EE208 Chapter 1 Magnetic circuits and magnetic materials.

1. Basic concepts of electrical machines

This chapter briefly reviews the mechanics of systems rotating about a single axis and
introduces the sources and effects of magnetic fields important in the understanding of
transformers, motors, and generators.
Machine design is an important part of engineering applications, but what is a machine?

Figure 1:Typical machines

Machine definition
 A machine is a device that comprises of stationary parts as well as moving parts
combined together to generate, transform or utilize mechanical energy. Machines are
made up of elements (parts or units) whereby each element is a separate part of the
machine and it may have to be designed separately. Each element in turn can be a
complete part or made up of several small pieces which are joined together by riveting,
welding etc. Several machine parts are assembled together to form what we call a
complete machine.
 An electrical machine is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical
energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy. When such a device is used to convert
mechanical energy to electrical energy, it is called a generator. When it converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy, it is called a motor. Since any given electrical
machine can convert power in either direction, any machine can be used as either a

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 generator or a motor. Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from
one form to another through the action of a magnetic field.
 The transformer is an electrical device that is closely related to electrical machines. It
converts ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical energy at another
voltage level. Since transformers operate on the same principles as generators and
motors, depending on the action of a magnetic field to accomplish the change in voltage
level, they are usually studied together with generators and motors.
These three types of electric devices are so common because electric power is a clean and
efficient energy source that is easy to transmit over long distances and easy to control. Electric
motors in the home run refrigerators, freezers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, air conditioners,
fans, washing machines, electric gates, lawn mowers, microwaves, and many similar
appliances. In the workplace, motors provide the motive power for almost all tools. Generators,
of course are necessary to supply the power used by these motors.
Heat or mechanical energy can be converted to electrical form at a distant location, the energy
can be transmitted over long distances to the place where it is to be used, and it can be used
cleanly in any home, office, or factory. Transformers aid this process by reducing the energy
loss between the point of electric power generation and the point of its use.
Machines obey the law of conservation of energy which states that the total energy of an
isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time. This law means that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred
from one form to another. What we term ‘energy losses’ is in fact energy transformed to an
unwanted form such as heat energy in a machine.
Rotational motion, Newton’s law and power relationships
Almost all electrical machines rotate about an axis, called the shaft of the machine. Because of
the rotational nature of machinery, it is important to have a basic understanding of rotational
motion.
In general, a three-dimensional vector is required to completely describe the rotation of an
object in space. However, machines normally turn on a fixed shaft so their rotation is restricted
to one angular dimension.
For rotation about a fixed shaft, all the concepts in this section reduce to scalars. Each major
concept of rotational motion is defined below and is related to the corresponding idea from
linear motion.
Angular Position θ
The angular position θ of an object is the angle at which it is oriented, measured from some
arbitrary reference point. Angular position is usually measured in radians or degrees. It
corresponds to the linear concept of distance along a line.

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 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 360°
Angular Velocity ω
Angular velocity (or speed) is the rate of change in angular position with respect to time. It is
assumed positive if the rotation is in a counterclockwise direction. Angular velocity is the
rotational analog of the concept of velocity on a line. One dimensional linear velocity along a
line is defined as the rate of change of the displacement along the line (r) with respect to time.
𝑑𝑟
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, angular velocity ω is defined as the rate of change of the angular displacement θ with
respect to time.
𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
If θ is measure in radians then the units for ω are radians/sec.
In dealing with ordinary electric machines, engineers often use units other than radians per
second to describe shaft speed. Frequently, the speed is given in revolutions per second or
revolutions per minute. Angular velocity can be denoted by the following symbols:
𝜔𝑚 : angular velocity expressed in radians per second
𝑓𝑚 : angular velocity expressed in revolutions per second
ƞ𝑚 : angular velocity expressed in revolutions per minute
The subscript m on these symbols indicates a mechanical quantity as opposed to an electrical
quantity.
ƞ𝑚 = 60𝑓𝑚
𝜔𝑛
𝑓𝑚 =
2𝜋
Angular Acceleration α
Angular acceleration is the rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time. It is assumed
positive if the angular velocity is increasing in an algebraic sense. Angular acceleration is the
rotational analog of the concept of acceleration on a line. Just as one-dimensional linear
acceleration is defined by the equation
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
Angular acceleration (measured in radians per second squared)

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 𝑑𝜔
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡

Torque τ
In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to change. In the absence of a
net force on the object, its velocity is constant. The greater the force applied to the object, the
more rapidly its velocity changes. There exists a similar concept for rotation. When an object is
rotating, its angular velocity is constant unless a torque is present on it. The greater the torque
on the object, the more rapidly the angular velocity of the object changes.
Torque can loosely be called the "twisting force" on an object. Intuitively, torque is fairly easy to
understand. Imagine a cylinder that is free to rotate about its axis. If a force is applied to the
cylinder in such a way that its line of action passes through the axis (Figure 2a), then the
cylinder will not rotate.

Figure 2 a) force applied to a cylinder so that it passes through the axis of rotation, τ=0. b) A force applied to a cylinder so that
its line of action misses the axis of rotation hence τ is counterclockwise.

However, if the same force is placed so that its line of action passes to the right of the axis
(Figure 2b), then the cylinder will tend to rotate in a counterclockwise direction. The torque or
twisting action on the cylinder depends on
1) the magnitude of the applied force and
2) the distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.

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The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and the
smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the object's axis of rotation. If r is
a vector pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, and if F is the
applied force, then the torque can be described as
Ƭ=force applied*perpendicular distance
Ƭ = (F)*(r sin 𝜃)
Ƭ = r F sin 𝜃
Where θ is the angle between the vector r and the vector F. The direction of the torque is
clockwise if it would tend to cause a clockwise rotation and counterclockwise if it would tend to
cause a counterclockwise rotation (figure 3). The SI units of torque are Newton-meters.

Figure 3: Derivation of the equation for the torque of an object

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Newton's Law of Rotation
Newton's law for objects moving along a straight line describes the relationship between the
force applied to an object and its resulting acceleration. This relationship is given by the
equation
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
where
F = net force applied to an object (Newton)
m = mass of the object (Kg)

a = resulting acceleration (𝑚𝑠 −2)

A similar equation describes the relationship between the torque applied to an object and its
resulting angular acceleration. This relationship, called Newton’s law of rotation, is given by the
equation
Ƭ =J𝑎
where Ƭ is the net applied torque in newton-meters and 𝑎 is the resulting angular acceleration
in radians per second squared. The term J serves the same purpose as an object's mass in linear
motion. It is called the moment of inertia of the object and is measured in kilogram-meters
squared.

Work, W
For linear motion, work is defined as the application of a force through a distance.
In equation form,

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟
where it is assumed that the force is collinear with the direction of motion. For the special case
of a constant force applied collinearly with the direction of motion, this equation becomes just

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑟
The SI units of work are joules.
For rotational motion, work is the application of a torque through an angle. Here the equation
for work is
𝑊 = ∫ Ƭ𝑑𝜃

And if the torque is constant,

𝑊 = Ƭ𝜃

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Power, P
Power is the rate of doing work, or the increase in work per unit time. The equation for power
is
𝑑𝑊
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡
It is usually measured in joules per second (watts), but also can be measured in horsepower. By
this definition, and assuming that force is constant and collinear with the direction of motion,
power is given by
𝑑𝑊 𝑑 𝑑𝑟
𝑃= = (𝐹𝑟) = 𝐹 ( ) = 𝐹𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is given by
𝑑𝑊 𝑑 𝑑𝜃
𝑃= = (𝜏𝜃) = 𝜏 ( ) = 𝜏𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃 = 𝜏𝜔
The last equation is very important in the study of electric machinery, because it can describe
the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or generator.
This equation is the correct relationship among power, torque, and speed if power is measured
in watts, torque in newton-meters, and speed in radians per second.

2. The magnetic field

Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from one form
to another in motors, generators, and transformers. Four basic principles describe how
magnetic fields are used in these devices:
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through
that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action.)
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced in it.
(This is the basis of motor action.)
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. (This is the
basis of generator action.)
Definitions
1. Magnetic flux 𝜙: It is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force)
produced by a magnetic source.
𝜙 is measured in Weber (Wb)

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 2. Magnetic flux density B: This is the amount of magnetic flux passing through a defined
area that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux.
𝜑
𝐵= (Weber/𝑚2)
𝐴

The SI unit of flux density is the Tesla

3. Magnetomotive force (m.m.f/𝐹𝑚 ) is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 𝑁𝐼 (Ampere-turns)
where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is current (A)

4. Magnetic field strength/ magnetising force H is in a sense a measure of the "effort" that
a current is putting into the establishment of a magnetic field.

Where ɭ is the mean length of flux path (in metres)

5. Reluctance S: The resistance of an electric circuit limits the current that can flow for an
applied e.m.f. Similarly in a magnetic field, the flux produced by a m.m.f is limited by
reluctance. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the opposition it offers to the
existence of a magnetic flux in it.
𝐹𝑚 𝑁𝐼 𝐻𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑆= = = = =
𝜙 𝜙 𝐵𝐴 ( 𝐵 )𝐴 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐻
−1
S is measured in 𝐻 or A/Wb
The reluctance of magnetic materials is low (in the same way that the resistance of
electrical conductors is low) compared to the reluctance of non-magnetic materials
which is high.
6. Permanence: It is the reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or readiness with
which magnetic flux is developed. Permanence is analogous to conductance in an
electric circuits.

Permeability
Permeability of free space:
If the magnetic field exists in a vacuum, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetic field
strength is a constant called the permeability of free space 𝜇0 .

(for a vacuum)

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 ∗ 10−7 𝐻/𝑚

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 𝜇0 is used as the reference from which the permeabilities of all other materials are measured.
Relative permeability 𝝁𝒓 is the ratio of flux density produced in a material to the flux density
produced in air.

where 𝐵1is the material’s flux density and 𝐵0 is the flux density for air.

For air or any other non-magnetic material, 𝜇𝑟=1. In other words these materials have the same
magnetic properties as a vacuum.
The absolute permeability µ is the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetic field strength for
a given magnetomotive force.
𝐵
𝜇=𝐻 (Henry/m)
𝐵
𝜇 = 𝜇0𝜇𝑟 therefore 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 𝐻

The magnetisation (B/H) curve

A magnetisation curve is the graph of the flux density produced in a magnetic circuit as the
𝑁𝐼
magnetic field strength is varied. Since 𝐻 = then for a given magnetic circuit, the field
𝑙
strength may be varied by varying the current through the coil.
If the magnetic circuit consists entirely of air or any other nonmagnetic material then, the
resulting graph will be a straight line passing through the origin. This is because 𝜇𝑟 = 1 for non-
𝐵
magnetic materials therefore the ratio 𝐻 remains a constant.

For magnetic materials however, due to magnetic saturation the relative permeability does not
remain constant for all values of applied field strength.
Magnetic saturation
This effect can be explained by Ewing’s molecular theory that states that each molecule in a
magnetic material may be considered as a minute magnet in its own right. When the magnetic
material is unmagnetised these molecular magnets are oriented in a completely random
manner. Thus the material has no overall magnetic polarisation.

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 Figure 4 Material before magnetisation

As the coil magnetisation current is slowly increased, so the molecular magnets start to rotate
towards a particular orientation. This results in a certain degree of polarisation of the material.

Figure 5 Partially magnetised material

As the coil current continues to be increased so the molecular magnets continue to become
more aligned. Eventually the coil current will be sufficient to produce complete alignment. This
means that the flux will have reached its maximum possible value. Further increase of the
current will produce no further increase of flux. The material is then said to have reached
magnetic saturation.

Figure 6 Magnetically saturated material

Typical magnetisation curves for air and a magnetic material are shown in Figure 7. The flux
density produced for a given value of H is very much greater in the magnetic material. The slope
𝐵
of the graph is𝐻 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 and this slope varies. Since 𝜇0 is a constant, then the value of 𝜇𝑟 for the
magnetic material must vary as the slope of the graph.

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 Figure 7 Magnetisation curves

Magnetic hysteresis
Hysteresis comes from a Greek word meaning ‘to lag behind’. When the magnetic field strength
is varied, the flux density displays a lagging effect. A hypothetical magnetic material is initially
unmagnetised. If no current flows through the magnetising coil then both H and B will initially
be zero. The value of H is now increased by increasing the coil current in discrete steps. The
corresponding flux density is then noted at each step. If these values are plotted on a graph
until magnetic saturation is achieved, the dotted curve (the initial magnetisation curve) shown
in figure 8 results.

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 Figure 8 Hysteresis loop

Let the current now be reduced (in steps) and the corresponding values for B again noted and
plotted. This would result in section AC of the graph which shows that when the current is 0
once more (so H=0) B, the flux density has not reduced to 0. The flux density remaining is called
the remnant flux density OC. This property of a magnetic material to retain some flux after the
magnetising current is removed is known as remanance or retentivity of the material.
If the current is now reversed and increased in the opposite direction, the residual flux will be
opposed. The flux B is reduced until at some value of –H it reaches zero (point D on graph).The
amount of reverse magnetic field strength required to reduce the residual flux to 0 is known as
coercive force. This property is called coercivity.
If current is further increased in this direction, the material will once more reach saturation
(point E) of the opposite polarity to that achieved at point A.
Once again the current may be reduced to zero, reversed and then increased in the original
direction. This takes the graph from point E back to A passing through points F and G on the
way. Residual flux density shown as OC has the same value but opposite polarity to that shown
as OF. Similarly coercive force OD=OG
In taking the specimen through the loop ACDEFGA we have taken it through 1 complete
magnetisation cycle. The loop is referred to as a hysteresis loop. Taking a material through the
magnetic cycle leads to loss in energy. This energy is directly proportional to the area under the
BH curve.

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Magnetically hard and soft materials
A hard magnetic material is one which possesses a large remanance (it retains most of its
magnetism when the magnetising current is removed) and a large coercivity (it is difficult to
demagnetise). These materials ( such as steel,cobalt steel,Alnico, ferroy, Samarium-
cobalt,Neodyium iron boron) are used to form permanent magnets and will have a very fat
hysteresis loop as shown in figure 9a.
A soft magnetic material (such as soft iron and mild steel) retains very little of the induced
magnetism. It will therefore have a relatively thin hysteresis loop as shown in figure 9b. The soft
magnets are the ones used for most engineering applications for example in circuits for rotating
electric machines (motors and generators), relays and the cores for inductors and transformers.

Figure 9 Hysteresis loops for a) magnetically hard material and b) magnetically soft material

When a magnetic circuit is subjected to continuous cycling through the loop a considerable
amount of energy is dissipated. This energy appears as heat in the material. Since this is
normally an undesirable effect, the energy thus lost is called the hysteresis loss. Thus the
thinner the loop, the less wasted energy. This is why soft magnetic materials are used for the
applications listed above.

3. Magnetic circuits
A magnetic circuit may be defined as the route or path followed by magnetic flux.
The laws of magnetic circuits are quite similar but not the same as those of electric circuits.
Consider a solenoid or a toroidal iron ring having a magnetic path of length ɭ metre, area of
cross-section A square metre, and a coil of N turns carrying I amperes wound anywhere on it as
shown in figure 10.

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 Figure 10 Toroidal iron ring

The magnetic field strength inside the toroid is given by:

𝑁𝐼
𝐻= AT/m
𝑙
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑁𝐼
Now 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 = Wb/𝑚2
𝑙
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴𝑁𝐼
Total flux produced 𝜑 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝐴 = Wb
𝑙
𝑁𝐼
Therefore 𝜑 = 𝑙 Wb
⁄𝜇 𝜇 𝐴
0 𝑟

The numerator NI which produces magnetization in the magnetic circuit is known as

magnetomotive force (m.m.f). Its unit is Ampere-turns (AT) or simply Ampere. It is analogous to
e.m.f in an electric circuit.
1
The denominator 𝜇 is reluctance S. Therefore,
0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴

𝐹𝑚
𝜑=
𝑆
This equation is sometimes referred to as Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits because it resembles a
similar expression in electrical circuits.

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Limitations of magnetic circuits
Applying the magnetic circuit approach simplifies calculations related to the magnetic field in a
ferromagnetic material. However this approach has inaccuracy embedded into it due to the
assumptions made in creating this approach (within 5% of the real answer). Possible reasons of
inaccuracy are:
- The magnetic circuit assumes that all flux is confined within the core. In reality a small
percentage of the flux escapes into surrounding low-permeability air, and this flux is
called leakage flux.
- The reluctance calculation assumes a certain mean path length and a cross sectional
area (CSA) of the core. The assumption works if the core is just one block of
ferromagnetic material with no corners. For practical ferromagnetic cores which have
corners due to their designs, this assumption is not accurate.
- In ferromagnetic materials permeability varies with the amount of flux already in the
material. The material permeability is not constant hence there is an existence of non-
linearity of permeability.
- For a ferromagnetic core which has air gaps, there are fringing effects that should be
taken into account as shown:

Figure 11 Fringing Effects in Magnetic Cores with Air Gaps

The cross sectional area taken into account is therefore a little larger in airgaps than in
other parts of the magnetic circuit.

4. Effects of Magnetic Fields on their Surroundings

So far we have looked at the production of a magnetic field and its properties. Now, we
will look at the ways in which an existing magnetic field can affect its surroundings.

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1. Faraday’s Law – Induced Voltage from a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
‘If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be induced in the turn of the
wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time’

𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −
𝑑𝑡

If there is N number of turns in the coil with the same amount of flux flowing through it,
hence:
𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡

The negative sign in the equation is in accordance with Lenz’s Law which states that:
‘The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil is as such that if the coils were short
circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original flux
change.’
Faraday’s law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in transformer
operation. Lenz’s Law in transformers is used to predict the polarity of the voltage
induced in transformer windings.

2. Induced Force on a Current Carrying Conductor (Motors)

A current carrying conductor present in a uniform magnetic field of flux density B, would
produce a force to the conductor. The value of the induced force is given by:
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙 × 𝐵)
Where:
i = the current flow in the conductor
l = length of wire, with the direction of l defined to be the direction of current flow
B = magnetic field density
The direction of the induced force is given by Fleming’s Left Hand rule as shown in Fig
12.

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 Figure 12 The Left Hand Rule for Induced Force on a Conductor

The induced force formula is true if the current carrying conductor is perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field. If the current carrying conductor is positioned at an
angle to the magnetic field, the cross product laws apply to give:
𝐹 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Where θ is the angle between the conductor and the direction of the magnetic field.
This phenomenon is the basis of an electric motor where torque or rotational force of
the motor is the effect of the stator field current and the magnetic field of the rotor.

Composite series magnetic circuit

In figure 13 is shown a composite series magnetic circuit consisting of three different magnetic
materials of different permeabilities and lengths and one air gap (𝜇𝑟 = 1). Each path will have its
own reluctance. The total reluctance is the sum of individual reluctances as they are joined in
series. Therefore
𝑙
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∑ 𝜇
0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴

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 Figure 13 Series magnetic circuit

Comparison between magnetic and electric circuits

Similarities:

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Differences
1) Strictly speaking, flux does not actually ‘flow’ in the sense in which an electric
current flows.
2) If temperature is kept constant, then resistance of an electric circuit is constant
and is independent of the current strength (or current density). On the other hand, the
reluctance of a magnetic circuit does depend on flux (and hence flux density)
established in it. It is so because µ (which equals the slope of B/H curve) is not constant
even for a given material as it depends on the flux density B. Value of µ is large for low
𝑙
value of B and vice-versa. Hence, reluctance is small(𝑆 = µ𝐴 ) for small values of B and
large for large values of B.
3) Flow of current in an electric circuit involves continuous expenditure of energy
but in a magnetic circuit, energy is needed only creating the flux initially but not for
maintaining it.

Parallel magnetic circuits

Figure 14 shows a parallel magnetic circuit consisting of 2 parallel paths ACB and ADB acted upon
by the same m.m.f. Each magnetic path has an average length of 2(ɭ1 + ɭ2)

Figure 14 Parallel magnetic circuit

The flux produced by the coil wound on the central core is divided equally at point A between
the two outer parallel paths. The reluctance offered by the two parallel paths is = half the
reluctance of each path.
Figure 9b shows the equivalent electrical circuit where resistance offered to the voltage source
is =R||R=R/2.

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It should be noted that reluctance offered by the central core AB has been neglected in the above
treatment.
Series-parallel circuit
Such a circuit is shown in figure 15. It shows 2 parallel magnetic circuits ACB and ACD connected
across the common magnetic path AB which contains an air-gap of length 𝑙𝑔 . The reluctance of
the path AB consists of (i) air gap reluctance and (ii) the reluctance of the central core which is
comparatively negligible. Hence the reluctance of the central core AB equals only the airgap
reluctance across which are connected 2 equal parallel reluctances. Hence the m.m.f required
for this circuit would be the sum of (i) that required for the air-gap and (ii) that required for either
of two paths (not both)

Figure 15 Series-parallel circuit

The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in figure 10b where the total resistance offered to the
voltage source is
𝑅
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅||𝑅 = 𝑅1 +
2
In the same way that resistance in an electric circuit is calculated,
Series Reluctance,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯

Parallel Reluctance,
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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