Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers

Dr. Dan Biebighauser

 Outline Countable and Uncountable Sets

OutlineCountable and Uncountable SetsAlgebraic Numbers

Outline Countable and Uncountable Sets Algebraic Numbers

Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Outline Countable and Uncountable Sets Algebraic Numbers

Existence of Transcendental NumbersExamples of Transcendental Numbers

Outline Countable and Uncountable Sets Algebraic Numbers

Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Examples of Transcendental Numbers

Constructible Numbers

Number Systems

N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}

Number Systems N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}

Z = integers = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}

 Number Systems N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}

Z = integers = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}Q = rational numbers

 Number Systems N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}

Z = integers = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}Q = rational numbersR = real numbers

 Number Systems N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}

Z = integers = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}Q = rational numbersR = real numbersC = complex numbers

Countable SetsA set is countable if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set and N, the natural numbers

Countable SetsA set is countable if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set and N, the natural numbers

Countable SetsN, Z, and Q are all countable

Countable SetsN, Z, and Q are all countable

Uncountable SetsR is uncountable

 Uncountable SetsR is uncountableTherefore C is also uncountable

 Uncountable Sets R is uncountable Therefore C is also uncountable

Uncountable sets are “bigger”

 Algebraic NumbersA complex number is algebraic if it is the solution to a polynomial equationwhere the ai’s are integers.

Algebraic Number Examples

51 is algebraic: x – 51 = 0

Algebraic Number Examples

51 is algebraic: x – 51 = 03/5 is algebraic: 5x – 3 = 0

Algebraic Number Examples

51 is algebraic: x – 51 = 03/5 is algebraic: 5x – 3 = 0Every rational number is algebraic:Let a/b be any element of Q. Then a/b is a solution to bx – a = 0.

Algebraic Number Examples

is algebraic: x2 – 2 = 0

Algebraic Number Examples

is algebraic: x2 – 2 = 0is algebraic: x3 – 5 = 0

Algebraic Number Examples

is algebraic: x2 – 2 = 0is algebraic: x3 – 5 = 0is algebraic: x2 – x – 1 = 0

Algebraic Number Examples

is algebraic: x2 + 1 = 0

Algebraic Numbers Any number built up from the integers with a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and nth roots is an algebraic number

Algebraic Numbers Any number built up from the integers with a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and nth roots is an algebraic numberBut not all
algebraic numbers can be built this way, because not every polynomial equation is solvable by radicals

Solvability by Radicals
A polynomial equation is solvable by radicals if its roots can be obtained by applying a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and nth roots to the integers

Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 1 polynomial is solvable:

Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 1 polynomial is solvable:
Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 2 polynomial is solvable:

Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 2 polynomial is solvable:

 Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 2 polynomial is solvable:(Known by ancient Egyptians/Babylonians)

Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 3 and Degree 4 polynomial is solvable

 Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 3 and Degree 4 polynomial is solvabledel Ferro Tartaglia Cardano Ferrari(Italy, 1500’s)

Solvability by Radicals
Every Degree 3 and Degree 4 polynomial is solvableCubic FormulaQuartic Formula

Solvability by Radicals
For every Degree 5 or higher, there are polynomials that are not solvable

 Solvability by Radicals
For every Degree 5 or higher, there are polynomials that are not solvableRuffini (Italian) Abel (Norwegian)(1800’s)

40  Solvability by Radicals
For every Degree 5 or higher, there are polynomials that are not solvableis not solvable by radicals

41  Solvability by Radicals
For every Degree 5 or higher, there are polynomials that are not solvableis not solvable by radicalsThe roots of this equation are algebraic

42  Solvability by Radicals
For every Degree 5 or higher, there are polynomials that are not solvableis solvable by radicals

43  Algebraic NumbersThe algebraic numbers form a field, denoted by A

44  Algebraic Numbers The algebraic numbers form a field, denoted by A

In fact, A is the algebraic closure of Q

45  QuestionAre there any complex numbers that are not algebraic?

46  Question Are there any complex numbers that are not algebraic?
A complex number is transcendental if it is not algebraic
47  Question Are there any complex numbers that are not algebraic?
A complex number is transcendental if it is not algebraicTerminology from Leibniz

48  Question Are there any complex numbers that are not algebraic?
A complex number is transcendental if it is not algebraicTerminology from LeibnizEuler was one of the first toconjecture the existence oftranscendental numbers

49  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

In 1844, the French mathematician Liouville proved that some complex numbers are transcendental

50  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

In 1844, the French mathematician Liouville proved that some complex numbers are transcendental

51  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

His proof was not constructive, but in 1851, Liouville became the first to find an example of a transcendental number

52  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

His proof was not constructive, but in 1851, Liouville became the first to find an example of a transcendental number

53  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Although only a few “special” examples were known in 1874, Cantor proved that there are infinitely-many more transcendental numbers than algebraic numbers

54  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Although only a few “special” examples were known in 1874, Cantor proved that there are infinitely-many more transcendental numbers than algebraic numbers

55  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Theorem (Cantor, 1874): A, the set of algebraic numbers, is countable.

56  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Theorem (Cantor, 1874): A, the set of algebraic numbers, is countable.Corollary: The set of transcendental numbers must be uncountable. Thus there are infinitely-many more
transcendental numbers.

57  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Proof: Let a be an algebraic number, a solution of

58  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Proof: Let a be an algebraic number, a solution ofWe may choose n of the smallest possible degree and assume that the coefficients are relatively prime

59  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Proof: Let a be an algebraic number, a solution ofWe may choose n of the smallest possible degree and assume that the coefficients are relatively primeThen the height of a is the sum
60  Existence of Transcendental Numbers
Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.

61  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.Let a have height k. Let n be the degree of the polynomial for a in the definition of a’s
height.

62  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.Let a have height k. Let n be the degree of the polynomial for a in the definition of a’s
height.Then n cannot be bigger than k, by definition.

63  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.Also,implies that there are only finitely-many choices for the coefficients of the
polynomial.

64  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.So there are only finitely-many choices for the coefficients of each polynomial of
degree n leading to a height of k.

65  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.So there are only finitely-many choices for the coefficients of each polynomial of
degree n leading to a height of k.Thus there are finitely-many polynomials of degree n that lead to a height of k.

66  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.This is true for every n less than or equal to k, so there are finitely-many polynomials
that have roots with height k.

67  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.This means there are finitely-many such roots to these polynomials, i.e., there are
finitely-many algebraic numbers of height k.

68  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Claim: Let k be a positive integer. Then the number of algebraic numbers that have height k is finite.This means there are finitely-many such roots to these polynomials, i.e., there are
finitely-many algebraic numbers of height k.This proves the claim.

69  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Back to the theorem: We want to show that A is countable.

70  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Back to the theorem: We want to show that A is countable.For each height, put the algebraic numbers of that height in some order
71  Existence of Transcendental Numbers
Back to the theorem: We want to show that A is countable.For each height, put the algebraic numbers of that height in some orderThen put these lists together, starting with height 1, then
height 2, etc., to put all of the algebraic numbers in order

72  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Back to the theorem: We want to show that A is countable.For each height, put the algebraic numbers of that height in some orderThen put these lists together, starting with height 1, then
height 2, etc., to put all of the algebraic numbers in orderThe fact that this is possible proves that A is countable.

73  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Since A is countable but C is uncountable, there are infinitely-many more transcendental numbers than there are algebraic numbers

74  Existence of Transcendental Numbers

Since A is countable but C is uncountable, there are infinitely-many more transcendental numbers than there are algebraic numbers“The algebraic numbers are spotted over the plane
like stars against a black sky; the dense blackness is the firmament of the transcendentals.”E.T. Bell, math historian

75  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

In 1873, the French mathematician Charles Hermite proved that e is transcendental.

76  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

In 1873, the French mathematician Charles Hermite proved that e is transcendental.

77  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

In 1873, the French mathematician Charles Hermite proved that e is transcendental.This is the first number proved to be transcendental that was not constructed for such a purpose

78  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

In 1882, the German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved thatis transcendental

79  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

In 1882, the German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved thatis transcendental

80  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

Still very few known examples of transcendental numbers:

81  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

Still very few known examples of transcendental numbers:

82  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

Still very few known examples of transcendental numbers:
83  Examples of Transcendental Numbers
Still very few known examples of transcendental numbers:

84  Examples of Transcendental Numbers

Open questions:

85  Constructible Numbers
Using an unmarked straightedge and a collapsible compass, given a segment of length 1, what other lengths can we construct?

86  Constructible Numbers
For example, is constructible:

87  Constructible Numbers
For example, is constructible:

88  Constructible Numbers
The constructible numbers are the real numbers that can be built up from the integers with a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and the taking of square
roots

89  Constructible Numbers
Thus the set of constructible numbers, denoted by K, is a subset of A.

90  Constructible Numbers
Thus the set of constructible numbers, denoted by K, is a subset of A.K is also a field

91  Constructible Numbers

92  Constructible Numbers
Most real numbers are not constructible

93  Constructible Numbers
In particular, the ancient question of squaring the circle is impossible

94  The End!References on Handout