FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

Why people f lee and the impact on family members

left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras

August 2017
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

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2
Foreword
Migration, food security, violence and climate variability have been studied increasingly in recent years,
both in Latin America and beyond, in an effort to better understand what drives people to leave their
homes and countries. Yet often these issues have been examined separately rather than together.

Migration from Central America to North America is not a new phenomenon, nor is it one that is likely
to end soon. The number of irregular migrants apprehended at the United States of America border
with Mexico increased fivefold from 2010 to 2015. The numbers of unaccompanied children picked up
arriving from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras surged between 2015 and 2016. This flow of people
coincided with a period of heightened food insecurity in the Dry Corridor that traverses these three
countries, known for its prolonged dry spells and droughts.

It is in this context that the World Food Programme (WFP), the Inter-American Development Bank
(IADB), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Organization of American States
(OAS) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) have come together to strengthen the
evidence base around these key issues to help inform policies and programmes in Latin America. This
study highlights the link between food insecurity and migration, and describes the main push-factors that
trigger the decision to leave one’s homeland, such as poverty, violence and climate variability.

Building on Hunger Without Borders, an exploratory study conducted in 2015 by WFP, IOM, OAS and
the London School of Economics, this report provides greater analysis of the dynamics of emigration
and its links to food insecurity, along with important insight into why people flee and into the impact
of emigration on the family who remain at their places of origin. The findings reveal some important
misperceptions about the role of remittances and bring to light the precarious situation of people
remaining at home without sufficient access to food.

We hope that this study will be a useful tool to strengthen the design of programmes and policies
targeting the most vulnerable population segments and catalyse discussions among governments,
development partners and civil society, all committed to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
and, in particular, reaching Zero Hunger. It is also our hope that this study highlights the importance
of long-term investments to enhance the food security and nutrition of people in the Dry Corridor of El
Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, as this may reduce their propensity to emigrate.

WFP presents this report recognizing that without the support of the IADB, IFAD, OAS and IOM, as well
as the governments of the three countries, the study could not have taken place.

Miguel Barreto
Regional Director for Latin America and the Caribbean
United Nations World Food Programme

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 3
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

Acknowledgements

This document is based on research conducted by the United Nations World Food Programme
(WFP) Regional Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean, with the participation of the
International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)
and the collaboration of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the
Organization of American States (OAS).

The research took place in the Dry Corridor of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. The authors
would like to recognize the invaluable collaboration of over 700 women and men from the
communities visited across the region, the local and municipal authorities, as well as volunteers
that facilitated the meetings.

Regis Chapman coordinated the work, while Byron Ponce-Segura managed the design, desktop
and field operations. Both officials are based at the WFP Regional Bureau for Latin America and
the Caribbean.

There is a large list of outstanding collabourators to this study: WFP Country Directors: Nils
Grede in El Salvador, Pasqualina Di Sirio in Honduras and Mario Touchette in Guatemala, as well
as their teams; Marcelo Pisani IOM Regional Director for Central America, North America and
the Caribbean and the IOM country teams; the Central America, Mexico, Panama and Dominican
Republic Country Department at the Inter-American Development Bank, ADB, where statistical
and econometric analysis were conducted using government and WFP databases.

Various consultants and WFP staff supported the fieldwork. Danilo Palma Ramos supported the
design of the methodology and led the field coordination in all three countries. The field team
in El Salvador was composed of Olga Lucía Rodríguez (team leader) and Nidia María Umaña as
well as and WFP staff Vittorina Sola and María Cristina Gálvez. In Honduras, the team leader was
Mercedes Elena Flores, who was supported by Ana Ruth Reyes, from (IOM), as well as Harieth
Marizol Nuñez, Rosa Mercedes Escolán and Mario Guillermo Suazo. Guatemala´s team was led by
Arandi Melgar Castro, with support from Luis Guillermo Guerra Bone, Verónica Tobar Rodríguez
and Nidia A. Ramírez Campos.

Special thanks go to Marcia Bebianno Simoes, Migration Specialist of the Social Inclusion
Department of OAS; to Joaquin Lozano, Director for Latin America and the Caribbean, as well
as to Pedro Tigre De Vasconcelos, from the IFAD Policy & Technical Advisory Division for their
support and contribution to the report. From the Panama Regional Bureau, we would like to
recognize VAM analysts Ana Gómez-Sánchez and Annette Castillo. Sincere thanks also go to
Angela Koch-McBerry for editing, Maarten Immink for his kind review and Annalissa Tabarini for
translating from English to Spanish. Finally andrea Cristina Ruiz, intern from Columbia University,
joined the team in the last stages and made important contributions. A number of other WFP
staff were also critical to the completion of this work.

4
Executive summary
Building on the results and recommendations of Emigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala and
the exploratory study on the links between Migration Honduras returned by the Mexican authorities to
and Food Security (“Hunger without Borders”, 2015), their respective countries of origin were primarily
WFP and its partners decided to further study men (79 percent) and 50 percent of them were
linkages between food insecurity and migration, working in the agricultural sector before migrating.
relying on qualitative and quantitative analysis. Emigrants reported the lack of employment or
economic hardship (65 percent), followed by low
Emigration (or out-migration) trends in Central income and poor working conditions (19 percent)
America are conditioned by political and socio- and violence and insecurity (9 percent) as the
economic conditions in the region and increase main reasons for migrating. Family reunification
in response to civil strife and poverty. This study was only indicated as a reason in one percent of
collected and analysed data on food security and the responses, according to official reports.
environmental and climatic factors as potential
triggers for out-migration. The geographical focus The Dry Corridor is generally characterized
of the study was El Salvador, Guatemala and by high unemployment, limited and seasonal
Honduras, particularly the most vulnerable part of labour demands and low and irregularly
these countries known as the Dry Corridor. paid wages. More than half of the households
interviewed reported spending more than two
The propensity to migrate from food thirds of their income on food, which reflects
insecure regions of Central America is higher a high level of economic vulnerability to food
among the younger and more vulnerable insecurity. Recent years have seen household food
people. While migration from Mexico to the USA production further reduced due to poor rainfall
diminished in recent years, the flow of emigrants and droughts linked to the El Niño phenomenon.
from El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras has Outside the Dry Corridor, employment
increased substantially since 2010. While the opportunities in coffee production have also been
proportion of women and young people among the reduced due to the coffee rust crisis. Adverse
emigrants from the Dry Corridor increased in the climatic conditions in the Dry Corridor affect
past two years, the majority of people leaving their food security by curbing agricultural productivity
country are men. in commercial and subsistence farming as well
as agricultural work opportunities. The El Niño
According to the United States Customs and Border drought conditions that started in 2014
Protection (CBP), the number of “illegal aliens” caused a significant increase in irregular
as defined by the CBP, who were “apprehended” migration to the USA.
or detained in the Southwest border region of the
USA, increased from around 50,000 during the For this study, three national teams visited key
fiscal year (FY) 2010 to more than 250,000 in districts, previously identified by key informants
FY 2014. Although the number of apprehended as having significant emigration to the USA. In
declined in FY 2015 to 218,810 people, in FY 2016, addition, secondary data analysis was conducted
this number increased to 408,870. Although more using information provided by Mexican and and
apprehensions do not necessarily imply a greater USA migration authorities.
migrant flows, apprehensions are often considered
as a proxy indicator of the total number of persons This information was complemented with key
who attempt to cross the border irregularly during informant interviews, separate focus group
a certain period. discussions with men and women and a household
food security survey. The survey targeted families
The almost 50 percent increase from FY 2015 to where members had left the country since the last
FY 2016 in the number of unaccompanied children El Niño episode (2014-2016).
(persons 16 years old or under) apprehended by
USA border authorities is of great concern.

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 5
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

A qualitative study was conducted in 22 communities the general causes of emigration, followed by
of the Dry Corridor in the three countries. Fifty-four reduced agricultural productivity, adverse climatic
key informants were interviewed, while some events such as droughts, pests that result in
660 community members participated in 44 focus crop losses and the widespread occurrence of
group discussions (one for men and women in violence. The high rates of food insecurity found
each location). Participants in the focus group in the households that participated in this study
discussions estimated that around 35 percent demonstrate the linkages between emigration
of emigrants from El Salvador, 25 percent from and food insecurity. Nearly half (47 percent)
Guatemala and 9 percent from Honduras travelled of the families interviewed during this study
with a valid visa but then stayed in the USA were food insecure (38 percent were moderately
beyond the validity of their visas. Those who food insecure and 9 percent were severely food
travel with valid visas usually have the necessary insecure). These levels of food insecurity
financial and social capital to facilitate their have not been previously seen in the region,
journey. However, migrants who travel without including in the results of various assessments
valid visas often use a migrant smuggler, pay high over the past three years that focused on drought
costs and acquire debt, often using their assets and the effects of El Niño in the Dry Corridor.
(such as a house and/or land) as collateral.
The findings revealed that nearly three-
Thus, emigration negatively impacts family quarters (72 percent) of households
members left behind, who have to assume the are already applying emergency coping
debts incurred. Debts levels increase in cases of strategies: such as selling land. Again, this is
unsuccessful emigration. Successful migrants well above what is normally seen in the region in
provide vital support to the family who is left times of shock. What increases concerns is that
behind by regularly sending remittances. none of the households had the capacity to apply
less extreme “stress coping” strategies, as they
In the cases of successful emigration, 78 percent had already depleted such options. This reflects a
of households in the home country receive monthly concerning cumulative effect over time on food
“remittances”, of which 42 percent indicate that insecurity, as well as the very limited resilience
remittances are their only source of income. such households have to protect themselves
More than half of the funds are used to buy food, against shocks and their effects.
followed by agricultural investments (buying land
and animals) and investments in small businesses. While only 19 percent of interviewed
Remittances are also spent on education and households had unacceptably low food
healthcare. Improved family well-being, especially consumption levels, the lack of dietary
enhanced diets, are some of the main impacts of diversity is of major concern, even among
remittances on households in the home country. those households with adequate total consumption
levels. This finding is not new for the Dry Corridor,
When those families do not receive remittances but it raises concerns about overall dietary
or other assistance, their economic situation quality and its impacts on health and nutrition.
progressively worsens. This may also result in Guatemala, in particular, has levels of food
changes in the division of labour in the family. consumption that point to a major problem, with
Those household shifts may result in household 42 percent of interviewed households having poor
members assuming different roles with related or borderline food consumption levels.
negative consequences. For example, women
often have to undertake the agricultural activities Violence also plays an important role in serving as
of departed men on top of their traditional a reason for migration in El Salvador, where it was
domestic responsibilities. Overall, emigration reported as a sensitive trigger, while in Guatemala
reduces the available work force and if not offset and Honduras it was found to be less important.
by remittances, typically results in increased food
insecurity and deepening of poverty. The information collected through this study allows
for the development of several policy and programmatic
There is clearly is a link between food recommendations aiming at mitigating the impact
insecurity and emigration from the three of the variables acting as emigration push-factors,
countries. Poverty and unemployment are with a focus on food insecurity.

6
 is an imprecise geographic zone with
The Central homogeneous agroclimate, ecosystems, Resilience of livelihood
American and livelihoods. Poor distribution of irregular systems is decreasing
Dry Corridor rain, drought, environmental degradation, and
low crop yields create vulnerability. Households in the Dry Corridor are
exposed to poverty, climate
change, extreme climate events,
violence and food insecurity. Percentage of population
living in the Dry Corridor

of households
62% in the Dry Corridor Source: WFP
El Salvador Guatemala Honduras

of the above households live

80% below the poverty line, and

Source: FAO
30% are in extreme poverty.

Country area inside the Dry Corredor

El Salvador 58%
Area: 14,829 mi2

Guatemala 38%
Area: 25,895 mi2
Municipality assessed
Honduras 21%
Dry Corridor Area: 7,629 mi2

Municipal boundary
Source: WFP
Map source: United Nations World Food Programme, 2016

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras
Drought periods 2000-2001, CEPREDENAC, 2001;
Climate Risk Index from CIAT, 1999

7
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

Focus and Objectives of the Study

The focus of this study has been on “out-migration” The three main study objectives are as follows:
(emigration) across state borders in El Salvador, 1. To identify the push-factors for out-migration
Guatemala and Honduras and its impacts on food from communities in the Dry Corridor of
and nutritional security. El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras and
determine the extent to which food insecurity
constitutes one of these motivating factors;

APPREHENSIONS BY MEXICAN AUTHORITIES

AND HISTORIC PRECIPITATION DEFICIT

“The United States is the

primary destination for
emigrants from
El Salvador, Guatemala
and Honduras”.

Precipitation Apprehensions UNACCOMPANIED CHILDREN

ENCOUNTERED BY USA AUTHORITIES

• Approximately 79% of
migrants are men, most are
20-29 years old

• Approximately 21% of
migrants are women

• Half of deportees worked in

agriculture before migrating

• One third of returned migrants

have up to six years of
formal education

EMIF-SUR, 2015

8
 2. To understand how migration affects those left Recent years have witnessed an increase in the
behind, namely regarding the households’ and number of emigrants from the countries of the
the communities’ food and nutritional security. study to the USA and the sharp increase in the
numbers of accompanied and unaccompanied
3. To review the potential effects of violence both children is particularly striking.
on food insecurity and out-migration and provide
some recommendations on protection elements. Emigration peaks, as captured by statistics, are
conditioned by natural disasters, climatic shocks
The study explores the relationships between and socio-economic conditions affecting the
migration and food security, as well as some studied countries. This study found a correlation
manifestations of violence and its potential effects between the number of foreigners presented to
on emigration and food insecurity. Other elements, Mexican immigration authorities and the effects of
such as climate change, natural disasters and El Niño on agriculture.
poverty, are considered but without the detail
given to the first two variables. Increasingly more women tend to migrate as a
Methodology
Methodology in Graphics
proportion of all migrants: around 15 percent of
returned migrants in 2009 were women compared
to 21 percent in 2015 (EMIF-SUR, 2015).
Country SV GT HN
Returned migrants increasingly come from rural areas,
Secondary data
review:+90 documents
31 percent in 2009 and 52 percent in 2014. This
is consistent with the finding that an increasing
18 22 14 54 key informants number of migrants returned by Mexico previously
worked in the agricultural sector: 41 percent in
16 16 12
660 people in 2009 and 53 percent in 2015. On the other hand,
44 focus groups returned migrants who previously worked in the
42 40 41 123 household surveys construction sector decreased from 25 to
15 percent in the same years.

Migration: Status, trends, shocks Studies by IFAD and the the Washington based
and push factors Inter-American Dialogue found that in Guatemala
food insecurity is linked to drought. However, it
The percentage of the total population of was noted that natural disasters do not determine
El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras living migration in the short-term but are factors
abroad, as per a 2013 report from the Migration that contribute to more long-term and gradual
Policy Institute, was 18, 8 and 12 respectively. Up migration patterns.
to 80 percent of them reportedly live in the USA.

Shocks become push factors that lead to migration

Migration
“Shocks are not mutually exclusive and are often reinforcing”
Resilience
Migration is Sale of land compromising
the ultimate and other
Economic Environmental Social coping strategy productive assets

Sale of
non-livelihood assets
Indebtedness Climate variability Family separation Reducing
resilience
Unemployment Extreme weather Violence Taking on debt

Low wages Soil erosion Extortions

Readjusting finances
Dependence Natural disasters (consumption)
Resilience
on agricultural neutral
day labour
Reducing consumption

Shocks to income and food Shocks become push- Households respond to shocks from stress
production decrease food security factors for migration to emergency as shown above

El Salvador 52%

Guatemala 54%

Honduras 68% Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 9

Unemployment in the Dry Corridor

according to key informant
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

REASONS FOR EMIGRATION IN SURVEYED COMMUNITIES

Survey

No food No money No job Crop loss Other

Family reunification Forced to leave Violence

People’s voices in the Dry Corridor: unemployment (Honduras) as the main reasons for
Shocks and Push Factors emigration, followed, in the same country order,
by poverty and unemployment; unemployment
It is already recognized that environmental, economic and crop losses; and poverty and search for
and social shocks are triggers of emigration. better opportunities. In general, “drought and its
consequences” was identified as the main problem
Extensive consultations in the Dry Corridor of El for the studied period of time. Key informants also
Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras help to reveal identified family reunification as a pull factor of
what the official figures often fail to capture. emigration.
WFP conducted several household Emergency
Food Security Assessments (EFSA) due to El Poverty is playing a critical role in emigration.
Niño between 2014 and 2016. For the surveyed The poorest cannot affort to pay migrant smuggler
emergency-affected population, considering the six fees, making the trip more risky. If this option
main reasons to emigrate, the highest percentage is chosen, they use their houses and small land
say “no food” is the most important reason, other plots as collateral. If deported in the attempt to
reasons are shown in the illustration. reach the USA, they end up losing their livelihood
assets and end up in a worse situation, including
The focus group discussions of this study identified exacerbated food insecurity.
violence (El Salvador), poverty (Guatemala) and

10
The full page graph on page 12 visualizes all patterns; however, as the situation deteriorates,
factors related to migration from the surveyed they move to livelihood-affecting strategies which
areas, the methods employed, the possible reduce their resilience to future shocks. They
outcomes, the effect of remittances and the stated that emigrating is a last resort. This decision
impacts of emigration on the households. brings with it not only the hardship of the journey
for the individual but a series of effects both for
Households first try to cope with shocks using the emigrant and the family left behind. This is
temporary measures which primarily affect captured in the infographic below.
their level of expenditure and food consumption

Possible emigration outcomes for both the migrating

person and the family at point of origin.

Permanent
reduction in
No remittance household Increased
income, size work burden
expenses

Increased
Increased spending
likelihood of
additional debt
Prison
Lost in Death
transit

Debt to cover
Difficulty Extended shortfall and
to invest unemployment new journey
with unstable Deportation
income appearance
Dis
Periodic U
unemployment
ns e
l
try fu

Remittances
ucntry

Increased
en ess

cover debt Exposure

and basic needs chance of
ce

to violence,
c

Gainful second journey

extortion and
Suc

ssfu

Families employment, organized crime

make consistent
investments remittances
l

Family in home contries Emigrant Possible outcomes for Emigrant Family in home countries

Immediately after emigration households face income shocks and adapt

to a smaller household with additional work for each family member left behind.

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 11
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

EMIGRATION: THE CAUSAL MODEL

Coping Strategies
PUSH FACTORS: PULL FACTORS:
Natural disasters Family reunification
Decision to emigrate

Expected economic
Climate change & Emigration improvement
variability: Prospect of aiding family
Crop failure Safety
Drought/flood/frost/heat Sale of productive assets,
compromised livelihood
Socio-economic:
Lack of income Selling assets, taking equity,
opportunities borrowing from network, entering debt
Poverty
Violence Reduction in consumption and spending;
Food insecurity redistribution within the household
Methods of emigration

Legal process / Asylum

Family support:
Irregular Regular Savings,
Emigration mortgaging
Migrant smuggler Overstay visa: Resident Visa assets, asset
method Independent temporary labour, Labor permit, sales, debt
networks tourist, etc. temporary labour

Overstay visa
Emigration
outcomes

Disappearance Unsuccessful entry Successful entry

Organized Lost
Remittances and

Extended Periodic Gainful

crime Death in Prison Deportation unemployment unemployment employment
victim transit
emigration

Extortion, Unpayable Increase likelihood Need to finance Steady income

violence debt of second attempt shortfall following shortfall

No remittances and No remittances Intermittent Consistent

more expenses remittances remittances

Unpaid debt Struggle to repay debt Pay off debt and recover
Impact on households
in home country

Increased debt burden Some debt payments Remittances cover debt

Loss of livelihood assets when remittances are and become an income
Increased, extended available source
burden on women and Extended economic stress Increase in consumption
children Increased, extended Possible investment
Increased vulnerability burden on women and Increased resilience to
Exposure to violence children shocks
Strained networks Possible loss of assets or Food security
Family stress debt burden
Food insecurity Family stress
Food insecurity

12
Food insecurity and migration: consumption with a peak of 42 percent in
the connections Guatemala. Because a diet based on beans, maize
and oils can be calculated as acceptable, those
The incapacity to properly feed the family can results do not represent good dietary diversity,
become an emigration push factor. To validate which in general showed poor results. WFP
the answers provided by the key informants and measurements of food consumption place a high
the focus group discussions, the ten Emergency value on both proteins and fats, noting that a diet
Food Security Assessments (EFSA) conducted by high in beans (proteins) and oils (fats) results in good
WFP since the start of the El Niño crisis provided food consumption, even if the diet is not diverse.
important evidence, which was complemented with However, like the overall levels of food security,
the household food security assessment that was these results are extremely high compared to
conducted as part of the study. previous assessments in the three countries.

Combined into one dataset, the previous EFSAs It also supports the statement that food
reported a significant rate of food insecurity: insecurity causes emigration and emigration
32 percent. This was enough to justify a WFP can cause [more] food insecurity.
regional food assistance intervention. After
extracting and reprocessing the data of households Impacts of emigration and links
reporting a recently emigrated family member, the with debt and remittances
levels of food insecurity rose to 43 percent. Then,
after several consecutive failed crop seasons, “the Emigration can have both positive and negative
survey of households with recently emigrated impacts. The positive side is mainly about remittances
family members, which was conducted as part of and the changes in the economic situation for the
this study, revealed a 47 percent rate of food family that they can create, depending on the
insecurity. This value is unprecedented in the amounts received and the regularity of transfers.
region and is comparable with humanitarian crises
in other parts of the world. The priority use of remittances is on food (this
was unanimous among men and women, whether
This is not a minor finding. It shows that food they were interviewed as key informants or part of
insecure families use emigration as the ultimate a focus group). In Guatemala and Honduras, basic
coping strategy, with very high risks in terms of needs such as education and medicine rank second,
personal security during the journey and for the while other investments rank third. The priority in
Local socioeconomic levels of emigrants’ famili
capacity of relatives left behind to create resilience El Salvador is the inverse of the above.
to shocks and be able to improve their livelihoods.
Key respondent reporting of numbers
The indicator used by WFP to measure the severity of emigrants according to socio-
economic levels
of coping strategies and how they compromise
livelihood systems shows that 72 percent of
Country Total
interviewed households applied emergency type
coping mechanisms.
ES
On average, close to 20 percent of the families
8 14 0 22
surveyed in 2016 had unacceptable food
Entire sample 5 9 1 15
32%

Only with emigrated

relative 2014-2016 3 8 0 11
43%
Total 16 31 1 48
2016 Study Estimates
Low socio- Middle socio- High socio-
47% economic
level
economic
level
economic
level

LOCAL SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL

FOOD INSECURITY OF EMIGRANTS’ FAMILIES

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 13
 FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

able 18: Existence of food insecurity

AND AFTER EMIGRATION
in emigrants’
FOOD INSECURITY OF FAMILIES BEFORE
families before and after emigration
transfer can be as low as US$50 and as high as
1,000. Higher amounts are received to pay the
emigration debts. Migrant smuggler fees across
the region range from US$3,500 up to US$15,000.
Estimated percentage of families with
migrant members who… On the negative side, the poorer and more
indebted the emigrant family is, the more severe
Country are the negative impacts.

Women and children are affected. If the man

33% 27% 40% emigrated, the women must add the responsibility
for productive activities, including agriculture, to
55% 35% 10% their workload. In some cases, children also have
to contribute to the productive activities of the
household, which is an example of the numerous
NK NK NK protection issues that need to be considered linked
to emigration.
Received food assistance before departure
of family members
When the emigrant is deported or does not reach
Received food assistance after the departure
of family members the destination for different reasons, the burden
No food assistance neither before nor after of the debt becomes unsustainable. People who
departure of family members offered their houses or their land as collateral for
the trip debt can become destitute, as the research
NK Not Known
team confirmed.
Note: The term “food assistance” can include distribution
of food rations, as well as other food-related assistance
such as vouchers for purchase of food in markets. Another negative outcome is that many families of
unsuccessful emigrants become dependent on food
The testimonies of the contacted households in the assistance due to lack of support. In some places,
Dry Corridor area of El Salvador, Guatemala and relatives of emigrated people (successful or not)
Honduras indicate that on average 61 percent of are subject to extortion based on the assumption
them receive remittances, although only that they are receiving remittances.
34 percent receive them monthly. The monthly

DIFFERENT IMPACTS OF EMIGRATION, BY COUNTRY

It is the
same

We are now
receiving
remittances and
live better

We became
more poor

Work was
abandoned

Aquired
Debt
0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

El Salvador Guatemala Honduras

14
 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions
8 1
VIOLENCE &
EMIGRATION
FOOD AND
TRENDS
NUTRITION
IN CENTRAL
SECURITY

7
AMERICA

SURVIVAL
STRATEGIES
2
8
CAUSES OF
OF FAMILIES
EMIGRATION
THAT DO NOT
RECEIVE
REMITTANCES
Types of
6
IMPACTS OF
Conclusions 3
COMPLEX
EMIGRATION ROLE OF
POVERTY

5 FOOD
CLIMATE
4
CONDITIONS
SECURITY AND FOOD INSECURITY
EMIGRATION & EMIGRATION

1. EMIGRATION TRENDS countries. The population describes this in several

ways, including the “inability to put enough
IN CENTRAL AMERICA
food on the table”. Family reunification is an
1.1. Adults still constitute the majority of emerging motive for emigration, particularly for
emigrants from the Dry Corridor of the three accompanied and unaccompanied children. The
Central American countries, but the proportion of above motives are not mutually exclusive and
accompanied and unaccompanied children people often emigrate for multiple reasons.
has increased in the last years. It is expected
that the results from this study will strengthen the 2.2. The high prevalence of food insecurity found
ongoing efforts of governments and partners to among the families with members who have
address and reverse this trend. emigrated suggests that food insecurity may be
both a cause and a consequence of emigration.
1.2. Successful emigrants can become a source
of support for family members who stay behind, 2.3. One of the main goals of emigration is
once they establish themselves in the destination generate income that can be sent back home
country, by sending back remittances. Those as remittances, in order to repay debts, support
emigrants who are apprehended on route to their families to meet current basic needs and to make
final destination and are deported back to their investments for a better life. Violence and the need
communities (about half of all emigrants), very to escape from life threatening situations has also
often try again, as reaching their destination is been mentioned as a motive for emigration, but
the only way to repay debts acquired to cover mostly in El Salvador.
the emigration costs. The economic situation
of the family is likely to worsen with each new 3. COMPLEX ROLE OF POVERTY
attempt, given the high emigration costs.
3.1. Legal travellers who become irregular emigrants
2. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION (by overstaying their visa) usually belong to households
at the relatively higher socio-economic level.
2.1. Poverty and unemployment are the most
common causes of emigration, followed by 3.2. Some irregular emigrants belong to families
problems linked to agricultural losses and adverse at a middle socio-economic level. Their jobs
climate events (drought, high temperatures and (before departure) did not provide regular and
pests), as well as high levels of violence in some comparatively good income and kept them in a

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 15
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

state of economic uncertainty and vulnerability. In 3.7. There is a large difference between the minimum
turn, this economic insecurity can induce a level and maximum values of the remittances (US$50
of food insecurity that starts as moderate and can to US$1,000/month) received by remaining
become severe over time. family members. Without knowing how much
each individual family receives, it is not possible
3.3. In addition to the economic problems they to estimate which families continue to be food
face and their inability to feed their families insecure despite the support from abroad and
properly, emigrants from middle and low socio- which families improve their financial situation.
economic strata have to acquire debts (with family
assets as collateral) to pay for the emigration 3.8. If remittances can provide for improved food
journey to the USA or elsewhere. access, but do not sufficiently offset debts incurred
to finance emigration costs, or offset labour force
3.4. For the poorest strata of the population, using losses, the net result will be continued economic
a migrant smuggler is not an affordable option hardship. As a result, when remittances are not
- unless they have a relative who has previously productively exploited, even families who regularly
emigrated and can cover the costs. Most emigrants receive remittances appear to be stuck in a
in this category attempt to go on their own poverty trap and/or potential need to emigrate.
(without using a migrant smuggler) with increased
risks of not reaching their intended destination. 4. CLIMATE CONDITIONS, FOOD
Their departure can translate into destitution for
INSECURITY AND EMIGRATION
relatives who stay behind.
4.1. Adverse climate conditions in the Dry Corridor
3.5. Poverty is also described by emigrants’
negatively affect food and nutritional security
families as a lack of capacity to adequately feed
through declines in the local production of food, as
family members and pay for other basic needs.
well as a reduced availability of agricultural work
opportunities. There appears to be a connection
3.6. There is often a perception that families with
between the appearance of El Niño in 2014 and an
members who have successfully emigrated to the
increase in irregular emigration to the USA.
United States have adequate resources due to the
remittances they receive. This does not account,
4.2. Members of families affected by the drought
however, for the costs of emigration and the
are 1.5 percent more likely to emigrate than
impacts on the family members who stay behind.
similar households elsewhere. Although this is
This study finds that those remittances do not
a low value, the significance lies in the fact that
always fully cover the total costs of emigration for
the correlation between drought occurrence
family members, at least in the short to mid-term.
and emigration is positive and the probability of
The study found that 40 percent of households
emigrating is higher than that of families who are
with emigrants have acquired debt and that
not from the Dry Corridor.
remittances do not begin at the time of emigration.
When remittances do begin to flow, most of
4.3. It clearly emerges from several studies
the income goes towards debt repayment and
that climate change and emigration are strongly
consumption of basic foods. In the cases where
linked. The present study did not have a focus on
emigrants stabilize and get gainful employment,
climate change. However, challenges stemming
more than half of the remittances are used
from climate variability, poor rainfall distribution
to buy food in the three countries, followed
and drought, were identified in this study as key
by agricultural investments (buying land and
push factors for temporary and/or permanent
animals and investments in small businesses) in
emigration, reflecting a response to environmental
El Salvador. The second destination in Guatemala
adversity. Smallholder farmers, poorer fisher folk
and Honduras is education and healthcare. The
and other IFAD target groups are among the ones
study also found that in some cases, families who
who suffer the most from climate change. With
receive remittances are automatically excluded
the region expected to face multiple impacts of
from social programmes, in certain cases with the
climate change in the years ahead, migration may
approval of other community members.
increase its shift from affected rural areas to other

16
areas that experience lower environmental risks, • On average, a third of the families are
including neighboring countries. considered as having sufficient access to
food, be it through their own activities or with
4.4. On the other hand, communities affected support from remittances.
by drought conditions are also affected by • Another third of the families have some access
unemployment, short duration of seasonal labour to food but no long-term economic security.
demand, as well as by low and irregularly paid They consider emigration as an option. They
wages. Emigration is a common coping mechanism tend to look for and take advantage of, local
in these communities. food assistance programmes.
• The third group, represented respectively
4.5. It would be incorrect to conclude that in by 35%, 40% and 27% of the families
general, families are worse off when migrating. in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras,
The positive impact of remittances can be respectively, live in extreme poverty, have
observed sometimes by simple observation, inadequate access to food and would emigrate
but for the analysis of vulnerability and food if an opportunity presented itself.
insecurity, the attention of this study goes to those
cases where the cycle of getting employment, 5.4 When a desperate situation forces the
sending remittances to pay debts and stabilizing poorest families to emigrate, they take the
remittances to normal and regular levels are not highest risks relative to dangers for survival
reached. and sustaining their livelihood. Community
members and key informants consider food assistance
5. FOOD SECURITY AND as a mitigating factor to help solve some of their
situation; they highly valued this assistance and
EMIGRATION
related it to avoiding “forced” emigration.

5.1. Food insecurity, seen by the population as

the inability to bring food to the table, can
trigger the decision to emigrate. Moreover, the
family members who stay behind can go through
Will emigrate
a period of aggravated problems to cover their
if opportunity
food needs because they lost a food provider,
arises
they are indebted and, in the case of those who
are deported or die during the journey, the crisis
can extend and even lead to losing the family Considering
livelihood. migration

5.2. The proportion of food insecurity among Not considering

families with a recently emigrated member is very migration
high as per the WFP Food Security Index: 47%
of households were found to be food insecure.
This included 38% with moderate food insecurity
and 9% with severe food insecurity. These high Enough food from remittances and other income
levels of food insecurity have not been
Access to food in economic instability
seen in the region before, including during
the repeated food security emergency Live in extreme poverty

assessments conducted by WFP since El Niño

5.5. Some 70% of the families with recently
emerged in 2014, (please refer to figures 14, 15
migrated relatives in El Salvador and 58% in
and 16 in the main report using the link provided
Guatemala, stated that they had not participated
on the cover).
in food assistance programmes before or after
the departure of their relatives. Receiving food
5.3. The conclusions with respect to food access
assistance has been very important for families
and according to a socio-economic classification of
with recently emigrated relatives. Whilst having
families provided by community members and key
members of the family living abroad is not a
informants, are as follows:

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 17
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

selection criterion for WFP food assistance 6.1.3 When emigration is motivated to escape
programmes, (although it becomes important threats of violence, successful emigrants may
when communities make their recommendations on gain personal security at their destinations.
the families who are to receive assistance), the high However, they may have to endure violence
rates of food insecurity among these families during their migration journey.
suggest the conclusion that food insecurity is
not only a cause for emigration. It is also an 6.1.4 If well managed, remittances enable
outcome which needs to be fully understood children of recipient families to receive proper
if appropriate actions are to be identified to education and then become productively
mitigate the effects of emigration. employed in a variety of activities.

5.6. Food assistance is considered very important 6.2. Negative impacts for family members in the
particularly during the period when the emigrant place or origin:
settles down at his/her destination, finds a job, is
able to send remittances and the family who 6.2.1 When funds to emigrate come from loans or
stayed behind repays loans and other debts. sale of properties and assets, then debts, mortgages
Despite the importance of food assistance during and economic scarcity lands on the relatives who
this settling-in period, its role may be much stay behind. Their economic situation is negatively
more important before emigration takes place, impacted and may become aggravated over time,
to mitigate the push effect of food insecurity and when they receive little by way of remittances or
avoid negative outcomes. any other assistance. Acquired emigration debts
have to be repaid, independently of whether
6. IMPACTS OF EMIGRATION the emigrant successfully reached the intended
destination and engaged in gainful activities or
6.1. Positive impacts on family members at the not. Indebted deportees many times cannot go
place of origin back home because creditors will be asking for
payment of the debt.
6.1.1 In the case of emigrants who manage
to reach the USA, an average of 78% of their 6.2.2 When women replace absent men in
families report receiving US$50 to US$1,000 a agricultural labour and production, an added
month by way of remittances. Those receiving burden is introduced for them, as this is usually
higher amounts are likely to repay debts. The added to their normal household and child-caring
amount tends to decrease and stabilize after responsibilities. During the stressful period
debts have been repaid. Once stabilized, more between the start of the emigration journey and
than half of the remittances are used to buy receiving assistance, women have to take care of
food; followed by agricultural investments all family needs and may have to engage in extra
(buying land, animals) and investments in economic activities to survive. The above can
small businesses. Left-over funds are allocated translate into further food insecurity.
to education, medicine, utility bills, or buying
home appliances. There is an undetermined 6.2.3 Emigration reduces the labour force of
period between when emigration takes place and the family, which may have a negative impact
the receipt of the first remittances to support on agricultural production, livestock rearing and
family consumption. Economic stress is very other economic activities and thus decrease
high during this period. One of the main impacts family incomes.
of remittances is to improve the families’ well-
being, especially their food consumption. 6.2.4 Family disintegration, alteration of family
structure and functions and increased perception
6.1.2 There are positive and negative effects on of vulnerability and danger are socio-psychological
women when men emigrate. Women take charge, impacts of emigration. The above increases the
managing the remittances and family resources. burden on family members who stay behind and
This is likely to have a positive effect on food can lead to exposure to new risks.
consumption and on the wellbeing of the family
as a whole, making women’s empowerment an
important area for action.

18
 6.2.5 As reported by community members, there support and may eventually also provide economic
are cases where young family members who support.
benefit from remittances end up abandoning
school and jobs and may get involved in drug 7.4. WFP has been providing food assistance to
consumption or illegal and violent activities. vulnerable families in the Dry Corridor. They were
This is clearly a protection issue of concern for targeted because of the drought and crop losses.
humanitarian organizations and communities It also became apparent that many of these
alike. The study did not include data to analyse families have recently migrated relatives and had
the impact of remittances on education. But not received any remittances. Food assistance is
it may be assumed that the positive impact described by these families as life-saving. Food
of remittances on supporting educational insecurity among families with emigrated members
opportunities for young family members will is high in the Central American Dry Corridor, as
outweigh any negative impacts. evidenced by the WFP food security emergency
assessments in the three countries studied.

Positive Negative

One less family member

Families can cover basic needs
When remittances Increase work burden
Invest in the household
cover debt Socio-psychological impacts
Invest in education
Reliance on networks and community

If emigrant is fleeing violence, Sale of household assets

When remittances
they gain security Additional burden on women´s time
do not cover debt

7. SURVIVAL STRATEGIES OF 8. VIOLENCE, FOOD AND

FAMILIES THAT DO NOT RECEIVE NUTRITIONAL SECURITY
REMITTANCES
8.1. The term “violence” includes extortion,
7.1. Relatives who stay behind often have to gangs, threats, assaults, robbery and domestic
assume the work (crops, domestic animals) violence, as well as gender based violence and
previously undertaken by the emigrant(s) or take death sentences for youngsters who refuse to join
on wage labour jobs (jornaleo, domestic services) or collabourate with gangs. There are differences
and this may be the case whether the family between El Salvador and the other two countries in
receives remittances or not. terms of the role that violence plays in emigration
decisions and food and nutritional insecurity.
7.2. Returnees may be able to repay emigration In El Salvador, violence was mentioned without
debts if they manage to earn and save money restrictions (unlike Honduras) and came up as an
when abroad. To pay off debts they may sell important push-factor for emigration. The role of
properties and assets, obtain credits and loans, violence in Honduras is not clear due to the self-
or ask for help from someone in the USA. There restriction by community members to discuss it
are reportedly many indebted returnees in the openly. For Guatemala, the discussions were open
emigrants´communities who were caught and and violence did not come up at the top of the
deported upon arrival, who may also face higher triggering factors.
levels of indebtedness and possibly livelihood loss.
8.2. In the three countries, the families receiving
7.3. Emigrants´ families and returnees (voluntary remittances can be the subjects of threats
and deported) look for the support of organizations and extortion. While in El Salvador violence
that are present in their communities. Some was identified as a factor severely affecting
of them are international organizations, which normal economic activities, in Guatemala and
provide institutional and legal support, as well Honduras this does not receive the same level
as contacts with assistance programmes. Others of consideration, which does not mean that the
are local entities, which provide legal and political problem is inexistent.

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 19
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

8.3. Only in El Salvador was it reported that The spike in recent emigration levels as well as
voluntary and deported returnees engage in increased numbers of unaccompanied children
violent actions. are a concern. Protection issues related to family
members who stay behind also need to be addressed.
8.4. The interviewed citizens consider violence as
a cause of both poverty and losing the capacity to 8.6. Protection needs to be mainstreamed into
properly feed their families. Violence represents existing social assistance programmes in the
restrictions to work and a constant loss of already Dry Corridor. Furthermore, governments and
restricted economic resources. Violence also create organizations with a Protection mandate must
Protection issues. consider how to better address these specific
issues along the emigration chain, both for family
8.5. The journey´s risks related to informal members who stay behind and for the broader
emigration are well known and documented. community in areas with high levels of emigration.

Recommendations

Reducing International
vulnerability cooperation
Resilient livelihoods
Prevent food insecurity
Hazard monitoring
and emigration
Risk insurance
Strengthen policy & action
Community involvement
frameworks
Infrastructure & services
Promote regional alliances
Local market opportunities

Response
to migration
crisis

Social Early response

Protection,
protection Protection
prevention and
related Migration Crisis Operational
adaptation
Framework
Targeting vulnerable Targeted food assistance Legal, social, &
households psychological support
Public social protection Community involvement
sensitive to food insecurity Support deported returnees
Gender & family composition Address violence as cause
Develop crisis modifiers of emigration
Reduce influence of Gender transformative
push-factors approach
Attend seasonal stress
Link remittances with
financial inclusion

20
The findings of the study lead to certain reflexions Financial mechanisms need to be created to ensure
regarding required policies and actions to deal with access to agricultural inputs for food production
emigration from the Dry Corridor of the three (cereals and pulses), as well as technical
countries. They lay the foundations for specific assistance and insurance schemes.
areas of actions to mitigate the emigration push-
factors through actions like social safety nets, Recognizing the increasing frequency of water
gender empowerment and protection measures. stress, dry spells and droughts in the Dry Corridor
Research needs can also be identified to help and using a resilience approach, it is important to
shape prevention, mitigation and response create programmes to improve water management,
measures to reduce the impacts of emigration on such as small irrigation schemes, protection of
vulnerable populations. water sources and agriculture diversification in
areas identified as priority. These efforts, as well
It is expected that the study findings provide as community-based social safety nets aiming
valuable input for policy and programmatic to increase food availability and access, need to
decisions by the three Governments as well as be strengthened and integrated into community,
WFP and its partners. The study also provides district and departmental development plans.
justification for actions and investments for a large
number of institutions and stakeholders. This will These efforts need to recognize the dynamics of
necessarily require broadly based consultations the Dry Corridor, each of the three countries and
among all actors: governments, international the sub-region. In particular, while larger-scale
organizations, local authorities, civil society investments in agricultural infrastructure would
organizations and the communities where emigration result in higher gains in production, the particular
originates. Some general recommendations to vulnerability of many households who benefit
guide actions are identified below. from agriculture in the area would not necessarily
decrease. This is due to a combination of land
REDUCING VULNERABILITY tenure issues (not addressed in this study) and
historical precedents in which such investments
TO PUSH-FACTORS
often result in advantageous purchases of improved
lands from marginal households.
Resilience and Climate Change Adaptation
Related
Promote risk reduction approaches to make
communities less vulnerable to shocks. Strengthen
Climate surveillance initiatives and trend
informal and formal institutions at the local level
analyses of climatic variables affecting crop
with the aim to enhance the coping capacity of
production, combined with soil use/productive
the communities and make them more resilient
capacity and natural disaster monitoring, should
through measures designed to prevent, respond
be strengthened with the aim to identify critical
and recover from crisis situations.
areas that will incorporate special preventative
emigration measures (geographical targeting). The
Measures are needed to create local market
use of WFP´s Integrated Context Analysis could be
opportunities for diversified food production by
one tool to facilitate this analysis and should be
small-scale producers.
promoted across the three countries as a starting
point. This will bring together a wide range a
When food assistance is provided by WFP, or
partners, including national authorities and other
others, to mitigate push-factors for emigration
development-oriented actors.
or to respond to emergencies, the seasonality of
food production and the length of the lean season
To enhance climate variability resilience, more
should be considered to determine the duration
comprehensive climate change adaptation efforts
of the assistance. This should be done instead of
need to be pursued through a combination
limiting assistance to a specific period independent
of both community-based and institutional-
of aggravating factors.
strengthening initiatives. In particular, integration
with risk transfer schemes, such as weather-based
parametric insurance for vulnerable farmers, might
be a promising opportunity.

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 21
FOOD SECURITY AND EMIGRATION

Responses to migration crises Improve education coverage and training services

to teach income-generation skills for children and
For the studied countries, it is important to youth, with incentives to stay in school. Support
improve and systematize the way in which they school meals transfers and connect school feeding
respond to the assistance and protection needs of programmes with local small-scale producers, thus
crisis-affected, vulnerable populations. creating new local markets for food production,
while also working with those producers to
A useful tool for them to develop these kind of improve product quality and supply consistency.
responses is the Migration Crisis Operational
Framework (MCOF), which is an analytical and Introduce disaster risk reduction and food and
operational tool designed to enable countries to nutritional security to agricultural development
provide a holistic response to the complex nature initiatives, directly engaging national authorities,
of crisis-generated population flows. Therefore, local governments and communities, promoting
it looks at all phases of a crisis (before, during, partnerships among local actors and community
after) as a whole and considers the specific needs empowerment.
and vulnerabilities of crisis-affected migrants who
fall outside of existing protection frameworks. Recognizing the high transfer costs of sending
Accordingly, the MCOF aims to identify and address remittances back home, discuss with Remittance
institutional and operational gaps that exist in the Service Providers (MTOs, FinTechs, mobile
current set-up of international responses to crises companies, MFIs, banks, postal operators and
with a migration dimension. The Framework thus others) how to lower transfer costs, facilitate
allows countries to respond to migration crises in a transfers into the most remote areas and link them
more coordinated, inter-connected way. to additional financial services in order to promote
financial inclusion. The idea is to approach money
Social protection related transfer companies to suggest and support
linkages with financial institutions so recipients
Considering the long chain of events that are can be linked with financial products through their
required for remittances to turn a positive remittances. In other words, promote the linkage
balance in the life of the most vulnerable, it is of remittances and financial inclusion which, as
recommended that food security programmes and has been demonstrated so far, notably by IFAD, to
other social programmes should increasingly take be one of the greatest development impacts that
into account the vulnerability level of families with remittances can have at the family unit level. In
recent emigrants. This should apply to public social terms of reducing the cost, the rationale is that
protection programmes and to assistance provided greater competition – innovation in the market
by international and national organizations. place coupled with an enabling environment
The family composition should be considered, (regulatory framework) – will expand the market
particularly the number of small children and by providing recipients with more options while
elderly persons and whether the family is headed reducing transaction costs.
by a woman.
Adequately Addressing Protection,
Develop crisis modifiers within social protection Prevention and Adaptation Issues
schemes to be alerted through surveillance
of emigration push-factors at community and Provide legal, social and psychological support for
household levels. The aim is to prevent or offset families with members who emigrated and who
in a timely manner the increasing pressure of have compromised their livelihoods due to debts,
these push-factors. This can also be informed by mortgaged assets and loss of family labour. This
ongoing work by study partners, as well as by must be a community-driven initiative to ensure
an ongoing WFP and Oxford Policy Management proper targeting, making communities full partners
study on Shock Responsive Social Protection. and empowering them to make protection and
The aim should be for social protection systems prevention decisions that affect the community
to increasingly emphasize the importance of and the families with members who emigrated. It
adaptation and seasonal stresses while, also also involves the involvement of the beneficiaries
potentially serving as a tool to define unexpected in the participatory monitoring of activities and
needs following a shock. also of the implementers.

22
Support deported returnees with protection INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
services, particularly when violence was the
AND NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
push-factor for emigration and create incentives
to restore their livelihoods through the provision
Preventing emigration caused by food
of a minimum set of resources.
insecurity should be strengthened in national
initiatives linked to the SDGs and should be
Governments and the international community
fully incorporated in relevant social protection,
need to recognize that violence, particularly in
violence, as well as environmental management
El Salvador but possibly also in other Central
policy and action frameworks.
American countries, is effectively a humanitarian
emergency. Violence has significantly impeded
National Governments should take into
development and while the levels of violence in
consideration the identified effects of food
the three countries of the study do not represent a
insecurity on emigration to promote public
traditional conflict but criminal acts, the impacts of
policies and development plans focused on the
violence are creating humanitarian needs.
vulnerabilities of the Dry Corridor of El Salvador,
Guatemala and Honduras.
There is a need to further ensure that gender
needs are addressed, equal opportunities are
Promote regional alliances (UN and other
created and assistance to the most vulnerable
international development agencies, donors
people prioritized with gender transformative
and financial institutions, Civil Society), starting
approaches. As more men than women emigrate,
with the stakeholders of this study to support
the women who stay behind have to assume new
the government’s public policies and action
responsibilities, including in agricultural production
frameworks to reduce food and nutritional
and in managing the family resources, in addition
insecurity, violence and climatic events related
to their traditional tasks. Women’s empowerment
to emigration.
must prepare them to assume these new
roles. This calls for targeted actions aimed at
All initiatives of the UN system addressing
empowering women and to strengthen solidarity
protection concerns should include a focus on food
networks among women.
security and nutrition for an integrated approach.

As it is foreseeable that climate change might

Joint efforts to reduce migration and promote
continue during the near future, developing viable,
human development, such as the alliance for
specific solutions and policies (including National
prosperity, should take into consideration long-
Adaptation Plans) to reduce forced movement is
term investment in food security and nutrition.
essential. Also important, such forced movements
should be transformed into well-managed
relocations within internal borders to help foster
the resilience of individuals and communities,
consequently creating diverse opportunities for
livelihoods.

Why people flee and the impact on family members left behind in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras 23
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For more information contact:

Regional Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean
World Food Programme
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Buildings 124-125 – City of Knowledge,
Clayton, Panama City / Tel: (507) 317-3900