Respiratory System

The respiratory system consists of organs that are linked together which exchange
gases between the atmosphere and the blood.
Function:
- provides oxygen to the body
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Moistens and warms the air we breathe
These organs are the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe),
bronchi and lungs.

- Upper respiratory tract: Nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx

- Lower respiratory tract: Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and
alveoli

The respiratory system consists of two parts.

1.  The upper respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and

associated structures
2.  The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
lungs.

Functionally, the respiratory system also consists of two parts. 

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1. The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes

both outside and within the lungs.

Parts include nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
and terminal bronchioles.

Function is to filter, warm, and moisten the air and conduct it into the lungs. 

2. The respiratory zone consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas
exchange occurs.

Parts include:

- Respiratory bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs
- Alveoli

Function: main sites of gas exchange between air and blood.

Parts:

1. Nasal cavity
Inside they are curved shelves of bone called conchae.  The surface of these
conchae are lined with ciliated respiratory epithelium, which secretes
mucus and fluid. 
At rest, inspired air first flows in through the nasal cavity.
- During inspiration (inhalation), air passes through the nostrils into the
vestibule of the nose, before entering the nasal cavity. The epithelium of the
nasal cavity contains structures that warm the air and filter out particulate
material, such as dust and pollen. Air then passes from the nasal cavity into
the larynx.

2. Pharynx
It is a funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm long and located posterior to the nasal
and oral (mouth) cavities and above the oesophagus and larynx. Its wall is
composed of skeletal muscles and is lined with a mucous membrane. It is a
common pathway for the respiratory and digestive tracts, allowing both air
and food to pass. Contraction of the skeletal muscles assists in deglutition
(swallowing). The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food
and provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds. 

The pharynx can be divided into three anatomical regions: 

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1. Nasopharynx - The superior portion of the pharynx. Lies posterior to the nasal

cavity and extends to the soft palate
2. Oropharynx - The intermediate portion of the pharynx.  Lies posterior to the
oral cavity. 
3. Laryngopharynx - The inferior portion of the pharynx. At its inferior end it
opens into the oesophagus posteriorly and the larynx (voice box) anteriorly. 

3. Larynx
A short tube comprised of several cartilages connected by ligaments and
muscles. It is a short passageway that connects the laryngopharynx with the
trachea. The larynx houses the vocal folds and manipulates pitch and volume,
which is essential for speech It lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the
oesophagus.
- Epiglottis is a flap of cartilage located at the entrance to the larynx. It acts as a
switch between the larynx and oesophagus. During breathing, it allows air to
travel through the larynx into the trachea. During swallowing, it closes over
the larynx so that food enters the oesophagus (located posterior to the
larynx). Food or fluid that accidentally enters the larynx, will initiate
the coughing reflex.

4. Trachea
It links the upper airways to lungs. It runs down the neck and into the chest
anterior to the oesophagus. It consists of C-shaped rings of cartilage
(connected by smooth muscle)  that maintain an open lumen for the passage
of air. This structure is located directly anterior to the oesophagus. 

The trachea divides into the right main (primary) bronchus, which goes into the right
lung, and a left main (primary) bronchus, which goes into the left lung. The
point where the trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi is called
the carina. On entering the lungs, the main bronchi divide to form smaller bronchi
called the lobar (secondary) bronchi. The lobar bronchi continue to branch, forming
still smaller bronchi, called segmental (tertiary) bronchi. The segmental bronchi then
divide into bronchioles. Bronchioles in turn branch repeatedly, and the smallest ones
branch into even smaller tubes called terminal bronchioles.

5. Bronchi
The trachea splits into two primary bronchi which enter each lung.
Within the lung, the bronchi split into smaller secondary bronchi which enter
separate lobes.
Within the lobes, they split into even smaller tertiary bronchi.
6. Bronchioles
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Bronchioles are the smallest airways of the respiratory tract with a diameter
of 1mm or less. They get smaller with each successive branch point where one
branch divides into two.
The most distal branches are referred to as respiratory bronchioles. 
7. Alveolar ducts and alveoli
The alveolar ducts are passageways that connect the respiratory bronchioles
to the alveoli.
Alveoli are thin-walled, elastic buds at the end of the respiratory tree.
There are approximately 300–600 million alveoli.
Collectively, they provide a relatively large surface area for gas exchange
(equivalent to a tennis court!)
The walls of the alveoli are very thin, consisting of a single layer of cells.
8.

The respiratory system can be divided functionally into the conducting zone and

the respiratory zone. Airways branch several times along the respiratory tract. At
each airway division, the airway may branch into two or more smaller passageways. 
The conducting zone encompasses airways from the level of the pharynx, larynx, and
trachea, extending down to the terminal bronchioles. 
The respiratory zone encompasses the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and
alveolar sacs.
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Lungs
- Primary organs of the respiratory system. 
- They extend from the diaphragm to just slightly superior to the clavicles and
lie against the ribs anteriorly and posteriorly.
- Due to the space occupied by the heart, the left lung is about 10% smaller
than the right lung. Although the right lung is thicker and broader, it is also
somewhat shorter than the left lung because the diaphragm is higher on the
right side, accommodating the liver that lies inferior to it. 

The lungs are separated from each other by the heart and other structures of the
mediastinum, which divides the thoracic cavity into two anatomically distinct
chambers. As a result, if trauma causes one lung to collapse, the other may remain
expanded. Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous
membrane called the pleural membrane

Pleural membrane
Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous membrane called
the pleural membrane. 

- The superficial layer, called the parietal pleura, lines the wall of the thoracic
cavity;
- The deep layer, the visceral pleura, covers the lungs themselves. 
Between the visceral and parietal pleurae is a small space, the pleural cavity,
which contains a small amount of pleural fluid.  
Pleural fluid function:
- Reduces friction between the membranes, allowing them to slide easily over
one another during breathing.
- It causes the two membranes to adhere to one another just as a film of water
causes two glass microscope slides to stick together, a phenomenon called
surface tension
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The terminal bronchioles subdivide into microscopic branches called respiratory

bronchioles. Respiratory bronchioles, in turn, subdivide into several (2–11) alveolar
ducts. 
Around the circumference of the alveolar ducts are numerous alveoli and alveolar
sacs.  
An alveolar sac consists of two or more alveoli that share a common opening.
The respiratory bronchioles also have alveoli budding from their walls. Alveoli
participate in gas exchange, and thus respiratory bronchioles begin the respiratory
zone of the respiratory system
The walls of alveoli consist of two types of alveolar epithelial cells.
- The more numerous type I alveolar cells form a nearly continuous lining of
the alveolar wall. The thin type I alveolar cells are the main sites of gas
exchange.
- Type II alveolar cells, also called septal cells, are fewer in number and are
found between type I alveolar cells. Type II alveolar cells secrete alveolar
fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist. Included in
the alveolar fluid is surfactant. Surfactant lowers the surface tension of the
alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse. 

Contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles change the volume of the thoracic
cavity and the pressure within it. These changes facilitate airflow in to and out of the
lungs.

Diaphragm

A large muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contraction of the
muscle causes it to flatten.

This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, lowering the pressure within it and
allowing the lungs to fill with air. Relaxation of the muscle causes it to become dome-
shaped, which decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity and raises the pressure
within the cavity. This helps push air out of the lungs. The diaphragm is the primary
muscle involved in breathing.
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External intercostals

The external intercostal muscle fibers run downward and forward between the

ribs. Contraction of the muscles raises and rotates the ribs to increase the volume
of the thoracic cavity. These muscles are involved in quiet and forced inspiration.

Internal intercostals

The internal intercostal muscle fibers run downward and backward between the
ribs. Contraction of the muscles pulls the ribs downward and inward. This decreases
the volume of the thoracic cavity and assists in forced expiration. 

Abdominal muscles

The abdominal muscles relax during inspiration. They contract during forced
expiration, and help decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity by pushing the
diaphragm upwards.

Accessory muscles of respiration

When respiration is more vigorous (or in lung diseases where breathing is difficult),

the accessory muscles of respiration become active. These include the
sternocleidomastoid and the scalene muscles of the neck.
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