would discipline any member

Who even hummed the music (Puma zai) even unconsciously. 306

This clearly indicated that the Presbyterian Church was hostile to Mizo culture. But

the missionaries soon changed their attitudes and asked the Mizo Christians to

compose with their traditional tunes. The first Mizo Christians went through self-

alienation by rejecting their culture. B. Lalthangliana‟s statement is relevant here as

he writes, „when the Mizos embraced Christianity, the missionaries told them that it is

305
Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna, 32.
306
Zairema, God’s Miracle in Mizoram, 18.

160
not enough to sing translated hymns and songs, but to compose Mizo Christian hymns

and songs using Mizo poetical words, idioms and terminologies. However, the first

generation of Mizo Christians rejected the missionary‟s advice and preferred

translated English hymns and songs in prose style without using poetical words‟307

this is a clear indication of self-alienation. The missionaries encouraged them to adopt

their culture but they preferred to reject it. This attitude gradually alienated the Mizo

Christians from their traditional tunes. However, the Mizo Christians rejected the

offer for fear of longing for their pre-Christian life. But after two decades, the Mizo

Christians were no longer satisfied with western tunes and longed for their traditional

tune and poetical words.

6. 6. Traditional Drum:

During the revival movement the traditional drum made its way deep into the

church‟s life and its indispensability in traditional singing and dancing found a

parallel exigency in formal Christian meetings. It created a rhythm for the singing and

dancing and did help to intensify the exhilaration of the whole revival atmosphere. Its

power seemed to the church leaders to upset the formality and solemnity of the

church. Saiaithanga, then a theological graduate and close associate of the

missionaries from the early twenties relates the influence of the drum and says, „as

long as the singing and the drum beating went on people kept on dancing and would

not stop.‟308 J.M. Lloyd represents the official church‟s mentality towards the drum

when he writes, „it (drum) appeared to dictate to the congregation and even the Holy

307
B.Lalthangliana, Patea leh Damhauhva Hnuhma [Poetical work of Patea and Damhauhva] (Tahan-
Kalemyo: EFCB Press, 1986), 1. Hereafter cited as „Lalthangliana, Patea‟.
308
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 52.

161
Spirit.‟309 He reasons that the drum was often in unreliable hands since the drummer

was always self- appointed.

The most serious known persecution for the use of the drum by the revivalists came

not from the established church but from the chieftainship. A confederation of the

chiefs at Champhai and its close periphery was organised to stop the Christians using

drums.310 A well known incident happened at Tualte where chief Dokhama hacked

open the drum in the church and completely demolished the chapel building itself. 311

He justified his action by accusing the Christians in his village of being too noisy and

a nuisance to the society and even petitioned the Superintendent to force the church to

build the chapel a mile away from the village. About the same time in 1921 Jones

refers to an outbreak of revival stirring in Mission headquarter and all along the east

where certain chiefs made a petition to the Superintendent against one of the pastors

without specifying the reasons.312

It can be safely assumed that by this time the widespread use of traditional drums had

found an appropriate accompaniment in the emergence of hymns composed by Mizos

with indigenous tunes. These two factors together added much to the attraction of the

revival movement. The use of drums by Christians was a cultural threat from the

traditional view point. Supplemented by the new Mizo tunes and dancing, the drum

proved to be a great factor in pulling the people away from traditional life and from

their absolute allegiance to the chieftainship. The melodious music of the drum to the

309
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin 192.
310
Liangkhaia, Mizoram Harhna, 113.
311
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 255.
312
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 255.

162
revival enthusiasts, thus, became a noisy gong to the traditional authorities of the

Mizo society.

As in the case of chief Dokhama both the Superintendent and the church came to the

rescue of the harassed Christians. The Superintendent ordered the chief to allot the

Christians the most central place of the village for building a chapel while the church

sent Liangkhaia and Suaka, who as its representatives eventually compelled Dokhama

and his villagers to erect a new chapel. The motive of the church in defending the

Christians was not necessarily to preserve the use of the drum. The established church

was faced with the question as to whether the use of the drums was a boon or a bane

to its future growth.

Traditionally, the drum was deeply rooted in the Mizo religion and culture. On every

religious and festive occasion the drum played a vital role. Without drums, the Mizos

did not usually sing. There is a Mizo saying, „khuang lova chai’, that means

celebrating a festival without drums is meaningless. Singing, drumming, dancing and

drinking rice beer were inseparably connected with each other. However, when the

Mizos embraced Christianity, they abandoned all because it was associated with the

old pagan religion. As a result, the drum was seen as unchristian and was not used in

the church. 313 Western tunes in tonic solfa were prescribed in the church services to

curb using drums and traditional tunes.

313
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 165.

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7. RE-READING REVIVAL FROM POSTCOLONIAL PERSPECTIVE:

After several years of his departure from Mizoram, E.L. Mendus said that „whilst

deeply regretting such excesses and frequent moral lapses, one is compelled to state

that the Lushai church would not be the large and strong body it is today were it not

for the revival. It is not and never has been a calm, placid, lukewarm community.‟ 314

The changes that took place in the church as well as in the Mizo society as a result of

the revival stirrings were so overwhelming and enduring that no other movement

seems to have affected the whole society more remarkably than the revival movement

has. Looking from the postcolonial heritage and resistant approaches the process of

inculturation took place in the course of the revival movement in Mizoram wchich

can be given as follows.

7. 1. Revival and Indigenisation of Mizo Christianity:

The most important impact of the revival movement was the indigenisation of Mizo

Christianity. From the revival movement, Christianity in Mizoram developed

characteristics indigenous to the people by adopting the cultural elements of the

revival movement. Then some western elements under pressure had to give way to

certain elements which the missionaries considered primitive and oriental. The result

was a conflict between traditional Mizo culture and traditional western Christian

culture. As a consequence some foreign elements in the church underwent a process

of modification, elimination or change. Through this process of an indigenous Mizo

church with a distinctive identity emerged. As a result Christianity in Mizoram tends

to be a complete blend of western and indigenous culture. Christianity then ceased to

314
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 259.

164
be in one sense a western set of religious doctrines and practices but became a

religion indigenous to the Mizo society. It may be said that the revival movement

made the Mizo church an instrument of baptising the cultural elements into Mizo

Christianity. The Presbyterian Church in Mizoram today seems to be comparatively

indigenous and its enormous strength seems to rest heavily on this fact. Perhaps, no

church or no indigenous group had experienced recurrent revival movements of the

same sort as the Mizo church. Several cultural elements have been incorporated by the

revival movement in Mizo Christianity.

7.2. Identity formation:

As has been discussed earlier, the identity of the Mizos was badly distorted as a result

of the Colonial encroachment upon geographical, political and cultural boundaries.

The people had been militarily disarmed and they were left defenceless and exposed

to assimilation of all kinds. The only weapon at their disposal to defend themselves

was their indigenous culture. While westernization was in progress the revival

movement served to save the people from total cultural assimilation. It was on the

pretext of a patriotic spirit that Thanga, one of the delegates to Mairang, participated

in the revival. After initial refusal of the missionary‟s advice to go to Mairang, he

finally said, „Well, I shall go if my participation would mean a benefit for the future

of my country and my people.‟315 He eventually became the foremost leader of the

revival movement in Mizoram.

The rapid dissolution of the zawlbuk in favour of the western system of education and

the western ecclesiastical structure threatened the dislocation of the whole Mizo social

315
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 168.

165
set up. To save the situation the YLA (Young Lushai Association), the replacement of

the zawlbuk system was founded which later to be called Young Mizo Association

(YMA), which initially aimed at being an instrument for developing the church and

the Mizo society. Moreover, the first political party called Mizo Union came into

existence as a result of the general concern for the unity of the all Mizos. There had

been an attempt at uniting all the Mizos and the Mizos inhabited areas in

neighbouring states and Burma. In any event the Mizo Union movement created an

excitement in the Mizo public, the like of which had not hitherto occurred in the

history of Mizoram. It is no wonder that the Mizo Union movement swiftly spread all

over the country.316

In short, it may be noted that while the established church served as an agent of

westernization, the Christianity of the revival movement helped the people to

maintain their cultural identity to take its own course of development. Hence, the

revival movement paved the way for identity reformation of the Mizo society.

7. 3. Evolution of Indigenous Mizo Hymns:

The centrality of singing and dancing in the revival movement signifies the depth of

revival influence on the Mizo society. Contrarily it was also true to say that the

revival came to be tremendously influenced by the Mizo traditional singing and

dancing. Donna Strom observes this phenomenon and asserted that Mizos are singing

people. This is perhaps their most outstanding and distinctive characteristic. Taught

316
Vanlawma, Ka Ram, 90.

166
by the musical Welsh, Mizos quickly began to compose so many songs that they

wanted to publish a new hymnbook every year. 317

The above statement is not an exaggeration although the publication of a new

hymnbook every year had never been possible. It is nevertheless probable that among

hymn books published in the world, the Mizo hymn book called „Kristian Hlabu’

(Christian Songbook) most probably underwent the greatest number of revisions and

reprints. It was published, revised and reprinted nine times in between 1899 to

1922.318

The Welsh missionaries, who belonged to a world renowned singing nation, imparted

in the Mizos an ability to sing any Christian hymns. They had introduced Tonic solfa

in the school curriculum since 1900. 319 Through the instrumentation of the solfa some

Mizo Christians had started to translate and compose hymns of their own. In the

beginning the words were put to western tunes at first but in the second decade of

Mizo Christianity new hymns using traditional Mizo tunes were emerged. But the

church and the missionaries accelerated their efforts to impart a more deep-seated

interest in western music and choral singing and missionaries played a leading role in

this effort.320 They organised a singing festival which involved the congregation in a

series of meeting for practice singing under a competent conductor. The continuity of

these endeavours to strengthen the western music in the Mizo church either in their

original or modified form had lasting success.

317
Donna Strom, Wind, 73.
318
K. Tlanghmingthanga, Zorimawi: Music Ministry of the Mizos (Aizawl: LTL Publications, 1994),
22, 33.
319
K. Thanzauva, Reports, 10-11.
320
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 271.

167
The missionaries‟ considerable success in introducing western hymns and music did

seem to be lasting but traumatic as well. Firstly, it meant an affirmation of western

Christian culture in the Mizo church. Secondly, it tended to promote the mission‟s

modus operandi at the expense of the revival enthusiasm and ideology. Thirdly, it

appealed to a comparatively small number of the Christian people as a whole. Tension

was therefore inevitable when the new Christian hymns appeared and spread rapidly.

More significant and interesting than the rapid multiplication of hymns or choral

singing was the transition from the western to the indigenous tunes during the revival

movement. This brought about an encounter between western music and the

traditional tunes which in turn underwent a series of modifications. The transition was

neither abrupt nor absolute. It has been a process not of total alteration but of gradual

conglomeration. Lalsawma‟s assertion that „the change over from the old to the new

was total‟321 must be a reference to the change in theme. The traditional Mizo music

itself had undergone a lot of changes from a type of incantation or chant till the end of

the seventeenth century to a monotonous tune of low notes such as Bawhhla, Hlado,

etc. during the eighteenth century. Singing to the accompaniment of drums and other

instruments presumably became more popular from the nineteenth century when the

lyrics having tunes with more variations known as chai or chawngchen hla appeared.

The early twentieth century witnessed the sudden emergence of the Puma zai which

later developed into various forms of Tlanglam zai. Then the new Mizo hymns

appeared. In spite of some diversion in theme, contents and in detailed arrangement of

verses, the new indigenous Mizo Christian hymn appears to be a further development

upon the Tlanglam zai.

321
Lalsawma, Revivals, 125.

168
A radical paradigm shift took place in the Mizo church in 1920, a new type of hymn-

indigenization of the Mizo Christian hymn was born when Patea of Khawbung started

to respond in terms of Mizo culture by composing Mizo Christian hymns with

traditional tunes. 322 This quenched the spiritual thirst of the Mizos. Inspired by the

revival movement, gifted Mizo composers started composing new indigenous songs.

Vanlalchhuanawma identifies these new hymns as a „Christian version of Tlanglam

zai.‟323 Significantly, these new hymns had produced dramatic conversion among the

Mizos because these indigenous songs Christianized the Mizos by thousands. 324

As regard to the novelty of the new hymns Chapman and Clark remark, thus, „As time

went on gifted Mizos began to compose original songs, very musical with haunting

distinctive melody of their own.‟ 325 This innovation was more surprising to the

missionaries who regarded the Mizos as traditionally an „unmusical people‟. Lorrain

sees it in a definite diversion in tune from the traditional songs, „in construction they

conform largely to the old Lushai songs, but the tune, although Lushai through and

through are yet something quite different from those used in the old heathen days.‟326

Lalthangliana remarks about the new Mizo hymns:

These new Christian hymns of the Mizo origin bear a curious

characteristic. They give a clear picture of heaven suitable to the Mizo

322
Lalthangliana, Patea, 1.
323
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 292.
324
Vanlalchhuanawma, „Harhna leh Mizo Theology leh Mission inlaichinna‟ [Interrelation of Revival,
Mizo Theology and Mission] in Vanlalchhuanawma, ed., Theology leh Mission: Kum Zabi thara Zofate
Hmabak [Theology and Mission: the Future of the Mizos in the New Millennium] (Aizawl: Mizo
Theological Association, 2002), 28-29.
325
Chapman and Clark, Mizo Miracle, 97.
326
Reports of BMS, 1930, 266.

169
 culture, experience and thought. Their tunes are not exactly like the

traditional one before Christianity and not so highly pitched or sharp as the

western tune; the compositions are neither gravely poetic nor simple

juxtaposition of prosy words, but have a pleasant flow to read, recite or

sing. 327

The new Mizo Christian hymns resuscitated the traditional spirit of singing and

created a fresh enthusiasm to promote the revival movement which in turn promoted

the inspiration to produce more of them. Thus the new hymns increased as the revival

progressed. To be precise, it was the new hymns which actually promoted public

interest in revivalism to an unprecedented degree. The Mizo Christians loved these

new songs and sang with ecstatic fervour.

However, the introduction of the new hymns came late in spite of the strong influence

they had on the people once they were introduced. The chief cause for the delay was

probably the tension between the western choral culture and the Mizo new hymn

culture. Thanpuii pa‟s contention that the missionaries‟ advice to compose hymns to

Mizo tunes was unheeded by the early Christians who considered using traditional

melody and the indigenous poetic language for Christian hymns to be profanity, 328

seems to be only partially true.

There is evidence to suggest that some missionaries attempted to maintain the

indigenous culture. The minutes of the early Presbytery meetings reveal that

discussions on traditional Mizo culture had a central place in the meetings.

327
Lalthangliana, B., Mizo Nun Hlui [Mizo Traditional Life] (Aizawl: Mizoram Board of Education,
1991), 168.
328
Thanpuii pa, „Mizo Hla‟ [Mizo Hymn] in J. Malsawma, Zo Nun [Zo Life] (Aizawl: Aizawl Literary
Service, 1971), 177.

170
Shakespear‟s organisation of meetings between the Missions from the north and the

south at an early date is presumed to have made a reference to aspects of traditional

culture compatible with Christian culture. 329 But the mission‟s efforts along these

lines were limited by their bias towards western Christian culture and customs. The

policy of keeping primitive people as near as possible to their own habits and customs

was conditioned by its consistency „with the new Christian spirit guiding their

lives.‟330 The standard for deciding the consistency of the indigenous habits and

customs being based on the biblical norms as interpreted in the western framework of

thought, the missionaries tended to be arbitrary in their selection of the indigenous

customs to encourage. Moreover, it appears that ultimately the missionaries‟ attitude

to the indigenous culture amounted to being a policy of complete annihilation.

Lorrain‟s observation in this connection may be quoted thus, „whilst a few of the

national customs are worth saving for their innocence and picturesqueness, the

majority require the patient energy of the missionary to uproot and destroy.‟ 331 The

indigenous songs or tunes were certainly not included among the selected few of the

indigenous customs regarded as worth saving.

C.Z. Huala, a Mizo song composer contends that despite the Christian earnest desire

to exploit the indigenous tunes for Christian hymns at an early stage, the emergence

of the new hymns was delayed by lingering suspicion about the mission‟s approval of

such compositions.332 Huala‟s contention sounds more convincing in view of the

general negative attitude of missionaries of the time to any cultural heritage. This was

the stage when the church, under the direct patronage of the mission made strict rules

329
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 77.
330
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 271.
331
R. Lewis, Lushai Hills, 67.
332
Based on personal interviewed with C.Z. Huala on 24.1.1994, quoted in Vanalchhuanawma,
Christianity, 300.

171
and regulations against traditional customs and ceremonies including singing

traditional Mizo song. The Presbytery meetings of April, 1910 and 1911 specifically

spelled out the need to discourage traditional singing, of which no amendments have

been made ever since.333

Whatever be the case, it is clear that the revival movement helped to break through

the Christians‟ inhibitions about the use of the cultural heritage of singing for the

purpose of worship. Observers commented on the great zeal for singing following the

introduction of the indigenous Mizo hymns. A sub-divisional officer posted at Lunglei

remarks, „I have visited several countries but have not come across any place where

Christianity is so prominently exhibited as it is in Mizoram, for every Mizo village is

reverberating with singing of God‟s praises. 334 The tremendous impact of the

indigenous hymns could be identified in the strong and widespread interest in the

hymns.

The evolution of the Mizo indigenous Christian hymns resulted in the rise of two

parallel cultures in the Mizo Christian community. The indigenous or the new hymn

culture closely identified with the revival movement and the western or choral culture

associated with the official church. This was especially apparent in the second decade

of the revival movement and greatly contributed to the emergence of the Mizo church.

These compositions of the Mizo Christian hymns not only re-rooted the gospel in

Mizo Christianity, but also give Mizo Christians new identities as Mizos and as

Christians.

333
Minutes of the Presbytery Meeting, April, 1910 Resolution No. 3 and Resolution No. 17 of 1911.
334
H.W. Carter & Sawiluaia, History of Mizoram Baptist Church (Serkawn: Baptist Assembly Press,
1945, reprint, 1981), 74.Hereafter cited as „Carter & Sawiluaia, Baptist Church‟.

172
7. 4. Christianizing traditional dances:

The aspect of the revival movement that caused the greatest tension in the Mizo

church was probably dancing. It used to be said that the Mizos are by nature, dancers.

Even in the pre-Christian era they danced in joy, in sorrow or in traditional festivals.

Sangkhuma, a prolific writer on Mizo culture observes thus:

The Mizos dance at the time of death, in bereavement, in the celebrative

occasions of Ai ceremony. They danced even in celebrating chopped heads

of their enemies. As singing, song and drum were inseparably linked with

one another, singing and drumming was linked with dancing. The standard

scale of the greatness of khuangchawi, chawngchen and other festive

occasions was the number of dancers in those occasions.335

Mizo traditional dancing took different forms. There were organised types of dancing

such as khual lam, sar lam and Cheraw which called for some amount of group

practicing. Another type of traditional dancing like chheih lam, tlang lam was

spontaneous and depended heavily on the ecstasy of the dancers as well as on the

excitement of the singing. The usual appearance of the dancing bout is described by

Sangkhuma in the following words:

When they sang together on joyous occasions, those sitting clapped their

hands swaying and stretching their bodies as if to stand and dance, and

those dancing in extreme gusto bent so low as if to lay themselves down

on the ground. The jollier dancer would even jest as he rose to dance, „I

335
Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma, 49.

173
 am joining the dance! Remove the chem underneath the dawhthleng lest I

have my ears cut on it.‟336

This description obviously refers to a typical tlanglam whose characteristics were

reflected in revival dance. Muka‟s description of revival dancing sounds quite similar

to the above description. „Dancing, not ordinary dancing but various kinds of strange

dancing such as one legged hopping, stooping down till the head touches ground,

shaking hands, head and body, like anything and the like.‟ 337 It may be noted here that

the Mizo traditional dance was greatly developed in the revival dancing, particularly

in its varieties as have been described.

However, the features of revival dancing were so typically Mizo that they shocked

and repulsed the missionaries. This revulsion was described by Mendus when first

exposed to Mizo revival dancing in the following words. „My first reaction was: either

these people are Christians and I am not, or I am a Christian and they are not.‟338

Lloyd reflects the reservation of the missionaries about the revival manifestations

when he says, „Symbolism was endless in its variety. It was sometime very superficial

but sometime profound.‟339 It is true that some slouched, some hopped, some

wriggled, some rushed and hustled about, and others crawled or rolled on the ground,

while others stood motionless with one leg on top of the other or lay flat on the floor

with their arms stretched out and their eyes closed. To the missionaries all those acts

appeared to be extreme and indecent. The Mission‟s unsympathetic attitude towards

336
Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma, 50.
337
Muka, Revivalistic Phenomena in Lushai Hills, a manuscript found in Samuel Davies‟ file in C.M.
Archive (Aberystwyth: National Library of Wales), 2, quoted in Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 410.
Hereafter cited as „Muka, Revivalistic‟.
338
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 2.
339
Lloyd, History of the Churches, 193.

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the varied postures and symbolic acts is hinted at by Lloyd‟s remark that nowadays

European Christians would view such acts more sympathetically than they did then. 340

On the other hand the dancers understood the varieties of dancing postures to have

definite spiritual implications which were edifying. In defence of the revival dancing,

Chhuahkhama, senior Mizo pastor of that time and a guide to the missionaries writes

the following:

You may trifle this revival simply as a generator of dancing, but no normal

people, except some children and simpletons, fake dancing without sincere

weeping and much crying in repentance; hence we cannot condemn this

revival. 341

The above statement is a simple representation of the revivalists‟ opinion. Tension

was caused by symbolism and other physical manifestation. But the missionaries

gradually learned to tolerate revival dancing since they understood that „what did not

appeal to us (missionaries) might be the means of doing much good to them.‟ 342 They

were persuaded by the undeniable contribution of the revival movement to the up

building of the Mizo Christian community. Dancing became an unbaptised but

tolerated element of the worship services in the Mizo church.

Since the church at first strictly forbade the traditional and cultural dances, the dances

in the revival movement came in a modified form. The Mizo Christians ascribed

dances in the church to the work of the Holy Spirit. The biblical basis of some dances
340
Ibid, 193
341
Chhuahkhama, „Aizawl Revival‟ in Kristian Tlangau [Christian Herald], September, 1919, 179-180.
342
Vanlalchhuanawma, Christianity, 304.

175
is also found in Psalms and other scriptures. Therefore, today the Mizo Christian

dances in the church and at communal singing. 343 As a result the revival dances are no

longer seen as sinful, unchristian, and profane or manifestations of evil spirits, but as

a spiritual manifestation through culture that gives the Mizo Christian identity. 344 In

fact, these indigenous Mizo dance not only keep the church lively, but also give Mizo

identity as Mizos and as Christians.

7. 5. Christianizing traditional drums:

One of the most significant yet controversial developments of the revival movement

was the introduction of the use of the indigenous drum to accompany the Christian

hymn singing. The question is why had the church not used the drum earlier and how

did it come to adopt it?

First of all, viewed against its traditional use, the adoption of the drum in the Christian

worship appeared to the missionaries and their Mizo converts incompatible since it

was associated with the old life and culture. Hence some writers assert that it was

banned in the early days of the Mizo church because of such associations. 345

Secondly, the whole revival movement itself, of which the drum became an important

manifestation, was looked down upon by the missionaries and the leaders of the

church as primitive, unruly and oriental. To aggravate such irreverence, the Mizo

traditional way of playing the drum was not suitable to accompany the western tunes

which dominated the early years of the Mizo Christianity.

343
See Appendix VII.
344
Lalrinawmi Ralte, „Dance Theology‟, [article online]; available from
http:/www.Mizobooks.com/dance-theology.htm; Internet; accessed; 1 December, 2007.
345
Liangkhaia, Mizo Chanchin, 112; Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran Chanchin, 50.

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Thirdly, the early Mizo Christian leaders were inclined to follow the missionaries‟

examples and opinions. Kipgen offers much evidence to substantiate the Mizo

Christians tendency to imitate their missionary parents whose culture they regarded as

superior to their own. He holds that tendency responsible for the resistance to the use

of the drum in the early years.346

Finally, the church‟s official resolutions describing most functional elements of the

traditional Mizo culture and customs as profane undoubtedly discouraged the use of

the traditional drum. It may be noted, however, that the church made no specific

resolution concerning the use of the drums. But the Presbytery meeting spelled out

specific objections to kawngpui siam, khawhring, inthawina, Mizo ni

serh,(observation of traditional holidays) Mizo zai ( Mizo song) and established

varying degrees of penalties to be meted out for participating in different items. 347

Such condemnation could have discouraged anyone who might wish to introduce the

drum in the church since most of the condemned items had direct association with the

traditional Mizo drum. Moreover, the restrictions on the use of the indigenous drum in

the Mission Veng church in the North Mizoram and in the Serkawn church in the

South from the beginning is the obvious evidence of the official church‟s antipathy.

Both of the churches were managed by the missionaries to be models for all other

churches. Sandy aptly remarks the Mission Veng church was „quite a Cathedral as

compared with the village Bethels.‟348 Its example of restricting the use of the drum

346
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 271.
347
Minutes of the Presbytery Meeting, April, 1910, Resolution Nos. 1, 2 & 3 and Resolution Nos.
17(2), (3) & (4) of the Presbytery Meeting, April, 1911.
348
K. Thanzauva, Reports, 55.

177
was later adopted in certain villages particularly at Durtlang and the churches of its

pastorate.

In fact, those who loved to sing with the traditional drum and were not satisfied with

the mission churches either joined the United Pentecostal Church or other sectarian

groups.349 Although it was crucial to retrieve traditional drums, it became a serious

theological issue. The Mizos of that period had undergone psychologically traumatic

times under the impact of foreign rulers whose religion they had come to accept. They

were also tempted to think of the western way of life as appropriate to the new

religion. On the other hand, the traditional drum was felt important as there could not

be either singing and dancing without it in the revival atmosphere. According to

Liangkhaia, the traditional drum was used in 1919 at Thingsai village for Christian

singing in the community gathering. Since then, the Mizo church leaders accepted it

as one of the most important instruments to be used for praising God. 350

But the fact remains that the traditional drum did come into use in the great majority

of church services as well as in the lengkhawm or mualinkhawm (gathering together

for singing and sharing). It was later adopted observes Lalsawma, because the Mizo

cultural instinct asserted itself through revival excitement and then drum-beating

became easier and more natural to Mizo spirituality. 351 This observation is quite valid

as far as it links the cultural instinct with the natural introduction of drum beating. It

may, however, be put the other way round. The official church with all its strength

was protecting itself against any cultural intrusions into its premises, while the revival

movement, the most productive Christian event of the time, evolved a new Christian
349
Lalrinawma, Mizo Ethos, 188.
350
N. Chatterji, Puan- the Pride of Mizoram (Calcutta: FIRMA KLM Private Ltd, 1979), 12.
351
Lalsawma, Revivals, 79.

178
culture which gifted the church with the drum along with a vast number of converts

who wished to retain their traditional identity along with their new faith. In fact, if the

drum were to be rejected, singing, the very hallmark of the revival would have been

dropped along with many converts who had embraced the new faith of which the new

hymns were an essential part. It must be said, therefore, that the identity and

autonomy consciousness embodied in the revival movement obliged the church to

pick up certain cultural elements, especially the drum with certain other elements

associated with it.

However, the use of the indigenous drum had to undergo some modification in order

to suit the singing of the new Christian hymns as well as traditional western songs.

For the revival singing two drums, one big and the other small, came to be used while

traditional western tunes and traditional Mizo songs were sung to the accompaniment

of a single drum. Drumming had become an art in itself and a gifted drummer was

almost always sure to give extra life and enthusiasm to the revival singing. Therefore,

using the traditional drum was no longer seen as unchristian and worldly, but rather as

more spiritual and expressing Mizo Christian identity. Kipgen says, „the drum is

baptised, as it were to serve the Mizo church.‟352 The traditional drum was re-rooted

and Christianised to be used in the Mizo Christian worship services and the

community gathering. 353

7. 6. Traditional poetical words:

Despite the Mizo language not being reduced to written form before the coming of the

Christian missionaries in 1894, the Mizo language was rich in words and

352
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 274.
353
See Appendix VI.

179
expressions. 354 The missionaries described the native Mizo people as pagan and their

traditional songs and tunes were all pagan and worldly. As a result, the first

generation of Mizo Christians regarded Mizo traditional poetical words as „godless‟

and it was almost considered as taboo to compose Christian songs or hymns. Due to

this attitude towards their culture, the Mizos gradually lost their valuable culture and

identity.355 In spite of its richness, Mizo Christian hymns were translated hymns. And

the first generation Mizo Christians thought that Christian hymns had to be translated

ones and subsequently, they refused to compose songs with the Mizo poetical words.

A radical transformation took place when Liangkhaia, the prominent church leader

changed his view in 1973 when he confessed „we are wrong‟. 356 This took place after

58 years of Christian experience. He clearly states the changes of his theological

outlook on using the Mizo poetical words as below:

The Mizos are far richer in poetical words than the English people.

However, the Mizo poetical words have been used in the compositions of

love songs, and the first generation Mizo Christians thought that these are

pagan and worldly, and we are against using the poetical words. Now we

have realized that using the poetical words does not matter, what matters

most is the subject of the songs.357

Today, Mizo Christians modify the traditional poetical words and use them for

composing Christian hymns. In other words, the interaction of the gospel and the

354
D.E. Jones, Kum 30 Lai Rawng Ka Bawlna (1897-1926), [My 30 Years Ministry 1897-1926], trans.
H. Liansailova, (Aizawl: Lengchhawn Press, 1999), 29.
355
Sangkhuma, Missionary-te Hnuhma, 200.
356
Liangkhaia, „Hla Thu‟ [Poetical Words] in B. Lalthangliana, Hranghluite Sulhnu, 99.
357
Ibid.

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Mizo culture has given birth to a new hybridity culture. 358 The Mizo church now

happily sings the Mizo traditional Christian songs to praise God in the church and in

the social gathering.

7. 7. Lengkhawm (Gathering together):

Lengkhawm (gathering together) or zaikhawm (singing together) became a unique

feature of Mizo Christianity. Either of the term means an informal get-together mostly

in a house for singing fellowship punctuated at intervals by short addresses, prayers or

testimonies. Sandy‟s remark on some extraordinary revival meetings in the initial

stage at Mission Veng church reveals that „the people sang nearly all the time‟. The

length of time for which lengkhawm lasted was often taken as a measure of the extent

of the inspiration of the Holy Spirit or at least, of revival enthusiasm. All night

singing and dancing was common in the Mizo traditional life. The success of the

traditional festival chapchar kut depended on how long the young men and women

could continue in singing and dancing. They were supposed to sing and dance the

entire night of the first day of the festival, failing which they were not allowed to

continue the chai or dance the following days.359 The spirit of this festival with its

dance feature embedded in the Mizo tradition found its Christian expression in the

revival born lengkhawm.

The lengkhawm is also similar to the traditional zu hmun, drinking bouts in their basic

nature which entails a spontaneous get together, chatting, singing and dancing. Its

difference lies in the absence of intoxicating drink, the contents of the song, the mode

of dancing and in the topics discussed. Neither formal appointment of participants nor
358
Lalthansangi Ralte, „Mizo Culture and its influence on Mizo Songs‟ [article online]; available from
www.zawlbuk.com; Internet; accessed; 12 October, 2007.
359
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 55.

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order of the meeting is as a rule made for lengkhawm which provides ample scope for

full and free expressions of revival ecstasy such as dancing, jumping, prophesying,

symbolic actions. There is no prohibition or restriction of smoking or chewing, tea is

normally served at convenient intervals. McCall seems to have some elements of truth

in seeing the Mission‟s prohibition of zu drinking and its associated dances as being

responsible for the revival phenomenon of ecstatic dancing:

Unhappily, no healthy substitute has as yet been found by the people for

this form of self-expression, and excesses are in consequence, inclined to

occur in the shape of frenzied hysteria within the four walls of the

churches, following the lines of what is sometimes known as revivalism.360

The lengkhawm may be said with some reservation to be a Christian form of

traditional zu hmun. Its informality and spontaneity hold a special fascination for the

Mizo public. The new hymns were chiefly sung and widely popularised through

lengkhawm. The lengkhawm opened up opportunities for promoting the revival

movement either directly or indirectly.

First, this new Christian culture linked the Christians to their traditional culture and

imbued the spirit of unity in the community irrespective of the parts of the country in

which they lived.

360
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 209.

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Secondly, it created even in the non-Christian sense, a belonging in the revival

community. It gave ample opportunities for participation without inhibition to the

rank and file in the process of revival.

Thirdly, it provided an open pulpit to anyone who wanted to share a sermon,

testimony, admonition, prophecy, prayer or the like.

Fourthly, the lengkhawm custom produced an informal structure which directed and

acclimatised the culture in the Christian community. The culture became highly

dominant in the formal church service.

7. 8. Beirual: New Expression of Tlawmngaihna.

‘Beirual’ literally means „united effort or community in action‟. The Mizos

traditionally do things as a community whether in war or peace or constructing

houses, especially the chief, the priest, the blacksmith, the widows and the zawlbuk.

Community service was also called for in erecting village fences, making village

springs, carrying the sick, digging graves, clearing inter-village paths and harvesting.

With this self-same spirit all the chapels and schools in Mizoram had been erected by

voluntary community service until the modern money economy robbed the Mizos of

the opportunity to express their community spirit in this way. It was a call for

community service to accomplish what was considered best for the society. Therefore,

it can be said that beirual is the Christian expression of traditional community welfare

scheme. Lengkhawm which encouraged free expression of revival enthusiasm and

adaptation of Christianity to the Mizo culture became the basic characteristic of the

Beirual project. It also opened up opportunities for full participation of any interested

183
lay Christian. The effectiveness of such evangelistic effort is recorded by M.E.

Browser as follows:

They have a splendid custom whereby every member of the church is

expected annually to give up a whole calendar month to do the business of

evangelism amongst his near neighbours or in more distant villages. Men,

women and children members of the church are admitted to this sacred

duty of „bey rual‟ or „attacking together‟. When one learns that it was in

this determination that the church was nourished and developed, one

begins to understand a little the growth of Christianity in Lushai, which

has been so conspicuous and so richly blessed. 361

The beirual spirit inspired the Mizos with evangelistic tours with practical

tlawmngaihna. No consideration of formal planning and organising or remuneration

arose in doing the task. Every Mizo Christian had the desire to and did it in the spirit

of tlawmngaihna to share his/her new found joy with their neighbours, without any

consideration of what he/she would get in return. It was the tlawmngai people who

formed themselves into groups of zinrual and fangrual (people travelling together) to

voluntarily accomplish the task of evangelizing the land. They preached everywhere-

in the church, in the street at any time including throughout the night. Even J.H.

Lorrain used to join the fangrual and to follow the tradition of preaching before day

break in the street with a lantern in his hand. 362

361
M.E. Browser, Light on the Lushai Hills: The Story of a Dream that Come True (Serkawn: Baptist
Church of Mizoram, 1993), 19. Hereafter cited as „Browser, Light‟.
362
Carter & Sawiluaia, Baptist Church, 75.

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The upliftment of the poor and the needy pertaining to the evangelistic activities was

an expression of Christian virtue in a Mizo fashion. They actually helped the needy in

grinding and cleaning rice, fetching water as well as firewood. Even the fangrual took

out time to help the widows and the weak in weeding their jhums besides holding all

night preaching. The Mizo custom of helping the widows, the weak and the disabled

in drawing water, fetching firewood, cutting and weeding jhums and repairing houses

were traditionally assigned to the zawlbuk inmates. But now the revival enthusiasts

irrespective of sex, age or status took upon themselves the responsibility of continuing

the zawlbuk function of course, with vigour rejuvenated by Christian conviction. The

humanitarian service was rendered as a spontaneous expression of the revival joy in a

Mizo fashion and promoted evangelism at an unprecedented speed.

7. 9. Promotion of Mizo Language and unity:

Another significant development brought about by the revival movement was the

promotion of the Lusei language among all the different Mizo clans which have a rich

variety of dialects. The basic reason was that the said language had been greatly

promoted by the chiefs over their vast dominion before the British conquest of

Mizoram. Several petty and tributary chiefs had adopted the language along with the

Lusei culture. Acknowledging the contemporary linguistic trend, missionaries based

the Mizo alphabet on the Lusei language. Consequently the earliest Mizo literature

was developed in that language. J.H. Lorrain observes thus:

There are now three missionary societies working in the area over which

the Lushai language is used. This language which we reduced to writing in

our pioneering days, and in which the scriptures have ever since been

185
 published and education carried on, is fast becoming the lingua franca of

neighbouring tribes and clans who are through its medium becoming

evangelised.363

Mention has been made of the spread of revival to the Mizo inhabited areas in the

neighbouring states. Not all the Mizos in those neighbouring areas used the Lusei

dialect but all of them heard and read the gospel in the initial stage. Not only read and

heard, but now they also sang the gospel songs in the Lusei language which gradually

came to be called Mizo, as it tended to be increasingly adopted by all the Mizos.

Thus, the dialect which was the natural language of the revival movement grew to be

the lingua franca of the Mizos and it became a strong unifying factor for the Mizo

people. Through the revival movement the awareness of the racial unity of different

Mizo dialect groups was fostered in Mizoram and its adjoining states.

8. CONCLUSION:

Revival movement was commenced when the land was subjugated and the society

was utterly shattered. The British regime imposed new laws and regulations, and

divided the land and the people to suit its administrative convenience and commercial

ambitions. To worsen the confused state of mind of the people, Christian mission

came to propagate a new religion. The Mizo people suffered losses of their land,

identity and selfhood. They were simply bewildered. In such a chaotic confusion the

revival movement took place. It tended to be a cultural revival and turned out to be an

antidote to the prevailing process of westernisation. The revival movement in

Mizoram saved the Mizo people from complete British assimilation. It thus provided

363
Reports of BMS, 1923, 186.

186
the people with a setting for regaining and maintaining their identity and selfhood.

Several Mizo cultural elements have been incorporated by the revival movement in

Mizo Christianity. Firstly, a new type of hymn called „indigenous Mizo Christian

hymn‟ was born from the revival movement with traditional Mizo tunes. These new

indigenous hymns really quenched the spiritual thirst of the Mizo Christians and give

the Mizo Christian a new identity. Secondly, the rediscovery of the value of the Mizo

poetical words in Mizo Christianity was a radical paradigm shift. It was a complete

change to the view of Mizo poetical words which had been totally rejected as anti-

Christian elements and marginalised as godless but were then retrieved and used to

compose the Mizo indigenous hymns for praising God. Thirdly, the mission church

strictly forbade the traditional and cultural dances, which were considered as pagan

and worldly, but these dances came to the church in a modified form when the

spiritual revival broke out. As a result these new forms of dance are no longer seen as

sinful, unchristian and a manifestation of evil spirits, but as a spiritual manifestation

of God through culture that gives the Mizo Christian a distinctive identity. Fourthly,

in the light of a postcolonial praxis model, Christianizing the Mizo traditional drum is

a radical paradigm shift because an element which was previously considered as anti-

Christian was taken into the fold of Mizo Christianity. Traditionally, the drum played

a very important role in all the religious and cultural life of Mizo society. But when

they embraced Christianity, they abandoned the traditional drum and using the drum

was seen as unchristian. But inspired by the revival movement when the traditional

drum interacted with the new indigenous Christian hymns, the drum became more

meaningful and brought a new type of singing. Therefore, using the drum in the

church and in social gatherings is no longer seen as unchristian but rather as more

spiritual and expressing Mizo Christian identity. Fifthly, the Revival movement also

187
helped the Mizos to developed evangelism on the local level and foreign level. The

Mizo custom of tlawmngaihna, that is helping others especially the needy one like the

widows, the weak and the disabled in drawing water, fetching firewood, cutting and

weeding the jhums and repairing houses were traditionally assigned to the zawlbuk

inmates. But now the revival enthusiasts irrespective of sex, age or status took upon

themselves the responsibility of continuing the zawlbuk functions, with Christian

vigour rejuvenated by Christian conviction. The next chapter will deal with the

mission and evangelistic work of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram.

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 Chapter Four

AN ANALYSIS OF THE MISSION OF THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF

MIZORAM

1. INTRODUCTION:

Mission has been integral to Christianity from the beginning. Stephen Neill rightly

says that, „mission, the extension of the church beyond its existing frontiers, has been

characteristic of the Christian fellowship from its earliest beginning‟.364 But as

mission faces new challenges in a changing situation, the understanding and practice

of Christian mission is changing. The older understanding of mission has been very

much challenged as Christians constantly face different contexts of poverty, injustice,

other religions and many other issues both inside and outside the church. Therefore,

this chapter will explore changes in the understanding of mission over the years or

paradigm shifts in the theology of mission. The concern here is reformulating the

theology of mission for the Presbyterian Church in Mizoram so that the church may

be challenged and inspired to evaluate critically her traditional understanding of

mission, and accordingly, redefine mission in the context of Mizoram. To begin, let us

briefly survey the history of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram.

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF MIZORAM:

Christianity was first preached among the Mizos in 1891 by a Welsh missionary

named William Williams, against the background of primitive animism, shrouded by

superstitions and fears. Williams could not stay for long in the Mizo Hills, but his

appeal to the Presbyterian Church of Wales resulted in the adoption of Mizo Hills as

364
Stephen C. Neill, „Christian Mission‟ in Charles J. Adams, ed., Encyclopaedia of Religion Vol. 9
(New York: Macmillan Publishing House, 1969), 573.

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one of its mission fields. However, before the church in Wales could send a

missionary, unaware of the fact that it had been adopted by the Presbyterian Church

of Wales, two Arthington missionaries, J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge arrived in

Mizoram in 11th January, 1894 and remained for almost four years. The first Welsh

missionary, D.E. Jones, arrived on 31 st August, 1897 and stayed with the Arthington

missionaries until their departure of that year. Edwin Rowlands joined D.E. Jones in

1898 and the two missionaries devoted most of their time to preaching tours all over

Mizoram with its difficult terrain, its wild animals and forests. The missionaries

worked with unsparing fervour and as soon as they won over a handful of Mizo

converts they left much of the preaching ministry to the Mizos, and they gradually

devoted themselves towards administration.

The first two Mizo converts were baptised on 25th June, 1899. The statistics of the

first fifty five years as shown below to indicate the growth of Presbyterian Church in

Mizoram:365

Year No. of Christians

1899 2

1905 90

1915 9168

1925 24893

1935 63872

1945 83858

1955 108141

365
Zairema, „The Mizo Church‟ in Rosiamliana Tochhawng, ed., Ground Works for Tribal Theology in
Mizo Context (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 18.

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As the number of Christians increased it was found necessary to organize them into

regular congregations with definite programmes of worship. They adopted the

practices of the Welsh and Khasi Hill churches. Every Wednesday, evening meetings

were held to share spiritual experiences. Later, definite subjects were chosen and

guide books were prepared for the church. Saturday evenings were set aside for

community prayer meetings. Sunday morning services were devoted to Bible study,

now called Sunday school where both children and adults took part. It continues to be

one of the most popular services to this day while Sunday afternoon and evenings

were set aside for preaching.

A Mizo Presbytery was formed in 1910 under the Khasi Assembly with constitutional

powers to organise churches, and to appoint and ordain elders. The first Mizo

Presbytery meeting was held in Aizawl, where three elders were appointed and

ordained. The year 1913 was a momentous one for the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram as the first Mizo pastor was ordained by the Assembly meeting. As the Mizo

Presbytery, established in 1910 had managed all church affairs and acted more or less

as an independent body but did not have constitutional authority to ordain ministers.

The Mizo Assembly, now known as Presbyterian Church, Mizoram Synod was

constituted in July, 1924.

The administrative set up of the Presbyterian Church is highly centralized. The Synod,

having its headquarters at Aizawl, is the highest decision making body. The financial

operation, the personnel matters, administration management and the execution of

works of the Presbyterian Church are directly or indirectly supervised and controlled

191
by the Synod. It has 14 departments viz: Pastoral ministry, finance, education,

hospital, theological education, communications, mission, pension and provident

fund, Sunday school, music, social front, revival, youth fellowship and women wing.

In addition there are numerous sub-committees functioning under the supervision of

the concerned boards. All of these departments are controlled by the Synod through

its Executive Committee.

The Presbyterian Church renders services to the poor and the needy by giving funds

and grants. The Synod Endowment Fund programme was started in 1994 with an

objective of uplifting poor people. A sum of 64, 35, 000.00 rupees was invested in the

bank and the interest earned out of it has been utilized for scholarships to poor

students and as relief grants to poor families every year. In addition, the Church allots

at least 10, 00,000.00 rupees every year to be distributed to the needy people as a

relief, primarily to those victims of natural calamities. 366 Moreover, free treatment

was given to hundreds of patients due to their poverty by the Presbyterian hospital. As

part of the self-help programme the Presbyterian Church runs a Multi-Purpose

Training Centre to organise training courses like knitting, tailoring, shoe making,

Information technology, etc. for less-privileged people. The church also runs a Rescue

Home which is used as a de-addiction and counselling centre for drug addicts and

alcoholics.

Lalchhanhima,367 Moderator, Presbyterian Church of Mizoram has given the statistics

of the Presbyterian Church which is given below.

366
„Some Highlights of Mizoram Presbyterian Synod‟ [article online]; available from
www.mizoramsynod.org/index.php; Internet; accessed; 20 August 2009.
367
Lalchhanhima, Interviewed, (Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 19 July, 2009).

192
General Statistics of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram in 2008 are as follows:

No. of local churches - 901

No. of Pastors - 319

No. of Probationary pastors - 53

No. of Church elders - 3967

No. of missionaries - 1449

No. of Church members - 478853

2. 1. Baptist Church of Mizoram:

The Arthington missionaries, J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge returned to Mizoram and

started work as missionaries of the London Baptist Missionary Society in south

Mizoram in 1903. There was already a handful of converts there which was largely

the fruit of the labour of Welsh missionaries. Since then, Mizoram has been divided

into two mission fields, the Welsh Presbyterian Mission in the north and the Baptist

Mission in the south Mizoram. From the beginning the work was divided, with

Lorrain taking responsibility for the pastoral care of the converts and the organization

of the church and Savidge for educational work.

H. Lianngaia, Executive Secretary, Baptist Church of Mizoram has said in an

interview that the work of the Baptist Missionary Society in South Mizoram was

blessed by God so that when the last western missionary had to leave Mizoram, they

left a self-supporting, self-propagating and missionary-sending church. 368 For the

smooth administration of the church, four departments – Education, Medical,

368
H. Lianngaia, Interviewed (Baptist House, Aizawl: 19 August, 2009).

193
literature and General Department were made to look after different works of the

church. 369 From January, 1959, each department started functioning under its

departmental committee. From this time onwards, a new era was ushered in the life of

Baptist Church of Mizoram.

The personal relationships between the Presbyterian and Baptist missionaries were

quite cordial. However, the denominational differences became apparent. The then

Political Officer, J. Shakespear was also concerned that the same people should be

divided into two rival Christian groups. It is said that he invited the missionaries to

talk over the matter. In order to safeguard the Mizo people from disintegration, the

British administration did not allow other mission agencies to come into Mizoram for

some time. Nevertheless, in the course of time other denominational groups did enter

Mizoram. They are as follows:

2. 2. Salvation Army:

Salvation Army was first organized by Kawlkhuma in 1921. Kawlkhuma was once a

member of Tlira, one of the first groups judged to be heretical arising out of the

revival of 1913. After this group was expelled from the church, Kawlkhuma went to

Bombay and joined the Salvation Army. After receiving training he returned to

Mizoram and organized the Salvation Army at Mizoram.370

The Welsh Mission was not pleased with this development. Since the growth did

continue despite the effort of the Presbyterian Church and they confined themselves to

social work, there was an improvement in the relationships with the older established
369
„History‟ [article online]; available from www.mizobaptist.org/index.php;Internet; accessed; 20
August 2009.
370
K. Lalrinawma, Interviewed (Salvation Army Hqrs., Aizawl: 19 August, 2009).

194
churches in both south and north Mizoram. It has rendered a good service to the

people of Mizoram.

2. 3. Roman Catholic:

According to Saiaithanga, the Roman Catholic Church of Mizoram started partly out

of belief in the truth of Catholic teaching, and partly because of discontent within the

Presbyterian Church.371 A. Thanglura, a Mizo student in Shillong joined the Roman

Catholic Church and he tried to get permission for Catholic missionaries to work in

Mizoram. Missionaries got permission and started work in Mizoram in 1947. In the

face of stiff opposition from the Superintendent as well as the church leaders, they

started a high school and made efforts to gain adherents from among the members of

the existing churches. They had very little success.

2. 4. Seventh Day Adventists:

Lallianzuala brought Seventh Day Adventism to Mizoram. He joined this church

while he was studying in Shillong in 1941. In 1946 he and ten other students toured

Mizoram and distributed the Adventists‟ book, Christian Doctrine which he translated

into Mizo. In 1949 he was joined by Mr. and Mrs. Lowry from America. Later Mr.

Lowry became pastor and Mrs. Lowry opened an English Medium school for

children. This being the first of its kind in Mizoram it attracted the children of those

who were in high office. In spite of the enthusiastic propaganda made by Lallianzuala

and associates, the Adventists church grew only slowly.

371
Saiaithanga, Mizo Kohhran, 155.

195
2. 5. United Pentecostal Church:

The fastest growing church is the United Pentecostal Church. This was the result of

the 1935 revival where many people were not satisfied with the existing churches.

Kamlova, a Presbyterian compounder (medical worker) and a preacher was

responsible for bringing this church to Mizoram. He and his friends went to south

India and joined the Pentecostal Church. He succeeded in bringing a woman

missionary, R.A. Dover, to Aizawl in 1949 and formed United Pentecostal Church of

Mizoram.

2. 6. Isua Krista Kohhran (Church of Christ):

Isua Krista Kohhran or Church of Christ is a local church which has no connection

outside Mizoram. This church is mainly based in the Presbyterian area in northern

part of Mizoram. The motivation for its formation was both political and religious

revival.

3. MEANING OF MISSION:

The word „mission‟ has been derived from the Latin mitto, which in turn is a

translation of the Greek apostello (to send). As an English term with no direct biblical

equivalent, it has a broad range of acceptable meanings. The contemporary secular

definition of mission is simply „sending someone forth with a special purpose‟. With

the broadness of the term, our conception of the Christian mission will to a large

degree depend on our theological orientation rather than an etymological analysis. 372

Christians have always felt that they were engaged in mission in the world, sent by

Jesus to proclaim and witness to the good news of the kingdom of God (Mt. 28:18-

372
A. Scott Moreau, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions (Grand Rapids: Baker Books,
2000), 636.

196
20). But the understanding of their mission and their task has varied in the course of

the past two thousand years. And as the historical conditions have changed, mission

too has changed even if the word has remained the same.

Thus from the traditional view of mission as exclusively evangelistic to the

ecumenical view as the establishment of shalom, could we find a more balance and

biblical way of defining of Christian mission. Max Warren defines that Christian

mission is God‟s will for the world, as we know, is that the world shall be saved, shall

be made whole, and shall find its true unity of its response to the God, who is the

Creator, Sustainer and Redeemer. The Christian mission is this will of God as it finds

embodiment in active obedience on the part of the Christian individual, the Christian

group and the Christian church.373 For K.C. Abraham, an Indian theologian mission

involves committing oneself to the cause of justice, peace and integrity of creation of

the dynamic wholesomeness of life. Therefore commitment to the cause of Jesus

Christ in a given context and struggle against all forces of oppression are integrally

related.374

Evidence of current usage shows that the term „mission‟ has many meanings and

cannot be limited to a single meaning. And we as Christians have no exclusive claim

to this word. But this variety of meanings has become a problem even for the

churches themselves. Does mission still mean the proclamation of the gospel to non-

Christians? Does mission today mean simply no more than humanitarian concern,

disaster relief, and ministry to the sick, protest against human rights violations? There

is no doubt that the term „mission‟ has caused a lot of confusion. As David J. Bosch,
373
Max Warren, The Christian Mission (London: SCM Press, 1951), 61.
374
K.C. Abraham, „Mission as Celebration and Sharing Life‟, Seminar paper on Mission and
Evangelism, Bangalore: 1991, 13.

197
working from Hans Kung‟s model of paradigm shift has convincingly argued that in

the past each major crisis of history has led to a paradigm shift in missionary thinking

and praxis. 375 When applied to the church we say that paradigms emerge as Christian

communities seek to partake in God‟s mission. Thus paradigm shift has taken place in

mission and missionary thinking.

4. PARADIGM SHIFT IN THEOLOGY OF MISSION:

Paradigm in theology means an interpretative model commonly agreed and shared by

the members of the community. While Bosch traces the contour of paradigm shifts
throughout the history of Christian mission, we will discuss here only four major
paradigm shifts. However, one should be aware that when we say paradigm shift, it
does not meant the eruption of a completely new paradigm without continuity from
the past, it always means both continuity and change overlapping one another.

4. 1. Colonial Ecclesial Paradigm:

The colonial ecclesial paradigm of Christian mission is the result of the success of

western Christian nations in exploring the world and subsequently expanding trade

and commerce and colonizing Asia and Africa. It is in this context that the colonial

ecclesial paradigm of Christian mission was developed. This paradigm covers an era

beginning from Columbus to the Second World War; which marked the end of the

colonial era.

In the early part of the colonial era, most of the Christian countries were theocratic

states in which colonization and Christianization were inseparable like two sides of

the same coin. The theological basis of this is drawn from the gospel of Luke 14:23,

375
David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in the Theology of Mission (New York:
Orbis Books, 2004), 185-189. Hereafter cited as „Bosch, Transforming Mission‟.

198
„Compel them to come in‟ for there is no salvation outside the church. There was

direct and indirect missionary war. The direct missionary war was waged by

colonizers and crusaders who fought for God and the empire. The indirect war was

marginalization of non-Christians who were deprived of certain rights when

Christians were granted special privileges and shown favour. The logic of this act was

that it was to their own material and spiritual advantage to become Christians. Leaders

of the states and the churches together regarded subduing the pagans and taking their

land as a divine commission, similar to Israel‟s conquest of Canaan.

The right to send ecclesial agents to distant colonies was decisive. Their assignment

was known as mission and they themselves became missionaries. The concept of

mission seems to originate from the colonial philosophy. As Bosch explained:

The new word „mission‟ is historically linked indissolubly with the

colonial era and with the idea of magisterial commissioning. The term

presupposes an established church in Europe which dispatched delegates

to convert overseas peoples and was as such an attendant phenomenon of

European expansion. The church was understood as a legal institution

which had the right to entrust its „mission‟ to secular power and to a corps

of „specialists‟ priests or religious. „Mission‟ meant the activities by which

the western ecclesiastical system was extended into the rest of the world.

The „missionary‟ was irrevocably tied to an institution in Europe, from

which he or she derived the mandate and power to confer salvation on

those who accept certain tenets of the faith.376

376
Bosch, Transforming Mission, 228.

199
In this colonial paradigm it is quite right to say that the cross followed the sword. The

problem in this approach is not only its theology but also the practice of collaboration

with the state government. This had the lasting effect of making people in Asia and

Africa sceptical about Christianity. In their encounter with other faiths and cultures,

European missionaries learned lessons and gradually changed their opinion about

people of other faiths.

The missionary movement of the 19th century which brought about the unparalleled

growth and expansion of Christianity to a certain degree abandoned the idea of

collaboration with the state government and developed a voluntary Christian mission

by forming several missionary societies. Since the missionaries were not directly sent

and controlled by the state government, the colonialists and missionaries had different

interests. In some places there was bitter conflict between them, but by and large the

missionaries profited from the logistics help provided by the colonial structures.377

Whether the relationship between missionaries and colonialists was good or bad,

together they shared the imperial ethos that western values, culture and practices were

the only authentic ones to be followed by all people. With this mind- set, both

missionaries and colonial administrators could not appreciate other cultures and

imposed their own culture on others. Such an approach has created serious problems

for mission work throughout history. Though the crusaders were not successful in

their mission, the spirit of Christian triumphalism nurtured by western imperialism

has continued up to today.

377
Michael Amaladoss, „The church as servant of the coming kingdom‟ in Gerald H. Anderson, James
M. Philips and Robert T. Coote, eds., Mission in the Nineteen Nineties (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans, 1991), 14.

200
4. 2. Pietistic Evangelical Paradigm:

The Pietistic Evangelical Paradigm is second long lasting paradigm; beginning from

the pietistic movement of the late 17th century through the evangelical awakening of

the 19th century up to the present time. Pietism, rediscovering the tradition of the

Reformation, emphasized faith over against reason, disciplined life over sound

doctrine, subjective experience of the individual over ecclesial authority, practice

over theory. 378 The pietistic movement combined the joy of personal experience of

salvation with an eagerness to proclaim the gospel of redemption to all. Its emphasis

on the individual rather than society has its strength and weakness.

The pietistic movement made significant contributions to Christian mission. Even

though the first two missionaries to India were sent by a king, missionary work

became a voluntary enterprise. Eventually, pietism transformed Christian mission

from being a concern of rulers and church hierarchies to being an enterprise of every

committed Christian. Pietism ushered in the age of ecumenism in mission in which

the fellowship of believers, drawn from various denominations, worked together in

the Christian mission. This cooperation transcended national and confessional

boundaries.

The pietistic approach was affirmed, strengthened and transformed by the evangelical

awakening in Europe and North America which sent out missionaries in large

numbers to various parts of the world. Most western historians considered the 19 th

century the „Great Century‟ of Protestant and Catholic mission. Though there are

several factors in and outside of the church responsible for the worldwide expansion
378
Paul Tillich, Perspective on 19th and 20th Century Protestant Theology (London: SCM, 1967), 95-
97; David A. Palin, „Enlightenment‟ in Alan Richardson and John Bowden, eds., A New Dictionary of
Christian Theology (London: SCM, 1983), 179-180.

201
which made Christianity a universal religion, on the whole the evangelical awakening

which gave birth to a large number of missionary organizations dedicated to the task

of world evangelization is regarded as primary factor.379 The internal regeneration of

the churches enabled them to grasp the opportunities offered by the favourable

external conditions like the colonization of Asia and Africa, new scientific

discoveries, which provided better communication facilities and the industrial

revolution which expanded trade and commerce.

The watch-word of the Student Volunteer Movement, „the evangelization of the

world in this generation‟ reflects the motif and approach of the Christian mission. The

central thrust of this paradigm was proclamation of the gospel with a view to

converting people so that their souls might be saved eternally. Emphasis on personal

conversion, purity of life, the imminent return of Jesus Christ, loving obedience and

discipleship in the evangelical theology of mission was clear evidence of pietistic

influence. The theological motif of the 19 th century missionary was both

soteriological and eschatological.

The most significant contribution of the evangelical awakening to the Christian

mission was the development of voluntarism which eventually brought about the

existence of many missionary societies. The evangelical Christians, addressing the

consequential problems of the industrial revolution, were deeply involved in the

struggle for social reform and engaged in charitable works in their home countries.

When they came to Asia, they continued the type of work they had done in their

379
Rodger C. Bassham, Mission Theology 1948-1975: Years of World Creative Tension Ecumenical,
Evangelical and Roman Catholic (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1979), 4.

202
home country and got involved in social reform and charitable work. Thus, schools,

hospitals and other charitable works became an important means of evangelization.

4. 3. Ecumenical Paradigm:

One of the greatest developments in the history of the Christian church in 20 th century

was the emergence of an ecumenical movement. Concern for unity arose from the

missionaries‟ experience in the fields. The enormity of mission work, particularly the

difficulty they encountered in the task of world evangelization helped missionaries

realize the need for unity. Concern for Christian unity gradually became stronger and

it was treated as the core issue in on-going discussions of mission. This concern of

unity was translated into reality when the World Council of churches (WCC) was

formed in 1948 to strive for greater unity. Unity has become one of the primary

purposes of the WCC, as laid down in its constitution: „to call the churches to the goal

of visible unity in one faith and in one eucharistic fellowship expressed in worship

and in common life in Christ, and to advance towards that unity in order that the

world may believe.‟380

The confusion that has been prevailing within the ecumenical movement was the

purpose of calling the churches for the International Missionary Council whose

purpose was for evangelism whereas WCC perceived it for unity. That was eventually

rectified. Rejecting the dichotomy, the ecumenical movement integrated unity and

mission upholding the view that the „calling of the churches to mission and unity‟

were inseparable as the two sides of the same coin. As the leaders of the WCC took

the context of Christian mission more seriously than ever before, certain issues such

380
Thomas F. Best, Vancouver to Canberra 1983-1990 (Geneva: WCC, 1990), vii.

203
as the relationship of the older and younger churches, the missionary message in

relation to non-Christian religion, the relation of evangelism and social involvement,

racism, sexism and ecological issues have appeared as crucial questions in the

discussion on mission. The concern for Christian mission was no longer limited to

evangelism and unity alone; it has now many more concerns. The increasing concerns

and the multiple dimensions of Christian mission have brought about a new paradigm

called a holistic paradigm.

4. 4. Holistic paradigm:

The holistic concept of mission, the idea that the mission of God (Missio Dei) to the

world in which the churches and every Christian are called to participate through

proclamation of the gospel of Christ and action for the realization of the kingdom of

God did not come overnight but took many years to develop. It evolved from the past

experience of mission work, debate on certain issues, and reconstruction of the

theology of mission and reformulation of mission priorities and strategies. 381 The

change was not merely initiated by a few leaders and missionary scholars from

within; it was brought about by the external context in which the missionary

enterprise existed. The shift was basically from understanding mission as God‟s

mission to the world through the church, to an understanding of God‟s mission to the

world in which the church participates. It is a shift from church oriented mission to

the world oriented mission. Here mission is conceived in the spirit of Ps. 24: 1, „The

earth is the Lord‟s and the fullness thereof, the world and those who dwell there in‟. It

is God who loved this world so much that he sent his son to it. Mission is therefore,

God‟s loving act of sending his son to save, liberate and reconcile the world to

381
Phillip A. Potter, „Mission‟ in Nicholas Lossky, et. al. eds, Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement
(Geneva: WCC, 2002), 695.

204
himself. Mission is God‟s turning to the world in respect of creation, care, redemption

and consummation. It affects all people in all aspects of their existence. And the

mission of the church is to participate in this mission of God.

4.5. Critiques on Mission Paradigms:

In the history of Christianity, a shift of theological paradigm has taken place from

time to time as mentioned above. The colonial ecclesial paradigm of the church was

overlapped by pietistic evangelical paradigm, and then came the ecumenical paradigm

and the holistic paradigm and so on. A new paradigm of theology usually emerges

due to the change of situation. The shift of theological paradigm today is mainly due

to the breaking down of the old paradigm in Third world countries. The old paradigm

could not develop a relevant theology to effectively address the situation where

poverty, exploitation, oppression dependency and pluralism were major issues. It is

quite evident from history that whenever an old paradigm become obsolete and

inadequate to meet the contemporary needs, a new paradigm emerged. 382 Whenever

such a shift of paradigm occurred, the old paradigm seldom disappeared completely.

David J. Bosch rightly asserts that in the field of religion, a paradigm shift always

means both continuity and change, both faithfulness to the past and boldness to

engage the future, both constancy and contingency, both tradition and

transformation. 383 It is the failure of traditional paradigm such as the colonial and

evangelical paradigms to address the problems faced by the churches which

necessitates new contextual theological models. Contextual theological models

382
Hans Kung and David Tracy, eds., The Paradigm Change in Theology: A Symposium for the Future
(Edinburgh: T&T Clark Ltd., 1989), 20-23.
383
Bosch, Transforming Mission, 366.

205
propounded by Stephen B. Bevans will be used in this study because they are

complementary and are open to different interpretations. 384

In the history of Christianity, we are dealing with a shift from evangelical paradigm to

a holistic mission paradigm. The concern in the past for winning converts and

planting local churches was shifted to the concern for meeting the need of the human

beings in their respective contexts, of course without totally rejecting the earlier

concern. This is the reason why humanization, liberation and preferential option for

the poor are used to explain the meaning and nature of mission. Thus churches were

to witness God in six continents declaring the whole world as mission field and this

marked the end of the view that mission was an enterprise of the Euro-American

churches.

For our purpose, we employ Stephen B. Bevans‟s contextual theological models

instead of traditional exclusive paradigm because models are complementary.

Moreover, contextual theological models critiques the old paradigms and at the same

time need to construct new models based on the reality of the time and the socio-

cultural factors directed by a new vision. This vision was formed by the revival as

explained in chapter three. These new theological models can consist of old

conversion and new type of conversion as synthesis is the guiding principle of

contextual models.

In response to the complex situation of the Mizos where identity crisis, economic

dependency, ecological crisis and social injustice become the theological agenda, the

384
Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 2002).

206
concern is to integrate both social transformation and inculturation of the Christian

gospel. Since no single paradigm is perfectly adequate for the construction of

theology, a theologian may be using two different models depending on the situation.

It is these concerns which compel the author to combine the synthetic and

postcolonial models both of which take the culture of the Mizo seriously and at the

same time emphasize social transformation and openness to a change for the good.

The choice of these models in no way means that all other models are irrelevant for

the Mizos. We need the older paradigm in order to appreciate the scope of the present

challenge and to be able really to understand the world today and the Christian

response to its predicament. We should also be aware of the fact that there is no rigid

boundary between various models. So, in future we may also use a new model which

is concern to build up new relationships with people of other faiths in a postcolonial

and pluralistic society.385

5. MISSION HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF MIZORAM:

The evangelistic and missionary concern of the Mizos has been evident since the

formation of the Mizo Presbytery in 1909 as a part of Khasi and Jantia Assembly.

Following the first Welsh missionary, D.E. Jones, the first Mizo Christians took upon

themselves the task of evangelising their fellow Mizos. All believers, including new

converts were enthusiastic about telling any person they came into contact with about

their new found faith and experiences. The early mission of the Presbyterian Church

of Mizoram was carried out by the Christians who laid down their lives for the cause

of the gospel. A separate Mission Committee was formed by the Mizo Presbyterian

Church only in 1953. A brief history of the mission work before the formation of
385
S.J. Samartha, „Dialogue in a Religiously Pluralistic Society‟ in Israel Selvanayagam, ed., The
Multi-Faith Context of India: Resources and Challenges for Christians (Bangalore: Board of
Theological Text book Programme of South Asia, 1994), 6.

207
Mission Committee may be helpful in setting the Mission Board‟s work in

perspective.

5.1. Voluntary mission work:

The earliest recorded gospel venture outside Mizoram by members of the Presbyterian

Church came in 1910. Three students at Aizawl Vanzika, Taitea and Savawma went

to Senvawn in Manipur in May, 1910. The following year 1911, Hrangvunga

migrated to Tripura, the neighbouring land of Mizoram to do mission work among the

people. In 1913, Mr. Thianga also migrated to Haflong in Assam for the sake of the

gospel.386 Mr. R. Dala, an elder in Aizawl also migrated to Manipur in 1913 to preach

the gospel among the Mizos. Individuals and families went as voluntary missionaries

and this was followed by the youth groups and the women‟s wings of the Presbyterian

Church, who gave support to mission and evangelism work. More volunteers raised

support which was channelled through the office of the Presbyterian Church. This

brief account shows very clearly that the Mizo Christians were imbued with the

missionary spirit from the earliest beginnings of the church in Mizoram.

5. 2. Mission becomes an integral activity of the church:

It will be recalled that the missionary movement in the west started with missionary

societies, which were organised mostly among different denominations and that the

churches gradually became aware that mission was their primary task. Likewise the

Mizo Presbyterian Church was constituted as an Assembly in 1924 and in its first

meeting held in January, 1925, the Assembly decided to launch mission work among

386
R. Lalauva, Mizoram Kohhrante Thiltih 1894-1992 (The Works of the Churches in Mizoram 1894-
1992) (Aizawl: Maranatha Printing Press, 1993), 13.

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the Langrawng people in Cachar, Assam. 387 Two evangelists were sent there during

the same year. The Assembly searched for more mission fields to work during the

subsequent years and considerations went as far as the hill areas in Burma. The

concern for evangelising the Bru and Chakma388 people inside Mizoram and

surrounding areas was first expressed in the Pastoral committee in 1937. 389 The Mizo

Presbyterian Church launched the Bru-Chakma evangelistic work in 1949 by sending

three missionaries. 390

5. 3. Formation of the Synod Mission Board (SMB):

In 1952, the Mizo Presbyterian Church became aware of the need for a better

organizational structure in their missionary activities which were looked after by the

Synod Standing Committee. With the increasing concern for mission, a separate

committee for mission called the Synod Mission Committee was formed in 1953

which was later transformed into the Synod Mission Board in 1961. Though the

immediate changes were few they were significant as for example, the Mission Board

became self-sufficient and was given a free hand to decide its own fund raising

method and make its own policy. The main task of the Mission Board has been

regulating and co-ordinating the services of the missionaries in various mission fields.

387
The Mizo Presbyterian Church Assembly Resolution no. 3 of 1925.
388
The Bru and Chakma were formerly known as Tuikuk and Takam respectively which stood for the
Mizos as a symbol of primitive and contemptuous culture. The people themselves consistently used
their present names which the Mizo missionaries started to use referring to them only from recent years
when they had gained better understanding of the people.
389
Liangkhaia, „Assembly Pastoral Committee‟ in Kristian Tlangau, September, 1943, 180-182.
390
Thanzawna, „Tuikuk leh Takam ramthar chanchin‟ in R. Lalauva, Ramthim Entu [Light of the
Mission](Aizawl: Maranatha Press, 1975) 49.

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5. 4. Policy of Synod Mission Board:

The Synod Mission Board had no organized policy or constitution of its own in the

beginning. It mainly depended upon the general policy of the General Assembly of

the Church and there was no specific demarcation between the Mission Board and the

Synod Executive Committee in the matter of policy making. The only printed material

referring to some basic policies of the Mission Board mixed with some pastoral

advice was „Ramthar Rawngbawltute Tanpuitu’ (Missionary Helper) written by V.L.

Zaithanga,391who later became the first full time secretary of the Synod Mission

Board. Moreover, the reason for the absence of a clearly stated policy can be found in

the nature of the Mizo cultural practices. The Christianised concept of

tlawmngaihna392 played an important role in the enterprises of the Mizos. The

tlawmngai missionaries did not consider the task they undertook to be defined by any

written constitution. It was simply a voluntary commitment to the task irrespective of

the reward they might receive. They worked under a conventional agreement to earn

what the Mission board considered to be sufficient. Again, the Mission department

underwent frequent structural changes and this gave little chance to formulate a

regular constitution policy. In addition differences of various mission fields also made

it difficult to formulate consistent mission policies.

It was only in 1984 the Synod Mission Board made its working policy in a written
393
form called the „Manual of Synod Mission Board‟. According to this Manual, the

391
V.L. Zaithanga, Ramthar Rawngbawltute Tanpuitu (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1973)
392
Putting it contextually, a person who possesses tlawmngaihna must be obedient and respectful to the
elders; courteous in dealing with the weak and the lowly; generous and hospitable to the poor, the
needy and the strangers; self-denying and self sacrificing at the opportune moments in favour of others;
ready to help those in distress; compassionate to a companion who falls sick while on journey or
becomes victims of wild beast in the hunt; heroic and resolute at war and in hunting; stoical in
suffering and in facing hardship under trying circumstances; and persevering in any worthwhile
undertaking however hard and daunting that might prove to be.
393
Lalfakzuala, „Synod Mission Board‟ in Vanlalchhuanawma, ed, Mizoram Presbyterian Church, 17.

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Mission Board had four mission policies to achieve its aims, such as to help and

supervise the missionary effort of the Mizo church, to look for an opportunity for

missionary work and to seek and create partnership with other mission agencies, to

mobilise the churches for missions and to provide teaching and training as the

changes in mission demand. The Mission Board‟s overall direction of the ministry

outlined as follows:

1) It will appoint members for the Board of Executive Committee from the

existing members of the Mission Board.

2) It will recommend constitution and by-law changes to the Synod Executive

committee.

3) It will approve the policies, plan and strategies of the Synod Mission

Board.

4) It will approve the projects to be undertaken by the Mission Board.

5) It will prepare financial budgets subject to the approval of Annual Synod

Meeting

6) It will make administrative arrangements necessary for the smooth running

of the mission work.

7) It will receive and approve reports from the Secretary, Synod Mission

Board.

In view of the present principles of world evangelisation, special emphasis is laid

upon partnership with churches and mission organisations to facilitate wider scope of

mission and evangelism work in different parts of the world. There is a vast expansion

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of mission fields in different parts of India. 394 Overseas missionaries were also sent in

collaboration with the Council for World Mission and other international mission

organisations.395 Today the Mission Board is still continuing to explore opportunities

to widen its horizons of mission work within India and neighbouring countries.

5. 6. Mission Strategies of the Synod Mission Board:

The Synod Mission Board has used different methods in communicating and

establishing the gospel among the various communities. The following methods were

extensively used in mission work.

a) Knowing the people and being with them:

Before choosing a place or people the Mission Board looked for a particular people,

assessing their geographical location, language, culture, political and economic life

and religious beliefs. Most of the Mizo missionaries went directly to the people and

stayed with them and learned the language and customs. They started by having

contact and interaction with the people. They tried to win the acceptance and

confidence of the people. Apart from imparting a new faith, the missionaries also

served the people in many ways. They taught the people various skills for industrial

works, carpentry, tailoring and improved agriculture methods. For example, the Mizo

missionaries in Assam, India have made efforts to teach better methods of agriculture

and gardening with new and improved seeds.

394
See Appendix IX.
395
See Appendix X.

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b) Establishing mission compound:

Like the western missionaries the Mizo missionaries usually developed mission

compounds wherever they went. They chose a place where they built their

headquarters. Making their base in such centres, they reached out to the people around

them. These compounds served as centres for new activities such as opening school,

meeting or chapel hall, and teaching vocational skills such as carpentry, tailoring and

weaving. Slowly the natives were attracted, some out of curiosity, others out of

interest for change and new life. Soon a church building was erected and regular

worship services were conducted. Slowly native Christians were train as evangelists

besides teaching the new converts about Christian life and conduct.

Modern missiologists criticize this mission compound approach as unrealistic, taking

away people from their actual environment, transmitting a colonial kind of church

organization where missionaries are looked upon as leaders, owners and actors in

everything. There is some truth in these accusations; mission compounds can create a

feeling of division and artificiality. But one should not fail to notice that there are

other things which necessitate this approach. Two reasons that support a mission

compound approach are continuation of the biblical pattern and the organizational and

administrative necessity.

In the Old Testament God‟s people had their particular centres or places from where

national activities, festivals or worships were conducted. Even their judges, prophets,

priests and kings had certain prominent places. Thus Shiloh, Bethel, Jerusalem were

places of importance in the OT. In the NT the early churches were associated with

cities while most of them evolved as house churches. Thus we have the Jerusalem

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church, Antioch church, Corinthian church, etc. The mission compound approach is

thus a continuation of the biblical pattern.396

c) Planting churches:

The main goal of the Mizo mission is establishing and planting churches. Churches

were planted where people were converted followed by preaching, teaching and

instruction of the word of God, all of which took place in those churches. When a

number of churches have been planted, they are taught to have a link through regular

interactions and visit to one another. This has also been done through annual

gatherings and conferences and this strengthens the solidarity and identity of the

newly churches.

The churches planted by the Mizo missionaries in different parts of India are

architecturally very foreign and very different from the architecture of the worship

places in India. While the churches are very beautiful and valuable to Christians, non-

Christians look at them with suspicion and contempt as if Christians are traitors and

agents of foreign countries. People like Devi Lal, former Deputy Prime Minister of

India urged Christians to go to Rome or America.397 The whole country was angered

by this kind of comment but I personally feel that there is a lot of truth in this

statement. The church in India is a church with a misleading identity. For a simple

non-Christian it is extremely difficult to understand what Indian Christianity is all

about. Look at the some of the names of the churches and missions in India. We have

396
Krickwin C. Marak, „Reflection on the Missiological Approaches to the Tribals of North East India‟
in Joseph Mattam and Krickwin C. Marak, eds., Missiological Approaches in India: Retrospect and
Prospect (Mumbai: St. Pauls, 1999), 182-183.
397
P. Moses Manohar, „Political Challenges and Mission Perspective‟ in W. S. Milton Jeganathan ed.,
Mission Paradigm in a New Millennium (Delhi: ISPCK, 2000), 312.

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Roman Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, American Baptist and Irish Presbyterian. It is very

important to establish and plant churches which have an Indian identity.

d) Establishing Christian Institutions:

Western missionaries established institutions wherever they went and this was an

unavoidable aspect of Christian mission in the colonial period. Following the footstep

of the western missionaries, the Mizo missionaries establish educational institutions in

their mission fields. The primary purpose was to enable the new converts to read the

Bible in their language and participate in worship services. Along with education

development of knowledge in various fields came along. Many more schools were

opened with the native converts as teachers who also acted as evangelists. The middle

schools were followed by high schools for both male and female. These mission

schools were meant to prepare the students for evangelism and were found to be more

effective than the institutions run by the government. For example, the three high

schools run by the Synod Mission Board namely Oriental High School, Silchar in

Assam, Rowland‟s Memorial High School, also in Assam and Loktak Christian

Model High School, Moirang in Manipur have a continuing good reputation because

of their excellent academic results every year.

6. MOTIVATING FACTORS FOR MISSION:

There could be various factors that might have motivated the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram to send out missionaries to different places in India and abroad. One may

wonder why Mizo Christians have been very enthusiastic about mission work and

what makes them to put such effort into this task. Mizos have drawn motivation for

mission from the Bible, although the Presbyterian Church is yet to have its official

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statement of a biblical theology of mission. This does not mean that the Mission

Board does not have a biblical basis for mission. As already discussed the Mizos have

an unwritten but smoothly agreed upon theology of mission. At this stage one has to

study their songs, messages, teachings and writings and even mission related actions

to understand the motivation for the mission and evangelism work.

6. 1. Biblical and Theological Factors:

One important thing in mission is the biblical-theological perspective that not only

motivates people but also determines the priority given in mission. Biblical and

theological factors that motivate Mizo Christian can be discussed as follows:

a) Obedience to Christ:

Mizo mission in general seems to have been influenced by the old paradigm in its

outreach and literal understanding of the so-called the great commission given by

Jesus in Matthew 28:19-20, „Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing

them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching to

observe that all I have commanded you; and lo I am with you always, to the close of

the age‟. This commitment to mission is clearly expressed in the report of the Review

Committee of Mission of the Presbyterian Church; 398 it can also be clearly seen in the

official record of the Synod Assembly meeting. 399

The Presbyterian Church therefore, is committed to mission as its responsibility, in

order to show obedience to Christ. The commitment is so intense that the church

398
Mizoram Presbyterian Church, Ramthar Rawngbawlna Enthatu Committee Report, 1996[Review
Committee of Mission] (Aizawl: Synod Mission Board, 1999), 2; 72nd Synod Book (Aizawl: Synod
Publication Board, 1996), 409.

216
extends its areas of operation, sending more missionaries and increasing its financial

contribution to mission. V.L. Zaithanga, a retired pastor, who helped and shaped the

Synod Mission Board stressed, that obedience to the great commission of Jesus Christ

is the core of missions. 400 Besides the missionary mandate biblical text, there are

theological reasons for people to be committed to mission.

b) Constrained by love and thanksgiving:

Another prominent motivation for mission is the love of God. R. Lalthanmawia,

former Executive Secretary, Mission department of the Presbyterian Church writes,

„Those who experienced God‟s love perceive others with the attitude of love. That

love leads and motivates one to deny himself/herself to be a blessing to others‟. 401

Many Mizos are involved in mission because of the impinging „constraints by the

love of Christ‟ (2 Cor. 5:14). Besides the love of Christ, K.Thanzauva, a Mizo

theologian strongly believes that the Mizo mission springs from gratitude and

thankfulness. He called it „doxological mission‟. 402 The Mizos are grateful to God for

all he had done for them and are therefore actively involved in mission to show their

gratitude to God for what he has done for them. They feel that what they received

freely must be given out freely as an expression of their gratitude to God.

400
V.L. Zaithanga,‟ Theology of Mission‟ in Aizawl Theological College, (Aizawl: Aizawl Theological
College, 1986), 12.
401
R.Lalthanmawia, „Theology of Mission‟ in Welsh Presbyterian Mission in Mizoram Centenary
Souvenir 1897-1997(Aizawl: Synod Literature and Publication Board, 1997), 40.
402
K. Thanzauva, „Mizo Kristiante leh mission‟ [Mizo Christians and mission] in R.L. Rinawma &
Tlanghmingthanga, eds., Kum 100 Kristian Zofate Hmabak [The future of 100 years Mizo Christians]
(Bangalore: Bangalore Mizo Christian Fellowship, 1995), 77. Hereafter cited as „K. Thanzauva, Mizo
leh Mission‟.

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c) Election:

The other motive is the election of the Mizo Christians for mission. The Mizos claim

that as God has chosen Israel out of many nations, so God chose the Mizos to

evangelize the people of India. With such feeling Mizos earnestly believe they have a

special responsibility to spread the gospel. Zohminga, a missionary of the Mizoram

Presbyterian Church narrates the rationale for this:

Mizos are the only tribe who claim to be one hundred percent Christian. The

Gospel came to us across the oceans, valleys and hills. We have grown so fast

and received so much of manifold blessings. Therefore we feel strongly that

God has chosen the Mizos to be his agent in spreading the gospel. 403

B.Thangchina, former General Secretary of the Mizoram Baptist Church asserted that

God has made the Mizos as a nation and chose them out of many nations to work for

the mission with manifold blessings. 404 Moreover, the Mizos considers themselves to

be „ambassadors‟ for Christ, quoting Paul who says, „we are ambassadors for Christ‟.

(1Cor.5:20). Lalchhuanliana, a retired pastor from the Presbyterian Church has

asserted that missionary work is doing the work of an ambassador for Christ.405

Though this concept of election and ambassador seems to be fruitful among the Mizo

people, it needs to be restrained as it could lead to the extent of claiming themselves

as God‟s only chosen people among other people.

403
Zohminga, Interviewed (Hyderabad: Mission Quarter, 27 September, 2009).
404
B.Thangchina, „Zoram Baptist mission rawngbawlna tlangpui‟[The mission work of the Zoram
Baptist Church] in ZBM Golden Jubilee Souvenir 1938-1989(Serkawn: Baptist Literature and
Publication Board, 1989), 20.
405
Lalchhuanliana, Nilai leh Beirual Thupui (Aizawl: Synod Literature and Publication Board, 1996),
110.

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d) Eschatological factor:

The Mizo Christians believe in the imminent coming of Jesus Christ and therefore

shouldered the responsibility of evangelizing the whole world before Jesus returns.

S.Lalkhuma, a retired missionary pastor says that Christian mission as understood by

the Mizos is to proclaim the good news to the whole world before Jesus comes

again. 406 This created in Mizo Christians an irresistible urgency to preach the gospel.

Lalsawma, a Mizo church leader, wrote that due to the driving sense of urgency,

many left home to preach the good news of salvation to others not only in Mizoram,

but also in the states of Tripura, Manipur and Assam. Like Paul of old, they felt

convinced that it was necessary for them to preach at home and abroad.407 The

conviction that gospel proclamation is urgent has not died out even after the whole

Mizo population has become Christian. Songs are still composed to impressed and

motivate people on the urgency and the need of mission. However, this concept could

easily lead people to other-worldly Christian thinking that Christians should not be

involved in this sinful world and there is therefore no point in tampering with the

structure of society because Jesus is coming at any moment.

e) Missionary Songs:

Mizos are very fond of singing and it is a part and parcel of their life. K.

Lalhmingliana, Lecturer in Mission studies, Aizawl Theological College claims that

Mizos sing mission. „The zeal for mission and evangelism has been nurtured and

inspired by missionary songs‟.408 Vanlalchhuanawma believes that music became not

only a part of worship service but also one of the Mizo churches‟ effective

instruments of revival and evangelization. Christianity gave music to the Mizo church
406
S.Lalkhuma, Mission Hna [The Mission Work] (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, 1986), 3.
407
Lalsawma, Revivals, 55.
408
K. Lalhmingliana, Interviewed, (Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 15 July, 2009).

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and the Mizo church gave life to Christianity through music. 409 Donna Storm

comments that „Mizos are singing people. This is perhaps their most outstanding and

distinctive characteristic. Significantly, recent Christian‟s compositions tend to be

evangelistic and missionary songs‟.410 Let us look at some of the recent missionary

songs written by the Mizos. Lalsangzuali Sailo, one of the most popular female

songwriters and soloists has composed ten missionary songs. One of the most popular

ones goes like this:

Let us labour with endurance and courage,

Obeying the voice of our lord

To send out more missionaries

Dedicate our prayers and offerings. .411

Here is another missionary song composed by Lianmanga, which would be helpful for

the understanding of the Mizo concept of Christian mission.

Lord, lover of Mizoram

You have freely given us the gospel,

So long we kept it to ourselves

We beseech you, forgive us.

Our duty is to proclaim the gospel

To give it out freely,

409
Vanlalchhuanawma, Synod Mission, 155.
410
Donna Strom, Wind, 73.
411
R. Lalrawna, ed., Lalsangzuali Sailo Hla Phuahte [Songs composed by Lalsangzuali Sailo] (Aizawl:
Joe and Ben Production, 1984), 147.

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 Till the whole wide world

Become the kingdom of God.

This song has quickly swept through the length and breadth of Mizoram. From this

song we can clearly observe the Mizo concept of Christian mission which is quite

traditional and triumphalistic. Thangzaliana, a Presbyterian Church missionary has

composed sixty one (61) songs of which twelve songs are missionary songs. One of

the most popular songs on mission is Pen ru, pen ru, Kristaa nun thar neite u412

(March forward those of you who have new life in Christ). Vanlalbela, Secretary,

Synod Mission Board commented that these missionary songs have been instrumental

in calling out many people as missionaries and also strengthened many existing

missionaries in many ways. 413 However, Mizos have been singing to motivate not

only their fellow Mizos inside Mizoram for mission, but various parts of the world.

What makes the Mizos to have this triumphalistic attitude in their mission? Can it be

the influence of missionaries of the colonial period? Or is it their triumphal

hermeneutics of biblical passages? The first one is very possible, while the second one

may not be ruled out. Taking the first one as true, one may assume that since the

western missionaries came under the banner of British colonial power, it is likely that

they had some influence on the Mizo Christians with regard to the idea of superiority

feeling, that the gospel and the missionaries are supposed to conquer all, and those

who carry the gospel will have victory over others. The Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram seems to understand herself as an agent that has been authorised by the

412
Kristian Hlabu, No.324 (Aizawl: Synod Publication Board, Fifth Edition, 1987), 350.
413
Vanlalbela, Interviewed (Aizawl: Synod Office, 19 August, 2009).

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commission of Jesus Christ who says, „all authority in heaven and on earth has been

given to me‟.

e) Spiritual revival factor:

As has been already discussed in the previous chapter, revival has a very prominent

place in the Mizo church. F.S. Downs, a church historian remarked, „the area in which

Christianity grew most rapidly at the beginning of the 20 th century was Mizoram‟.414

He attributed the rapid growth of the church in Mizoram to a series of revivals and

many Mizos are the fruit of spiritual revivals. Revival in Mizoram brought not only

rapid growth to the church but also enormous mission awareness among the Mizos. It

strengthened the believers and sowed the seed of a burden for proclaiming the gospel

to those who have not heard the gospel. 415 For instance, after the 1913 revival, a

number of Mizo Christians who were influenced by the revival movement visited

Manipur voluntarily with the purpose of evangelising those who are closely related to

them ethnically. This does not seems to be a rare case, of course for it is said to have

happened in different places that revival brings about both awareness of and interest

in missionary endeavours.416

Revival not only created mission awareness, it also affirmed the missionary call to

members of the church. Lalmuanpuia joined the SMB as missionary in 1986 said in

an interview that he attended the revival camp and could not ignore God‟s call during

414
F.S. Downs, Christianity in North East India (Delhi: ISPCK, 1983), 122.
415
V.L. Zawnga & C.L. Hminga, Revival and Social Reformation (Serkawn: Baptist Church of
Mizoram, 1995), 26.
416
V.L. Zawnga and Hrangkhuma, Revival and Social Mission, collected information about the revival
influences on interests in missions In China, Africa and other countries; See Phuvey Dozo, The Cross
Over Nangaland (New Delhi: Zuve and Ato Dozo,1992), 32.

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the revival camp. 417 Revival camp caused a shaking and sweeping revival movement

all over Mizoram during the late 1980‟s and early 1990‟s. Revival in Mizoram was

marked with ecstatic experiences with singing and dancing which at the same time

brought motivation for mission.

6.2. Ethno-political Identity factor:

No one would deny that the Mizos are identity conscious, for this has been reflected

in their mission ventures. Since the time the Presbyterian Church started mission

work, there seem to have the tendency to go first to the people with whom they think

they are related ethnically and culturally.

Vanlalchhuanawma, a Mizo Church historian strongly contends that the motive

behind the mission endeavour of the Mizo Christians was their love for their fellow

Mizos.418 He believed that Mizos have suffered identity confusion due to colonisation.

The Mizo church therefore, searches those people who are identical with them but

have dispersed in different places by political and geographical divisions. In other

words, Mizos want to share the gospel first with their fellow Mizos, who have not yet

received the gospel. Even if evangelisation is the basic reason for mission, the

secondary purpose is to find identical people in terms of racial origin and culture.

Only after they settled politically following the formation of Mizoram as one of the

district of India, Mizos made attempts to reach non-Mizos inside and outside

Mizoram. Even if they turned to evangelise non-Mizos, they still tried to find

similarities with them in terms of vocabularies, cultural practices and so on.

417
Lalmuanpuia, Interviewed, (Diphu: Mission Quarter, 23 July, 2009).
418
Vanlalchhuanawma, Interviewed, (Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 16 August, 2009).

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This assumption is understandable when one looks at the mission movements of the

Presbyterian Church of Mizoram. Wherever the church goes for evangelisation,

whether it is in other states of India, they seek first their fellow Mizos. This is true to

the Mizos in Burma (Myanmar). A project which gave much incentive to foreign

mission was the Chanchin Tha Dak (Gospel Mail), undertaken by the Young Mizo

Association (YMA). With the initiative of Robuanga, a zealous evangelist of

Champhai village in Mizoram, who appealed to Christians in Mizoram to contribute

books and any kind of school literature for the Mizos in Burma, who at that time had

nothing to read. Collections of used literature both religious and secular were put in

the wooden box called „chanchin tha dak’ (gospel Mail). These boxes were carried

through numbers of villages by young volunteers after the customary manner of

carrying the sick or corpse. Almost every village welcomed with revival singing and

dancing and donated articles varies widely since the people became more aware of the

poverty of their fellow Mizos in Burma. As a result of this project, the Presbyterian

Church was firmly established in Burma even till today. 419

One important element in the gospel mail project is the willingness to share with

others. Sharing one‟s resources with others is a Mizo cultural virtue. By practicing

sharing from the Mizo cultural perspective, the teaching of Jesus Christ is taking root

deep in the Mizo culture. The Mizo traditional way of sharing becomes meaningful

when it interacts with the gospel. In the light of this, the gospel mail teaches sharing

and being a blessing to others which is very much part of the Christian mission.

419
S. Nengzakhup, Amazing Missions (Bangalore: SAIACS, 1999), 47.

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6. 3. Socio-cultural factor:

In seeking various motivating factors for mission, one discerns that the Mizos are

culturally oriented to be concerned for the good of others and are at the same time

sharing oriented. In this section we will discuss these two characteristic of Mizo

cultural traditions that are found to have influenced their attitudes toward mission.

a) The Principle of sharing in relation to mission:

One outstanding feature of the pre-Christian traditional culture of the Mizo is found in

the principle of „sem sem dam dam, ei bil thi thi’ which means to generously share

with others whatever one has. The Mizos were taught to be kind to one another even

before the coming of the gospel. It was a common practice to help anybody who was

in difficulty in terms of food, ploughing and clearing of the field for harvest. Even the

khuangchawi feasts have a sharing motive because a lot of rice would be spilled in the

brewing of beer and in cooking. The leftovers were for the poor who would come and

collect it. Alwyn Roberts, former missionary to Mizoram believed that the influence

of the traditional culture as one of the factors for the growth of mission. He said that

the Mizos have a desire to give to those who do not have and those who are helpless,

and to tell those who have not heard the good news‟. 420

The Mizos not only shared their goods, but also news. One important source was the

Zawlbuk, the bachelor‟s dormitory where unmarried young men slept at night. Along

with all kinds of instructions and sport activities, they shared any news with one

another. When Christianity came, they carried on the principle of sharing and within a

short period they engaged themselves in spreading the gospel to people around them.

420
Alwyn Roberts, Interviewed, (Bangor, North Wales: 23 October, 2005).

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When a person hears and experiences the joy of the good news of Jesus Christ, the

first thing she/he did was to share others. In other words, the simple Mizos lived in a

sharing community in which the rich and poor had respect and mutual concern for one

another.

However, the readiness to share news does not go easily beyond one‟s own

community. While they are passionate to share the gospel to other Mizo clans

scattered in other parts of India, they relate in another way to the Meiteis in Manipur

and Karbis in Assam. While the Mizos have considerable zeal to share the good news

to others they have some reservations of making relationship with people who have

different cultural and social background. That may be the reason why the

Presbyterian Church of Mizoram delayed the mission work among the Hindus and

Muslims.

b) Ethical foundation of Mizo culture and mission:

Some Socio-cultural aspects contribute to help the church to be a dynamic mission

church. One aspect is tlawmngaihna, which literally means resistance to being helped

by others and helping others who are in need. It is an act of charity used in everyday

life. F. Hrangkhuma, a Mizo missiologist called it the most beautiful word for the

Mizos. Parents taught their children to be tlawmngai person. 421 K. Thanzauva,

another Mizo theologian says that tlawmngaihna is based on the principle of self

sacrifice and it is a social principle as well as the norm for good conduct of the people

421
F.Hrangkhuma, Mizoram Transformational Change: A study of the process and Nature of Mizo
Cultural Change and Factors that contributed to the Change, (Pasadena: PhD Dissertation, Fuller
Theological Seminary, 1989), 61. Hereafter cited as „Hrangkhuma, Mizoram Transformational
Change‟.

226
in the community. 422 This powerful concept of tlawmngaihna, Christianised in Mizo

society and culture played a vital part in the missionary enterprise of the Mizos. This

may be one of the most appealing dynamics, propelling the Mizos out to help those

who have never heard the gospel. In other words, we may say that tlawmngaihna is

communication in action. The whole work of Jesus as saviour-liberator can be seen as

the highest form of tlawmngaihna, which is „to serve but not to be served‟ and to

sacrifice one‟s life for others. It is the same tlawmngaihna that sends the Mizos to

preach the gospel and it is therefore, possible to say that tlawmngaihna is a motivating

principle for doing mission. This is true even today as many Mizo people visit

mission fields either to spend passion week or Christmas to do voluntary works for

the newly convert Christians.

However, one wonders how far this concept of selfless love and sacrifice to others is

being practised when it relates to non-Mizos. Will the Mizos, who had to defend their

respective village communities from intruders in pre-Christian era, be able to practice

the same tlawmngaihna in relation to people, who have different social and cultural

background? This is the significant and challenging question the Mizo Christians

should ask themselves in their mission with people of other faiths.

7. Financial Contribution for mission:

With the increase in mission operational areas and the number of Mizo missionaries

to 1449423 in 2008, a proportionate increase in mission fund is a prime necessity. The

zeal for Christian mission ultimately inspired Mizo Christians to give generously. The

422
K.Thanzauva, Theology of Community: Tribal Theology in the Making, (Aizawl: Mizo Theological
Conference, 1997), 120. Hereafter cited as „K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community‟.
423
Zoramthanga, „Engkim phut Chanchintha‟ [Good News demand everything] in Zoramthanga, ed.,
Ramthar [Mission], Aizawl: Ramthar Association, May, 2008. 1.

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importance of giving for Christian mission was expressed very well by one Mizo

pastor Lengluta in his song „ Pe rawh u tichuan pekin in awm ang’ (Give and you will

be given).

To save who are perishing in this world

God gave us his begotten son

For the redeemed but lost in sin may find the way of life

He calls us to do the ministry of giving.

Give then you will be given

You cannot out do God in giving

God never owes human beings

He is the source of blessing.

The zeal for mission and evangelism has been nurtured and inspired by the type of

song given above.

Secondly, there is a Mizo proverb, „sem sem dam dam, ei bil thi thi‟ meaning the

more you give the longer you live, the more you eat for yourself the sooner you die.

This means that if you are generous and give liberally, you will live longer but if you

are stingy you will die soon. With such a background, Mizo Christians give liberally

and cheerfully for the Lord especially for mission and evangelism work. When the

Mizos became Christians, their culturally ingrained giving was reinforced through the

teaching from the Bible by the missionaries and the Mizos as well. And the

establishment of the Synod Mission Board to handle mission funds in a proper way

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helps to increase contributions to the church mission funds. It is clear from the above

discussion that a large amount of money has been collected and spent on mission and

evangelism by the Presbyterian Church. The statistical chart given below provides a

good indication of the commitment of the Mizo Christians to mission.

Figure one: Mission contribution424

Year Contribution for mission

1932 Rupees. 26.00

1942 Rupees. 840.00

1952 Rupees. 758.00

1962 Rupees. 13,896.00

1972 Rupees. 143,203.00

1982 Rupees. 2,093,891.00

1992 Rupees. 30,165,066.00

2002 Rupees. 112,519,256.00

2007 Rupees. 205,547,900.00

From the above table, we noticed that the income was low in the years 1932, 1942 and

1952 which were before the formation of the Synod Mission Board; this was when the

individuals carried out most missionary activities and evangelism work. Since the

formation of the Synod Mission Board there has been a rapid growth in mission

funds. One of the reasons for the growth in mission funds may be that more and more

local churches support mission and evangelism work with generous and sacrificial

424
„Mission and Evangelism‟ [article online] available from http://www.mizoramsynod.org; Internet;
accessed; 10 January, 2008.

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giving. Zaithanga, the first Mission Board Secretary said that The Mission Board does

not seek to get financial help or support from outside the church; rather the main

source of the mission fund comes from the free will contribution of the members of

the local churches. Local churches are the backbone of the Synod Mission Board

mission and evangelism work.

It would be quite rare to find a regional mission board which spends more than 40%

of the total income of the church for mission and evangelism. The Presbyterian

Church of Mizoram spent 40% of its annual income for mission and evangelism work,

but they find it difficult to spend 10% of their income for social work to uplift its own

people. The dominant concept of Christian mission as crossing the geographical

boundaries of the state with the gospel to convert people of other faiths and to plant

churches hinders the church from seeing the needs of their own society. The

Presbyterian Church of Mizoram does not think that social transformation is one of

the concerns of Christian mission. Rather the common opinion is that first of all it is

the task of the government and the NGOs with foreign money. Why have the Mizos

developed this attitude? I suspect that it is due to the lopsided concept of Christian

mission.

Moreover, people are not concerned about how such a large amount is spent; they are

satisfied with the explanation that it is spent on mission and evangelistic work. I am

not suggesting here that the mission fund has been spending in improper way but we

need to explore how it has been utilised. As an example, let us look at the minutes of

Synod Executive Committee meeting held in November 5-9, 2007. In Resolution no.

63 there was a petition from the Mission Board to write off an amount of money

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which was lost in Barak mission field and Arunachal field respectively. 425 Misuse,

mismanagement and even misappropriation of funds may not be common in the Mizo

Church, but it is important to be very careful in handling finance. Moreover, many

churches in mission fields are dependent upon the grants made by the Mission Board

or some local churches in Mizoram. Even to repair a church building or a mission

schools, financial help has to come from the Mizo church. Easy money makes people

lazy and irresponsible. Some of the issues raised against the Christian community in

India are lack of financial accountability, over-dependence on foreign fund and lack

of sensitivity to people of other faiths.

8. CRITIQUE ON MISSION OF THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF

MIZORAM:

The old missionary movement in the west had a history which ran almost parallel with

the history of western colonisation. This came to an end as the process of colonisation

came to an end and the former colonial countries became independent one after

another. The ex-colonial countries then had an opportunity to think for the first time

of their own history and the churches also became independently responsible for their

own mission and evangelism work. The Presbyterian Church of Mizoram also took

up her mission work seriously and sent missionaries to different parts of India. It is

indeed good to see the church aware of its missionary obligation, while it is continues

to increase its effort in mission and evangelism work all these years. Starting from a

small corner in Mizoram and spreading out through several parts of north and central

India to other parts of the world. From a starting point of few hundred rupees, the

mission funds have grown to several millions of rupees, which is indeed a big leap for

425
Minute of the 214th Synod Executive Committee, November 5-9, 2007, Mizoram Presbyterian
Church, Aizawl, 36-37.

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the Presbyterian Church. Moreover, the mission and evangelism work creates a good

atmosphere of oneness among the members of the church. However, the Presbyterian

Church still works with the traditional understanding of mission and reveals little or

nothing of what has been taking place in the ecumenical movement since the New

Delhi WCC Assembly in 1961. The main aim is to make converts, produce numerical

growth of the members of the church and plant churches. F. Hrangkhuma has pointed

out that the main concept of the Mizo mission is mainly winning souls to the Lord and

planting churches. It is not the intention of the church to save from economic and

political injustices which are inflicted upon the society. He further commented that

though the Mizos often say that their mission is the extension of the kingdom of God,

yet it is always limited to saving souls and church planting. 426 If one closely looks at

the mission and evangelism work of the Presbyterian Church, much serious thought

and careful analysis seems to be needed.

Firstly, the missionary mandate given to Christians is „ Go therefore and make

disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and the Son and of

the Holy Spirit, teaching to observe all that I have commanded you; lo, I am with you

always, to the close of the age.‟ 427 Obedience to the great commission demands

willingness to enter into different cultures of the world and communicate the gospel

meaningfully. Therefore the church has been called to bear witness to God‟s love by

proclaiming Jesus Christ as the life of the world. Since Jesus Christ is the good news

to the whole world, it makes great impact in society and transforms it. But in reality

most of the time Christian mission focuses on proclamation alone and neglects

426
F. Hrangkhuma, „Mission lama Zofate hmasawnna tur‟ in Vanlalmuankima, K. Lalrammawia, eds.,
Chhuahtlang (Serampore: Serampore Mizo Fellowship, 1994-95), 70.
427
Matthew 28: 19-20.

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practical part. The Mizo missionaries forget to recognise that proclamation and

participation are two sides of the same coin of the gospel.

It is true that throughout the history of the Presbyterian Church, the main goal of

mission is proclamation of the gospel and making of disciples. In so doing, the modus

operandi is exclusive, triumphalistic and of a dominant nature. Pluralism whether

religious, cultural or ethnic is revealed as part of God‟s purpose in the biblical vision

of healing, wholeness and reconciliation, but the church is not obedient to this biblical

vision. It is a fact that most of the Christian mission songs and stories still continue to

stress the religious superiority complex and arrogance, perpetuate religious

fundamentalism and reduce the vision inherent in the gospel to a narrow parochialism.

If we look at the history and mission strategies of the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram, it can be seen that her mission aimed foremost at saving of the souls from

eternal damnation. The idea of saving souls is backed by a concept inspired by the

evolutionary theory that views the „cultured‟ western Christian race to be highly

superior to the „uncultured heathen‟ elsewhere. Mizo missionaries were sent,

therefore, not only to save the souls of the heathen from damnation, but also to

civilise them. Mission therefore, primarily aimed at the conversion of the heathen into

Christian race through which it expanded Christendom by inculcating its values

among the heathens. The driving force at the heart of this mission was the spirit of

crusade backed by the colonial expansionism. Various strategies were devised to

achieve the goal of conversion and the expansion of Christendom. This understanding

of mission continues to dominate a large number of „mission minded‟ churches

including the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram and individuals of today.

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Secondly, there seems to be a one sided emphasis on one aspect of the great

commission and that is baptism. A Christian recognises the place of baptism as a

sacrament signifying our unity with Jesus Christ. In a significant passage about

baptism Paul says, „do you not know that all of us who have been baptized into Christ

Jesus have been baptized into his death? Therefore we have been buried with him by

baptism into his death, so that just as Christ was raised from dead by the glory of the

Father, so we too might walk in newness of life.‟428 But the same Paul in another

context says, „Christ did not send me to baptize but to proclaim the gospel.‟ 429 Most

commentators say that Paul had to say that in a situation where divisions were

developing in the Corinthian church around the issue of baptism. The context makes it

sound quite likely.

No doubt we have accepted baptism as a sacrament being celebrated ever since the

inception of the church. And a verse like „he who believed and is baptised will be

saved‟ (Mark 16: 16) makes it appear to be a condition for salvation. Quite apart from

the possibility that this particular text may not have been in the original gospel, the

question is how we to understand this text? Did Jesus place baptism as a condition for

being saved on a par with faith? All through the pre-resurrection ministry of Jesus we

find him ascribing great value to faith, but he says not a word about baptism by way

of prescribing it as a sacrament to be administered. He sends out his disciples to

proclaim the gospel of the kingdom of God, but he does not ask them to baptize.

It is in the light of this understanding of faith and baptism the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram need to perhaps review the whole question of baptism, which has been

428
Romans 6:3-4.
429
I Corinthian 1:17.

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raised at different stages in the history of the church. Should baptism determine the

boundary of the church? There are at least two notable examples of the rejection of

baptism as a necessary sacrament, namely the Salvation Army and the Society of

Friends (Quakers).

The issue is not to be mixed up with any fear of persecution from Hindu

fundamentalists or religious fanatics. It is only an honest way of facing the

seriousness of costly discipleship. Do we not find Christians who believe that since

they are baptised and have become part of the body of Christ, they have now arrived

in the safety zone of salvation? They feel content that they are part of the community

destined for salvation and that whatever the quality of their life they have a claim with

God. If baptism has lost its original meaning and value, is there any point continuing

it? Or do we still believe we can regain its value as an appropriate sign of one‟s

becoming a member of the body of Christ in the true sense of the term? Is it humanly

possible to determine where the saving influence of the love of Christ stops? It is

Christ who draws people of different cultural and social background to himself.

Should the Presbyterian Church not then be open to the possibility of developing

fellowships of believers beyond the circle of baptised community, whose centre is still

the Lord Jesus Christ?

Thirdly, the Mizo missionaries firmly believe that the revelation in Jesus Christ is

final once and for all. This means that outside the institutional church there is no

revelation of God. There is no revelation in other religions. It is therefore not correct

to say that God is present among other peoples or religions and he works among them.

It is therefore the duty of a Mizo Christian to proclaim the gospel and bring people to

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faith in Jesus Christ. For the Mizo Christians, the revelation through Jesus Christ is

supreme and crucial. This fact can be highlighted in the reports of the Missionary

Annual Convention, as it reports replete with statement such as, „soul being added to

the church‟, winning non-Christians and bringing them into the Christian fold‟, and

„there being more land to be possessed and more soul to be won for the Lord‟. Thus

proclaiming the salvation in Jesus and adding people to the church constitutes the

mission of the Presbyterian Church.

It is rather unfortunate that Jesus call to the people to enter the kingdom of God has

been misconceived as entering the gates of the church. Much serious thought need to

be given to the missionary mandate of Jesus recorded in Mt. 28: 18-20. Did the

commission imply the formation of separate religious community with its creed, code

and labelled as Christian? Mission indeed is praying and working for the kingdom of

God on earth.430 It is important that the Presbyterian Church should broaden its

concept of mission, in which the kingdom of God would come into individual and

corporate life, through words and deeds.

Moreover, the Mizo concept of spirituality and its theological orientation is

otherworldly and not down to earth in character. This idea seems to be against the

very nature of Christian mission. As Hans Kung has pointed out, the church exists for

the world by being linked to the world. Of course it must not simply conform to the

world. But knowing as it does about the mercy of the one true God, who so loved the

world that he gave his only Son for it, the church has from the first be deeply linked

with the world. The church cannot shut itself off from the world in a ghetto and live a

430
Roger Gaikward, „Contextualization of Theological Education and Mission in North East India‟,
Seminar paper presented at Aizawl Theological College, Aizawl, 1994, 8.

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life of its own in splendid isolation. It must rather face up to the challenge of the

world, accept it, share in its hopes and anxieties, its venture and its failures. 431 As the

mission of Jesus is meant for the world, so is the mission of the Presbyterian Church

of Mizoram. It should never be limited within the four walls of the church.

Fourthly, one of the characteristics of the Mizo concept of mission is the saved and

the lost or a sender and receiver relationship. The sender possesses the full truth and

has the inescapable commission from God to bring this truth to the receiver. The

receiver is the heathen, who still walks in darkness and has no knowledge of truth.

His/her religion is the way of darkness. If he/she does not receive the truth he/she will

die in sin and lose eternal life. Hence we see the urgency of mission and evangelism.

I have often felt that Mizo Christians have made too easy for ourselves to preach

about salvation to people of other faiths saying that believe in Lord Jesus Christ and

you will be saved. And we presume that we possess that kind of faith whereby we are

already saved and they are all doomed to hell. When the Mizo Christians take up the

task of evangelism and approach the other people with such an attitude, are they not

really being guided by the notion that what really saves them is the fact of being

„Christians‟ and what leads others to judgement is the fact that they are „non-

Christians‟. Here saving faith get mixed up with religious identity. Also there could

be a kind of hidden arrogance in the very use of the term Christians and non-

Christians when used in the mission context. When we approach the people of other

religions, we generally go with the idea that since we belong to the Christian

community, we have already passed the test of salvation and have been qualified for

431
Hans Kung, The Church ( London: Burns & Oates Limited, 1969), 485-486.

237
eternal life. Those who still remain outside the baptised community of Christians are

liable to eternal punishment. Is it possible to think of salvation and judgement in

terms of religious identity?

In any case, who are those people for whom the Mizo Christians are so much

concerned, and for whom they feel a burden for their salvation? Are they the ones

who had never heard about Jesus Christ? That is certainly not the case, because a

large number of Hindus, Muslims and others know much more about Jesus Christ

than many of the Christians. Are they then the ones who have not come to a real

commitment to Christ and have no real faith? This again is not a legitimate reason for

crossing the religious boundary between Christians and others as though that

boundary is the boundary between salvation and judgement, for how many of the

Christians have such a real commitment and faith? In that case, can we look upon

them as unbelievers ready to be eternally damned unless they take baptism and join

the church? Surely the more educated and enlightened among the people of other

faiths would only laugh at the idea of Christians being saved. We ought to completely

agree with Lesslie Newbigin when he says that we must refuse to engage in

speculation about the ultimate salvation of other people. The question of eternal

salvation and judgement is not for speculation about the fate of other people; it is an

infinitely serious practical question addressed to me. 432

Fifthly, one of the most troubling features of the mission or the evangelistic witness

of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram is the sense of threat that is experienced by

those to whom the message is brought. On the one hand, the Mizo missionaries

432
Lesslie Newbigin, The Open Secret, An Introduction to Theology of Mission (London: SPCK, 1991)
88.

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announce that the motive of mission is the announcement of the gracious love of God

that has been made available to all humankind. They claim that in the life, death and

resurrection of Christ, they have God as a loving and forgiving God, who brings

healing and wholeness into the lives of the people, irrespective of whom they are and

their situation in life, spiritual and material. They also proclaim that in and through his

life and death, Jesus revealed to them that the challenge of participation in this love

involves a radical realignment of their lives, not only in relation to God but also in

relation to their neighbours. This is both good and challenging news and we are aware

that from the very beginning while many responded to the message, some opted to

become part of a community that became the bearers of, witnesses to, this good news

in word and in life.

However, on the other hand, people of other faiths do not experience Christian

mission as an activity that concentrates on healing and wholeness of life, but as one

that creates a rival community, by offering a salvation to those who would come into

it, which was claimed to be superior and which was not available elsewhere. Thus

people of other faiths perceive the motive of Christian mission as Stanley Samartha

has aptly put it, „as the extension of the church and the extinction of other faiths.‟ 433

The Christian preoccupation in the understanding of mission with the expansion of the

church, numbers of converts and the open attitude of measuring the success of

mission in terms of the numbers who have been won for Christ has been one of the

major problems of the Presbyterian Church. In much of Christian mission this

433
S. Wesley Ariarajah, „Mission in the Context of religions and Cultures‟, in Lalsangkima Pachuau,
ed., Ecumenical Missiology: Contemporary Trends, Issues and Themes, (Bangalore: United
Theological College, 2002), 193. Hereafter cited as „Ariarajah, Mission‟.

239
approach of counting is seen as both desirable and necessary, leading to the other

problem the Mizo Christians face in their practice of mission.

Finally, ever since the emphasis in mission moved to the creation of a community,

away from the task of healing of the nations and from disciplining them to the reign of

God and teaching them all that Jesus had taught about what leads to the Life and what

does not, the Christian mission fell into the trap of creating yet another religion. There

is of course nothing wrong with being a religion. But then we must accept that is what

we are. In Matthew‟s account of the Sermon on the Mount, what fascinates me on the

teaching on giving alms, praying or fasting so that „others may see‟ is Jesus comment

that „they have received their reward.‟ Of course one could give alms or pray or fast

so that others may see, and others would indeed be impressed, but insists that the

matter ends there.

Our understanding of mission also needs to make choices. If the creation of a

religious community is our primary goal of mission, we have had our reward. And

that reward, since Christianity is not a reform movement within any existing religions

in India, but is brought from outside, can come only by breaking up existing

community and not by transforming it. Thus, Christian mission as we understand and

practice today is experienced by other religious communities as that which disrupts

communities, that which breaks up communities and set up a rival community. 434 The

lack of success points to the silent resistance to it during colonial days. This is how

the powerless deal with the powerful. Today, with the change in power balance,

resistance is also organized and unsurprisingly Christians face resistance.

434
Ariarajah, Mission, 194.

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The traditional type of missionary approach adopted by the Mizo missionaries is seen

by others as one which exhibits an intolerant and arrogant attitude. Therefore Mizo

Christian missionaries are accused of engaging in proselytisation. The missionary

activities among the poor, the outcastes and the tribal in India under the pretext of

rendering social service and development are seen with suspicion and are strictly

forbidden in some areas like Bihar and Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh. The old „holier

than thou attitude‟ towards people of other faiths, the one way traffic in mission and

the proclamation as a monologue are no longer appreciated in India. Rethinking in

mission approach becomes indispensable and urgent for the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram today.

In this context, the mission of the Presbyterian Church should be re-oriented and

should not be understood only in terms of pastoral care. The mission of the church

must be understood in terms of witness to the world. The church is called to render to

do a loving service to humankind irrespective of culture and race, rich and poor, men

and women. Mission therefore, is sharing of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the good news

of the wholesomeness of life in its individual, social and cosmic dimensions. Again,

the mission of the Presbyterian Church must be concerned with all humanity, not only

its members. It is the mission of the church to go out and get involved in the struggle

for human dignity, freedom to break the fetters of various kinds of oppression and

exploitation. In short, the mission of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram must be

conceived as to be on the side of the oppressed, to be involved in their struggle for

justice, to be identified with the poor in the light of the gospel.

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I am also convinced that the most urgent need in the mission of the Presbyterian

Church of Mizoram today is contextualization. Contextualization broadens the

understanding of culture to include social, political, and economic questions. In this

way, culture is understood in a more dynamic and flexible ways, and is seen not as

closed and self contained, but as open and able to be enriched by an encounter with

other cultures and movements. Unless the church presents the gospel locally in ways

that connect to people‟s language, culture and worldview, the Presbyterian Church of

Mizoram will not succeed in her missionary endeavours.

9. CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, when we look back the analytical study of the mission of Presbyterian

Church of Mizoram, it can be said that the impact of western theology was so great

that it captured the whole theological norms of the Mizo Christians. Even shifts in the

theological thinking in other parts of the world have no effect on Mizo Christian

theology. The influences of western theology upon Mizo Christians can be stated as

follows.

Firstly, the imported western theology that dominated the Mizo Christian theology is

the pietistic evangelical paradigm, an exclusive theology which ignores the Mizo

world view, religious and traditional culture.435 As the Mizo religio-cultural was

neglected, it not only created alienation but also gave a superiority complex to the

Christians. Christianity is the only right religion and all other religions are false

religions and the adherents of other religions will go to hell as they are the idolaters.

They respect neither Hinduism nor Buddhism or any other religions except

435
K. Thanzauva, Mizo leh Mission, 178.

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Christianity. This spirit or mentality is cultivated in the Mizo Christianity.

Theologically speaking, dialogue between Christianity and other religions is seen as

unchristian and totally rejected. Further, the strategies of Mizo mission remain

converting and saving souls and church planting. Other forms of mission like

development projects and social works are not regarded as real mission at all. The

Mizo Christians inherited a western conservative evangelical theology which totally

neglected the values of the Mizo traditional religion, customs and cultural practices.

As a result almost all the values of the Mizo culture and traditions were marginalised

as secular and pagan. Therefore, Christianity inevitably takes the form of a western

image. 436

Secondly, from the analytical study of the Presbyterian mission, one can conclude that

the existing Mizo theology of mission interprets salvation in terms of „salvation of

souls‟. It is true that the Mizo theologian Tlanghmingthanga pointed out that even

today, the primary goal of Mizo mission is „only for the salvation of the souls, neither

including the whole person nor creation‟. 437 In fact, this dichotomized or dualistic

view of salvation separates human beings as having body and soul separately.

According to the Mizo traditional concept, human possess soul and body. Soul and

body are interdependent and inseparable. If they were separated, the person would

feel sick or ill or even die. The Mizo traditional view integrates body and soul and in

the light of this view, the existing Mizo theology of mission about the salvation must

be corrected. They must interpret salvation in terms of not only salvation of souls, but

with the body and all creation. This is very much in agreement with the biblical

concept of salvation which will bring social transformation in the society.

436
H. Vanlalauva, Theology in Mizo Thought 28-29.
437
Tlanghmingthanga, „Mizo Christian view of Eschatology‟ in Didakhe, vol. XXIV, No. 9, 1996, 10.

243
 Biblical salvation, therefore, is not for souls but for persons, for the natural

world (Rom. 8:19-23), and the universe. The blessings of salvation

encompass everything that gives life, including but not limited to divine life,

sanctifying grace, or beatific vision. It is not narrowly limited to the private

sphere of the individual person but also has to do with the social, political,

economic and other dimensions of life. 438

This new view enriches Mizo theology of mission and corrects the concept of

salvation to include the social, political, economic and other dimensions of life for the

transformation of the society here and now.

Thirdly, from the above discussion, we may conclude that the Mizo Christian

spiritualities tended to be exclusive. The more Mizo Christians maintained this

exclusive position, the better Christian they became. For example, to be an authentic

Christian means excluding other religious adherents as pagan and outside the

revelation of God. In fact, this position does not encourage peace and reconciliation in

a religious pluralistic context like India where the Presbyterian Church is doing

mission work. As Hindus are the majority and Christians are the minority, there exist

a religio-cultural inequality and discrimination. The experiences of the Mizo

Christians in this regard become theological issues and call for reflection. In this

context, the author suggests „dialogue‟ as the best way to deal with people of other

faiths. The Mizo church cannot be in mission without dialogue. Mizo spirituality must

go beyond the existing exclusive theological position. A new understanding of

438
Carlos H. Abesamis, „Salvation‟ in Virginia Fabella & R.S. Sugirtharajah, eds., The SCM
Dictionary of Third World Theologies (London: SCM Press, 2003), 181-182.

244
ecumenism, which unites all the religions through inter-faith dialogue, co-operation

and fellowship with the purpose of achieving love and creating peace, social

transformation, will generate deeper spirituality in the inter-faith context. This new

understanding, the new inclusive or pluralistic religio-spirituality will bring a change

in the existing Mizo theology of mission.

The western evangelical exclusive theology which the Mizos inherited from the

missionaries can not cope anymore with the present context with all its problems. The

time has come to develop Mizo theology of mission that would squarely address the

present reality by taking into account the social, economic and political problems for

the transformation of the society.

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 Chapter Five

TOWARDS A MIZO THEOLOGY OF MISSION

1. INTRODUCTION:

The idea of paradigm changes in theology which has been discussed in the previous

chapter is of importance and relevance for the understanding of Christian theology of

mission in our contemporary world. The primary purpose of this chapter is to create a

relevant contextual theology of mission for the Mizo church out of the interaction

between the gospel and the traditional cultural practices of the Mizos. This chapter

looks at the traditional concept of God-human-world relationship and its significance

for the construction of a contextual Mizo theology of mission for social

transformation. It will be helpful to discuss briefly the centrality of the God-human-

world relationship in Christian theology and how the gradual shift in the

understanding of God-human-world relationship has been taking place before

discussing the actual Mizo concept of God-human-world relationship. This will help

us to see the validity of the Mizo understanding of God-human-world relationship for

the formation of a Mizo theology of mission. We will also look at the significance of

this model for the eco-theology and the Mizo feminist theology of mission for the

transformation of the Mizo society. It is quite obvious that unless certain principles of

life or philosophy provide the basis, no society can practise such a communitarian

way of living. The author will look at the underlying principles of the Mizo

communitarian society called „tlawmngaihna’, its meaning, theological validity and

its significance for the transformation of the Mizo society towards the fullness and

realization of God-intended life for human community.

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2. GOD-HUMAN-WORLD RELATIONSHIP:

It will be helpful to discuss briefly the centrality of God-human-world relationship in

Christian theology and the gradual shift in the understanding of the God-human-

world relationship which has been taking place before discussing the actual Mizo

concept of God-human-world relationship. This will help us to see the validity of the

Mizo understanding of God-human-world relationship for a Mizo Christian theology

of mission. Since our world view or understanding of God-human-world relationship

affects our attitudes, the way we understand ourselves, the way we relate to other

people, and the way we relate to the environment, the earth and all other creatures, a

proper articulation of the Christian understanding of the God-human-world

relationship is important. A right understanding of God-human-world will not only

give us an appropriate vision of society, it will also inspire us to struggle to build a

new social order.

Theology itself may also be defined as a systematic and coherent articulation of how

the community of faith perceives God-human-world relationships, to assist the

community and individual believers to be more effectively engaged in the mission of

Jesus Christ for the realisation of the reign of God here and now. 439 For David Tracy,

„God-human-world‟ is an analogical imagination of an ordered relationship, which

expresses the inseparable inter-connection of these realities. It remains possible to

distinguish them, to understand them distinctively in order to unite these mutually

reinforcing realities into the similarities-in-difference, the ordered relationships of a

439
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 149.

247
systematic theology. 440 Theology is concerned to explain how people have perceived

and experienced the interrelationship of these three realities.

2.1. Theological debate on God-human-world Relationship:

In the history of Christian thought this relationship has been described basically in

two models – the transcendental model and the immanental model. These models

have been used to classify the two types of God-human-world relationship in the

history of religions as indicated below:

Transcendental model Immanental Model

Kathenotheism Animism

Henotheism Fethism

Deism Polytheism

Monotheism Dualism

Absolute Monotheism Pantheism

Though this distinction of two types is in some respects superficial, it reflects the

basic trends of religious thought in general and in Christian theology in particular.

The transcendental model insists that God is prior to, distinct from, and thus beyond

the world, not to be confused with anything in the world but has its being and comes

to the world from „beyond‟. Karl Barth summarises his early point of view as an

emphasis on God as „wholly other‟ breaking in upon us perpendicularly from above‟,

and on the „infinitive qualitative distinction‟ between God and man‟. 441 This concept

440
David Tracey, The Analogical Imagination: Christian Theology and the Culture of Pluralism
(London: SCM, 1981), 429-430.
441
Karl Barth, The Humanity of God (London: Collins, 1961), 39.

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of God „out there‟ or „up there‟ necessitates the „creator-creatures‟ or „master-servant‟

or monarchical model of God-human-world relationship.

J.A.T. Robinson argued that the idea of God „out there‟ or „up there‟ and „wholly

other‟ was overturned by the Copernican view, the spatial view of transcendence was

interpreted by Christians in a symbolic sense. The idea of God „out there‟ for

Robinson lost its significance. It is „a projection, an idol that can and should be torn

down‟.442 Increasingly theologians have either made the shift from a traditional

transcendental model to an immanental model or are at least having sought to

reconcile the two.

John Macquarrie reacted to the idea of the otherness of God and said that some

theologians have made it more difficult because they have assumed a concept of God

which separates him so absolutely from the created order that the gulf between can

never be bridged. If there is no affinity whatever between God and the human race, if

God is „wholly other‟ and separated from us by an „infinite qualitative‟ difference,

then it seems to me that the incarnation of Jesus Christ is not only an absolute

paradox but a sheer impossibility. 443 Between these two extreme poles of immanence

and transcendence of God, the Mizo vision of God-human-world relationship can also

provide an integrating concept, and may be used to develop an authentic Christian

doctrine of God-human-world relationship.

442
J.A.T. Robinson, Honest to God (London: SCM, 1963), 17, 41.
443
John Macquarrie, Jesus Christ in Modern Thought (London: SCM, 1990), 376.

249
2.2. The Mizo voice in the Debate:

In the Mizo traditional religious belief, there was an implicit idea of a Supreme Being

which anthropologists generally called the „high God‟ or Pathian, a God of all

humanity and goodness. 444 Apart from the Supreme Being, they also believed in the

existence of celestial beings that are more personal and more involved in human

affairs than the Supreme Being, who is remote. They also believe in both benevolent

and malevolent spirits. As they regarded the malevolent spirits to be the cause of their

suffering, they used to offer sacrifice to evil spirits. When the missionaries saw the

Mizos offering sacrifice to evil spirits for appeasement, they generally thought that

they were worshipping evil spirits. The idea of worshipping evil spirits seems to have

been developed by the observers, not the Mizo themselves. This observation of

anthropologists on tribal religion, which influenced the missionaries, is what the

Native Americans have called the legacy of Columbus. 445

Based on their cosmology or the science of the universe, heaven is above and the

earth below. They believed that the abode of the Supreme Being and all other

celestial beings is heaven, though they frequently visited human beings and lived with

them.446 Thus human beings who lived on earth saw their existence as living in the

midst of spirits and so they offered sacrifices to spirits. One may think that the Mizos

in reality worshipped the evil spirits, not the Supreme Being because they offered

sacrifices to the evil spirits. In the light of theodicy, the offering of sacrifices to evil

spirits may be explained as the solution to the problem of evil. How is the existence

of evil and suffering in the world consistent with the existence of a supreme God who

444
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 152.
445
Bartholomew Mella, „Indigenous Culture and Evangelization: Challenge for Liberating Mission‟,
International Review of Mission, Vol. 81, No. 324, October, 1992, 551-561.
446
Wati A., Longchar, The Traditional Tribal Worldview Modernity (Jorhat: N. Limala, 1995), 33-34.

250
is believed to be both omnipotent and good? Adherents of all religions faced this

question and pondered on the possible origin of evil.

The Hindus regarded karma (the deeds of human beings) as the root cause of evil

whereas Christians regarded sin as originating from Satan. The Mizos held

malevolent spirits responsible for all evils. For the Hindus it is the human being who

is responsible, whereas the Christians and the Mizos found the root cause not merely

as originating from human beings, but from a power beyond human control known as

Satan or evil spirits. The traditional Christian idea of Satan and the Mizo idea of evil

spirits have certain affinities. The Mizos, who experienced human limitations in their

day- to- day encounter with nature tried to protect themselves from misfortunes and

blamed malevolent spirits instead of blaming either God or human beings. In this way

they removed God from the picture. Ultimately, the Supreme God was seen as

uninvolved in human affairs.

The seeming transcendence of God in Mizo tradition was a product of the problem of

evil. In other respects, however, they believed in the immanence of God. The

Supreme Being was believed to be a compassionate and gracious God who acted not

coercively, but persuasively and lovingly. The Supreme Being was not a silent

spectator. The chant or invocation used by a Mizo priest during the sacrificial offering

to the guardian spirit of the clan or family given in chapter one reflected that the

Supreme God is acting through a particular guardian spirit who is believed to be

everywhere.

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The apparent hierarchy in the relationship of beings is sacred order rather than a

social ideal of gradation. The spirits, humans and animals are differentiated at the

existential level, but there is no real distinction in the Mizo cosmology that may

convey the ontological separateness between the Supreme Being, the spirits and

human beings. Perhaps the best way to grasp the differentiation is to think of the

functional aspects of interrelatedness of all existing things and beings in the larger

context of the cosmic process. 447 In spite of functional differences, God-human-world

formed a community in which they are interrelated, it is therefore, quite legitimate to

describe this relationship as a „community model of relationship‟.

3. MODEL OF GOD-HUMAN-WORLD RELATIONSHIP:

It is quite clear from the preceding discussion that the Mizo concept of God-human-

world relationship is derived neither from strict ideas of transcendence nor

immanence, nor monotheism nor polytheism. None of these categories reflects

adequately the Mizo understanding of God-human-world relationship. A Community

model seems to be the most appropriate model to express the Mizo concept of God-

human-world relationship. In the Mizo understanding God is never perceived as

wholly other but as the one who participates in the life of the world. David

Hasselgrave rightly notes that the tribal worldview transcends the sacred-secular

dichotomy peculiar to western thinking, and brings together in a single system, nature

and super nature, space and time, this world and the other world. Thus unity is not

that of monism or pantheism, however, it is rather a unity of continuance in which

boundaries between deities, spirits, animals, humans and natural phenomena are more

447
B. Saraswati, Tribal Thought and Culture (New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1991), 17.

252
or less obscure and shifting.448 If we are going to explain this complex relationship

with the help of a model, it is a community model of God-human-world relationship

which would certainly provide the best explanation.

A brief discussion of three different models may help to further clarify the meaning of

a community model of God-human-world relationship.

3.1. Monarchical or Transcendental model:

This model maintains a sharp distinction between God and all other creatures. The

idea of extreme transcendence of God is developed from the monotheistic concept of

God which is a belief that there is but one Supreme Being, who is personal and moral

and who seeks a total and unqualified response from human creatures.449 It was a

great achievement on the part of the people of Israel to acknowledge God as distinct

and different from all other creatures, over against pantheism and polytheism which

dominated the world of religion. This idea of transcendence was continued and

developed by Christianity to the extent of making God „wholly other‟, living „out

there‟. In the portrayal of God‟s relation to the world, the dominant western historical

model has been that of the absolute monarch ruling over his kingdom. 450In this

model, the relationship of God-human-world is made possible by mediators such as

prophets, priest and finally Jesus Christ. A group of theologians brought together by

WCC to discuss the theme of Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation in Canberra

Assembly expressed the problem of this model. „As we think about the way to

express the relationship of God to the world in our time, we realise that metaphors

448
David J. Hasselgrave, Communicating Christ Cross Culturally (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing
House, 1978), 149.
449
John Hick, Philosophy of Religion (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1963), 3.
450
Ian G. Barbour, Myths, Models and Paradigms: The Nature of Scientific and Religious Language
(London: SCM, 1974), 156.

253
such as king and lord limit God‟s activity to the human sphere; moreover, these

metaphors suggest that God is external to the world and distant from it‟. 451 God was

thought to be worldless and accordingly, the world could be conceived as godless.

Since this concept of God is considered partly responsible for the ecological crisis

today, J. Moltmann insisted that „the first change we must make is to our image of

God, because the way we think about God is also the way we think about ourselves

and nature.‟452

3.2. Organic or Immanental Model:

The organic model of God-human-world relationship emphasises the inter-

connectedness of all else and uses the self-body analogy to explain the nature of this

relationship. The relationship of the body and self is transposed to the relationship of

God as the self of the universe which is his body. From this perspective, an organic

model seems to be the most appropriate to express both the immanence of God in the

entire creation as well as God‟s transcendence of it. An organic model means that

humans and other living creatures live together within the body; they are part of each

other and can in no way exist separately. 453 While the interconnectedness of all

creatures and God is profoundly expressed, the model seems inadequate to explain

the doctrine of sin, human freedom and uniqueness. Does God also become sinful

along with human beings as a part of the body? How do we explain human

responsibility and freedom within the same organ? These are the fundamental

questions which cannot be convincingly explained by the organic model. Some of

451
Charles Birch, William Eakin and Jay B. McDaniel, eds., Liberating Life: Contemporary
Approaches to Ecological Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 1990), 276, quoted in K. Thanzauva,
Theology of Community, 158. Hereafter cited as „Charles Birch, Liberating Life.‟
452
Jurgen Moltmann, „Reconciliation with Nature‟ in Pacifica, Vol. 5, 1992, 304, quoted in K.
Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 159.
453
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 159.

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these problems can be clearly seen in the WCC‟s convention in Seoul (1990). It

sounds to many observers that the relationship of human beings and fellow creatures

is romanticised. Genuine agreement is possible only between partners who are

capable of entering into reciprocal relationship.

3.3. Communitarian Model:

Like the organic model, the communitarian model affirms the common origin and

interconnectedness of all creation, but unlike the organic model it maintains the

distinctive identities of all creation and acknowledges the unique position of humans

in the created order. The uniqueness of human beings is certainly not an ontological

discontinuity, but by degrees of development in the evolutionary process in which

humans become more capable, rational, free and powerful. This unique condition of

human beings is expressed by the priestly writers as endowed with the image of

God.454 It is important for human beings to be constantly aware of the fact that we

were a part of the larger living community and unable to exist in isolation from other

creatures. The concept of human community, the feeling of oneness, a sense of

identity is widened to include all creatures. In this community, God is seen as the

originator and ground of community. Thus, the act of creation is regarded not as what

a potter or an artist does, but as bringing forth as the mother does. This means that the

universe including our earth with all its creatures lives and moves and has its being in

God. Creation is an event in time, a dynamic of becoming, from which human beings

emerge and in which they find themselves involved. They are therefore, creatures

454
Ibid, 160.

255
among other creatures in the community of creation. Many of these ideas have been

helpfully developed in conjunction with feminist approaches to theology. 455

3. 4. Significance for Mizo Theology of Mission:

We now turn to what positive contributions this model may make as part of the basis

for social transformation. Primarily, the „Communitarian model of God‟ means for

the Mizo Christians, returning to their roots or original understanding of God-human-

world relationship. The idea of „other worldliness of god‟ and the „dichotomistic

concept of reality‟ were not original Mizo concepts. They were inherited from the

western missionaries who were the product of the evangelical revival in Europe. The

theological seeds that they sowed in Mizoram were of the conservative evangelical

theology which emphasized the transcendency of God, verbal inspiration of the Bible

and salvation of souls for life after death. Eventually this has made Christians other-

worldly, maintaining sharp distinctions between the soul and the body, secular and

religious. It is important to explain these problems briefly before exploring the

theological significance of the community model of the God-human-world

relationship for social transformation.

The problem of a dichotomistic concept of reality, developed mainly among the

educated or enlightened people, was that their religious conviction and moral teaching

are meant only for the purpose of religion, they had nothing to do with their day-to-

day life. This dualistic concept of reality, separation of secular and religious, body

and soul is partly responsible for the present rampant corruption and increasing social

evils in the Mizo society. This theology, although it was inherited from missionaries

455
Sally McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological Nuclear Age (London: SCM, 1987).
Sally McFague has made significant contribution in this book.

256
gained momentum since 1960‟s and penetrated the whole Christian community in

Mizoram. Since saving the soul for life after death was the ultimate concern, they

stressed the „born again‟ experience in order to be saved.

Unconsciously or consciously, Luther‟s „two-kingdoms‟ theory, developed from

Augustine‟s idea of „two cities,‟ was adopted and has become a lasting, dominant

social theology since the time of Christian missionaries till today. While this is a

social political necessity, many Christians neither see the need nor make efforts to

bring Christian values to bear upon the social system. They lived with a dichotomistic

view of reality.

While the imported theology, to a certain extent, is responsible for the orientation of

the Mizo Christians towards other worldliness, we have also to look into the history

of Mizo Christianity itself. It is quite probable that the hardship and frustration of the

early Christians in Mizoram resulted in other worldliness. It is interesting to note how

the traditional celebration of life turned out to be a longing for eschatological

celebration. For example, the Mizo communitarian society celebrated life together not

only in the many festivals but also in their daily work and leisure time. When they

were converted to Christianity, they gave up drinking rice beer, abstained from

participation in the festivals and became a lonely, isolated, marginalised minority

group. When the revival movement came, the frustration and hardship turned into a

hope for greater and everlasting celebration in heaven. The gift of the Holy Spirit was

perceived as a foretaste of a celebration to come, accordingly heaven was perceived

257
as a place of endless congregation and celebration. 456 The problem with this hope is

its „other worldliness‟ a consequent mystification of life‟s problems and escapism

from life struggle among a common people. The hope of heaven has to a certain

extent, made them irresponsible and escapists avoiding struggle for the better society.

The understanding of God-human-world as belonging to one community helps the

Mizo Christians to rediscover a holistic concept of reality from their tradition. Such a

concept would be in contrast to the dominant theology in Mizoram, with its sharp

distinction between secular and religious. It would provide a theological basis to

inspire and orient the churches towards a social involvement to bring about social

change. A holistic concept of reality emphasises the inter-relatedness of all things,

against dualism. The significance for social transformation is primarily a theological

re-orientation of the churches to be more realistic and subsequently be inclusive in

their mission. A holistic concept of reality is a call to Mizo Christians to be more

inclusive and balanced in their theological articulation and actual mission and

evangelism work.

This would lead the Mizo Christians to broaden the circle of salvation, from salvation

of individual souls for life after death to an understanding of cosmic salvation – the

total salvation of human beings with their body, soul, spirit, society and all other

creatures as well, here and now and in the future. Along this line, Gustavo Gutierrez

has written, „Salvation is not something other worldly, in regard to which the present

life is merely a test. Salvation is something which embraces all human reality;

456
This hypothesis is supported by many songs and hymns composed by the Mizo Christians in the
early period.

258
transform it to its fullness in Christ.‟457 Paulos Mar Gregorios said that human

redemption can be understood only as an integral part of the redemption of the whole

creation.458 Accordingly, history will be regarded as „one‟. There is no separate

history of salvation and profane history. There is only one human destiny, irreversibly

assumed by Christ, the Lord of history. The idea of singular history rejects the

monopoly of the historical process by the privileged group of society, putting the vast

majority of the people on the underside of history. The concern of Christian mission

for the Mizo church also has to be broadened from conversion for saving souls to

include liberation of the total human being, society and nature from the bondage of

sin. Above all, it implies reconstruction of the Mizo theology of mission in order to

re-orient the Mizo churches towards a holistic approach in mission and evangelism.

4. SIGNIFICANCE FOR ECO –THEOLOGY OF MISSION:

The Mizo concept of „God-human-world relationship‟ is making a significant

contribution to the emerging ecological theology. In the Mizo concept of this

relationship there is no place for an arrogant approach to nature, to treat land and its

creatures as mere object of human use. The land and all creatures are sacred, a holy

temple, the self expression of God and above all it is part of their lives. Nirmal Minz,

an Indian Tribal theologian rightly observed,

Tribal life is based and built upon a vision of human existence in which

they are aware that land, forest and the country they occupy are the gifts of

God. Therefore man, nature, spirits continue as the basic texture of

457
Gustavo Gutierrez, Theology of Liberation, History, Politics and Salvation (London: SCM
Press,1974, reprinted; London: SCM Press, 2001), 151.
458
Paulos Mar Gregorios, „New Testament Foundations for Understanding of the Creation‟ in Charles
Birch, Liberating Life, 39.

259
 existence, as what makes man truly human. Balance and harmony of man-

nature-spirits are essential for man to continue to remain human. Any

imbalance between and among these initiates a dehumanising process and

hence this harmony has to be protected and promoted from generation to

generation.459

Seeing the urgency of the environmental crisis, it is important to rediscover and

revitalise the traditional Mizo concept of God-human-world relationship and utilise it

as a theological basis for the liberation of life as a whole. Since the issue of land is so

fundamental in the Mizo life, we will first deal with the Mizo traditional concept of

land.

4.1. The Mizo traditional concept of Land:

a) Land is a Temple:

Land, for the Mizos is sacred because their religion does not centre on a temple or a

church or a particular shrine, but the whole earth is sacred and holy, animated by

spirits. For them the whole earth is a temple where they worship God. The Mizos

performed several ceremonies such as purification of forest at the beginning of a

jungle clearing, purification of soil after burning of the jhums, dedication of fields to

the Supreme Being, thanksgiving and harvest festivals.460 Here most of the

ceremonies are directed by the process of jhum cultivation, and therefore directly

connected with the fields. Since the Mizo life depends heavily upon the fertility of the

soil, they developed respect for the earth. They invoke the soil to be kind, fertile and

generous as they work and sow seeds on it. A religious rite was performed to the
459
Nirmal Minz, „Primal Religion‟s Perspective on Ecology‟ in Daniel D. Chetti, ed., Ecology and
Development (Madras: Gurukul Theological College and Research Institute, 1991), 49.
460
Lalrinawma, Mizo Ethos, 138-148.

260
Supreme Being that the soil may become more fertile and fruitful. As the activities of

the sacrifice were taking place on the ground, the earth for the Mizo people is a

temple, the dwelling place of God.461

b) Land is Life:

For the Mizo people, land is a living entity endowed with spirits. Because of this

concept of land, Mizos were described by the missionaries as animists. From the

Mizo perspective, this attitude expresses recognition of the value, power and validity

of the land. Land for them is sacred, a temple in which they worship God. In a non-

literate society, land is their scripture through which they read about the spirits and

God and create myths and songs. For the Mizo people, land is life and no land would

mean no life. It is in the light of this that we are able to gauge the depth of

degradation and deprivation in the tribal people‟s experience in the face of growing

land-alienation in India in the name of development. For a people who experience

God in and through their relationship with the land, theology cannot make light of

this legitimate yearning. 462

c) Community ownership of land:

The tribal theology of land regards community as the only legitimate custodian of the

land, because land is the gift of God. „The earth is the Lord‟s and the fullness thereof,

the world and those who dwell therein‟ (Ps. 24:1).463 The exclusive ownership by

God implies for the Mizo people that land equally belongs to all with equal rights and

the freedom to live in it, and that no human being can claim it exclusively for

461
James Dokhuma, Hmanlai Mizo, 65-67.
462
Mathew George, „Sources of Tribal Theology‟ in Mission Today, Vol. IV, Oct- Dec, 2002, 290-300.
463
Geoffrey R. Lilburne, A Sense of Place: A Christian Theology of the Land (Nashville: Abingdon
Press, 1989), 3, quoted in A. Wati Longchar, Tribal Theology: Issue, Method and Perspective (Jorhat:
Tribal Study Centre, 2000). Hereafter cited as „Lilburne, Theology of the Land‟.

261
themselves nor can they sell it as though , it is their own property. So even though the

people own land, they do so only within the greater recognition that all land belongs

to God. People‟s perception of land as the gift of and owned by God is the basis of

the community‟s claim of a legitimate ownership of land, because God is the God of

the people. The resources of the earth are for the benefit of all. Private ownership may

be an appropriate way of administering those resources for certain cultures, but

private ownership means stewardship or trusteeship, not the right to exploit the land

and deprive others of access to land. Private ownership has to be subordinate to

common use. 464

The major problem with the Mizo people today is that, as a result of frustration with

the existing system, 465 there has been a dangerous transition from constructive to

destructive dependence on forests. The fundamental problem is that the government

officials who, living in a distant place and having no knowledge and love of the land

of the village are controlling the land from their office table. The village council,

mediator between the people and the government is a political body which has

become a destructive instrument, for it is no longer accountable to the community but

to government. In the context of these problems, the following elements seems

essential in the process of social transformation – community ownership, recognition

of land as the people‟s place and their life and the recognition that land rights are

human rights.

464
Leonard Weber, „Land Use Ethics: The Social Responsibility of Ownership‟ in Bernard F. Evans
and Gregory D. Cusack eds., Theology of the Land (Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1987), 30.
465
The present land system in Mizoram is that all lands are now considered to be government land.
Ownership of land is classified as follows: Temporary pass is a licence issued for a certain period of
time and implies no right of transfer or sale. Periodical patta is a licence to use the land for the period
of a lease. The land can be used in any manner the owner likes and if the land is required for public
purpose, the government may take it back without any compensation. Land Settlement Certificate
confers on the owner a permanent heritable land and transferable right of use. If the government wants
to get it back for public purpose, due compensation is required to be paid. People enjoy those rights
which are recognized by the government.

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Theological affirmation of community ownership is made here not merely because it

is a traditional practice of the Mizo people. It is rather, an attempt to restore the sense

of communal ownership and to protect people from further alienation and

exploitation.

d) Land is a place:

Land is not merely a space; it is a place which gives identity to the community.

„Space‟ means an arena of freedom, without coercion or accountability, free of

pressures and void of authority, freedom from constraint and absence of

responsibility. „Place‟ by contrast, connotes „home‟ and is bound up with a sense of

belonging, a story which conveys an identity, a basis for participating in history. 466

As noted earlier, the Mizos until recently identified themselves with their village. A

Mizo stranger, rather than telling his/her name tells the name of the village. Since the

land holds the community together, there is no genuine community without

communal ownership of land. Since the community owns the land, individual

personal identity is subordinated to community identity. But as we have seen, a

change of land system shattered the tribal sense of belonging and eventually created

identity crisis. Alienation of the tribal land means alienation of their culture,

personhood and sense of place.

4. 2. Significance for Eco-theology from Mizo Perspective:

It was observed that the Mizo society is in the initial stage of transition from a

subsistence economy to a market economy. It is evident that it is a difficult process

466
Walter Brueggemann, The Land: Place as Gift, Promise, and Challenge in Biblical Faith
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 5.

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for the Mizo community to switch over to a market economy since they have to

compete with those who have been living with a market economy for more than a

century. While this transition is an imperative result of development, it is currently

worsening the position of the villagers and the common people, which directly relates

to the loss of easy access to their land, and this, requires serious reconsideration of the

land system in Mizoram. It is quite evident from the villagers and common people in

the towns that much of the land traditionally owned by the community has been

transferred to individual property. Many of the land owners are not members of the

community; they are living in the city or towns. The gradual process of

latifundialization in Mizoram began with Indian independence, when community land

was transferred to the government, then was intensified with the dawn of

development, particularly with the introduction of the New Land Use Policy in

1990.467

The lands which were owned by the community and freely used by all members of

the community have now passed into the hands of the rich and the privileged people.

The common people have become landless, victimised by the new land system and

life has become harder and harder for them. Because of this system people began to

lose their sense of belonging to the land and developed dependent and destructive

uses of the land. Land which was traditionally never been regarded as a commodity is

increasingly treated as a private property which can be owned by legal fiction and

used as one likes.

467
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 189.

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To meet this challenge, the traditional concept of land must be theologically

rediscovered and reclaimed to make the local community responsible for their land.

Theology certainly does not provide an alternative system of land tenure but may

enlighten the people to evaluate critically and challenge the existing system. It is also

important to understand that the root cause of the present systems and practices in the

Mizo society is the modern mindset that spawned and rationalised the existing

system. While legal reform is important and necessary, it is not the whole solution to

the problems. In a region where Christians form 86% of population, a Christian

theology of mission has an important role to enlighten, orient, inspire and enable the

people to understand, challenge and seek appropriate changes to the system.

The Mizo church needs to reflect on how far it has helped in perpetuating social and

ecological injustice in the contemporary society. It must challenge the sinful greed

that has led to wanton exploitation of earth‟s resources and pollution of its land, water

and air. The liberating message of Jesus Christ is not restricted to human beings

alone, but to all God‟s creation, for God is present in the whole world. As Jurgen

Moltmann affirms:

An ecological doctrine of creation implies a new kind of thinking about

God. The centre of this thinking is no longer the distinction between God

and the world. The centre is the recognition of the presence of God in the

world and the presence of the world in God.468

468
Jurgen Moltmann, God in Creation: An Ecological Doctrine of Creation (London: SCM Press,
1985), 13.

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This calls for a new sensitivity in our relationship as human beings to the rest of

creation. We are not only intricately related to the other elements of creation, but we

are profoundly dependent on them for survival. Every creature is in community with

every other creature. Our concept of stewardship of the earth must help us move away

from our sense of owning the earth and doing with it as we please. Instead, we

Christians are called to be brothers and sisters of nature since we are united to the

nature in our origin from the same mother earth as well as the same father God.

At this juncture, a rediscovery of the inter-relatedness of the whole creation or

creation-centred theology from the Mizo perspective is imperative. As already

mentioned above, the land or creation occupies a very centre place in the Mizo world

view. Their ethics, religion, culture, politics, identity and other social patterns of the

people are perceived in relation to creation or land. Poverty, oppression, ethnic

conflict and identity issues cannot be understood without creation. Justice to land or

creation is the key to liberation and human dignity. Commitment and dedication to the

harmony of creation spring forth in love, care and acceptance. When there is justice in

the land, the fields and forests and every living things will dance and sing for joy (Ps.

96:11-12). Thus an awareness of being with one with the whole creation is the

spiritual foundation of the Mizo people. By affirmation of the creation as the central

point of reference in Mizo Christian theology, we conceive our vision of God-world-

human relationship in a new and distinct way.

Firstly, the Mizos conceive of God as the one who is organically related to the whole

creation. Though God is a distinct and transcendental being, yet God is an integral

part of creation. Without the land and creation, God ceases to be God and becomes

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inactive. This idea rules out a conception of God as monarch who ruled the world

from above imposing his divine laws. But God is immanent in the world that comes

and drinks, speaks and is revealed to us as a person and even through animals, trees,

wind and so forth. This helps the Mizos to affirm God‟s creativity, his active

involvement in the whole earth, but is not limited to a rational being alone. Since God

is an integral part of creation, God suffers pain when creation suffers, because the

Mizos conceive of God as one who comes out from the soil not from above.

Moreover, the land belongs to God, the creator and humans are simply the stewards.

Hence the ownership of land by the community or individual has to be understood

within the greater recognition that the land belongs to the Supreme Being. Thus the

land equally belongs to all with equal rights and freedom to live in it and should be

shared among the members of the community. Sharing of the ecosystem should be at

all levels: at the level of a local community, among the states of the same country or

even among different countries. The Mizos‟ eagerness to share is noteworthy,

especially in the context of what we are trying to emphasize. Mathew George writes:

The most beautiful tribal virtue is an eagerness to share. Whatever can be

spared is to be shared. In traditional tribal society, the season of abundance

is the season after harvest. There is no shortage of generosity during this

period. The feasts and celebrations of this season are indicative of the

eagerness of the individual to share with the community whatever he has in

surplus or whatever he thinks he has in surplus. 469

469
Mathew George „Sources of Tribal Theology‟ in Mission Today Vol. IV, Oct- Dec, 2000, (Shillong:
Vendrame Institute), 290-300.

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The Mizo approach to land economy based on highly egalitarian principles can be of

immense help in the Mizo church‟s attempt to usher in the kingdom of God based on

justice and equality.

Secondly, this understanding of God leads the people to conceive of Christ in a new

and distinct way. Christ is no longer conceived as the one who works only in the

hearts of the believers. But humans are all challenged to see Christ as the incarnate

one, who is organically related to the total ecosystem. Jesus shares his being with the

whole created order. Since Jesus Christ is an integral part of creation, all parts of

creation are now reconciled to Christ. The incarnation of God in Jesus represents

God‟s entry into finite space. It marks the consecration of all the hope for a land of

peace, security and plenty.470 For the Mizos, the whole land is sacred and holy; it is a

temple where they worship the Lord of creation Jesus Christ.

Thirdly, this understanding also helps the Mizos to conceive of the work of the Holy

Spirit in a wider perspective. The Holy Spirit is understood as the one who works not

only in the hearts of believers, but also sustains all creation. It is the Spirit who makes

all living possible and dynamic. The Spirit works in every life and inspires everything

including land, animals and plants in a different ways. Therefore, there are strong

grounds for saying that it is the Spirit that is responsible for the interconnectedness of

the ecosystem. John V. Taylor, in particular, in describing the Spirit as the „Go-

Between God‟471 has opened up a whole new avenue for missiological exploration.

Though the Supreme Being and Spirit are understood as the creators and sustainers of

470
Lilburne, Theology of the Land, 105.
471
John V. Taylor, The Go-Between God: The Holy Spirit and the Christian Mission (London: SCM,
1972).

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all living things, they are also perceived, though distinct, as part of the total

ecosystem.

Fourthly, this land or creation-centred theology challenges the Mizos to revise our

understanding of salvation. Since the Supreme Being is seen in creation and human as

an integral part of it, we are able to affirm that human attains redemption only in

relation to the rest of creation. Together with God, Spirit and the mother earth, we are

redeemed. This idea of redemption further leads us to conceive of salvation as a

reality which can be experienced authentically here and now. A redeemed person is

the one who lives in harmony not only with fellow beings, but also with the mother

earth, God and spirit. This affirmation rules out the narrow understanding of salvation

in terms of personal salvation.

Fifthly, The Mizos perceive humanity as an integral part of the macro-organism.

Humanity relates to creation not in a hierarchical sense, but as family members. The

relationship is rather understood as circular. In a circle, there is no beginning or end,

all are interrelated and all in the circle are equal value. In this circle, human lose the

status of primacy and dominion over other creatures. All mutually share and affect

each other. The possession of intellectual faculty does not give human the right to

dominate others. However, this does not mean that in the Mizo world view, humans,

animals and plants are the same, humans have a unique place and role to play.

Humanity possesses a special ethical quality.

Finally, for the Mizos, the land is life. The land is the source of our origin and

identity. It is a place and symbol of unity which gives identity to the community. If

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there is no land, there is no community, personhood and identity. The land is also

sacred and people observe earth‟s day to pay respect to the land. Humanity has no

moral right to treat the land as a mere object to be used and exploited. A creation-

centred theology demands a radical change in our attitude and use of the land and

resources. The land cannot be commercialized. The Mizos believe that a person

cannot become wealthy by selling the land. People often compare the land with a

bird.472 If one forcibly takes the land from others through unjust means, it will fly

away within one or two generations. It is said that the land cries out if it is placed in

the hands of greedy people. Moreover, the land does not belong to one generation

alone, but belongs to future generations also. Therefore, the present generation does

not have the right to commercialize, exploit and abuse it. It is the moral right and duty

of every person to take care of, defend, preserve and protect the land for the future

generations.

Since the whole earth is God‟s body, the use of the land and resources becomes an

ecological sacrament for the Mizos. A.P. Nirmal, an Indian theologian recaptures the

theological meaning of the aspect when he writes:

If the whole world is God‟s body; and if God offers us His/Her body and

blood, then the use of the world‟s resources becomes an ecological sacrament

for us. As we eat and drink the body and blood of our Lord reverently and not

greedily, so also the world‟s resources must be share reverently and without

selfish greed. The sacrament of the Lord‟s Supper is a fellowship meal and has

a community setting. What a tremendous ecological implications this has, if

472
A. Wati Longchar, Tribal Theology: Issue, Method and Perspective, (Jorhat: Eastern Theological
College, 2000), 81. Hereafter cited as „Wati Longchar, Tribal Theology‟.

270
 we are to conceive of different eco-systems having a fellowship meal in God‟s

oikos.473

Therefore, the centrality of land or creation in understanding the reality and its

inter-dependentness cannot be ignored if Christian theology is to make sense and

be meaningful, especially to the Mizo community.

5. SIGNIFICANCE FOR MIZO FEMINIST THEOLOGY:

The non-hierarchical structure of the community of God-human-world is meaningful

for feminist theology in the struggle against the Mizo social structure dominated by

men. As in many other communities, the relationship of men and women in the Mizo

traditional society is certainly not an equal partnership. The weakness of Mizo

traditional society lies in the relationship of men and women in which women are

regarded as subordinate to men, and have been oppressed and deprived of

opportunities. This should have been transformed by the power of the Gospel when

the Mizos embraced Christianity, but the relationship seems to have basically

remained unchanged. However, this is certainly not a denial of the Mizo

communitarian life as a whole, the author will attempt to examine the relationship

between men and women in order to rectify and transform the Mizo communitarian

society to make it more effective. In this effort, the concept of „co-humanity‟ is used

as the vision and criteria of the Mizo community.

The concept of co-humanity is used here to express the relationship of men and

women in which equal partnership is regarded as the fundamental nature of human

473
A.P. Nirmal, „Ecology, Ecumenic & Economic in Relation: A New Theological Paradigm‟ in
Ecology and Development: Theological Perspective, 24, quoted in A. Wait Longchar, Tribal Theology,
91-92.

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relationship. According to the biblical creation story, God did not want man to be

alone and said, „It is not good that man should be alone; I will make him a helper fit

for him.‟474 Here we notice that God‟s intention in his creation is that man and woman

should be together, but opinion differed in the perception and practice of partnership.

The phrase „helper fit for him‟ has been used to justify subordination of women. The

English term „helper‟ connotes the role of servant or of the superior. However, the

Hebrew word „ezer/ozer’ which is inaccurately translated in English as „helper‟ is

consistently used in the Old Testament for Yahweh who is a helper par excellence. 475

This means the word „helper‟ does not denote subordination, for Yahweh is never

subordinate to the people of Israel. The feminist interpreters seem to be correct when

they claim that it is the male bias which has influenced traditional interpretation of the

text to imply subordination of women; the correct interpretation is that women are the

only competent persons who can help men in as much as men are also the helper for

women. Men and women without each other are incomplete. Humanity is therefore,

co-humanity in which man and woman compliment one another in equal partnership.

5. 1. Position of Women in Mizo traditional Community:

J. Shakespear, who subdued the Mizo people and later became the first

Superintendent of Mizoram expressed his observation on the condition of women that

the Mizo women fetched the firewood and water, cooked food and did the greatest

part of the weeding and harvesting; they also made all the clothing for the whole

household from cotton grown in jhum, which they themselves gathered, cleaned,

spun, and wove into strong cloth.476

474
Genesis 2:18
475
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 193.
476
Shakespear, Lushei Kuki Clans, 16.

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In spite of their daily busy life, sparing no effort and strength for the welfare of the

family, Mizo women were not respected nor were their words heeded. A Woman had

no voice in the family administration, and even if she did, her words were never

accepted just because they were the words of women. 477 The position of Mizo women

is revealed when we study some of the sayings and traditional Mizo social practices.

„Crab‟s meat is not a meat, women‟s word is not a word‟; „the wisdom of a woman

does not cross the brook‟; „a woman and a walnut tree, the more you beat them the

better they become‟; „an old fence and a wife should be changed‟. A woman was

bound by taboos. She was not allowed to participate in some of the religious rites and

functions. Her menstruation and pregnancy made her in some cases taboo or unclean

which prevented her from active participation in social functions and limited her

freedom and activity. The Mizo customary law did not recognize the right of women

to own immoveable properties like land and house.

5. 2. Position of Women after Christianity:

The conversion of Mizo people to the Christian faith brought about radical changes in

the Mizo society; but opinion about the change differed widely. Most of the Mizo

theologians and sociologists believed that Christianity had transformed the Mizo

society and without this the Mizo society would never become what it is today.478

Taking the middle course, a few scholars have admitted erosion of Mizo culture but

held the British administration and the process of modernization as the primary

factors responsible for this. They regard Christianity as providing an alternative

477
Lalhmuaka, Zoram Thim, 84.
478
Hminga, Life and Witness; J. Puthenpurukal, ed., Impact of Christianity in North East India; M.
Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture.

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ideology to cope with this change. 479 On the other hand, non-Christian writers with a

few British administrators are critical about the change. They argue that Christianity

is responsible for the erosion of Mizo culture which consequently has alienated and

caused them an identity crisis. 480 In spite of differences in the opinion of scholars

about the change in general, most of them seem to acknowledge with appreciation the

contribution of Christianity towards the upliftment of women.

Education was one of the primary factors responsible for the emancipation of women.

As a result of the emancipation of women, the quality of human life in general

improved. By educating women and marginalized children, Christian missionaries

revolutionized the Mizo society, changing the social structure and the status of

women. Eventually the poor children became the leaders of the society.

Comparatively, the progress of girls‟ education was slower than that of boys, since

girls were very useful at home and less favoured by their parents than boys.

It is interesting to note that in the formative stage of the Mizo Christian church, there

seemed to be no discrimination against women; they actively participated in the

church as evangelists, teachers and deacons. Active participation of women in the

early church could be due to lack of human resources and non-availability of

competent male leaders. Though the Mizo society was critical about educated

women, they were more competent than their fellow uneducated girls and were given

respect and important responsibilities in the church and society; their contribution and

leadership were eventually accepted. The church not only provided education, but

also a new avenue for women to interact with their male counterparts, and freedom to
479
F.S. Downs, Christianity in India: North East India in the Nineteen and Twentieth Century.
(Bangalore: Church History Association of India, 1992), 123.
480
Animesh Ray, Mizoram Dynamic of Change, 15.

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preach and teach which they had never done in the traditional society. A number of

Mizo women were employed as Bible women (evangelists) from 1917.481 The

formation of a separate women‟s department in the church provided an enormous

opportunity for women to develop their leadership qualities. This certainly

contributed towards the improvement of women‟s status, but equal partnership is still

far from being realised. There were certain traditional practices which remained

unchanged even after the Mizo community had embraced Christianity. For instance,

right of ownership was not changed and men continued to be the sole owner of the

immoveable properties and inheritor of ancestor‟ property. Even after Christianity,

Mizo women are still oppressed, alienated and discriminated against on the ground of

sex, the following factors are commonly held as the root causes of sexism: 482

i) Patriarchal social structures in which men dominate the social, economic, political

and religious affairs.

ii) Some of the Mizo traditions are responsible for shaping the attitude of the society

towards women.

iii) The traditional theology which advocates the superiority of men over women had

shaped the attitudes of missionaries and eventually leaders of the Mizo church.

iv) Traditional interpretation of the Bible.

5. 3. Present Position of Mizo Women in the Churches:

Despite the amount of work they have contributed to the church, Mizoram seems to

be one of the areas where the church is most orthodox and unopened to the full and

481
Chhuanliana, R., „Luke‟s understanding of mission of Jesus and its missiological implications for
the Mizoram Synod of Presbyterian Church of India‟ in H. Vanlalauva, ed., Mizoram Theological
Journal, Vol. III, January-June, 2001,(Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College), 2-15.
482
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 81.

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free participation of women in the ministry of the church. Women are devoid of equal

status and opportunity in the church. Lalrinawmi Ralte, a Mizo feminist theologian

from the Presbyterian Church has critically examined the traditions which she thinks

responsible for the subjugation of women. She observed that once a committed and

dedicated lady, Saptawni was elected as an elder by the Mission Veng Church along

with one man in 1980. But her ordination was rejected by the decision making body

based on historical precedent that „it (ordination of women) has never been that way‟

whereas no question was raised with regard to a man and he was ordained by the

church. 483 Such obvious sex discrimination is frequently seen in the church, and it is

difficult at least for the victims of injustice and discrimination to regard the church as

the body of Jesus Christ or the place where Christ is honoured. Saptawni was

completely silent regarding the failure of her ordination.

With regard to theological education, very few women have undertaken it. The

answer as to why few women have undertaken theological education could be due to

the unemployment problem which arises from sex discrimination in the church.

Women have less opportunity of getting jobs in the ministry of the church. R.L.

Hnuni, a Mizo feminist theologian, is critical of the existing structure of the church

which has deprived women of equal participation in the ministry and decision making

bodies. She shared that the present situation in the Baptist Church of Mizoram is that

any trained man is given an opportunity to take up a post of Probationary pastor

whereas women were not given any such chance. Moreover, women graduates are not

included in the „induction service‟ regularly arranged by the church to consecrate and

rededicate the new graduates to enter into full time ministry. This is indeed, a painful

483
Lalrinawmi Ralte, Crab Theology, 147.

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discrimination for women who are also entering full time ministry. 484 Hnuni thinks

that re-interpretation of the Bible is necessary in order to bring change in the Mizo

church.

5. 4. The vision of Mizo women for a new co-humanity:

„Co-humanity‟ is used by Karl Barth485 to define his concept of the „image of God‟.

For Barth, the image of God is to be found in relationship of God and human beings,

man and woman rather than in the quality of human beings. A Mizo feminist theology

may be explained as a theology that seeks for a new community in which the

traditional relationship of men and women is transformed by the power of the gospel

into a new relationship of equal partnership of men and women. It is committed to

transforming the traditional Mizo community, transcending the old pattern of

relationship between men and women. It also aims to build a new, just, participatory

and harmonious society, free from discrimination of human beings by fellow human

beings on the ground of sex, colour or race. In other words, Mizo feminist theology

seeks to make the traditional communitarian life effective and relevant in today‟s

situation. Its purpose is to let the new style of Mizo community pervade the

relationships of men and women which, in the traditional community, based on the

relationship of master and servant.

The Mizo traditional life and the church may believe that women‟s silence is a virtue

but the effects of silence can be described in different ways. Women feel helpless and

worthless. The Mizo cultural traditions and moral teaching are based on men‟s

interests. These are not helpful for the social and religious life of women. Mizo

484
Hnuni, Women in Mizoram, 85-86.
485
J.D. Godsey, ed., Karl Barth’s Table Talk (Richmond Virginia: John Knox Press, 1962), 57.

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women are beginning to look critically at their situation in the Presbyterian Church.

They are also angry because God‟s name is being used to silence them. Women can

no longer sit in silence and silence does nothing to improve their status. Lalrinawmi

Ralte believed that Mizo women need to break their silence because silence is

perpetuating the cultural degradation of women. Woman can no longer accept any

ideology that can manipulate them and suppress their potential. She believed that God

wants Mizo women to speak out against injustice inflicted on women in Mizoram. 486

In short, it must also be mentioned that today‟s Mizo women‟s liberation movement

does not seek for a post of leadership as such nor claim superiority but it tries to do

away with all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender. It seeks for equal

recognition, equal acceptance, equal privilege and opportunity, equal rights and

freedom in all spheres of life both secular and religious and especially in the ministry

of the church where sex discrimination is most serious. It is therefore, time to give up

the tradition that always expects only women to be the ones who would adjust to the

situation, but to treat them equally with men. It will also be necessary to re-examine

and restate the unjust traditional view, restructure the church to be accommodative

and do away with the evil of inequality, injustice and discrimination so that all may

live together in peace and harmony with one another and glorify in reality the Lord

and Liberator, Jesus Christ. There will be many more suggestions and strategies for

empowerment of women, it will be the context which will decide the methods. What

really matters is commitment to the cause of building a society envisioned by the

Mizo women. It is the task and mission of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram to

struggle for the realization of co-humanity.

486
Lalrinawmi Ralte, Interviewed (Aizawl Theological College, Mizoram: 21 August, 2009).

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6. REINTERPRETING CHAPCHAR KUT FOR MIZO THEOLOGY OF

MISSION:

Since the coming of Christianity, the church declared the celebration of traditional

festival of chapchar kut as anti-Christian; it was considered as secular and worldly. In

other words, it was profane, outside Mizo Christianity. 487 The Mizo Christianity needs

liberation from enslavement to secular and sacred. In fact, the gradual awareness of

the religious values of traditional festivals came only after 1990. Gradual liberation

slowly accommodated the Mizo traditional festivals into the folds of Christianity.

Today, contemporary Mizo Christians have begun retrieving and reinterpreting

traditional festivals, in particular chapchar kut, with the aims of contextualizing and

reviving the lost culture. They think that it is a Mizo cultural festival in which Mizo

should participate as Mizo and as Christians. In due course, chapchar kut has become

one of the burning theological issues in the Mizo Christian context. If we re-read this

festival in the light of postcolonial hermeneutics, it is possible to enlist the following

elements as honouring God (Pathian), peace and harmony, cleansing and sharing as

liberating in the Mizo Christian context.

6. 1. Honouring God (Pathian):

The origin of kut (festival) among the Mizos is mythologized as follows. Many years

ago, there was a great famine in the Mizo land. It lasted for three years. The fourth

year was good and prosperous. They richly harvested crops and everyone had enough

to spare. This prosperity was ascribed to the blessing of gods and the chief instructed

487
Lalsangkima Pachuau, Ethnic Identity and Christianity: A Socio-Historical and Missiological Study
of Christianity in Northeast India with special reference to Mizoram (Frankfurt: Peter Lang Gmb h,
2002), 104. Hereafter cited as „Lalsangkima, Ethnic Identity‟.

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the people to honour their gods. 488 This was the origin of the Mizo kut. This indicates

that kut and God are interconnected in Mizo culture. Therefore, to celebrate kut

without honouring God is to neglect God‟s providence and blessings. And according

to K. Zawla, a school teacher and Mizo historian, celebration of chapchar kut is to

praise God for the protection, security and safety while cutting jhums. 489 This view is

worthy of development in the Mizo Christian context. Whatever its origin might be, it

is increasingly understood as honouring god. In this sense, to celebrate chapchar kut

can mean „to honour God‟ and this validates the presence of god in every culture.

6. 2. Peace and Harmony:

Secondly, another important element of the chapchar kut is peace. To elaborate

briefly, before the chapchar kut began, the village herald would make a public

announcement to all the villagers that during chapchar kut, there must be no quarrel

or riots in the village, everyone must be happy and peaceful, and must celebrate the

festival with joy. This was an official announcement from the chief. In addition, it did

not allow quarrelling between husband and wife during the festival. 490 Peace occupied

the central stage in the celebration of chapchar kut. If we look at the Bible the central

message of the gospels is peace. What Isaiah idealized in his message is also peace

(Isaiah 11:1-9) and Christ‟s incarnation is to bring peace to the whole world. If we

utilize these two passages as theological hermeneutics to link the message of the

gospel and the message of the chapchar kut, the gospel and Mizo culture are

harmoniously focussing on peace and goodwill towards human beings. In the light of

this interpretation, chapchar kut has a new meaning and it becomes the festival of

peace in which all the Mizos should participate because it is in complete agreement
488
Lalrinawma, Mizo Ethos, 139.
489
Zawla, Mizo Pi Pute, 122.
490
Challiana, Pi Pu Nun [Life of the Ancestors] (Aizawl: Lalrinliana & Sons, 1996), 6.

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with the message of the Bible. In this way, the gospel enriches the Mizo cultural

festival.

6. 3. Cleansing:

Cleansing is one element found in the chapchar kut as it was celebrated by washing

away dirty things in order to make them clean and renewed. Houses would be cleaned

and dirty clothes would be washed on the day of chhawnghnawt.491 This cleansing of

self, society and community transforms Mizo society and makes chapchar kut

meaningful. The author proposes to wash away in celebrating chapchar kut; one is

Mizo traditional way of drinking rice-beer which is no longer relevant because it can

bring immodesty and is not in tune with the gospel teaching. Secondly, the barbaric

Mizo traditional way of killing animals on the festive day (se chaih) needs to be

stopped as Mizo Christian‟s kindnesses to animals should indicate that we are

worshipping the living and loving God. This process of cleansing can liberate and

transform Mizo society towards the realization of the reign of God.

6. 4. Sharing:

Another element of chapchar kut is sharing one‟s food or resources with neighbours

and others. Sharing is a Mizo cultural virtue. N.E. Parry describes chapchar kut as a

feast,492 and a feast meant sharing one‟s resources with the community. One of the

main teachings of Jesus was sharing by feeding the five thousand. In this sense, the

message of the gospel and the message of chapchar kut are in line with each other. If

we reflect this sharing with others theologically, it is equivalent to love in action

which is against selfishness, exploitation, corruption and misappropriation. While

491
Dokhuma, Hmanlai Mizo, 79.
492
N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 90-91.

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celebrating chapchar kut, we are practicing sharing our resources with one another

and chapchar kut becomes meaningful to the cultural life of the Mizo society.

Through sharing from the Mizo cultural perspective, the teaching of Jesus is taking

root deeply in the Mizo cultural life. In the light of this, chapchar kut teaches us

„sharing‟ and „to be a blessing‟ to others who are in need.

The present Mizos continue to celebrate chapchar kut with new perspectives by

honouring God in their respective places, it will give the Mizo society a new identity

as a Mizo and as a Christian. Chapchar kut contributes an alternative way of

honouring God by making peace, sharing resources, renewing morals and uniting all

people to build the kingdom of God here and now. Chapchar kut is no longer seen as

a pagan festival but as a cultural festival with a new religious meaning, crossing

denominational barriers that gives corporate Mizo Christian identities as Mizos and as

Christians.

7. REINTERPRETING TLAWMNGAIHNA FOR MIZO THEOLOGY OF

MISSION:

We have discussed about the Mizo communitarian life and one may wonder how such

a communitarian society actually operated in the complex „mix‟ which is life, be it

primitive or sophisticated. Indeed one may question whether the nature of

communitarian society is a reality of the past or a romanticised construct or simply

the naive dream of post-modernists. Though that was more than a reality of the past,

it is to a certain extent the actual life of the Mizo community today. It is quite obvious

that unless a certain principle of life or philosophy provides the basis, no society can

practise such a communitarian way of living. This underlying principle of the Mizo

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communitarian society is called „tlawmngaihna‟, a social ethical principle of the Mizo

community which provides the basis for a communitarian society to exist and

function effectively. In other words it is a philosophical and ethical foundation of

communitarian society.

7.1. Meaning of Tlawmngaihna:

Tlawmngaihna is a Mizo term which literally means resistance to being helped by

others by helping others who are in need. The emphasis is on a denial of self rather

than an effort to be independent. The purpose of this self denial is to serve the

community and any person in the community who is really in need of help. It is an act

of charity wherein self interest is subordinated to the interest of community, and self

sacrifice for the need of others is to come spontaneously as a natural part of one‟s life.

Without the principle of tlawmngaihna communitarian societies like the Mizo

community cannot function. Without the principle of tlawmngaihna, it would not be

possible to build a harmonious society where members of the community practised

„decision by consensus‟, sharing their joy and sorrows and caring for one another.

Several attempts have been made to define tlawmngaihna by both the Mizo

themselves and the non-Mizos who know the Mizo culture. The problem of defining

and translating tlawmngaihna is clearly reflected by the range of vocabulary and

phrases employed by J.H. Lorrain, the pioneer missionary of Mizoram, who tried to

explain tlawmngaihna as follows:

a) Tlawmngaihna is to be self sacrificing, unselfish, self denying, persevering,

stoical, stout-hearted, plucky, brave, firm, and independent, to be loth to lose

one‟s good reputation, prestige, etc.

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 b) To persevere, to endure patiently, to make light of personal injuries, to dislike

making a fuss about anything.

c) To put one‟s own inclination on one side and do a thing which one would

rather not do, with the object either of keeping up one‟s prestige or of helping

or pleasing another or of not disappointing another, etc.

d) To do whatever the occasion demands no matter how distasteful or

inconvenient it may be to oneself or to one‟s own inclinations.

e) To refuse to give in, give way or be conquered.

f) To not like to refuse a request, to do a thing because one does not like to

refuse or because one wishes to please others.

g) To act pluckily or show a brave front.493

Another British observer, N.E. Parry wrote, „it is really a very good moral code

enforced solely by public opinion‟. 494 He felt sorry because he saw that the spirit of

tlawmngaihna was deteriorating due to the coming of enlightenment through

education and also more contacts with outside cultures and their influences.

K.C. Lalvunga, the Mizo poet and writer defines tlawmngaihna as the manifestation

of internal goodness of human beings in an external way of life and effort of human

beings to be useful for individuals and society. It is a morality which is manifested in

various aspects of external life including many things such as unselfishness, humility,

diligence, courage, patience and endurance which should be beneficial for as many as

possible.495

493
J.H. Lorrain, Dictionary, 513.
494
N.E. Parry, Lushai Customs and Ceremonies, 19.
495
B. Lalthangliana, Zikpuii Pa Kutchhuak [The Works of Zikpuii‟s Father] (Aizawl: R.L. Press,
1990), 90.

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C.L. Hminga, a Mizo theologian described it as a Mizo ethical code. He said that a

person who possesses tlawmngaihna must be courteous and industrious. He must also

be ready to help others even at considerable inconvenience to himself and must try to

surpass others in doing ordinary daily tasks efficiently. In theory, tlawmngaihna must

enter into every compartment of the Lushai‟s life and in general a good citizen was

one who was foremost in meeting calls on his time which were really necessary for

the good of the village.496

According to Remkunga, an elder in the Mizo church tlawmngaihna comes out of the

inward being and mind of human beings and appears as excellent and desirable as it

can be. He said that tlawmngaihna is not just performing and fulfilling requirements

and one‟s duties, rather it is doing anything beyond one‟s own duty and not with an

expectation of respect and praise, but because of love towards others from the

innermost heart. This kind of duty requires a sense of duty for the benefit and welfare

of others, which may even cost one‟s life. It includes endurance, patience and the

capacity for hard work, bravery and readiness to suffer. 497

Mangkhosat Kipgen, a renowned church historian said that a person who possesses

tlawmngaihna must be obedient and respectful to the elders; courteous in dealing with

the weak and the lowly, generous and hospitable to the poor, the needy and strangers,

self denying and self sacrificing at the opportune time, must be ready to help those in

distress, compassionate to a companion who falls sick while on a journey or becomes

victim of a wild beast in the hunt by never abandoning him to his fate; heroic and

496
Hminga, Life and Witness, 30.
497
Remkunga, Mizo Pi Pute [Mizo Ancestors] (Aizawl: Nazareth Press, 1980), 148-149.

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resolute at war and in hunting; stoical in suffering and in facing hardship under

trying circumstances; and persevering in any worthwhile undertaking however hard

and daunting that might prove to be. A tlawmngaihna person will do whatever the

occasion demands no matter how distasteful or inconvenient that might to be to one

or to one‟s own inclinations; vie with others in excelling in sports or any other

corporate labour; and try to surpass others in hospitality and in doing his ordinary

daily task independently and efficiently. 498

Tlawmngaihna is the Mizo social principle as well as the norm for good conduct of

the people in the community. The Mizo moral ethos is based on good deeds for the

welfare of the community, on putting the interest of the community above one‟s own

individual interest. Thus the Mizos in their judgement of conduct would say, „it is

shameful‟ rather than „it is wrong‟. Doing anything that the society does not accept,

whether wrong or right is shameful. Parents forbid their children doing certain things

not necessarily because it is wrong to do them but shameful. In a society like Mizo

society where community is placed above individuals, this kind of ethical judgement

is inevitable. It is both moral and logical. 499

Tlawmngaihna embraces various types of human qualities and activities and

manifests itself in various forms and aspects of community life which can be summed

up as „community over self‟ wherein self-sacrifice for the need of others is the

spontaneous outcome. A person who practices the precepts of tlawmngaihna is highly

respected in the community. 500 It is tlawmngaihna that turns the steep mountains and

the dense forests with all the toilsome labour of jhum cultivation, poverty and
498
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 65.
499
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 122.
500
M. Kipgen, Christianity and Mizo Culture, 65.

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hardship into a pleasant dwelling place. It is because of tlawmngaihna that poverty,

misfortune, death and sickness, have not traumatised the people. Every one in the

community has been taken care of by the practice of tlawmngaihna. It is because of

tlawmngaihna that every one tries to be self-sufficient in order to avoid receiving help

from others. The Mizo code of ethics revolves around tlawmngaihna, a composite

term for such human qualities as kindness, courage and helpfulness. It indicates that

compelling moral force which expresses itself in selfless service to society.

Tlawmngaihna lies at the basis of the Mizo attitude to life. In war or peace, in private

or public life, the Mizos are guided by the spirit of tlawmngaihna. 501

7. 2. Critical Analysis of Tlawmngaihna:

Though the Mizos uphold with honour the spirit of the objective of tlawmngaihna, it

nevertheless needs critical analysis as the principle of tlawmngaihna does have both

positive and negative aspects. It is the tlawmngaihna teaching of selflessness which

makes the Mizo people reserved, slow to express themselves even to the extent of

telling a lie. Even a seriously sick patient, on the verge of death will tell a doctor that

he/she does not feel pain. The major weakness of tlawmngaihna is its lack of critical

basis of assessment of its own actions, since it has been so much socialised and

people simply assume that what is expected in and by the society is right or good.

Mizos are generally and indeed traditionally uncritical. Tlawmngaihna was

conventionalised into the system of society. The same is true of Mizo contemporary

Christianity. There is a strong tendency to consider everything done in the name of

Christian faith as justifiable.

501
Mizoram: Era of Peace and Progress (Aizawl: Directorate of Information and Public Relations,
1987), 11.

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Tlawmngaihna is based on the principle of self sacrifice. It is not merely a system of

social control for equilibrium as some sociologists have suggested. „Social control‟

implies seeking to contain an individual or group resistance within tolerable limits.502

Tlawmngaihna certainly contributes to social equilibrium, but it is not merely social

obligation in terms of social control, as suggested by A.G. McCall. 503 Since the

principle of tlawmngaihna prohibits criticism against others, tlawmngaihna could be

one of the indirect causes of rampant corruption in the Mizo society today. Rather

than challenging the wrong structures and misdeeds of the politicians, government

officers and leaders of the local organisations, the principle of tlawmngaihna avoids

pointing out the wrong doing of others.

Another weakness of tlawmngaihna is that its practice in the actual life is limited to

those who understand the meaning of tlawmngaihna. The Mizos who are exposed to

other cultures have realised that it is practicable only within the society where it is

understood and practised by the people. First of all it began in the Mizo village

community, then expanded its circle to the larger society but rarely crossed beyond

the boundary of the Mizo society.

7. 3. Validity of Tlawmngaihna for the Mizo Theology of Mission:

Tlawmngaihna is a message of Jesus Christ hidden in the Mizo culture. It is an active

love or love in action. If love is the essence of the Gospel teaching, tlawmngaihna is

the hidden gospel written in the heart of the Mizo people even before they embraced

Christianity. The affinity of tlawmngaihna with love may be seen more clearly when

502
Peter L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of A Sociological Theory of Religion (New York:
Doubleday & Company, 1968), 24, 29. Berger‟s distinction between socialisation and social control is
used to distinguish tlawmngaihna from social control of the authoritarian type. Quoted in K.
Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 124.
503
McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 47.

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K. Saibela, former missionary replaces the Pauline definition of love in 1Corinthians

13:4-7 with tlawmngaihna as follows: „Tlawmngaihna is patient and kind;

tlawmngaihna is not jealous or boastful; it is not arrogant or rude. Tlawmngaihna

does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at

wrong, but rejoices in the right. Tlawmngaihna bears all things, believes in all things,

and endures all things.‟504

K. Saibela continues that tlawmngaihna and love have very similar functional

relations because tlawmngaihna means self-sacrifice, diligence, courtesy and

commitment for the sake of others, bravery, hard work, kindness, charity,

forbearance, patience and so on.505 Tlawmngaihna is a self-giving love which sets

aside self-interests and seeks the betterment of others. Among the Mizos, there are a

number of stories of those who laid down their precious lives for the cause of

tlawmngaihna. 506 Such a love is depicted by Jesus himself as the highest form of

agape. If Jesus Christ is the expression of the embodiment of God‟s love, the

incarnation, the ministry and the cross may be perceived as paramount act of

tlawmngaihna. This may provide a basis for Christological understanding of

tlawmngaihna. The mythical heroes of the Mizo people were neither their warriors

nor powerful chiefs, but the tlawmngai persons who laid down their lives for the

service of the community. Jesus Christ might thus be seen as the embodiment of

504
K. Saibela, „Mizo Khawtlang Nun [Mizo Social Life] in Mizoram Kum 100: Kum 100 Chhunga
Mizote Awm Dan [The Mizo Life within 100 Years] (Aizawl: Synod Literature and Publications,
1995), 13.
505
Ibid.
506
Taitesena, Khuangchera, Zampuimanga, Chawngbawla, Vanzema, Vanapa and others were said to
lay down their lives for the cause of tlawmngaihna. They are the heroes of the Mizo people even today.

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tlawmngaihna, who transcends the Mizo tlawmngaihna. Jesus is the tlawmngai par

excellence.507

7. 4. Significance of Tlawmngaihna for a Mizo Theology of Mission:

Reinterpretation of certain traditions and beliefs including the Bible itself become

inevitable if they are to be relevant and meaningful in our changing world. Mizo

society is moving from personal towards an impersonal society where the right

system becomes more important than personal tlawmngaihna. In fact, the present

social, economic and political problems are becoming increasingly complex such that

they can no longer be solved by personal tlawmngaihna. The need of creating a

social, political and economic system which should enhance justice, peace and

harmony in the Mizo society is an urgent and important task. In this situation, the

issue of tlawmngaihna has to be shifted from the personal to the social level, which

means creating a social economic system which should perform the functions of

tlawmngai persons in taking care of the poor and the needy. The tlawmngaihna

approach to social need is a charitable approach which has its own role, but is

inadequate to deal with the modern Mizo society which is becoming increasingly

complex.

In other words, the traditional tlawmngaihna must be incorporated in the social

system in which the structure, planning for development and the legal system of the

society must be made tlawmngai. Seeing the need of the reinterpretation of

traditional tlawmngaihna, it is necessary to incorporate the universal concern of

Christian teaching for love and justice into tlawmngaihna to meet the challenges of

507
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community, 129.

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today. Then only tlawmngaihna in modern society will be the insightful praxis of love

to protect and uphold the marginalised, and to create a just, harmonious, progressive,

participatory and sustainable society. Protection and upholding of the marginalised

and commitment to the cause of the community today can no longer be confined to

charitable service. It requires involvement in the struggle against all exploitative

systems and structures which spoil the harmony of the community. Doing justice by

overcoming evil with good must be perceived as an important element and a

necessary outcome of tlawmngaihna because this is a more effective way of caring

for the poor and the marginalized.

Tlawmngaihna advocates individual freedom but rejects individualism as it puts

society over individual. Tlawmngaihna is Mizo praxis in the sense of practicing its

theoretical teaching of living for others. Helping others is part and parcel of the

principle of self-reliance. In other words, in the teaching of tlawmngaihna, helping

others is the means by which one should become self reliant. It is similar to the

principle „give and you will be given.‟ In fact, the Mizos have a saying, „those who

eat themselves will die, those who share with others will live.‟ Life for the Mizos is

living for others; selfishness is death. In sharing of their joy and sorrow, the Mizo

people find life that is the life of a true community.

The rediscovery of tlawmngaihna which is rooted in Jesus Christ will not only

enhance a new understanding of life in Christ, but also deepen the interconnection of

the gospel and Mizo culture. Jesus is seen possessing tlawmngaihna par excellence.

In reality, this is a new face or an image of Jesus that makes it „Christology from

below.‟ The Mizo Christian will realize that when practicing tlawmngaihna in their

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daily lives, they will feel the presence of Jesus Christ. This is the new incarnation of

tlawmngaihna as the word becomes incarnated. P.L. Lianzuala writes,

Mizo Christians are being transformed and led to live moral ethical lives

imitating Christ. We must discover that a refined form of Christian

tlawmngaihna is rooted and perfected in Christ. Only then regardless of

external criticism, a refined and transformed form of Christian

tlawmngaihna will be lived out with a new life in Christ.508

In this way, Mizo Christians will perceive that the unbounded Christ is present

through tlawmngaihna in their culture. Practising tlawmngaihna will be seen as the

presence of Jesus Christ in them. In addition, Christ‟s tlawmngaihna reveals God who

sacrifices himself for the redemption of the whole world. Further, it contributes

hermeneutical links between the gospel and Mizo culture. Chapman and Clark

describe how the Mizo understood the gospel in terms of tlawmngaihna or in other

words how the Mizo moral teaching meets the gospel of love. Mizos will see for

themselves that practising tlawmngaihna is accepting the teaching of Jesus and to

serve God is to fulfil the Mizo ethical moral ideal. 509 It is apt to quote here as they put

it:

To the Mizos to accept the teaching of Jesus meant to be tlawmngai and

this made them feel that it fulfilled their highest aspirations, and to serve

this God, at whatever cost, was to fulfil the Mizo ideal of tlawmngaihna.510

508
P.L. Lianzuala, „Tlawmngaihna Theology‟ in H. Vanlalauva, ed., Mizo Miziaa Pathian Thu
[Theology in Mizo Thought] (Aizawl: Synod Publications Board, 1988), 117-118.
509
R.S. Sugirtharajah, „Matthew 5-7: The Sermon on the Mount and India‟ in Daniel Patte, General ed.,
Global Bible Commentary (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2004), 363
510
Chapman & Clark, Mizo Miracle, 90.

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In this way, tlawmngaihna enriches Christianity and Christianity affirms Mizo

tlawmngaihna and re-roots it in Christianity. This tlawmngaihna becomes spiritual

and transformative when it is used for solidarity with the poor, marginalized, outcast

and oppressed to stand against injustice in the social, political and economic system

and addressing the present realities of the Mizo society.

Secondly, tlawmngaihna is a social ethic essential for the sustenance of harmony and

integrity of the Mizo community. For the Mizos, harmony and sustainability of the

society has been regarded as the primary objective of development. Thus the goal of

development envisaged in this study is not mere economic growth; it is the well-being

and symbiotic progress of the society. In other words, the vision of the society is a

shalomic society. Tlawmngaihna is an essential principle for the establishment and

enhancement of such community. The principle of tlawmngaihna is in essence a

„kingdom principle‟ and it is essential for the realization of the reign of God in

Mizoram and other parts of the world.

Thirdly, tlawmngaihna is voluntarism which theologically advocates and empowers

the voluntary organizations to bring about social transformation. Traditionally,

voluntarism was regarded as charitable work within the system for the purpose of

keeping social equilibrium. It was not expected to bring about a radical change. But

the underlying assumption of voluntarism today is that people are the primary subject

of change and have the power and responsibility to change their own situation. In the

Mizo context of today, tlawmngaihna is concerned both with equilibrium as well as

social transformation through various voluntary organisations and movements. In fact,

voluntary organizations in Mizoram are known as tlawmngai pawl (tlawmngai

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association or organisation). The principle of tlawmngaihna should not be confined

within static institutions or organisations, although they are important. It should

pervade the fabric of the society, as it did in the past, in order to bring about

transformation of the society. The church as a voluntary organisation is an institution

of tlawmngaihna or love. But tlawmngaihna cannot be contained in the institutional

church; rather the church is one of the instruments of tlawmngaihna for the

transformation of the society.

Fourthly, tlawmngaihna is a communitarian discipleship, a commitment to the cause

of community. It was the community which called the people to be tlawmngai or to be

self sacrificing for the sake of the community. Today, in the Christian community, it

is Jesus Christ, who calls people, the believing community to follow him in the Missio

Dei – the establishment and extension of the reign of God. The call to be tlawmngai,

before the advent of the Christianity in Mizoram, was also the call to that same

mission through the community. The calling as such, be it in the pre or post-Christian

era to serve the interest of God within the community is the same. Thus, we may say

that tlawmngaihna before the arrival of Christianity was a discipleship of Christ in a

different form.

The norm for Christian existence for all ages must be self-giving love, an expression

of radical obedience to Jesus Christ. Discipleship is essential for participation in the

establishment and extension of the reign of God, which is central to the mission of

Jesus Christ. The disciples in the Mizo context are the tlawmngai persons. The social

transformation envisaged in this study is a transformation towards the realization of

the reign of God. The disciples of Jesus Christ are the tlawmngai people for the cause

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of the reign of God. Tlawmngaihna is a commitment to the cause of society as

discipleship is to the cause of the reign of God. Realisation of the kingdom of God

here and now would certainly require Mizo Christian tlawmngaihna.

8. CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, I would like to recapitulate what has been discussed in this chapter.

Firstly, contextualization is the way theology has been done in the history of Christian

thought. It is therefore, a theological task for those who are doing theology

irrespective of nationality, culture and colour. The concern of Mizo contextual

theology is how to articulate the faith of the community in Christ in a way which can

be understand and is meaningful to the Mizo Christians in Mizoram. That is to help

the Mizo Christians understand and confess that Christ might become part of their

identity. Theology can also help them to realize the significance of Christ for them in

bringing transformation in the Mizo society. The task of Mizo theology is to achieve

this goal and for that purpose the author has brought out some of the Mizo traditional

cultural practices such as the Mizo understanding of the cosmology or God-human-

world relationship for theological hermeneutics.

Secondly, reinterpretation of Mizo traditional values such as God-human-world

relationship makes a significant contribution to the emerging ecological theology

because the Mizo Christians have been neglecting the environment or ecological

issues. This makes the Mizo theology one sided. Since the issue of land is so

fundamental in Mizo life, this study focused on the Mizo concept of land. For the

Mizos, land is sacred because land is the dwelling place of God, therefore it should

not be treated as a commodity or as a space to be exploited. This new understanding

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calls for new sensitivity in their relationship with the rest of the creation. It has also

opened a new way of theologizing to meet the ecological crisis and contributed a great

deal to the Mizo understanding of the relationship of God-human-world. To know that

God loves the world and makes revelation through nature and creation facilitates the

Mizo Christians to understand the holistic salvation. The significance of this new

interpretation is that it serves as a corrective to the limited traditional interpretation of

salvation that excludes „nature and the world.‟ This initially brings out a new eco-

spirituality in the Mizo context.

Thirdly, a Mizo feminist theology may be explained as a theology that seeks a new

community in which the traditional relationship of men and women is transformed by

the power of the gospel into a new relationship of equal partnership of men and

women. The Mizo feminist theology is committed to transform the Mizo traditional

community transcending the old pattern and to build a new, just, participatory and

harmonious society free from discrimination of fellow human beings by fellow beings

on the ground of gender, colour and race. In other words, Mizo feminist theology is

making the traditional communitarian life effective and relevant in today‟s situation.

Finally, there is the significance of the traditional festival of chapchar kut and

tlawmngaihna, a Mizo social principle as well as the norm for good conduct of people

in the community. The author believes that the rediscovery of the chapchar kut and

tlawmngaihna deepens the interconnection of the gospel of Christ and the Mizo

culture. Jesus was seen as possessing tlawmngai per excellence. Therefore, the Mizo

Christians realized and felt the presence of Jesus when they practised tlawmngaihna

in their daily lives. In this way Mizo Christians perceived that the unbounded Christ

296
is present in their culture. Tlawmngaihna becomes spiritual and transformative when

it is used for solidarity with the poor, marginalised, the outcaste and oppressed to

stand against injustice in the social, political and economic system thus addressing the

present realities and transforming the Mizo society

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 CONCLUSION

EVALUATION AND PROSPECT FOR THE FUTURE

1. INTRODUCTION:

It is clearly mentioned in the introductory part that the primary purpose of this study

is to construct a relevant Mizo theology of mission out of the interaction between the

Gospel and Mizo culture in the context of Mizoram. The whole task of this study can

be seen as re-rooting the Gospel in the Mizo cultural soil to remove alienation of the

Gospel or the western theology of mission introduced by the missionaries. Mizo

religious and cultural practices have been re-read with the purpose of finding

hermeneutics for reinterpretation of the Mizo theology of mission. For this purpose,

this section highlights some of the contributions made by this study to the Mizo

Christian theology and also makes suggestions for further research.

2. CONTRIBUTIONS TO MIZO CHRISTIANITY IN MIZORAM:

The author will highlight some of the contributions this study has made towards Mizo

Christianity, including Mizo hermeneutics, recognition of God‟s revelation in the

Mizo traditional religion and culture, shift in subject matter of theology, narrowing

the gap between church theology and the academic theology and awareness of the

validity of Mizo traditional religious and cultural elements for constructing a Mizo

theology of mission.

2. 1. Mizo Tribal Hermeneutics:

With the emergence of various contextual theologies from third world countries,

people of different cultures are beginning to find new ways of reading the Bible in

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their respective context. Similarly it is also necessary for the Mizo Christians to find

new ways of reading and understanding the Bible. The older habits of biblical

interpretation in fact, take the social and cultural conditions of the Mizo society into

consideration. As a result, the Bible continues to contribute towards alienation of the

Mizo from their culture and customs. In reflection on their first ten years experience

in Mizoram, the two pioneer missionaries J.H. Lorrain and F.W. Savidge reported

that:

Our first message, as soon as we could speak the language was to

proclaim a saviour from sin. But the people had no sense of sin and

felt no need for such a saviour. Then we found a point of contact. We

proclaimed Jesus as the vanquisher of the devil as the one who had

bound the strong man and taken away from him „all his armour

wherein he trusted‟ and also had made it possible for his slaves to be

free. This to the Lushais (now known as Mizos) was good news indeed

and exactly met their great need.511

It is evident from the above statement that what was considered as a meaningful

message for missionaries trained in England was no longer meaningful when it was

preached to a different culture. The task for the two missionaries was to interpret the

Gospel in the context of Mizoram.

The question which confronts us in the construction of the Mizo theology of mission

is how to interpret the Bible in the context of Mizoram. As Moltmann has rightly

511
Reports of BMS, 93-94.

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expressed, „reading the Bible with the eyes of the poor is a different thing from

reading it with the eyes of the man with a full belly‟. 512 There are different ways of

reading the Bible; the Mizo people read the Bible in the context of alienation from

their land and culture. The way they read the Bible cannot be the same as that of those

who do not face the same problems. Their context requires a reinterpretation of the

Bible to address the problems that encountered their lives. Unless the Mizos are

allowed to be different in their interpretation of the Bible, the Bible will not only lose

its significance, Christianity will remain superficial without really taking root into the

Mizo culture. In fact, Christianity is quite visible and popular in the Mizo society and

to a great extent it appears indigenized. But an in-depth study, however, reveals that

Christianity has not taken root, deep within the Mizo culture. It is therefore, the task

of Mizo tribal theology to develop a hermeneutical principle to fill this lacuna.

2. 2. God’s revelation in Mizo primal religion:

Recognition of God‟s revelation in the Mizo primal religion and culture is a new

contribution this study has contributed to the Mizo Christianity. The dominant

theology in Mizoram was the theology inherited from the missionaries which rejected

other religions as false religions and did not even recognize the revelation of God in

other religions except Christianity. However, this study maintains that the Mizo

traditional religion did not end with animism alone, but with the worship of the

Supreme Being or God. Theologically, F. Hrangkhuma reinterprets Acts 17:26-28 in

the Mizo context and states that the Mizos also were not left without God‟s

revelation.513 Hermeneutically, there can be a point of contact between the unknown

512
Jurgen Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit (London: SCM, 1977), 17.
513
F. Hrangkhuma, Mizoram Transformational Change, 145.

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God and the Mizo traditional concept of God called Pathian. C. Pazawna, a Mizo

pastor has written thus:

The Mizos knew something about the good god „Pathian‟. As the ancient

Greeks used to offer sacrifices to the „unknown God‟, they worshipped him

and used to offer sacrifices so that they might receive his blessings at home

and in jhums. But Pathian remained a hidden god, about whom only a little

was known. 514

This statement claims that God‟s revelation in Mizo religion as the unknown God is

valid. This accommodates the Mizo traditional understanding of God into a new

theological paradigm and advocates the validity of divine revelation in Mizo

traditional religion. The unknown God in Acts 17:23 was a valid revelation of God

among the Athenians, so it was also valid in the Mizo context. After comparing the

common ground in Christianity and the Mizo traditional religion, C. Rosiama makes

the following theological statement:

If we make an assessment from all these common grounds between Mizo

traditional religion and Christianity, it was certain that God had already

revealed himself among the Mizos, and the then Mizo primal religion was

like the present day Christianity. In the past, in search of a god who was

vaguely conceived, the Mizos did some animistic practices worshipping

stones and trees. However, when the Mizo realized that Christianity is the

514
C. Pazawna, „Christianity in Mizoram: Vision for the Twenty-First Century‟ in Rosiamliana
Tochhawng, ed., Ground Works for Tribal Theology in the Mizo Context (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 49.

301
 final goal of their long expected religion, they firmly believed and never

wavered. 515

In the light of this, the Mizo religion can be re-read in a new perspective. When the

Mizo traditional concept of God interacts with the biblical concept of God, new

images of God appear in the Mizo context. This does not mean that Mizo traditional

religion was a perfect one, rather it was a religion in which God revealed himself

through the Mizo practice of their religion. Recognizing the revelation of God in

Mizo religion has contributed theological hermeneutics which spearhead the

dialogical model, moving from monologue to dialogue in Mizo Christianity.

Similarly, the recognition of Mizo traditional culture for theological interpretation is a

new contribution in the Mizo context because the Mizo culture was considered as an

invalid basis for doing theology. However, this establishes the principle that Mizo

culture is not nonsense, but has a mixture of good and negative aspects. The task here

is to reject the enslaving aspects and critically enlist the liberating aspects and utilize

them for theological hermeneutics. Therefore, Mizo Christian theology must continue

to recognize the validity of the Mizo culture in constructing a Mizo Christian

theology of mission.

2. 3. Church Theology and Academic Theology:

The expectation of the author is that this work will narrow the gap between church

theology and academic theology in Mizoram. As already mentioned in the previous

section, with the inherited western traditional theology, the Mizo theologians and

515
C. Rosiama, Mizo Sakhua, 96.

302
leaders of the church rejected and neglected the traditional religio-cultural and it was

not utilized for theological interpretation. But today new ways of doing theology have

emerged and the theological colleges have re-read the Mizo traditional culture and

religion and have started developing theology of their own. To this the church

criticized theological colleges for being unspiritual and of course liberal while the

theological colleges branded the church as conservative. This creates a gap between

the institutionalised church and the theological colleges.

The author believed that this research has contributed a new way of narrowing the

gap between the church and the theological institutions. By interaction between the

Gospel and the Mizo culture, a relevant contextual theology which is faithful to the

gospel and to the Mizo culture emerges to respond the present realities meaningfully.

This will not only bridge the gap between the church theology and the academic

theology, but also bring mutual recognition and understanding, mutual enrichment

and peaceful transformation in Mizo theological education in the Mizo context.516

3. EVALUATION AND PROSPECT OF THE FUTURE:

Under Pre-Colonial Mizo Religion and Culture, an explanation was given of the

concept of the Supreme Being (Pathian), who was worshipped by the Mizos by

performing different social and religious sacrificial ceremonies. However, due to the

inclusion of drinking rice-beer in their religious worship, the western missionaries,

without having proper and critical assessment of the concepts and teachings of Mizo

religion, branded the Mizo traditional religion as heathenism. In addition, there were

some practices in the Mizo primal religion which were described as animistic because

516
R.S. Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Reconfigurations: An Alternative Way of Reading The Bible and
Doing Theology (London: SCM Press, 2003), 121.

303
they offered sacrifices to evil spirits for healing from illness and sicknesses. The then

missionaries failed to understand that in the Mizo primal religious practices, there was

„sakhaw biak or sakung’ (worshipping God) and ‘ramhuai biak‟ (propitiating evil

spirits). These two religious practices should be clearly differentiated if we aim to do

theological hermeneutics in the present Mizo context.

The author view is that when the missionaries branded the Mizo primal religion as

animism, there were concrete elements of worshipping the Supreme Being in the

Mizo traditional religion. This study substantiated the claim that Mizo traditional

religion did not end with animism, but with the worship of Pathian (God). The

concept the Supreme Being and celestial god, and the concept of Khuanu, Pu Vana

pave the way to accept the classical Christian doctrine of trinity. Moreover, the

concept of khuanu brings new images to the female model and this contributes

relevant theological interpretation for the Mizos. The male-female model is useful to

substantiate equality between male and female in feminist theology in the Mizo

context.

The Advent of Colonialism and Christian Mission dealt with the transformations of

the religious, social, political and cultural life of the Mizo society in many ways.

Despite the fact that the life of the Mizo society had been paralysed by the imposition

of laws and orders by the British rule, it also liberated the Mizos from injustice social

and cultural structures and oppression in various ways. It can be seen that the impact

of the British government and the Christian missionaries was both constructive and

destructive, resulting not only physical transformation but also psychological and

intellectual change. One result of these changes was that the Mizos started to develop

304
the idea that all that was associated with Mizo traditional religion and culture was

pagan, profane and secular and not fit for the newly converted Mizo Christians. As a

result, they abandoned valuable social and cultural elements and regarded them as

secular and worldly and even profane while western culture and traditions were

automatically adopted as sacred, religious and pious. They began to look at their

traditional values from the perspective of their new European masters. If we look at

all these in the light of the postcolonial perspective, we find evidence of pseudo-

European Mizos, who had been proselytized to the western traditionalism and ways of

living.

The vision of the author for the Mizo theological future will be that conversion to

Christianity will no longer be an enslaving experience for the Mizos, rather it will be a

liberating and enriching experience which gives new religious culture and new

identity in the Mizo context. The Mizo Christians will begin re-rooting their

traditional practices like festivals and others to transform the contemporary Mizo

society.

In Revival Movement: Cultural Response to Westernisation, we see that as soon

as the British subjugated Mizoram, they imposed new laws and regulations, and

divided the land and the people to suit its administrative convenience. To worsen the

confused state of mind of the people Christian mission came to propagate a new

religion. The Mizo people suffered the loss of their land, identity and selfhood. In the

midst of this chaotic confusion, the revival movement took place. It tended to be a

cultural revival and turned out to be an antidote to the prevailing process of

westernisation. The revival movement saved the Mizos from complete British

305
assimilation. It thus provided the people with a setting for regaining and maintaining

their identity and selfhood. Several Mizo cultural elements have been incorporated

into Mizo Christianity by the revival movement.

To re-establish the lost identity, the accommodation of Mizo culture has been taking

place. Firstly, rediscovery of the value of Mizo poetical words is a radical paradigm

shift because Mizo poetical words which were totally rejected as anti-Christian

elements are retrieved to composed hymns. A new type of hymn called „indigenous

Mizo Christian hymn‟ was born from the revival movement with traditional Mizo

tunes. These new indigenous hymns quenched the spiritual thirst of the Mizo

Christians and gave new identity to the Mizo Christians. Secondly, the Mission

Church strictly forbade the traditional and cultural dances, which were considered as

pagan and worldly, but these dances gradually reappeared within the church in a

modified form when the spiritual revival broke out. Therefore dance was no longer

seen as sinful, unchristian and manifestation of evil spirits, but as a spiritual

manifestation of God. Thirdly, the drum played a very important role in the religious

and cultural life of the Mizo society, but when the Mizos embraced Christianity they

abandoned the traditional drum and using the drum was seen as unchristian. However,

inspired by the revival movement, when the traditional drum interacted with the new

indigenous Christian hymns, the drum became more meaningful and a new type of

singing emerged. Therefore, using the drum in the church and social gathering is no

more seen as unchristian but rather as more spiritual and expressing Mizo Christian

identity.

306
In reinterpreting and reclaiming these traditional elements, the Gospel and Mizo

culture enriching each other and the question which remains is to what extent the

Mizo Christians are going to reinterpret their religio-cultural elements in

contemporary Mizo Christianity.

In An analysis of the mission of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram it can be

seen that the imported western theology is the pietistic evangelical exclusive theology

which captured the whole theological norms of the Mizo Christians. This mentality is

cultivated in the Mizo Christianity and they have the understanding that Christianity is

the only right religion and all other religions are false religions. Therefore, the

strategies of Mizo mission remain converting and saving souls and church planting.

Other forms of mission like development projects and social works are not regarded

as mission. As a result almost all the values of the Mizo culture and traditions were

marginalised as secular and pagan. Therefore, Christianity inevitably took the form of

the western image.

Secondly, from this study one can conclude that the existing Mizo theology of

mission interprets salvation in terms of „salvation of souls‟. It is true that a Mizo

theologian, Tlanghmingthanga pointed out that even today, the primary goal of Mizo

mission is „only for the salvation of the souls, neither including the whole person nor

creation‟.517 In fact, this dichotomized or dualistic view of salvation separates human

as having body and soul separately. According to the Mizo traditional concept,

humans possessed souls and bodies. Soul and body were seen as interdependent and

inseparable. If they were separated, the person would fall sick or ill or even die. The

517
Tlanghmingthanga, „Mizo Christian view of Eschatology‟ in Didakhe, vol. XXIV, No. 9, 1996, 10.

307
Mizo traditional view integrates body and soul and in the light of this view, the Mizo

understanding of salvation must be reinterpreted in terms of not only salvation of

souls, but also of the body and all creation. In this way this study enriches the Mizo

theology of mission and corrects the concept of salvation to include the social,

political, economic and other dimensions of life for the transformation of the society

here and now.

The view of the author is that western evangelical exclusive theology which the

Mizos inherited from the missionaries cannot cope anymore with the present context

with all its problems. The time has come to develop a Mizo theology of mission that

would squarely address the present reality by taking into account the social, economic

and political problems for the transformation of the society. Mizo spirituality must go

beyond the existing exclusive theological position. A new understanding of

ecumenism, which unites all the religions through co-operation and fellowship with

the purpose of achieving love and peace, social transformation, will generate deeper

spirituality in the inter-faith context. This new understanding, the new inclusive or

pluralistic religio-spirituality will bring a change in the existing Mizo theology of

mission.

In Towards a Mizo Theology of Mission, the concern of Mizo contextual theology is

how to articulate the faith of the community in Christ in a way which is

understandable and meaningful to the Mizo Christians in Mizoram. There is a need to

help the Mizo Christians understand and confess that Christ might become part of

their identity. The task of Mizo theology is to achieve this goal and for that purpose

the author has highlighted some of the Mizo traditional cultural practices as

308
postcolonial theological hermeneutics. It is expected that a new theology will be born

out of the interaction of the gospel and the Mizo culture.

Firstly, reinterpretation of Mizo traditional values such as the God-human-world

relationship makes a significant contribution to the emerging ecological theology for

the Mizo Christians. Since the issue of land is so fundamental in Mizo life, land for

the Mizos is sacred because it is the dwelling place of God, therefore it should not be

treated as a commodity or as space to be exploited. This new understanding calls for

new sensitivity in their relationship with the rest of the creation. It has also opened a

new way of theologizing to meet the ecological crisis and contributed a great deal to

the Mizo understanding of the relationship of God-human-world. To know that God

loves the world and makes revelation through nature and creation facilitates Mizo

Christians a holistic approach to salvation. The significance of this new interpretation

is that it serves as a corrective to the limited traditional interpretation of salvation that

excludes „nature and the world.‟ This initially brings out a new eco-spirituality in the

Mizo context.

Secondly, a Mizo feminist theology may be explained as a theology that seeks a new

community in which the traditional relationship of men and women is transformed by

the power of the gospel into a new relationship of equal partnership of men and

women. The Mizo feminist theology is commited to transforming the Mizo traditional

community transcending the old pattern and to building a new, just, participatory and

harmonious society, free from discrimination towards fellow human beings by fellow

beings on the ground of gender, colour and race.

309
Thirdly, reinterpreting Chapchar kut contributes alternative way of honouring Pathian

(God) by making peace, sharing resources, renewing moral and uniting all people to

build the reign of God here and now. The author believes that the rediscovery of the

Mizo tlawmngaihna has deepened the interconnection of the gospel of Christ and the

Mizo culture. Jesus was seen as possessing tlawmngai per excellence. Therefore, the

Mizo Christians realized and felt the presence of Jesus when they practised

tlawmngaihna in their daily lives. In this way Mizo Christians perceived that the

unbound Christ is present in their culture. Tlawmngaihna becomes spiritual and

transformative when it is used for solidarity with the poor, marginalised, the outcaste

and the oppressed to stand against injustice in the social, political and economic

system and thus address the present realities and transform the Mizo society.

In conclusion, the present Mizo theology is an exclusive converting approach which is

not relevant for today. It is necessary to change its content, strategy and approach into

a two way or dialogical cross-cultural approach. To construct a relevant Mizo

theology of mission, the Mizo Christians must critically analyse their past religio-

culture and traditions with the purpose of rediscovering and discerning the revelation

of God. It is also vital to criticize cultural transformation and changes not only in term

of going back to the cultural roots but also in the light of the Gospel in order to

discover relevant theological and missiological hermeneutics. This will re-root the

Gospel and contribute to a „theology of mission from below‟ which addresses

contemporary realities and fosters participation in the Missio Dei, in building the

reign of God here and now.

310
4. CHALLENGE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH:

This study is a single attempt to explore a contextual theology of mission in the Mizo

Christian context in Mizoram. It covers the encounter between Christian mission and

Mizo culture and the mission and evangelism work of the Mizo Christians. Therefore,

there are a number of other areas of subjects worthy of further research. For example,

the theology of Mizo Christian hymns would be both interesting and valuable

theological research as these hymns are the products of the Mizo Christians. It would

also be worthwhile to do further research on Christian mission from a dialogical

perspective which is concerned with mutual co-existence through tolerance with

neighbours of other faiths for the construction and enrichment of a Mizo contextual

theology.

311
 APPENDIX I

Personal Interviews:

Lalchhanhima, Interviewed. Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 19 July,

2009.

Lalhmingliana, K., Interviewed. Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 15 August,

2009.

Lalmuanpuia, Interviewed. Diphu: Mission Quarter, 23 July, 2009.

Lalrinawma, K., Interviewed. Aizawl: Salvation Army Headquarters, 19 August,

2009.

Lalsawma, Interviewed. Aizawl: Durtlang Presbyterian Hospital,

23 August, 2009.

Lianngaia, H., Interviewed. Aizawl: Baptist House, 19 August, 2009.

Ralte, Lalhruaitluanga, Interviewed. Aizawl: Synod Press, 11 September, 2009.

Ralte, Lalrinawmi, Interviewed. Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 21 August,

2009.

Roberts, Alwyn, Interviewed. Bangor, North Wales: 23 October, 2005.

Roberts, Imogen, P., Interviewed. Bala, North Wales: 24 October, 2005.

Vanlalbela, Interviewed. Aizawl: Synod Office, 19 August, 2009.

Vanlalchhuanawma, Interviewed. Aizawl: Aizawl Theological College, 16 August,

2009.

Zohminga, Interviewed. Hyderabad: Mission Quarter, 27 September, 2009.

312
 APPENDIX II

General Statistics of the Churches in Mizoram:

Name of the church Total members of the church

1. Presbyterian Church of Mizoram - 478853

2. Baptist Church of Mizoram - 113837

3. Salvation Army - 45038

4. Roman Catholic - 24081

5. Seventh day Adventist - 16982

6. United Pentecostal Church - 110941

7. Isua Krista Kohhran (Church of Christ) - 23535

From the above statistics it can be seen that the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram is
the largest church comprising 59% of the Mizo Christians. It is remains the oldest and
predominant Christian body in Mizoram. Therefore, one will not too bias if it is
projected as the representative body amidst the others.

Source: Statistical Handbook 2008, (Lunglei: Pastoral Department, BCM

Headquarters, Mualchin Publications & Paper works, 2008), 6.

313
 APPENDIX III

1. Lists of British Political Officers, North Lushai Hills:

1. Captain H.R. Browne - 1890 - September, 1890

2. R.B. McCabe - 1890 - 1892

3. A.W. Davis - 1892 - 1893

4. Captain G.H. Loch - 1893 - 1894

5. A. Porteous - 1894 - 1896

6. Major J. Shakespear - 1897 - April, 1898

2. Lists of Superintendents, Lushai Hills:

1. Major J. Shakespear - April, 1898 - 1899

2. Major H.W.G. Cole - 1899 - 1900

3. Major J. Shakespear - 1900 - 1903

4. L.O. Clarke - 1903 - 1904

5. Major J. Shakespear - 1904 - 1905

6. J.C. Arbuthnotth - 1905 - 1906

7. Major G.H. Loch - 1905 - 1906

8. Major H.W.G. Cole - 1907 - 1911

9. Major W.N. Kenedy - 1911 - 1912

10. Major G.H. Loch - 1912 - 1913

11. F.C. Heniker - 1912 -

314
12. J. Hezlett - 1912 - 1917

13. A. Playfair - 1917 -

14. H.A.C. Colquhoun - 1917 - 1919

15. W.L. Scott - 1919 - 1921

16. S.N. Mackenzie - 1921 - 1922

17. W.L. Scott - 1922 - 1923

18. S.N. Mackenzie - 1923 - 1924

19. N.E. Parry - 1924 - 1928

20. C.G.G. Helme - 1928 - 1931

21. Major A.G. McCall - 1931 - 1943

22. A.R.H. Macdonald - 1943 - 1945

23. J. Dumbrack - 1945 - 1946

24. A.R.H. Macdonald - 1946 - 1947

25. L.L. Peter - 1947 - 1949

26. S.N. Bhartakati - 1949 - 1951

315
 APPENDIX IV

Lists of Missionaries:

1. F.W. Savidge - 1894 - 1897

2. J.H. Lorrain - 1894 -1897

3. Rev. & Mrs. D.E. Jones - 1897 - 1926

4. Rev. Edwin Rowlands - 1898 - 1907

5. Rev. & Mrs. Robert Evans - 1907 - 1908

6. Dr. & Mrs. Peter Fraser - 1908 - 1912

7. Rev. Mrs. Frederick J. Sandy - 1914 - 1926

8. Rev. & Mrs. E. Lewis Mendus - 1922 - 1944

9. Miss A. Catherine M. Lewis - 1922 - 1925

10. Miss Katie Hughes - 1924 - 1962

11. Rev. & Mrs. Gwilyn Jones - 1927 - 1930

12. Miss Catherine M. Davies - 1927 - 1930

13. Rev. Dr. & Mrs. John Williams - 1928 - 1931

14. Miss W. Margaret Jones - 1928 - 1934

15. Rev. & Mrs. W. Hendry Williams - 1929 - 1932

16. Rev. & Mrs. Lewis Evans - 1929 - 1937

17. Rev. & Mrs. David Edwards - 1933 - 1938

18. Miss Eirlys Williams - 1933 - 1938

19. Miss Glady Evans - 1936 - 1962

316
20. Rev. & Mrs. Samuel Davies - 1937 - 1952

21. Dr. G. P. Roberts - 1938 - 1962

22. Miss Nancy Dorothy Harries - 1938 - 1940

23. Rev. & Mrs. Basil Edward Jones - 1942 - 1953

24. Rev. & Mrs. J. Merion Lloyd - 1944 - 1965

25. Miss Gwen R. Roberts - 1944 - 1968

26. Miss Edith M. Parker - 1945 - 19 51

27. Miss Imogen P. Roberts - 1947 - 1952

28. Miss Sybil Roberts - 1950 -

29. Miss Morfydd Jones - 1951 -

30. Rev. & Mrs. O. William Owen - 1952 - 1957

31. Dr. I. Bonar Lindsay - 1953 - 1954

32. Miss May Bound - 1954 - 1968

33. Miss Gwen C. Evans - 1958 - 1959

34. Rev. & Mrs. Bruce T. Nelms - 1959 - 1961

35. Rev. & Mrs. Alwyn Roberts - 1960 - 1967

36. Miss Joyce M. Horner - 1965 - 1968

37. Miss Mair A. Roberts - 1965 - 1968

317
 APPENDIX V

Zawlbuk

Zawlbuk was a big house built for young men to sleep together and keep vigil at night
against enemies. It was one of the most important social-political institutions in Mizo
history. Zawlbuk was the foundation of the Mizo tlawmngaihna (altruism) and the
centre of learning socio-religious matters. Missionaries often slept in the Zawlbuk and
preached the gospel to the Mizo young men. In this sense Zawlbuk was the forerunner
of Christianity in Mizoram. In spite of the advantages, the church was far from
enthusiastic about the perpetuation of the Zawlbuk system. How and why such
important institution has disappeared from the Mizo society is not known, but
emerging new culture introduced by the colonial administration and Christianity may
put the zawlbuk to an end.

Nowadays, zawlbuk could not continue to exist in its traditional form, but the spirit of
zawlbuk was resurrected in the Mizo society in a different form. As a result in all
villages and towns, a voluntary organisation called, „Young Mizo Association‟ is
formed in order to help people in various ways. Though no zawlbuk institution is to be
seen, but the spirit of zawlbuk together with tlawmngaihna has been still survived and
actively functioning within the Mizo community. The other significance of Zawlbuk
for the present Mizo Christianity is that some Mizo theologians have developed a
contextual Mizo ecclesiology on the basis of Zawlbuk institution.

318
 APPENDIX VI

Singing with traditional drums at the mual inkhawm (gathering together),

Aizawl, Mizoram, 2004.

All night singing and dancing was common in the Mizo traditional life. The success
of the traditional festival chapchar kut depended on how long the young men and
women could continue in singing and dancing. Khuang (Traditional drum) became a
routine part of singing in all the Mizo social and religious life. Even after they
embraced Christianity, lengkhawm or mual inkhawm (gathering together) became
unique features in Mizo Christianity. Either of the terms means formal and informal
get-together for singing and dancing with short sharing and prayers. The length of
time for which lengkhawm or mual inkhawm last is often taken as a measure of the
extent of the inspiration of the Holy Spirit or of revival enthusiasm. During the
missionary period singing with khuang (traditional drums) was discouraged and even
constrained in many places.

However, today singing with traditional drums has become a part of life in all
religious and cultural practices of the Mizo people. However, the use of the traditional
drum had to undergo some modifications in order to suit singing of the Mizo Christian
hymns as well as western songs. For revival singing two drums, one big and the other
small drum came to be used while western tunes were sung to the accompaniment of a
single drum. Therefore using traditional drum is no longer seen as unchristian, but
rather as more spiritual and expressing Mizo Christian identity. Khuang was re-rooted
and Christianised to be used in the Christian worship services and the community
gathering.

319
 APPENDIX VII

People singing and dancing at lengkhawm, Aizawl. Mizoram, 2007.

It used to be said that Mizos are by nature dancers. Even in the pre-Christian era
Mizos are danced in joy, in sorrow or in traditional festivals. Mizo traditional dancing
took different forms. When revival came to Mizoram, the features of revival dancing
were so typically Mizo that they shocked and repulsed the missionaries. Since the
missionaries at first strictly forbidden traditional and cultural dances, the dances in the
revival movement came in a modified form. Dancing then became an unbaptised but
tolerated element of worship services in the Mizo church since the Mizos ascribed
dances in the church to the work of the Holy Spirit. Therefore today, the Mizo
Christians dances in the church and at leng khawm.

In every Mizo church or leng khawm or mual inkhawm, a space is always reserved for
the people to dance. If people feel like dancing, they would go to the space provided
for dancing. They dance rotating anti-clockwise several times, mainly clapping their
hands and shouting “Halleluiah!” Sometimes hymns and songs are repeated several
times without stopping as the Holy Spirit prompted them to sing and dance. The
primary purpose of the researcher is that these dances reflect the traditional dances
that had been abandoned as pagan or worldly but reappeared in the Mizo churches.
The lost cultural elements are retrieved and transformed by Christianising various
dances into spiritual dances.

320
 APPENDIX VIII

Chapchar kut celebration, Aizawl, Mizoram, 2009.

Traditionally, chapchar kut was held as soon as the jhum had been cut. It lasts for
about a week and was a festival intended to be a festival of joy, all disputes and
differences should be settled. Everyone in the village have a role to play. Abundant
supply of meat and rice-beer must be over-flowing to keep the spirits high. They sung
and danced and make merry all night long. This was the most important festival in the
life of the Mizos. After Christianity was introduced in Mizoram, the missionaries and
early Mizo Christians regarded traditional festivals as an agent of demonic worships
and banned festivals like chapchar kut, thereby abolishing what they thought was
antichristian. Instead the missionaries introduced Christian festivals such as
Christmas, Good Friday and Easter.

However in recent years Chapchar Kut has been revived and is celebrated in a
different fashion to that of the past. It is now a festival for public entertainment and to
celebrate the ancient traditions, songs, dances and dresses of the different culture
groups of the Mizos. Though singing and dancing plays an important part in the
celebrations rice beer is no longer served in the festival. Chapchar Kut is seen as a
gift of God to the Mizos in which cultural renewal takes place and new cultural
development have been reformulated through chapchar kut. Chapchar kut is no
longer seen as a pagan festival but as a cultural festival with a new religious meaning,
crossing denominational barriers that gives corporate Mizo Christian identity as
Mizos and as Christians.

321
 APPENDIX IX

Mission fields of the Presbyterian Church of Mizoram.

The Presbyterian Church of Mizoram started her mission and evangelism work in a
small corner in Mizoram which is now expanded to different parts of India. The
Presbyterian Church of Mizoram is presently doing mission and evangelism work in
sixteen (16) mission fields as shown above. The Presbyterian Church of Mizoram has
continued to increase its missionary personnel, widen its mission fields and increase
its mission support resources at a remarkable rate over many years.

322
 APPENDIX X

Mizo missionaries are working in different parts of the world.

The Synod Mission Board has laid special emphasis upon partnership in mission with
other churches and international and national organisations to facilitate wider scope of
mission service. The Presbyterian Church of Mizoram is presently working in
collaboration with the following churches and mission organisations: Council for
world Mission (CWM), United Mission to Nepal (UMN), Church Missionary Society
(CMS), Operation Mobilisation (OM), Christian Reformed World Mission,
CONCERN, INTERSERVE, Indian Mission Association (IMA), India Evangelical
Mission, Friends Missionary Prayer Bands, Emanuel hospital Association,
Presbyterian Church of USA, Presbyterian Church of Wales, Presbyterian church of
Taiwan, Church of North India and Presbyterian Church of Sikkim.

323
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