WORLD WAR I NOTES

● The nature of World War I, including: 

- The outbreak of war in 1914, the Western and Eastern fronts, and why it became the world’s first global conflict. 
- The varying experiences of soldiers in key battles, eg Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele, Tannenberg, Beersheba. 
- The changing nature of war to 1918: scientific and industrial developments in weaponry, the mechanisation of modern warfare, advances in 
medicine and communications. 
- The impact of the war on civilians, including women’s lives and the changing role of women. 
- The scale of recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in World War I. 
- An overview of the reasons for the Allied victory. 

Timeline

1882 - The Triple Alliance is formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

1907 - The Triple Entente is formed between Britain, France and Russia.

1914 - Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie are assassinated
in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina. (28 June)
- Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia (28 July)
- Beginning of the Great War (1914 -1919)

Western Front
- Germany declares war on Russia and France (August).
- The German invasion of neutral Belgium (4 August)
- Britain declares war on Germany (August)
- Battle of Mons (23 August)
- Battle of the Marne (4 September)
- Race to the Sea (25 September - 22 November)
- First Battle of Ypres (19 October - 22 November)
- Christmas day truce (25 December)

Eastern Front
- Battle of Tannenberg (29 August)
- Battle of the Masurian Lakes

Home Front
- The Defence of the Realm Act was introduced in Britain to impose wartime restrictions (August)
- Britain's navy begins a blockade of Germany (August)
- Turkey enters the war on the side of Germany (October)

1915 - The Second Battle of Ypres (April - May)

- Poison gas is introduced.
- German forces take command of the Eastern front (May)

1916 - The Battle of the Somme (1 July - 18 November)

- Battle of Verdun (21 February - 18 December 1916)
- The Third Battle of Ypres (July - November)

1917 - The Ludendorff Offensive (21 March - 28 July 1918)

- The Battle of Beersheba (31 October)

1918 - Battle of Le Hamel (4 July)

- Battle of Amiens (8 August)
- The Second Battle of the Marne
- Armistice (11 November)

1919 - Paris peace conference whereby the Treaty of Versailles is drafted.

WORLD WAR I: THE NATURE OF WAR

- The outbreak of war in 1914, the Western and Eastern fronts, and why it became the world’s first global conflict.
The Outbreak of War

The July - The Archduke and his wife Sophie were shot as they drove through Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.
Crisis and - This violent act was intended to promote the cause of Serbian nationalists.
First - This resulted in the July crisis, a period of threats, bluffs and failed negotiations among European
Declaration nations.
s of War - Tension in the Balkans prior to 1914, meant that Austria-Hungary was ready to lay blame for the
Archduke’s assassination on Serbia,
- Austria-Hungary issued 10 ultimatums.
- When Serbia couldn’t comply with all the demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28
July 1914.

The World - Russia promised to support Serbia and began to mobilise its army.
at War - Germany, Austria-Hungary’s ally, threatened Russia with war unless it ceased this mobilisation.
- When this threat was ignored, Germany declared war on Russia (1 August 1914) and two days
later declared war on its ally, France.
- Germany rapidly put into effect the Schlieffen Plan, its long-held strategy when faced with a war
on two fronts.
- One against France on its western borders and Russia on its eastern borders.
- Germany feared a war on both fronts since Russia and France had become allies in 1894.
- Other countries joined the war later ie. Italy, Japan and the US with the Allies and Bulgaria on the
Central Powers.
- The colonies and dominions of the European nations would also be drawn into the conflict
including Australia.
- So began the world’s first global conflict

Schlieffen - The Schlieffen Plan meant that the German Army would not need to fight on both fronts
Plan simultaneously.
- The plan called for an attack on France to capture Paris and achieve a quick victory on the
Western Front.
- The German Army could then turn east and defeat Russia before it had time to fully mobilise.
- To reach the French border, German troops would advance through a neutral Belgium.
- Germany hoped that the British Government would stay neutral.
- However, Britain pledged to protect Belgium’s neutrality - declaring war on Germany when she
invaded Belgium (4 August 1914).

Stalemate - Germany’s attempt to maintain the timetable of the Schlieffen Plan met with difficulties.
on the - Belgian resistance delayed the advance while the British Expeditionary Force arrived to
Western defend Paris more rapidly than the Germans had anticipated.
Front - The German troops were underfed, exhausted and already delayed.
- They suffered a further defeat when nearing Paris, as 100 000 men were transferred to the
Eastern Front to face the Russians who had also mobilised and quickly invaded Germany.
- The First Battle of the Marne, which followed was an Allied victory.
- The Schlieffen Plan failed and Germany was caught in a two-front war.
- The German Army retreated to the River Aisne and began to dig trenches.
- The Allies, equally exhausted, did not have the strength to push the Germans out of France.
- This led to the ‘race to the sea’ and ended with the Battle of Ypres, as each side extended its
trench systems with barbed, wire, machine guns and artillery.
- The front line now consisted of opposing trenches from the English Channel to the Swiss border.
- With either side was unable to move forward, both sides dug in and began the war of attrition
for the next 3.5 years.
- Ultimately, the war of movement ended and the war was at a stalemate.
- Germany’s plan of defeating France and then Russia was tattered as they now faced a war on two
fronts.
- The Allies’ success at the Marne and at Ypres resulted in the end of the Schlieffen Plan.

War on the - The war in the Eastern Front stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the
Eastern south.
 Front - It included most of Eastern Europe and also stretched into Central Europe.
- Russia surprised Germany by sending in troops so soon after the war had started.
- Germany’s resistance was rushed however effective.
- By 1915, Germany was moving into Russia, and Russian troops suffered defeats in 1915 and 1916.
- The spread-out nature of the Eastern Front meant that trenches were largely ineffective, and it
was the mobility and training of the German troops that proved to be decisive.
- By March 1918, German troops were within striking distance of the Russian capital, ultimately
ending the war on the Eastern Front.

War on the - The stalemate on the Western Front endured for the next three years.
Western - A new type of ‘industrial war’ had begun to unfold where the products of modern armament
Front factories were set against flesh and bone.
- The power of defence then became greater than the power of offence.
- It was far easier to defend a trench line then to capture one.
- However, in 1916 and 1917, military leaders on both sides attempted to break the deadlock.

The Schlieffen Plan and the Stalemate

Schlieffen - In 1905, Count Schlieffen completed a plan for a war in Europe.

Plan - The plan was based on the idea that Germany would be forced to fight on two fronts ie.
Western and eastern.
- The aims were to:
- Knock out the western front by moving rapidly to defeat France
- After beating France, to transfer troops to the eastern front for the assault on Russia.
- Between Germany and France there was only a short frontier and that had been well fortified by
both countries.
- Schlieffen’s plan placed on army (the left wing) in a defensive position behind the French
fortifications from Metz to the Awiss border.
- Another army would march (the right wing) through Belgium where it would wheel south and
encircle Paris from the west and then surround the French armies.
- It was essential to move quickly and strike the enemy with the weight of the entire army.

Changes - Schlieffen resigned in 1906 when war broke out and Moltke replaced him.
in the - On 2 August 1914 the Germans demanded that the Belgian government allow German troops to
Schlieffen march through Belgium.
Plan - Belgium refused and were backed up by Great Britain.
- German generals Kluck and Bulow decided to move towards the east of Paris rather than the west.
- This change resulted in the ultimate failure of the Schlieffen plan.
- Both sides ‘dug in’ resulting in the stalemate of trench warfare for the next four years.

Mistakes - The Germans relied on speed and movement however, the Belgian resistance delayed the
timetable.
- The small Belgian Army engaged seven divisions of German troops.
- By infringing Belgian neutrality, the Germans brought the British into the war.
- By joining with the French forces at the Mons, they helped to delay the German attempt to
outflank the French fifth army.
- The German generals lost faith in the plan and decided to attack Paris from the east.
- The Battle of the Marne put the germans on the defensive for the first time, preventing them from
taking Paris.
- The German troops withdrew to the Aisne where they dug in and this was not a strategy for an army
trained for a war of movement.
- At Ypres the Allies were able to prevent the Germans from taking the Channel Ports, thus, keeping
open the lines of supply to France.
- Four divisions of German troops were sent to the eastern front, another departure from the plan.

- The varying experiences of soldiers in key battles, eg Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele, Tannenberg, Beersheba. 
War on the Eastern Front
 Battle of - This was the battle that halted the Russian advance into Germany in the first month of the war.
Tannenber - The German forces were effective in invading the Russian Second Army and ultimately
g (August destroyed them.
1914) - Germany was clearly outnumbered by Russia, however, 78,000 Russian soldiers were harmed.
- The Battle of Tannenberg decisively stopped any Russian advance into Germany.

Battle of - Australian and New Zealand troops were supporting the British against the Ottoman Empire in the
Beersheba desert sands of Palestine.
(31 - It was one of the last cavalry battles in the age of modern warfare.
October - It was a battle for water as Beersheba’s wells were the only reliable source of water.
1917) - Success at Beersheba helped consolidate British control in the region.

War on the Western Front

Battle of - The French held the garrison of Verdun which was a great French fortress.
Verdun - German General Falkenhayn hoped to break the stalemate by forcing the French to defend
(February - Verdun, using artillery to inflict huge casualties and ‘bleed the French Army to death’.
December - The Germans began a massive bombardment (February 1916) using 1400 heavy guns.
1916) - Germany artillery fired 23 million shells and Phosgene gas and flame-throwers were introduced.
- The ability of the French to bring in reinforcements of soldiers and supplies in the ‘La Voie
Sacree’, a road into and out of Verdun, was crucial.
- Despite German shelling, this vital route was never closed bringing almost three-quarters of
the French Army into Verdun.
- The Germans called off their attack in July 1916 with the French recapturing most of their land.
- The Germans failed to break the French resistance.
- Both sides suffered huge losses, with a total of more than 700 000 men killed.

The Battle of - The Battle of the Somme has become the defining symbol of the Great War.
the Somme - The first day was one of the worst ever in history with the British Army suffering 57 000
(July - casualties.
November - The Somme campaign was initially devised by the British as a way to break through German
1916) lines and break the stalemate on the Western Front.
- Allied forces fighting with the British included troops from France, Australia and Canada.
- The battle was preceded by a week-long bombardment of German trenches, in order to destroy
the Germans’ barbed wire and front-line trenches.
- The aim was not achieved as the Germans were aware of the impending attack,
- They prepared by digging underground chambers that allowed their soldiers to take shelter.
- When Allied troops went ‘over the top’, they believed that the German trenches were cleared.
- However, they were hit by a barrage of machine-gun fire.
- Despite receiving no success, Haig persisted and allowed the offensive to continue.
- After the battle, the commander wrote that he had hoped for a breakthrough but then
accepted the attack must go on because it drew German troops away from Verdun.
- The optimistic ‘breakthrough’ battle had become part of the war of attrition.
- Over the months, the Battle of the Somme became a series of attacks and counter-attacks.
- The campaign of attrition was only halted by the British commanders in November 1916.

Battle of - The year 1917 began positively for the Allies.

Passchendaele - The British naval blockade continued to deprive Germany of vital raw materials, the British
(July - and French gained control in the air and Allied industrial production was up.
November - Disillusionment led to mutinies in some French units.
1917) - Some scholars suggested the French Army ceased to be a potent offensive force.
- For the rest of 1917, the British Army had to carry the weight of the offensive.
- The Battle of Passchendaele involved soldiers from Britain, Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa attempting to break through German lines in Belgium.
- There were many frightening parallels surrounding the Somme in 1916.
- The British were requested to launch an attack to take the pressure off the French Army,
however, this gave advantage to the German defenders.
 - At Passchendaele, a huge bombardment of 4.5 million shells combined with the worst rains
seen in 30 years turned the battlefield into a quagmire.
- Movement became close to impossible as men, horses and equipment got stuck or
drowned in the mud.
- Passchendaele was ultimately a war of attrition.
- The Allies suffered heavy losses however, Haig argued that as long as the Germans lost more
men than the British and French, the Allies would win in the end.
- Despite no breakthrough, Haig claimed the Germans were suffering defeat because of their
heavy losses.
- This worried politicians and gave little comfort to troops.
- Passchendaele cost the Allies 275 000 casualties.

- The changing nature of war to 1918: scientific and industrial developments in weaponry, the mechanisation of modern warfare, advances in 
medicine and communications. 
 

The Changing Nature of War by 1918

Changing - During WW1, both sides used technological developments in weaponry in an attempt to break the
nature deadlock.
- In 1914, the British walked to battle and attacked enemy trenches with rifles, bayonet and soft
cap.
- By 1918, technological advances meant that the British were transported to battle in trucks and
were armed with a Lewis gun, grenades, a rifle grenade and flame-thrower.
- The British now carried gas respirators and helmets.
- Attacks were supported by high explosives to bombard the enemy, tanks were used to clear wire
and poison gas from gas shells terrorised the enemy.

The Weaponry of WW1

Weaponry - The armaments manufacturers welcomed the new opportunities offered by the 20th century war.
- Traditional arms like guns were made more efficient and a whole range of new weapons, machine
guns swamped the general staff and the troops.
- The problem was the technological advances quickly made the old ideas of warfare obsolete.
- The scale of war and the new technology outstripped the human ability to handle them.
- New inventions such as mechanised transport and aeroplanes were used only in a limited way.
- The potential of the new inventions was not truly recognised until the end of the war.
- The phenomena of trench warfare created the need for new equipment like masks, wire clippers,
shovels and periscopes.

The Mechanisation of Modern Warfare

Modern - On the Western Front mechanised weapons gave advantage to defenders and prolonged the
warfare stalemate.
- The industries in the Central Powers and Allied nations heavily invested in the mass production of
weapons to break the deadlock.
- The development of tanks and aircraft were used to counter the enemy’s artillery and hence increased
the chance of a rapid victory.

Guns - The gun had the larger, longer barrel, firing up 13km away along a low projectoy.
- They gave defenders the ability to cut down the number of approaching enemy.
- The howitzer had a shorter barrel and required less explosives than the guns.
- The shells travelled 5-8 km and had a much higher trajectory.
- This meant they were useful for firing over the mounds and hills on the western front.

Heavy - Heavy artillery guns fired large shells over a long distance and hit targets from above.
artillery - The weight of artillery weapons meant they were difficult to move and often became stuck in mud
or craters.
- The big guns were capable of shelling up to 13km away.
- They gave rise to heavy barrages before offensives known as ‘bombardments’.
 - They were destructive as they gave nervous collapse from the sound of the firing.
- The sound could be heard many kilometers away and it damaged men’s brains, made their ears
bleed and gave them shell-shocked.
- The shells also churned up the land into a sea of muddy craters that made attacks more difficult.
- No way was ever found to combat them except firing back.

Shells - High explosive shells fragmented once they exploded on impact with the ground.
- They were very useful in the destruction of trenches.
- Shrapnel shells by contrast contained explosive balls in the front of the shell.
- They were timed to explode before hitting the ground.
- These shells were used against soldiers in enemy trenches and significant in the war of attrition.
- Gas shells also exploded on impact allowing gas to be released from the shell.

Tanks - Tanks were first introduced on the Somme in September 1916.

- Their main uses were to flatten barb-were obstacles and take out nests of enemy machine gunners.
- It also gave advancing soldiers some shelter from enemy fire.
- Early tanks were slow and hence, only limited to the terrain they were used in.
- They could not operate safely in built-up areas, woods or over cratered or muddy ground.
- Tank crews faced the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning, overheating, deafening noises and limited
visibility.

Aircraft - Modern warfare unveiled attacks from the air.

- Until 1916, German air raids were carried out by Zeppelins.
- These were huge hydrogen-filled balloon with the crew slung underneath in a gondola.
- In September 1916, however, the German Gotha bomber plane and the British Handley Page Type O
were developed.
- Gotha planes attacked Paris and British and French aviators bombed many German cities.

Infantry Weapons

Machine - At the start of the war, many of the Allied generals did not think the machine gun was important.
Guns - To them it was still a recent and untested weapon, however, the German generals saw their
usefulness was seen from the start.
- Machine guns could fire up to 600 rounds of ammunition per minute.

Grenades - For close range fighting, soldiers were trained to use bayonets however, they were difficult in
trenches.
- By 1915, many soldiers preferred to use hand grenades.
- The British used the pineapple shaped Mill Bombs and the German’s used stick-shaped ‘potato
mashers’

Trench - The bomb was simply dropped onto the cylinder of the weapon.
Mortars - It was crude, inaccurate and cheap.
- It had a high trajectory over a very short distance which was ideal for use in the trenches.

Flame - This hand-held weapon produced a stretch of flames which could be caste about as a weapon.
thrower - It wielded a huge psychological advantage inspiring the fear of being burned.

Light - This gun created out of the need to carry weapons as troops advanced was created late in the war.
Machine - It gave the infantry more fire power.
Gun - The Lewis gun weighed about 18kg.

Barbed - This was brought from America’s cattle ranches and was the curse of the Western front.
Wire - Positioned in front of the fire trenches, it hampered soldiers’ movements as they attempted to
advance, making them easy targets.
- It brought an end to cavalry charges.

Gas: A Breakthrough Weapon

 Gas - Chemical warfare was one of the scientific developments designed to break the deadlock on the
Western Front.
- Chlorine gas caused breathing difficulty, burning sensations in the throat and chest pain.
- Phosgene was exposed at larger doses and longer periods, acting as the cause of many gas-related
fatalities.
- Mustard gas caused blistering of the skin, airways and lungs and blindness.
- The initial protective measures were primitive with soldiers told to place urinated material over their
affected areas.
- In 1917, gas masks and small-box respirators were developed.
- At first, gas was released from cylinders, however, due to the wind, gas shells were used in 1916.
- It created terror and confusion on both sides of the trenches.
- Both sides stopped using gas when it became easy to counter its effect with gas masks.
- Despite the initial primitive measures, helmets with breathing masks were introduced and by 1917
every soldier had an effective gas mask.
- The gas was fired from either heavy artillery shells or from cylinders which were opened when the wind
was blowing in the right direction.
- The prevailing winds along the western front blew from west to east, advantaging the Allies.

Advances in communication

Communication - The development of telephone and wireless radio systems allowed instant communication
between the front line and commanding officers.
- However, telephone lines were easily damaged by artillery and tanks.
- Soldiers continued to act as ‘runner’, moving through the trenches to relay information.

Advances in Medicine

Medicine - In 1914, a soldier whose thigh was broken had an 80% chance of dying, however, by 1916, it was an
80% chance of survival.
- By the end of the war, mobile X-ray machines were brought to the front, nurses and surgeons were
stationed much closer to treat injuries.
- Blood transfusions were also available to treat massive blood loss.
- At home, there were developments in prosthetic limbs, facial reconstructions and the awareness of
bacteria and infection had increased.

- The impact of the war on civilians, including women’s lives and the changing role of women. 

The Home Fronts in Britain and Germany

Total War - The communities left behind joined another war font - the ‘home’ front.
and its - The growing demand for munitions, men and machinery forced governments to intervene in the
Impact management of the economy and the lives of its citizens.
- It was a war that demanded a massive commitment of both human resources.
- The result was a total war, with all activities of civilians and industries directed towards the war.
- The war had a more profound impact on the German home front than it did on Britain.
- German food shortages were more severe and the regulation of labour, agriculture and
industry was more extensive.
- Food and fuel rationing led to a breakdown of the economy, strikes and revolution.
- In Britain, civilians directly experienced the horrors of war when German warships
bombarded towns.

Anti-German - The German advance through Belgium gave rise to atrocity stories believed by the British public.
Hysteria in - One of the sights told of German soldiers marching through Belgium with babies skewered on
Britain their bayonets.
- Although these lurid atrocities were false, they served their purpose in anti-German hysteria.
- The Germans were the third largest immigrant group in Britain, however, by the end of the
war 22 000 remained, many being deported.
- There were many German spies in Britain, with the common belief that German watchmakers
 were actually bombmakers.
- This also led to the alteration of names to a more patriotic British variant.
- German measles became the Belgian flush and German shepherd dogs became Alsatians.

Anti-British - Germany also experienced spy scares.

Hysteria in - There were cases of military officers being abused and accused of being British spies.
Germany - In Germany, there were also changes to reflect a more patriotic spirit.

Britain - On 16 December coastal towns of Scarborough and Whitby were shelled by German
Under battlecruisers.
Attack - The civilians were terrified by the effects and feared that a German invasion was imminent.
- Modern warfare unveiled attacks from the air.
- Air raids were mainly carried out by Zeppelins, a great hydrogen filled balloon.
- At first, there was little protection against the Zeppelins.
- Anti-aircraft guns were hopeless against shells exploding from airships.
- London was attacked for the first time on 31 May 1915.
- Zeppelin raids came by night and London defended itself by searchlight batteries and
anti-aircraft guns.
- By 1916, the Zeppelin had its days and was succeeded by the Gotha bomber.
- On 13 June 1917, London was attacked by 20 Gothas killing 162 civilians.
- Civilian morale suffered in the affected towns and there were no calls upon the government to
seek peace.
- The raids signalled an important change in the nature of modern warfare.
- Women and children were now in the frontline.

Britain: - The British explosives and munitions industry seriously lagged behind Germany in 1914.
Economic - The British government relied on a few old firms to meet armament needs.
Changes - However the shell scandal (1915) proved this to be inadequate.
- One of Britain’s major successes on the homefront was creating an industrial complex capable of
supplying an army and meeting the needs of war.
- The Defence of the Real Act (DORA 1914) gave the government more control into the lives of
citizens.
- People could be arrested without a warrant and directed to specific jobs.
- Public houses were forced to close in the afternoons and alcohol was watered down to
reduce drunkenness, as it was seen as a hindrance to the war.
- A flood of major administrative and legislative changes followed, transforming Britain’s economy
from a free market into one dominated by the government.
- Extensions of government powers included the created of the manpower board, Munitions of
War Act (1915) and the Ministry of Labour (1916)
- Government control over wages, hours and working conditions was increased.
- By 1917, meatless days were imposed and people turned any spare land for food production.
- Rationing of meat, sugar, butter and eggs occurred (1918) and the cost of living for an
unskilled worker’s family rose by 81%
- The prime minister gained more executive as the war demanded long debates in parliament.

Germany: - Germany needed the war to be a short one.

Economic - In 1914, ⅓ of Germany’s food came from overseas.
Changes - Food became a critical issue for the German home front.
- At the start, little was done to confront the problem as the Royal Navys’ blockade of German
trade was disastrous.
- The belief of a short war meant there was little initial economic planning in Germany.
- However, Walter Rathenau understood Germany’s need for a coordinated program to ensure a
supply of vital food and raw materials through the KRA:
- Regulation: ​This was the rationing and control of production. Bread, fats, sugar, meat and
potatoes were rationed from January 1915, however, many of them disappeared completely.
- Synthetic manufacture:​ Natural or imported products were replaced by products that had
been created by other means eg. producing nitrates instead of importing them from Chile.
 - Substitutes:​ This was applied to food eg. coffee was made from roasted barley and chicory.
- With all these institutions, Germany’s economy had resembled a socialist state.
- In December 1916, the Auxiliary Service Law employed every male (60-70) into the labour
workforce as they were not in the army.
- Despite all efforts, production continued to drop and shortages increased.
- The limited supply of nitrates resulted in a decline of crops, horses were required for the war
and hence, fewer were available for farm work.
- 1916 and 1917 also had bad seasons and poor harvests.
- The ‘turnip winter’ resulted in turnips becoming a standard of the German diet replacing
potatoes.
- The lowered vitality and morale of the labour force made it difficult to maintain production.
- By 1917 the official ration was only half the normal individual calorie requirement.
- Opposition to the war grew in the face of these privations.

The Attitude of Civilians Towards the War

Changing - The turning point was the Battle of the Somme due to its enormous loss and little gain.
mood in - People began to question the way war was being fought.
Britain - There was still a determination to end the war, but early enthusiasm had evaporated.
- Bad news from the front, losses at sea and bombing raids affected the public mood.
- Ordinary people were angry at war profiteers who made fortunes out of the trade in war goods.
- Britain’s victory was a surprise and the aristice resulted in an outpouring of joy and relief.

Changing - The political unity with which Germany entered the war with began to crack in 1917.
mood in - The ‘turnip winter’ (1916 - 1917) and the political left were inspired by Russia’s revolution.
Germany - Led by the Social Democrats, parties of the left argued that if political reforms were not
forthcoming, the government couldn’t count on the support of the working class for the war effort.
- Growing hardship and disillusion with the war led to demands for peace.
- Leaders of the far-left Spartacus group were outspoken in their opposition to the war and
broader support was shown in a peace demonstration (Berlin 1915)
- Bethmann-Hollweg raised the peace issue in December 916, but the allies dismissed it as ‘empty
and insincere’.
- On 19 July 1917, the Peace Resolution was passed in the German parliament.
- However it was dismissed by the Kaiser and an attempt for peace in the British parliament was
defeated.
- Strikes continued to occur across the country in 1917.
- Hunger strikes developed into an anti-war movement however, it was suppressed by the
government with arrests and executions.
- At the end of January 1918, there was a week-long anti-war strike involving 1 million people.
- The effects of the British blockade and news from the front led to greater disenchantment for
the Kaiser, government and war as a whole.
- By October 1918 Germany was on the fringe of revolution and the abdication of the Kaiser seemed
inevitable.

The Changing Role of Women in Britain

Changing - The war brought sweeping changes to the world of British women.
Role - The changes were not uniform as some lives were changed radically and others slightly.
- It depended on the class, location, education, personality and luck of the woman.
- The war liberated many women allowing them to enter areas of employment previously reserved
for men.
- In 1914 - 1918, an extra 1.6 million women entered the British workforce, half went into
manufacturing industries notably munitions.
- Historians claim that war taught women that they could not cope with hard ‘physical’ labour,
however, working-class women knew a great deal about strenuous physical work.
- The change for them was not the effort, but better pay.
- Women also became involved in other sectors of the economy.
- Transport, education, banking, finance and administration.
 - The number of female doctors increased as did the number of policewomen.
- The toll on manpower of the war mean women were a key element in maintaining production
on the home front.

Women - In July 1914, the munitions industry employed 212 000 women, rising to 819 000 within three
and the years.
Munitions - Some worked in hometowns, but many moved away from family and friends to go to new areas
Industry like Grena.
- Shifts in the factories usually lasted 12 hours (7 am - 7 pm)
- The women faced many dangers.
- The varnish used on aeroplane wings produced toxic fumes and it was common for women to
be found lying ill or unconscious outside workshops
- Prolonged exposure to TNT, caused toxic jaundice, an illness that turned the skin yellow nicknaming
these people as ‘canaries’.
- Limbs would swell and if the skin did not break to allow the fluid to escape, it was fatal.
- A total of 106 women died from 1916-18 from the effects of working with TNT.
- Explosions were an ever-present danger.
- In January 1917, the munitions factory at Silvertown in east London blew up with 2000 people
homeless and 69 killed.

Continuity - The work that women undertook during the war helped to convince men of their physical strength,
and endurance and sacrifice.
Change - Many women felt a growth of self-confidence.
- On a personal level, living away from their families gave many women a new sense of freedom and
the wages earned in munitions factories were superior to what had been formerly earned in
domestic service.
- When the war ended there was a widespread feeling that women should give up their jobs to
servicemen and return to the home or traditional workplace.
- Many women were reluctant as they enjoyed the greater responsibility, higher pay and
freedom.
- Two years after the war had ended there were fewer women in work than there had been before
the war.
- Men felt that they needed to protect their jobs against women, who were prepared to work for
lower wages.
- Although on the work front, little appeared to have changed for women, politically there was a step
forward.

The Impact of the War on Women

Total War - ‘Total War’ demanded the mobilisation of entire nations.

- Millions of men were sent into the military which drained the labour pool.
- This created a need for new workers, a need which was filled by women.

Women’s - By 1914 nearly 5.09 million women of 23.8 million in Britain were working.
Response - Two days after the war was declared, the NUWSS announced that it was suspending all political
activity until the war was over.
- The leadership of the WSPU began negotiating with the British government.
- On 10 August the government released all suffragettes from prison.
- In return, the WSPU agreed to end their militant activities and help with the war effort.
- Political agitations had stopped with the entire nation unified against the Germans.

Role in the - Women largely began with voluntary work, however, they wanted to do more than knit socks and
Early Years raise money.
- The contribution of women increased after the ‘shell scandal’ (1915) which coupled with the rise in
need for army recruits.
- This highlighted the need for a drastic increase in munitions production.
- Lloyd George enlisted the help of Emmeline Pankhurst to advertise female labour.
- After the introduction of conscription (1916) the need for female labour became more vital and
 the government began coordinating the employment of women to fill these gaps
- 16000 women joined the workforce between 1914 and 1918.
- Munitions factories were employing 950 000 women by Armistice Day.

Difficulties - Munitionettes produced 80% of the weapons and shells used by the British Army.
- Their pay was half of men.
- Munitionettes risked lives with poisonous substances, working without adequate protective
clothing or safety measures.
- Women were keen to work in munitions because the pay was two to three times higher than what
a domestic servant could earn.

Types of - Apart from munitions women served in:

work - Munition, government departments, clerical workers and transport conductors.
- Many women worked on the land but, farmers were not always keen to employ women, the pay
was low and accomodation was poor.
- There was a particular demand for women to do heavy work.
- Unloading coal, stocking furnaces and building ships.
- Women took on non-combatant roles which freed up men for the front.
- Nurses.

Trade - The initial attitude of women in the workforce was hostile because male workers worried that
Union women’s willingness to work for lower wages would put them out of work.
Attitudes - Existing unions were often hostile to female workers.
- Trade union leaders disapproved of Lloy George’s idea of dilution as they feared if unskilled
women entered the factories, the status of skilled workers would be permanently damaged.
- WW1 forced unions to deal with the issue of women’s work.
- The scale of women’s employment could no longer be denied and rising levels of women left
unmarried or widowed by the war forced the hands of established unions.
- Women surprised men with their ability to undertake heavy work and their efficiency.
- By the middle of the war, they were regarded as a force to be proud of and apart of Britain’s
glory.

Positive - The war was liberating, many of them felt useful as citizens and they enjoyed the wages only men
Impact had enjoyed.
- Job mobility increased, with a large number of women abandoning domestic service work.
- For women in factories or in clerical work, wages were higher, conditions better and
independence enhanced.
- The increase in female trade union membership represented an increase in the unionised women
by 160% (1914 - 1918)

- The scale of recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in World War I. 

Recruitment and Conscription

Conscription - One of Germany’s advantages in 1914 was the quality and readiness of its conscript army,
in Germany entering with a well-trained army of more than 3 million soldiers.
- Every man in Germany between the ages of 17 and 45 was liable for military service.
- Conscription gave Germany a large, well-trained professional army from the outbreak of the war.
- However, the lack of manpower at the front and reduced supplies of skilled labour at the
homefront cost Germany.
- Germany maintained its numerical superiority because of its efficient and accepted conscription
system.

Conscription - Before 1914, military conscription was held to be against the traditions of Britain where individual
in Britain freedom of choice was valued.
- When war broke out, the government believed a pro-conscription campaign would threaten
national unity.

The Derby Scheme

 - Lord Derby had been the inspiration behind the idea of the ‘Pals’ battalions
- This scheme encouraged men from the same town, football club or factory to enlist with their
pals (mates) so that they would fight together.
- Unfortunately (from the events at the Somme) whole towns were often devastated when the pals
died together.
- In 1915 Lord Derby was invited to prepare a scheme to deal with the shortfall in volunteers.
- The resultant Derby scheme of November 1915 relied on persuasion to pressure men into
attesting, that is to serve when called upon to do so.
- The scheme carried the pledge that no married men were to be considered until unmarried men
were no longer available.
- Every man was to attest, but there were provisions for exemptions, like workers in munitions,
or being a supporter of a widowed mother.
- To judge, local tribunals were set up around the country.

The Universal Conscription Bill (May 1916)

- It soon became clear that the Derby scheme would not produce enough men willing to attest.
- PM Asquith introduced a Military Service Bill (January 1916) that conscripted all single men.
- Even this soon became inadequate and the Universal Conscription Bill affecting married and single
men was introduced in May 1916.
- There was opposition however, the general public accepted the measure as a necessity.
- It imposed an equality of sacrifice, the lack of which had drawn public complaint previously.

Conscientious Objectors
- Known as ‘conchies’ or ‘Cuthberts’, these people opposed the war and conscription for political,
moral or religious reasons.
- They were required to appear before their local tribunal, which would consider their
‘conscientious objection to the undertaking of combatant service’.
- The tribunals composed of local ‘bigwigs’ and were generally unsympathetic to the claimants.
- There was some understanding for those unwilling to fight and willing to do an alternative form of
war like driving an ambulance or serving in non-combatant roles.
- There was little understanding for the ‘absolutist’ - the man who declared he could play no
part in the war effort.
- In Britain, there were about 16 000 conchies, 33000 agreed to serve in non-combatant roles and
3000 undertook ambulance and other work to aid the war effort.
- However, 6000 went to prison at least once.
- Approximately 1300 absolutists suffered arrest, court martial, imprisonment and release.

Propaganda and Censorship

Purposes - Recruitment
- Vilification of the enemy.
- Raising moral
- Conscription

Audience - Young men

- Women
- Voters
- Consumers

Methods - Posters
- Newspapers
- Comics
- Songs
- Stories of atrocity
- Films
- Censorship

Examples - Hymn of Hate (Germany)

 - Name change from Battenberg to Windsor for the royal family.

British - Propaganda was an area of the war where Britain and her allies gained an early advantage.
Propaganda - The ruthless behaviour of the German armies in Belgium and the use of U-boats meant that
British propagandists had a wealth of material to draw on.
- The Germans were pictured as inhuman, bullies and aggressors.
- British propaganda both written and pictorial employed a variety of techniques.

The War as a Moral Crusade

- Germany and the Kaiser represented all that was evil.
- An article from the Daily Mail (1914) described the Kaiser as a lunatic, a monster and a
criminal.
- He was compared unfavourable with Judas.
- Rudyard Kipling wrote that the events of 1914 had split the world into two divisions.
- Human beings and Germans.

The Atrocity Story

- This was a popular way to arouse enthusiasm for the cause and a passionate hatred for the
Germans.
- The execution of British nurse Edith Cavell by German troops (1915) was constantly trumpeted as
a murderous act and crime against humanity.
- The fact that Nurse Cavell was an active member of a Belgian resistance group helping Allied
soldiers and that the French had previously executed people for similar offences didn’t
matter.
- Another great British story of atrocity was the sinking of the Lusitania.
- The British used this to fan strong anti-German feelings, especially in the US.

Posters and - Posters and cartoons were a common propaganda device.

Cartoons - They reinforced positive feelings about your own side and negative images of the enemy.
- British propaganda was originally produced voluntarily by patriotic and eager publishers,
however, the British began to manage their propaganda flow through agencies ie. the War
Propaganda Bureau.
- Censorship was indistinguishable from propaganda and was designed to minimise bad news or
keep it from the public entirely.
- In Britain, the Directorate of Special Intelligence (1915) was set up to coordinate all
censorship and intelligence activities.
- Censorship of mail offered opportunities for finding themes on which propaganda might be
based.
- In the trenches, soldiers were forbidden to keep diaries.
- However, they bypassed by writing on scraps of paper or illicitly keeping notes.
- There was a ‘green envelope’ system.
- Soldiers were given one green envelope per month, in which they could send uncensored
letters to their loved ones.
- The system was based on trust, that is, the soldiers had to verify that these letters only
included personal, private and family matters.
- Random green envelopes were opened at headquarters as a deterrent.
- If a soldier was found to have betrayed the trust, this would result in punishment.

German - There were similarities and differences between German and British propaganda.
Propagand - They were similar in their modes ie. posters and vilification of the enemy.
a - However, Germany lacked coordination of propaganda on the home front and overseas.
- Thus, British propaganda was superior.
- Compared to the British propaganda effort, German propaganda lacked coordination.
- It was largely undertaken by a number of private groups.
- Circulation of newspapers and magazines rose in Germany during the war with people eager for
news.
 - However, there appears to have been a discernible and growing lack of public confidence in
these publications.
- The military was clearly unhappy with the domestic propaganda effort and set up their own new
source (German War News).
- A further indication of the difference in German propaganda was the bid to influence public
opinion overseas.
- Germany spent approximately 100 million USD on a propaganda campaign aimed at the
American public.
- The money was spread across a number of pro-German groups.
- The fact that the Germans didn’t have anything to compare to the British War Propaganda Bureau
or the centrally focused campaigns during the war ensure British leadership in propaganda and the
manipulation of public opinion.
- Like the British, the Germans sought to justify the war.
- ‘Encirclement’ of Germany was a constant feature of published stories.
- The suggestion that the war was a plot by rivals to suppress German culture and deny
Germany her true position of greatness was also constantly featured.
- The Germans did not hesitate to use and embellish the story of atrocity.
- One report claimed that the Allies deliberately blinded German prisoners of war.
- The colonial troops fighting for Britain and France also received attention.
- Charges were made that Gurkhas and Indian Sikh troops drank the blood of Germans.
- Censorship and outright lies were well-established aspects of German propaganda.
- Accurate news from the battlefield was impossible, casualty figures were falsified, US
intervention was minimised, German resources were continually exaggerated and the German
public was told the war had begun with a French invasion.

- An overview of the reasons for the Allied victory. 

Battles and Changes of 1918

Operation - Russia’s withdrawal from the war in November 1917 freed 52 German divisions for transfer to the
Michael and Western Front.
the Allied - These reinforcements and a desire to finish the war before the Americans arrived prompted
Response General Ludendorff to launch his offensive (21 March)
(1918) - The attack was at several points along the Allied line and a major attack was directed at the
Channel ports.
- The key to the offensive was an initial attack that aimed to smash through the Allied lines in
northern France.
- The last great German offensive began when 47 German divisions attacked 28 British
divisions.
- The British and French were thus forced into retreat, with 300 000 British casualties.
- By secretly assembling a large force of artillery and soldiers, the Germans gained the element of
surprise.
- Small squads of mobile shock troops equipped with flame-throwers, trench mortars and light
machine guns proved an innovative and successful strategy.
- The shock troops were trained to cross the trench lines under a creeping barrage and attack
enemy artillery.
- Speed was essential.
- Dense fog and the use of mustard gas confused the Allied defenders.
- On the ‘Order of the Day’ (April 11), Haig decreed that every position should be defended to the
last man with no thought of retirement.
- The near collapse of the Allied armies led to the new appointment of the French Marshal
Foch taking authority over all Allied Armies at the end of March.
- The German advance halted on the Marne.
- On 18 July Foch launched a counter-attack that sent the Germans into full retreat, making it
their first major setback of 1918.

Events Leading up to Allied Victory

Events Leading - After the lunch of the German Spring offensive, it becomes a war of movement.
to the - With the passage of time and the experiences learned it becomes for the Allies a time of
Armistice technological success.
(1918) - After a long and bloody apprenticeship, the generals finally come to terms with the conditions
and requirements of modern warfare.

The Battle of - The battle was planned by Australian general John Monash.
Hamel (4 July - He was an engineer who approached the war with a different way of thinking.
1918) - Through meticulous planning and the incorporation of technology, the planning of Hamel
was a world away from those futile battles of former years.
- Artillery was used in large numbers so the Germans would be outgunned.
- Artillery wsas now accurate.
- Smoke shells would be used to screen the advance of 60 modern tanks.
- Tanks would not only fight but carry supplies ie. ammunition, water, grenades etc.
- Aircraft would bomb the German trenches and fly low to drown out the noise of the tanks.
- They would also drop supplies to advancing troops by parachute.
- The battle was largely fought by Australians however, there were 1000 American troops.
- They had developed an overwhelming industrial supply of weaponry.
- Artillery and the constant supply of it was a key factor to victory.
- The innovative technology of the tank was now being properly exploited.
- The Germans never realised the potential of the tank.
- Better tactical thinking in the preparation of battles meant that armies were unlikely to be
bogged down into attrition situations.
- By the summer of 1918, the Americans were arriving fresh, enthusiastic and in numbers.
- The Germans could not match this with Bulgaria asking for an armistice and
Austria-Hungary and Turkey exiting the war.

The Battle of - The coordinated attack with artillery, tanks and aircraft pushed the Germans back.
Amiens (8 - 11 - Australiand and Canadians were responsible for the main thrust.
August 1918) - The battle went well for the Allies at first, after four days, however, the advanced slowed,
casualties began to mount and Haig called a halt.
- On 11 August Ludendorff told the Kaiser that the war must end and offered his resignation.
- This battle showed the extent to which the morale of the german army had collapsed.
- 50-60 Germans had surrendered to one Allied soldier.
- The battle signalled the beginning of the end for Germany.
- Desertion and surrender became endemic in the german army.
- Cases of men not returning home or deserting were frequent.
- In Brussels, many lived in groups in attics and cellars where the German military police had
given up their raids to capture them.
- During the last months of the war between 750 000 and one million German soldiers avoided
battle by surrendering, disappearing or feigning light injury and sickness.

The Capture of - The Hindenburg line was constructed of barbed wire, trenches, tunnels and concrete
the fortifications that the Germans completed in early 1917.
Hindenburg - The structure was linear, that is, a line of strong fortifications.
Line (Late Sept - Once a hole had been punched through, the line lay open for attackers.
- Early Oct) - The more advanced form of defence was a series of mutually supporting strong points in a
chess-board design as the Germans used in Passchendaele.
- But by then the Hindenburg line had been built and the germans had not updated the
design.
- Australian troops had also captured the layout of a large section of the Hindenburg line.
- Trenches, dugouts and artillery points.
- Britain had such massive quantities of artillery available which could now be used with accuracy
so that no defensive position could have withstood bombardment.
- As the line crumbled, Ludendorff demanded an armistice.
- The first series of notes was sent to President Wilson of the US at the beginning of October.
- On 2 October, the high command told the German parliament that victory in the war was no
 longer possible for the Germany army.
- In early November, with the Austrians signing an armistice and the threat of revolution growing
in Germany, the Kaiser abdicated and fled to Holland.
- At 5 am 11 November 1918, the armistice was signed and came into operation six hours later.
- The war was ended at the eleventh hour on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of
1918.

An Overview of the Reasons for the Allied Victory

Reasons for - Blockade of Germany

Victory and - Germany’s home and battle front are both collapsing.
Defeat - Germany planned for a short war
- Failure of Germany’s last offensive
- Foch
- Entry of the US - collapse of Germany’s allies
- Allied superiority in manpower and firepower.
- Morale and conditions of German troops.

The British - Naval leaders knew that the key to success in a long war lay in the control of the sea lanes around
Naval northern Europe.
Blockade - This was effective in depriving Germany of the food and raw materials it needed to continue
the fight over a longer period.
- Germany with the largest maritime trade was vulnerable because of its limited access to the
world’s oceans.
- When the Royal Navy took up their war stations (1914), they effectively cut off Germany from
the rest of the world.
- Germany’s only access to raw materials was Swedish iron ore which was shipped across the
Baltic.
- Throughout the war, the British policy of stopping and searching caused irritation to the
non-combatants.
- Attempts were made to avoid diplomatic protests involved the purchasing of cargoes bound
for Germany and deals made with particular countries.
- In 1916 Britain agreed to supply the Dutch with grain supplies, only if the Dutch agreed to reduce
their exports of pork to Germany.
- At the time of the armistice, it was agreed that the blockade would continue until Germany
signed a formal peace treaty.
- It resulted in increasing starvation in parts of Germany during 1919.
- By March 1919 food relief from the Allies was reaching Germany but the blockade officially ended
on 12 July 1919.
- Allied marshall Foch stated that victory was due 50% to the military and 50% to the blockade.

Tactics and - The Ludendorff offensive as been criticised for being tactically strong but strategically weak.
Strategy - Ludendorff planned the preparation and instigation of the battle well however, the whole
operation lacked a major strategic goal.
- It was not enough to simply break the Allied line.
- It was the failure of Ludendorff to answer the question of wider strategy that helped to unhinge
the whole offensive.
- What would they do after they had broken the Allied line?
- When the Ludendorff offensive was at a halt it left the German armies in precarious forward
positions.
- They were in lightly fortified trenches where they could only be supplied with difficulty over
war-torn terrain.
- Historians have argued that Ludendorff made a further mistake in leaving half a million men on
the Eastern Front after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Russia.
- They were used in a totally unnecessary advance into the Ukraine and these men would’ve
been much more useful on the Western Front.
 Improved - Under Foch’s direction, the Allies attacked the Germans in different directions in a never-ending
Allied series of jabs, wearing down any form of enemy resistance.
Tactics - Haig made maximum use of his guns, tanks and aircraft.
- In the Battles of Hamel and Amiens (1918) General Monah and Haig carefully planned in order to
avoid the futile battles of attrition.
- By this time, the Allied commanders had learnt to use artillery, tanks and aircraft in
well-coordinated attacks.
- New strategies spared their troops from high casualties. Eg. ‘bite and hold’ tactics, where
soldiers did not push beyond the protection offered by their artillery, consolidating small
gains in territory before moving on.

Fire Power - The Allies had developed an overwhelming industrial supply of weaponry.
- British factories were delivering large quantities of tanks, machine guns, trench mortars and
shells.
- By July, the British had more artillery at their disposal than had been available before March.
- Artillery and the constant supply of it, was a key factor in victory on the Western Front.
- The British war economy, now aided by the Americans, could supply it.
- However, the German war economy could not.

Manpower - Both sides were running out of men, however, the arrival of the Americans (1917) gave an
advantage to Britain.
- The first US sustained offensive took place at the end of May 1918.
- The arrival of the Americans also raised the morale of the British and decreased the morale of the
Germans.
- The growing numbers of fresh US troops provided a source of manpower that the Germans could
not match.
- By 1918, many German units were commanding boys, older men or repatriated prisoners,
who had already experienced enough of war.

The Morale - As the initial successes of Operation Michael waned, German moral crumbled.
and - Many divisions were exhausted and their success posed a problem as divisions waited
Condition of kilometres ahead of their supply rains.
the German - In recrossing the old Somme, the Germans had to contend with the network of old trenches, shell
Troops craters and barbed wire.
- Disciplinary problems also existed within the German army.
- Hungry and tired soldiers were sick of the war and they fell like scavenging hordes on villages,
towns and enemy supply depots.
- The troops soon discovered that the British were well clothed and fed dissimilar to the German
propaganda.
- Desertion rates rose alarmingly.
- The Sturmtruppen tactics of the Ludendorff offensive were initially effective but also expensive
costing the lives of highly trained and motivated men.
- In many units boys were commanded and the replacements lacked quality and quantity.
- Young recruits, ill-clothed and hungry boys without patriotic feelings.
- Older men and repatriated prisoners had experienced enough of the war.
- The spring offensives had cost half a million German casualties.
- Replacements from the Eastern Front were a mixed blessing.
- Many of them had heard of Bolshevism and were spreading socialism throughout the ranks,
talking of an immediate peace without annexations.
- The uniforms of the German soldiers were in tatters and their boots leaked, they lacked blankets
and were hungry and undernourished.
- German doctors used crepe-paper bandages like toilet rolls to cover wounds.

Influenza - Influenza broke out in Europe in the spring of 1918 and affected all countries but found easy
victims among the undernourished population of Germany.
- 400 000 died of the disease in 1918.

The Effects of the War in Giving Rise to the Russian Revolution

Impact - When war was declared in 1914, volunteers hastened to join the Russian Army.
of - The Tsar blessed the troops as they left for the front.
WW1 - Political differences were put aside as Russians joined to fight the common enemy in defence of
the homeland.
- The Russian Empire, however, was unprepared for modern warfare.
- Supplies of weapons, ammunition and clothing for the troops proved hopelessly inadequate.
- After some initial success, the pattern for the war on the Eastern Front was soon set by German
victories at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.
- By the end of 1915, Russia suffered 3.5 million casualties.
- As resources went to the war effort, food supplies in Russian cities declined and prices rose.
- Increasing discontent with the war and the leadership led to revolution and the abdication of the
Tsar (1917).
- The Provisional Government attempted to continue the war, however, the failure of its last major
offensive strengthened the anti-war revolutionaries within Russia.
- With little direction from the government and increasing troop desertion, war on the Eastern Front
effectively ended in 1917.
- The Bolsheviks took power and the formal ending of the war was only a matter of time and
negotiation.
- Russian and German delegates signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
- The revolution led to the rise of the Soviet Union within Russia.
- With its communist ideology and determination to support the revolution, the Soviet Union was a
polar opposite to the emerging US.