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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE

' GUILDS OF · FLORENCE ~

BY

EDGCUMBE STALEY 1'~

ILLUSTJlATitD AFTEit MUUATUII.U IN ILLUMINATitD MANUSCitiPTS

AND FLOitltNTIN& WOODCUTS

.,

WITH

BIBLJOOilAPHICAL AND CHitONOLOGICAL TAILBS

METHUEN & CO.

36 ESSEX STREET W.C.
LONDON

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A ~.O){Óti'J~!;·~ttH,(:'\t. l,:"~lo\"1:'\t; THE FRlTfS OF HIS E!IITERPRI~E!

• •: .:: ••:~.• •:: ••= :•7tu•t..h-J::f.:STH CE!'il'l'K\.

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 C·
\...·

PREFACE
"FIRENZE, la Bellissima e Famosíssima Figlia di Roma"
-was no mere metaphor of Dante, but a very true title
of the First of Modem States.
The cumulative energies of the Florentines had their focus
in the corporate life of the Trade-Associations, and in no other
Community was the Guild-system so thoroughly developed as it
was in Florence. .
A complete and connected History of the Guilds has never
been compiled. The present work is put Jorth, perhaps rather
tentatively than exhaustively, to supply the omission.
The subject is a large one, and the founts of infonnation are
many and various. I have tast~ at many springs and drunk
from many wells-and my subject-matter has been qrawn from
the following sources :--{ 1) Manuscripts-Twelfth to Sixteenth
centuries; (2) Printed matter-Books and Periodicals; (3) Letters
from Authorities and Friends; (4) Personal Knowledge of Florence
and tbe Florentines.
In the study of Manuscripts I have entered largely into
the labours of such experts as Emily Baxter, Guido Biagi,
R. Davidssohn, Lewis Einstein, F. T. Perrens, J. A. Symonds,
and Pasquale Villari, and I have freely used their readings.
This I have done because of initial difficulties of time and
emolument for original research. The early Constitutions and
Statutes of many of the Guilds were written in an almost
insolvable mixture of abbreviated 4tin and vemacular Tuscan
-the deciphering of which would easily consume any man's
natural life-time. When I sought for some student to undertake,
even a superficial survey, I was met with the crushing but prac-
tical reply-" the game is not worth the candle I "

344419
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vi PREFACE
In the Catalogue of Printed Books, etc., in my Bibliography,
I wish to indicate the following as most helpful :-Biagi's " Private
Life of the Renaissance Florentines," Cantini's "Legislazione
Toscana," Cibrario's " Della Economia Política del Medio Evo,"
Davidssohn's two works, Einstein's "ltalian Renaissance in
England," Hyett's "Florence: her History and her Art," llde-
fonso's "Delizie degli Erudite Toscani,'' Perrens' "Histoire de
Florence," Peruzzi's " Storia del Commercio e dei Banchieri di
Firenze," "Leader Scott's" Works, Symond's Works, Villanis'
(G., F., and M.) Works, and Villari's Works.
Quite invaluable have been " Collections of Tuscan Laws,
etc.," cc Le Consulte," " L'Osservatore Fiorentino," " The Florence
Gazette," and CC Statuta Populi et Communis Florentiz, 14 I s:·
published at Friburg in 1778-indeed, the last of these authori-
ties I have used fully as representative of the middle period of
the epoch of the Renaissance.
My correspondence has placed at my disposal most useful
assistance from the late Rev. S. T. · Baxter and Mrs Baxter
(" Leader Scott "), Dr Biagi and Dr Villari, of Florence ; Signore
Lisini, of Siena, and Mr Langton Douglas, of London. To all of
whom I beg to offer my heartiest acknowledgments.
In the same category I tender sincere thanks to Mr G. F.
Barwick and the Staff of the Reading Room at the British
Museum-for useful services always courteously rendered ; to Miss
A. R Evans-the devout student of Florentine lore-for helpful
research work ; to Miss E. De Alberti-for excellent translations
o( I talian works ; and to my publishers--for urbanity and kindly
consideration.

Omissions are unavoidable in a work of this character and

scope, and further, I readily admit that I have not completely
brought down my information to the latest date of my period : -
e.g. "The Guild of Bankers and Money-Changers" and "The Guild
of Silk." This in no sense affects the purpose I have had in view,
nor tells against the usefulness of my work.

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 PREFACE vu
Where dates are in dispute I have chosen those which best fit
into my general scheme. The British equivalents, which I have
attached to the various coins current in Florence, are those which
most nearly express the mean of the constant variations in value-
for example, I have taken the gold ftorin of 12 S2 as worth about
ten sbillings throughout the whole work.
In many places, and especially in the last four cbapters, I
have followed my own line in attribution and criticism, regardless
of conventional ideas. What I say, for instance, about Giotto and
bis Campanile, about the Comacine Guild, and about the Religion
of the Florentines, I maintain upon their simple merits. My
generally optimistic view of the pre-eminence of Florence and her
people over all her rivais I am entitled to bold and to set forth,
from the nature of the case. She was not only the Head of the
Tuscan League, but the Head of Modem Civilization.
I have purposely avoided giving prominence to individuals--
except the Medici, and I have abstained from deali.n g critically
with the work of the Renaissance artists and writers-all of whom,
it has been my effort generally to show, were the protegés of the
Guilds, in their corporate capacity, or of inftuential mercbants.
With respect to the ltalian words wbich are plentifully and
necessarily scattered all through the publication, something must
be said First of ali, I have chosen obsolete and old spellings as
being more in harmony with the times and circumstances under
notice than modem renderings, for example : - Cronica not
Cronaca, Calimala not Calimara, Tiratolo not Tiratoio, or Tira-
torio, Notaio not N otaro-and so forth. In the second place-
the meanings,-which I have usually added in the text to Tuscan
words,-are those which I consider best suited to the subject in
hand. Where Dictionary meanings have failed me I bave not
hesitated to supply my own, in absolute accord with the context.
The Illustrations are from many sources. llluminated Manu-
scripts at the British Museum and at the Laurentian Library in
Florence have been laid under contribution. Whilst unhappily
not retaining the exquisite colouring of those gem-like miniatures

Digitized byGoogle
viü PREFACE
they bave been reproduced both in tbeir original dimensions and
also by enlargement. but this has undoubtedly coarsened their
delicate penmanship.
A very interesting feature in tbese beautiful pictures is to be
noted-tbat, whereas the Florentine artists who drew them so
skilfully have given us figures in Florentine costumes of tbe
periods, tbey bave added accessories of arcbitecture, fumiture,
foliage, and the other details of the backgrounds, in terms of
local environment. Both in Paris and in Flanders the superiority
of the handiwork of Florentine illuminators was fully recognised,
and such artists received warm welcomes and handsome re-
munerations.
The production, in the text, in their original sizes, of some
of the splendid Florentine woodcuts of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries has laid me under obligation to many kind people, and
among them, Messrs Kegan Paul & Co. for numbers 2, I 5, 37,
41, 48, 54, 56, 59, 6o, 61, from Kristeller's " Early Florentine
W oodcuts,'' Bemard Quaritch, Esq., for numbers 68 and 69-and
also for the reproduction, from a MS. Miniature, of number 28.
I have further to acknowledge the kindness of Messrs.
Sampson, Low & Co. for permission to reproduce woodcut
number 52, of J. M. Dent, Esq., for number 7, of the Archivio
di Stato Sienese (Signore A. Lisini) for Plate XXIX., and of
Dottore G. Biagi for three plates from bis "Private Life of the
Renaissance Florentines."
The small shields of arms, which appear at the end of certain
chapters, are reproduced from drawings I made for the purpose.
They are copied from sculptural and pictorial adomments upon
the façades of the Guild Shrine of Or San Michele and the
Palazzo della Mercanzia, and upon the overdoors of Guild Resi-
dences, the Zecca, and other buildings-some of wbich indeed
were removed in the last century.
The indexing of such a comprehensive work has been no
light matter. I have endeavoured to give prominence to trades,
traders, trade-customs, and trade-processes rather than to enume-

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 PREFACE lX

rate ordinary historical names and facts. This holds true also in
the Chronological Table.
The inception, development, and completion of my task have
enriched me with all the pleasurable toil and profitable enjoy-
ment of my fascinating subject. My enthusiastic love of the
" City of the Lily " has been a hundredfold enlarged as I have
worked through my story of " The Guilds of Florence."
E. S.
I.ONDON, IC}06

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Digitized by Google
 LIST OF CONTENTS
CRU.
I. FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
11. GENERAL HISTORY OP' THE GUILDS 33

THE SEVEN GREATER GUILDS

LE .ARTI JIÃGGIORI
(CHAPTERS IJI.-IX.)
111. TaE GUILD OP' JuooBS AND NoTARIBS 75
L'ARTB DE' GIUDICI E NOTAI

IV. THE "CAUMALA .. GUJLD • 105

L'ARTE E UN/YERSITA DE' MBRCANTI DI CAL/MALA

V. THE GuiLD OI" WooL 139

·L'ARTB E UN/YBRSITA DELLA LANA

VI. TaE Gurw oF BANKERS AND MoNEY-CHANGBJt.S

L'ARTB DEL CAMBIO

VII. THIC GUILD OJ' SILlt 204

L'ARTB D&LLA S8TA, OR "POR SANTA MARIA"

VIII. THE GUILD OP' DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES

L'ARTE DE' MEDICI E DEGLI SPEZ/ALI

IX. THK GUILD OF FURRIItRS AND SKINNERS

L'ARTE DE YAIAI E PELLICCIAI

THE FIVE INTERMEDIATE GUILDS

LE ÃRTI JIEDIANE
(CHAPTERS X.-XI.)

X. THE GUILDS OF BUTCHKRS, BLACKSMITHS, AND SHOE-

MAKERS
LE AR TI DE' BECCAI, DE FABBRI, E DE' CALZOLAI

XI. Taa GuiLDS oF MASTERS or STONE AND Woon, AND OF

RETAIL CLOTH-DEALERS AND LINEN-MANUFACTURERS 320
LB AR TI DE MAESTRI DI PIETRA E DI LEGNAME, E DE RIGATTIERJ
:zi

Digitized by Google
 LIST OF CONTENTS

THE NINE MINOR GUILDS

LE ÃRTl JIINORI
(CHAPTERS XII.-XIV.)
CHAP. PAG&
XII. THE GUILDS OF WINE-MERCHANTS, AND INN-KKEPERS,
AND TANNERS 358
LE ART/ DE 1'/NATT/EIU, E DEGL/ ALBERGATOIU, E DE GALIGAI
XIII. THE GUILDS OF ÜIL-MERCHANTS AND GENERAL PRo-
VISION DEALERS, OF SADDLERS, AND OF LocKSMITHS 385
LE AR TI DEGLI OLIANDOL/ E PIZZICAGNOLI, E DE COREGGIAI
E Dli.' CH/AYAIUOLI
XIV. THE GUILDS OF ARMOURERS, CARPENTERS, AND BAKERS 416
LE ART/ DE CORAZZAI E SPADA/, E DE' LEGNAIUOL/,
E DE FORNAI

XV. LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 444

MERCATO YECCHIQ-IIERCATO NUOYO
XVI. THE STREETS, THE SQUARES, AND THE BRIDGES,-WITH
SOME OF THEIR STORIES 470

~
XVII. THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS • 494
XVIII. THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 516

XIX. THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS • 535

XX. "FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA!.. 554
(FLORRNCE PROSPEROUS THROUGH HER INDUSTRIES)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHRONOLOGY

INDEX

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•

LIST OF PLATES
TO PAQI PAG&
FROJIITISPIECE. A FLOilENTINE MEilCHANT ENJOYING THE
• FllUITS OI' HIS ENTEilPiliSE I
Subject I. Miniature. Dlaminated MS., late XIV. Century-" 'Ya/nw
Mm1111." Simon de Hesledin et Nicholaa de Coiresle.
British Museum. Harl. 4-375, foi. 179-
" 11. Print. A View of Florence, XVI. Century-" L4 Rau#lla
tli 'YMÜ#ú tld/4 Cü14 t6 Fir-," 1774-
" 111. The Border. lllumioated MS., early XV. Century. British
Museum. Add. 21.412.
AH EAilLY MAIUtET-PLACE BY THE BAPTISTEilY OI' SAN
GIOVANNI 4
Miniature. Jllaminated MS.-" Billtl4j614." Biblioteca Laureoziana,
Florence. [By apecial penniaioo of Dottore Guido Biagi.]
PATilONESS OI' INDUSTilJES-COUNTESS MATILDA (?) 8
Miniature. lllumioated MS., middle XV. Century-" Du Ckns 11
N/16/es Fn~~111u," ]. Boc:cacce. British Museum. Bib. Reg. 16, G. v.,
IOL u.
C.AKPANILE AND DUOMO 12
Photogtaph-Aiinari, Floreoc:e.
A.luls or THB "TRIBUNALE DELLA MaRCANZJA" 32
Terra-cotta RODdel-Exterior of 0r San Micbele, Luca Della Robbia.
Photogtaph-Aiinari, Florenc:e.
GIOTl'O'S CC HISTOilY OI' LABOUil" • 42
Five panels &om the Campanile :-1. Boatmen of the Amo; 2. Plough·
iog in the Ctllllat/4; 3- Weaviog Wot>l ; 4- Blacksmithiog ; 5· Doctor and
Pottery. Photograph-Aiinari, Florence.
WOilltKEN-LATE XIV. CitNTUilY • 56
Miniature. lllumioated MS., XIV. Century-" 'Yaüw Mm11141."
Simon de Healedin et Nicholaa de Coiresse. Britisb Museum. Harl.
4-315· foL 123·

a--
WollKKEN-MIDDLE XV. CENTUilY
Mioiature. lllumioated MS., XV. Century-" Du Cuu tlu N/16/es
foL 1.
11 F-~~~a," ]. Boccacce. Britiah Museum. MS. 18.750,

AH APPR.ENTJCE-A TYPJCAL FLOilENTINE YOUTH

s6

68
"David"- Andrea del Verrocchio. NatioD&l Museam, Florenc:e.
Pbotograpb-Aiinari, Florence.
TH& BAilGitLLO-PALAca OP THE PoDESTA-STAIIlS OP HoNOUil 74
Pbotograph-Aiinari, Florence.

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XIV LIS'f OF PLATES
TO FAC& PAGII:
AN AUDIENCE WITH THE PODKSTA • 76
Miniature. Illuminated MS., XV. Century-" IJes Cases tles Noólu
Hommes et Femmes," J. Boccacce. British Museum. Bib. Reg. 14, E.
v., foi. S.
DOCTORS OF LAW IN CONSULTATION 76
Miniature. Illuminated MS., XV. Century-" Des Cases des Noóús
H#mmes d Femmes," ]. Boccacce. British Museum. Bib. Reg. 14o
E. v., foi. 392.
SUPR.EME COUR.T 011' JUSTICE-XV. CENTUR.V 84
Miniature. llluminated MS., 1478-" M. Cicm~~~is OraiU»ur." British
Museum. Harl. 2. 681, foi. I.
WOMEN LITIGANTS BltFORE TIIE PODESTA • • 90
Mini ature. Illuminated MS., late XIV. Century-" Vallflr Mtuime."
Slmon de Hesledin et Nicholas de Coiresse. British Museum. Harl.
4-735· foi. 179-
A WEALTHV CITJZEN AND HIS GR.OOM}
104
A KNIGHT AND HIS PAGE
Carte ~ Italia--" TtJr1'tXIIi." Playing cards. Baccio Baldioi, 1473·4·
Britlsh Museum. Early Italian Prints, Vol. 16.
A CALIKALA MER.CHA.NT} • 110
A SER.VING YOUTH
Carte d' Italia-" Tarrocki." Playing cards. Baccio Baldini, 1473·4·
British Museum. Early ltalian Prints, Voi. r6.
PoPULAR. PA.STIMES-PALLONE AND ScACCHI I 14
Miniature. Illuminated MS., late XIV. Century-" VaieNr Mazime."
Simon de Hesledin et Nicholas de Coiresse. British Museum. Harl.
4-735• foi. 151, B.
CoUR.T OF CoNSUL5-WITH NOTAR.IES AND LtTIGANTs-XV.
CENTUR.V u8
Print. C. Bonnard's "Costumes," vol. ii. p. 93·
AN ÜLD ROLLING- MILL FOR. FINISHING FOREIGN CLOTH,
R.ECII\NTLV EXISTING IN A "CALIMALA" FACTOR.V IN THE
VIA PKLLICCER.IA, FLOR.ENCE • I30
Photograph-C. Baccani, Florence.
AR.MS o F "THE CALIMALA GuiLD "
Carved in stone over a house-door in tbe Via Calimarugga, XV.
Century. Photograph-G. Brogi, Florence.
WOMEN WOR.KER.S IN WOOL I42
Miniature. IlluDiinated MS., middle XV. Century-" Des Clercs et
Noóler FtmtiUS," J. Boccacce. British Museum. Bib. Reg. r6, G. v.,
foi. s6.
DVEING AND DVERS I 5I
Miniatnre. Illuminated MS., XV. Century-Li!Jre tks Prlprietes, t/4s
CAom," Jehan Corbachon, 1482. British Museum. Bib. Reg. 15, E.
üi., foi. 264-
A CJ.OTH FULLING-MILL, WITH A WA.TER.-GATE l54
Tit'atel# del/a Pwticdfl4ltJ ti' ArnD-XlV. and XV. Centuries. Photo·
graph-Specially taken.

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 LIST OF PLATES XV
TO PAC& PAG&

STilEKT ScEN&--THE GAME OF " CJYETT/NO " 162

Oil PaintiDg, T'*&ll School, XV. Century. Ufti&i Gallery, Florence.
Photograph-AliDari, Florenc:e.
REsiDKNCE OF THE CoNsuLS or "Tua Gun.n OF Woot.," AND
FAÇADE oF Oa SAN MJCHELE (RESTORED 13o8) 164-
Photogmph-Alinari, Florenc:e.
Aluas OF THE "GUILD OF WooL" 168
Terra-eotta Rondei. Museo dell' Opera dei Duomo--originally outside
the residence of the Ãrll d60a .z-. Luca Della Robbia. Photograph
-Alinari, Florenc:e.
BANJtERS SETTLJNG ACCOUNTS 174
Miniature. llluminated MS., late XIV. Century-" De Sepmn Viliis."
British Musenm. : 27.695, foi. 8.
MONEY·CHANGJ:Rs-A DISPUTE BEFORE THE PODESTA 180
Miniature. llluminated MS.-late XIV. Centary-" VIÚ4flr Maxiwu."
Simon de Hesledin et Nicholas de Coiresse. British Museum. IIarL
4-735, foL 135, B.
BANJCDS' l..oGGJA-MERCATO Nuovo 184
Work of GioftDDi Battista dei Tuso, 1.549- Photograph-Alillari,
Florence.
PAYING TAXES-XV. CENTURY (1467) 189
Fresco after the manner of F. and G. Martini. R. Accademia Senese di
Belle Arti, Siena. [With a.cknowledgmeats to Signore Aleuandro Lisini
of Siena.]
A MUSICAL PARTY! 198
Miniature. llluminated MS., late XIV. Century-" Vaúw Muúru."
Simon de Hesledin et Nicbolas de Coiresse. Britisb Museum. Harl.
4-735, foi. 151, B.
R!:siDENCE o F THE CoNsuLS o r "Tua GuJLD OF SILJt," VIA DI
CAPPUCCJO 208
Photorraph-Alinari, Florence.
A "RELJGIOUS" TEACHING A WOY:AN SILJt-WEAVER 214
Miniatare. lllaminated MS., XV. Century-"Ovide MettunOI'j/us,"
Cnt#llillle du MalluNrnu. Britiah Museum. Bib. Reg. 17, E. iv.,
foi. 87, B.
DETAIL OF BLAClt AND WHITE MARBLE PAVEMENT IN THE
BAPTISTRY, uoo-EARLIEST PATTERNS FOR StLJt WoRJtltRS. 222
Photograph-Aiinari, Florence.
Arufs OF "THE GUILD OF S1L1t " ON W ALL OF RESIDENCE-
DoNATELLO 228
Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
SURGKONS AND DOCTORS WJTH PATlltNTS 250
Miniatare. Illuminated MS., middle XV. Centary. "Lióre du fu.
jrúln du Clusu." Jeban Corbechon, 1362. Bntish Museum. Bib.
Reg. 15 E. 11., foi. 165.
ARKS OF "THE GUILD OF DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES" 264
Terra·cotta RondeL Originally upon the Exterior of Or San Michele.
Luca Della Robbia. Photograph-AliDari, Florence.

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XVI LIST OF PLATES
SICJNNERS IN CAKP
Miniature. Illuminated MS., late XIV. Century-" 1'1Ú411" Mtuime."
Simon de Hesledin et Nicholu de Coiresae. British Museum. Harl.
4-375, fot 1o6, B.
COSTUMES-TwELFTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURIES • 288
Courtyard of the Bar!zello. From the Cmeggú Sttwút1 of May 1887.
Pbotograph-Alinari, Fforence.
CoSTU:wtts-MARRIAGE oF BocCAccio ADIMARI AND LISA RICA·
sou, 1420 294
From a Camnu. Accademia delle Delle Arti, F1orence. Photograph
-Alinari, F1orence,
ARMS OF "THE GUILD OF BUTCHERS" 298
Terra-cotta Rondei. Exterior of Or San Micbele. Fabbrica Ginori,
after the Della Robbia. Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
BLAcx:s:u:nHs AND THEIR TooLS 306
Miniature. Illuminated MS., XIV. Century-".A/6u,_ .Aslr'ti1Umia
Lati-." British Museum. Sloan, 3·983, foi. 5·
A STUDY IN BOOTS AND SHOKS ! 314
(The figure below the step represents Cimabue.) Courtyard of the
Bargello. From the Cmlggi4 Sttwút1 of May 1887. Photograph-
Alinari, F1orence.
"MASTERS OF STONE AND WooD," GIVING EVIDENCE OF SKILL IN
THEIR CRAFT BEFORE A CONSUL OF THE GUILD-XIV.
CENTURY 324
Miniature. IUnminated MS.-" Liwe des l+D/Iriefla des CluJus."
Jehan Corhechon, 1362. British Kuseum. Bib. Reg. 15, E. ü., foi.
265.
ROAD-MAKING AND QUARRYING-XV. CENTURY 331
Miniature. llluminated MS., Liwe des l+Dpri41er des CluJses. Jehan
Corbechon, 1482. Briti.sh Museum. Bib. Reg. 15, E. iü., foi. 99·
BRICKLAYER-STONEMASON-ARCHITECT-AND ScULPTOR • 334
Relief on Façade, Or San Michele. Nanni di Banco, 1418. Photo-
graph-Alinari, Florence.
ScAFFOLDING AND BUILDING-1470 338
Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa-" Building the Tower of Babel." Benozzo
Gozzoli. Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
AR:U:S OF "THE GUILD OF MASTERS OF STONE AND WooD" • 342
Terra-cotta Rondel-Exterior, Or San Michele. Luca Della Robbia.
Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
DooawAv or THE RxsiDENCE or THE CoNsuLS or "THE GutLD
OF RETAIL DEALERS AND LINEN MANUFACTURERS "-WJTH
SHIELDS OF ARMS 356
Photograph-G. Brogi, Florence.
AT AN INN • 362
Miniature. Illuminated MS., late XIV. Centnry-" DI Septem Yüiis.
British Museum. :::27.695, Voi. 14-

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 LIST OF PLATES xvii
TBE VJMTAGE-DURING THE RENAJSSANCE, 1470 •
Fresco. Campo Santo, Pisa-"The Vineyard of Noah." BeDoao
Goaoli. Pbotograph-Alinari, Florence.
RESJDBNCE OJ" THE CoNSULS or "Tsx GuiLD oi' INNKEEPERS" 371
Photograph-C. Baccani, Florence.
A COlfTADINA AND HER CHILD 389
"The Madonna and Child." Terra-cotta Lunette, Via dell' Agnolo,
Florence. Luca Della Robbia. Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
CoRN-CHANDLER AND BAKER 394
Miniature. IllllDlinated MS. - " BÚIIIIJjDID," Biblioteca Laurenziaoa,
Florence. [By specia1 permission of Dottore Guido Biagi.]
AGRICULTUllAL ÜCCUPATJON5-I362 • 400
Miniature. IllllDlinated MS.-"Li!Jn tlu PrPpriltn túl CIIDsu"-
]ehaD Corbeehon. Britisb Museum. Bib. Reg. 15 E. ü., fol. 248.
A LocltsMJTH AND BIS APPRENTJCE 410
Ctvu tl' ltaM-"TarrwcAi"-Pla~-cards. Baccio Ba1dini. Florence,
1473-4- Britisb Museum. Early Itaban Prints, Voi. 16.
A TvPICAL YouNo FLORENTJNE SoLDJER • 424
St George-Patron of the Guild of Armourers. Originally on the
façade of Or San Michele-Donatello. Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
SANTA MARIA IN CAMPJDOGLIO, JN THE OLD MARJtET 449
Photograph-çecially taken.
THE MDCATO VECCHJO, WITH THE COLONNA DELLA DoVITZ1A
AND THE LooGJA DI PESCE 450
Pbotograph-Alinari, Florence.
THE MERCATO VBCCHIO, WITH THE TABERNACOLO DELLA TROMBA,
THE CASA E TORRE DE' CAPONSACCHI, AND TRE CASA DEGLI
AMIDEJ • 462
Print. Florence, J83Q.
TsE VIA LoNTANMORTE, BY THE OLD MARKET • 474
Pbotograph-Baccani, Florence.
THE PIAZZA DELLA SIGNORJA, WITH THE PALAZZO VECCHJO AND
THB LooGJA DEl LANZI 479
Print. Florence, rSJO.
TBE PORTE VECCHJo-SAN MJNJATo-AL-MONTE IN TRE DJSTANCE 484
Photograph.
0N THE PONTE VECCHIO, WITH THE TORRE DEl AMIDEI.}
Thirteenth century Photograph of Drawing after F. Gambi, Florenee.
486
TsE PoNTE ALut GRAztE-(RuBAcoNTE) • • •
Photograph speeially taken.
THE BAPTISTERY OF SAN GIOVANNI • 496
Photocraph-Alinari, Florence.

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xvili LIST OF PLATES
TO PACS PAIO&
A SPORTELLO, OR HOLV-DAY WJCKET SO:l
Foarteenth C~ntury. National Mu.seum, Florence {Collezione Carrand).
Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
THE GREAT BAPrJSMAL FoNT IN SAN GtOVANNI BATTJSTA, 1371
Photograph-Alinari, Florenee.
THE GutLD CHURCH, oR SHRINE or OR SAN MICHELE, 1336
Photograph-Alinari, Floreoee.
INTERIOR OP' THE GUILD CHURCH, OR SHRINE OF ÜR SAN MICHELE
-WITH ÜRCAGNA'S TABltRNACLE OF THE MADONNA DEL'
ÜRTO, 1359 531
Photograph-Alioari, Florenee.
A TYPICAL BEGGAR AT THE SHRJNE OF ÜR SAN .MICHELE 534
c-te trltalio-" Tarndi"-Playiog Cards. Baecio Baldini, 1473·4,
Florenee. Britlsb Museum. Early Italian prints. Voi. 16.
FEEDING THE HUNGRY}
VISITING THE SICK
Terra-eotta Frieze-Spedale del Ceppo, at PistojL Gion.ooi Della
Robbia. . Photographs-Alinari, Floreoce.
COSIKO DE' MEDICI-" IL PADRE DELLA P.ATR/A" AND ARCH-}
BlSHOP ANTONINO SUPERINTENDING THE BUILDING OF THE
MONASTERV OF SAN MARCO, FLORENCE • •
ARCHBJSHOP ANTONINO VISJTING A FOUNDRY IN THE CONTAOO.
Coloured prints-" O TtstJ1Y1 tr A.ffrescM TosctuU." Florence, 1864.
THE APPOINTMENT OF THE FrRsr TwJCLVE "BuoNUOMINI DI S.AN
MAR TINO" BV ARCHBISHOP ANTONINO, 1441 55'
Coloured print-" // TtstJ1Y1 d' A.lfrescM TosctuU." Floreoce, 1864.
PANORAMA OF FLORENCE, WITH THE CAMP OF THE PRINCE OF
ÜRANGE. SJEGK, 1529·30
Fresco. Sala di Clemente VII., Pala.zzo Veeehio, Florence, by Giorgio
Vasari. Photograph-Alinari, Florence.
THE PORTA DI SAN GALLO }
Photograph-specially taken.
566
THE "SrrNCHE" PRISON (demolished) ·
Photograph of drawing after F. Gambi, Floreoce.
"IL PRESTO "-THE PAWNSHOP 573
Miniature. llluminated MS., late XIV. Century-DI Septtm Viliis.
Britisb Museum-MS. 27.695, fol. 7·
THE MEDICI
"The Adoratioo of the Magi." Sandro Botticelli. Gallery of the
Uffizi. Photograph-Aiioari, Florence.

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 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
TO PACitfAGit
A BIRD's-EYE VUtW OI" FLORENCE ABOUT THE YEAR 1391 1
From a large Print in the National Museum, Berlin.
PAGit
A LATIN-GRAMKAR MASTER AND HIS PUPILS 17
Woodcut. "Flwes PtlettwrmJ," Florence, 1492-
A COKKERCIAL TRAVELI.ER. OR AKBASSADOR. U
Woodcut. Jacopo de Cessoli's "R Gir~«dw tklü &tutlli." Florence,
1493·
A GALEE DE MER.CATo-MER.CHANT VESSEL 28
Woodcut. Giovanni della Sbada's " Orlu Úlllgihltli1W." Florence,
ISSO·
ARKS OF THE "PltOPLE OF FLOR.ENCE" 32
A CALKNDAR., WITH MONTHLY ÜCCUPATIONS, ETC. 34
Woodcut. Frontispiece of the "S11ite ~ tlu Plaruts," by Sandro
Botticelli and Baccio Baldini. Florence, 146Q-1465·
A GROUND-PLAN OF FLOR.ENCE-THIR.TEENTH AND FOURTEENTH
CENTUR.lltS-WITH NAMES OF PRINCIPAL FAMIUES 38
(By kiod pennissioo of ]. M. Dent, Esq.)
V AJUOUS CRAFTS IN ÜPER.ATION WITH STREET AR.cHITECTUR.E 6o
Woodcut. The "Sllite ~ tlu Pltuuts," "Mtf'nl17," by Sandro Botticelli
and Baccio Baldini. Florence, 14Ó0-1465.
MODES OF TRANSIT, COUNTR.Y PUR.SUITS, ETC., JtTE:. 64
Woodcut. "Suitt of tlu Pltuuts," "Luu," by Sandro Botticelli and
Baccio Baldini. Florence, 146o·J465. •
AR.Ks OF "THE PRIOR.S o F LIBER.TY" 74
LooGIA OI' THE BAR.GitLLo-PALACE OF THE PODESTA • , 81
Print. "lA T6sctltU et /e M'Jf"' Âgt," Geo. Rohault de Fleury, Vol. 1.,
Plate XIII. 1870. ·
RltGISTERED MARit, OR SIGNATURE, OF THE NOTAR.Y NICCOLO DA
FERENTERINO, 1236 • 95
Muratori's ".11111icllite ltaliaru," Vol. VI. p. 9·
A NOTAR.Y-WOOL MER.CHANT IOI
Woodcut. Jacopo di Cessoli's "// Giu«clw tklü &tuclli" (" Del/arle
tle/14 Luta "). Florence, 1493·
ARKS OF "THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES" 104
A "CALIMALA, MERCHANT IN HIS GAR.DEN 109
W oodcut. Chiarutella's " Sttwia tii Fltwituia." Florence, 1 SSO·
xix

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:xx ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAG&

ExPEJUKENTING WlTH DYES. SJXTUNTH CDTURY I 24

Woodcut. J. Ammon, "ú M~• .Âzr," P. Le Croix, Vol. V.
FINISHING CLOTH. SIXTEENTH CENTURY • • 129
Woodcut. J. Ammon, "ú Mti7M .Âge," P. Le Croix, Voi. V.
MERCHANTS BARGAINING OVER BALES OF CLOTH • I 33
Woodcut. J. Ammon, "ú M~ .Âzr," P. Le Croix, Voi. V.
A FuSTA DI MERCATO-A LIGHT MERCHANT VESSBL rs8
Woodcut. "Ctlrle rl'/IGIÜI.," "Tanwlti," Playing Cards, by Baccio
Baldini. Flormce, 1473·4-
Britilh Museum. "Early ltalian Prints," VoL XVI.
MBRCHANT-BANKER-MONEY-CHANGER 177
Woodcut. Jacopo di Cesloli's" GiU«cu tielú Sc«dti" (" DetNWt...n
e Cam!JüUwi"). Florence, 1493·
PAYING TAXES 193
W oodcut. Giorgio Chiarmi's "Lim di Mercallllu 1 C!Nttu." Florence,
1493·
ARKS OF "THB GUILD OF BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS" 203
SPINNING SILK FRO)l COCOONS uo
Engraving. Giovanni della Spada'a "Y-is Serints," Florence, 1550.
INTERIOR oF A GoLDSMITH's WoRKSHOP • 231
Woodcut. Signed-Siep.ú#IIS fldl, .ANgiiS/a, 1576. Print Room,
Britilh Maaeum.
l>ocToR VISITING A FEVER PATIENT 240
Woodcut. Petrus de Montagnaia's "FaskrúiiS Metkcüu." Venice,
1500.
DOCTORS IN CONSULTATION 243
Woodcut. Petrus de Montagnaia's "Fasiculus Mttied~~t~." Venice,
ISOO.
SURGEONS OPJtRATING 248
W oodcut. Petrus de Montagnaia's "Fasin##s Metkmu." Venice,
ISOO.
THE BOTTEGA OF AN APoTHECARY 255
From a Miniature in an llluminated MS. in the University Libruy at
Bologna-a Hebrew translatíon of Avic:enna's "Canon of Medic:ine,"
Bk. V. Fourteenth Century.
(By kind permission of Bernard Quaritc:h, Esq.)
FLoRENTINE GENTLEMAN PURCHASING SCENT AT AN APOTHE-
CARY'S , 259
Woodcut illustrating the CtiiUIIIU-" ÚJ Tawntaritl Ctnl 11 s~."
Florence, 1596.
(NIIIicetlu "S~IIo'' IM!iltd tlu ~ary, tmd t!e ".AI!Jartlli" ;,
t!e _.,._, J
FLORENTINE LADY AT HER TOILET 260
Woodc:ut illustratíng the Ctut-" Bel/e Dtlrme." Florence, 1596-

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 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT xx1
PAG&
DUt.ECTOR OF TOURNAMENT DISTRIBU1'lNG CANDIDATES' BADGES
BEFORE A GrosTRE 284
From a Print-Sixteenth Century. Florence.
[Nolice : The Capes ofVair.]
ARKs o F "THE GuiLD o v FuRRJERs AND SKINNERs" 295
METHOD OF FUSING METALS1 AND METHOD OF BEATING OUT
MKTAL PLATES 309
Woodcuts. Vannucci Biringuccio's "Del/a Pi'rotedmia," 1540.
A SHOEMAKER'S SHOP 316
Woodcut. G. Boccaccio's "D«amnwu." Venice, 1492.
ARMS ov "THK GutLD OF BLACKSliUTHs" AND oF "THE GuiLD or
SHOEMAKERS 319
MASTERs IN STONB, WooD, AND METAL • 328
Woodcut. Jacopo di Cessoli's "11 Gi~~~Kcll.o dl/11 Sc(l(c/ú" ("De FIIIJri e
til Mt~~~tri "). Florence, 1493.
0UTLINB VIEW OP' FLORENCK-XV. AND XVI. CENTURIES • 336
Woodcut. Bernardo da Fireaze's "L4 Belllsu 1 CluJsate di Finnu."
Florence, 1495·
MARKS, OR SIGNATURES, OF CONSULS OF "THE GUILD OP' RETAIL
CLOTH DEALERS AND LINEN MANUFACTURERS.. 347
Code of Statutes-Thirteenth Century.
MKS OF "THB GUILD OF RETAlL CLOTH DEALERS AND LINEN
MANUFACTURERS" 357
IMNKEEPER • 369
Woodcut. Jacopo di Cessoli's "11 Gi~~~Kcll.o del/e Sc(l(c/ai" ("Del-
lawerniere e .Al!Jergrúwe "). Florence, 1493·
KITCHEN OF AM IMN 373
Woodcut. "11 Crmlnuto de/ Carnesdale e de/111 Quansi11111." Florence,
1495·
ARKS OP' "THE GUILD OF WINE MERCHANTS," "THE GUILD OF
INNKEEPERS," AND "THE GUILD OF T ANNERS" 384
FAR)( LABOURER 390
Woodcut. Jacopo di Cessoli's "11 GiU(JUM de/11 Sc(l(clli" ("Del-
lllworlfiTI "). tlorence, 149J.
0LIVB Pu:ss-END oF XVI. CENTURY 392
Engraving. Giovanni della Spada's "NnHJ Rljerla" ( 0/eNm Oli'IHiniRI).
Florence, 1596.
STIR.JlUP·MAKER1S SHOP-END OF XVI. CKNTURY 406
Engraving. Giovanni della Spada's "NIIVtl Rljerfll" (Staplla siw
Slapedes). Florence, 1596.
ARKS OF "THE GUILD OF OIL MERCHANTS AND GENERAL
PROVISIOM DEALERS111 "THE GUILD OF SADDLERS," AND
"THE GutLD OF LocKSKITHS " 41 5

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xxü ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAGJI:
TYPJ:S OF ADULT FLoRENTJNES 422
Woodcut. Michael Angelo Buonarroti's Cartoon-Portion of tbe Battle
of Pisa, originally in tbe Palazzo Vecchio, Florence.
THE FAT CARPENTER 431
Woodcut. Giovanni Boc:caccio's "NfiW/14 tül Grass11 LepaiiMIÚI,"
Giunti'a Edition, 1516. .
TuE SHRJNE oF OR SAN MrcHELK, WITH THE CoRN MARKET,
AND THE NOTARY FOR AFFJDAVITS 435
Outline Drawing. Miniature Illuminated MS., "BilldajD/4." Biblio-
teca Laurenziana, Florence..
A FLOUR-MJLL ON THE ARNo-XVI. CENTURY • • • 438
Print. "IA T.sUUI4 11 11 Mll,1611 Áp.'' Geo. Robault de Fleury, Voi.
li., foi. 67, 1870.
ARMs or " Tal: GmLD oF .AJt.MoURERS AND SwoRD MAKBRS,"
" THE GUILD OJ' CARPENTKRS," AND CC THE GUILD OJ'
BAKERS" 443
PALAZZO DE' TOSJNGHJ-" IL PALAZZO,- MERCATO VECCHIO
(DJ:STROYJ:D IN THE XIV. CltNTURY) 446
Print. Special Drawing, Leader Scott's "Catbedral Builders.'' (By
kind permiuion oC Mesars Saml*ln Low & Co., Limited.)
LATE .DONE I LATE FRESCA /-Miut:U:AN • 452
Woodcut. Giovanni Antonio da Brescia, 1452·1582. "IA Gnrrnl,.,
en Ita/ü twatú M. L. R~·." H. Delaborde.
A MARKET ScENE-MERCATO VECCHIO 456
Woodent. "D ClllflrtJsto di Canres&iale e tülla Quansi-." Florence,
1495·
STREET ARCHITitCTURE-SPORTS AND PASTIME." 467
Woodcut. British Museum. Florence, 1494·
GkOUP OF FLORENTINES-A STREET DISPUTE 472
Woodcut. Lorenzo de' Med~'s (Il Magnífico) "La CllmJNVrlia tül
Mtllllell«d# c()ll ~a." Florence, 1584.
PIAZZA DI SANTA CROCE- A TOURNAMENT JN THE XVI.
CENTURY 482
Print. Florence, 1521. Britisb Muaeum.
IL CALCto-FLORENTINE FooTBALL IN THE FrFTEENTH CENTURY 492
Woodcut. Britisb Maseum. Florence, 1494-
AN "AvR MARIA" BEFORE A STREET SHRINE 504
Woodcut. Piero Pacini da Pescia's "ÚUidl DnNJie di Di'IIWsi Ãulllri.''
Florence, Early Sixteenth Century.
SAVONAROLA PREACHJNG IN LttNT JN SANTA MARIA DEL FlORE • SII
Woodcut. Girolamo Savonarola's " CDmpmdw di RevelalliDne."
Florence, 1496.
A DYING MERCHANT 513
Woodent. Girolamo Savonarola's "l+tdica tüll' Arte tül Ben Mllrire."
Florence, 1496.

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 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT xxiü
PAGa
SANTA MARIA DEL FlORE AND CAMPANILE
W oodcut. A. Poliziano's " CtJnjurtzlitnUS PactilliiiZ Ct1111menlari4,"
141)8 ij. Adimari, 1769). Florence.
TRK CORN-GRANARY-Oil SAN MICHELE •
Print. " LA TosttuU et ü Mfl)'m A"g,." Geo. Robault de Fleury, Voi.
L, Plate VI., 1870.
AllMS OF .. THE CAPTAINS OF Oll SAN MICHELE" 534
A SJCK MAN IN HOSPITAL 537
Woodcut. Giovanni lloecaccio's" Gme#/4pdes I>úux." Paris, 1531,
SEVEN CoRPORAL Acrs ov MKRCY 545
Drawing, attributed to Girolamo Savonarola, in tbe National Collec·
tion of Drawings, Florence.
TBE BIGALLO 547
Print. "La TDseatU el /1 Mfl)'m Âze." Geo. Rohault de F1eury, Vol.
I., Plate li. 1870.
REuJtVING THE NEEDY-STREET BEGGARS 553
Woodcut. Acnolo Hebreo's "Rapjlrete11lt1111'Dne," Florence, 1496-
ISOO.
(By kind permission of Bernard Quaritch, Esq.)
A MKilcRANT's DINNKR PARTY IN THE l.oGGIA OF HIS HousE •
Woodcut. "Nl1flti!ll PiNI'Dflli tlliamala tia Vi4111." Florence, 1496-
ISOO.
(By kind permission ofBernard Quaritch, Eaq.)
IMPRKSSJONS OF COINS IN CIRCULATION IN FLORENCE IN THE
THIRTEJtNTH CENTURY
AxEiliGO VESPUCCI ON TRE SHORES OF SOUTH AliEiliCA
Eograving. Gioftnni della Spadll's "N()f)(l Rq;erta," Florence,
ISSO.

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Dígítízed by Goog [e
THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
LE ARTI DI FJRENZE

CHAPTER I

FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

I. FollMATIVE FORCES. Geograpbical position. Climate of Tuscany. "A
favoured Race." Origin of Florence. Roman influences. Barbarian inroads.
Charlemagne. "Fi'rmze la Bel/a." Tbe Popes. Co/legi#m. Tbe Commune.
11. POLITICS AND P AllTJES. Countess Matilda. GrtUIIii and PtljJoltmi.
Six Sulúri. Six Consuls. Early Records wanting. Tbe Umiliati. Feuds
and warfare. "Muúu lo Stato I" Guelpbs and Gbibellines. Battle of
Campaldino. Machiavelli's views.
III. EDUCATJON AXD CULTUll~ Tbe Campanile-"Gospel of Labour."
Boastings-" 11 Spin'to fiel Campanile." Sbopkeeper-gentlemen. Dante's
opinion of "Le GmtJ' di Firmsre." Leaming-tbe companion of daily life.
Petrarcb's aphorism. Tbe University of Florence. Boccaccio. Englisb
tr&'9ellers in Tuscany. Tbomas's Diary.
IV. TllADE ROUTES AND SEA POWEll. Roman roads. Commercial
agents. Buonaccorso Pitti. Oslellien'. Commercial Treaties. Vastness of
Florentine commerce. Foreign Consuls. Six maritime Consuls. Tbe "Arle
fiel Man I" Florentine navy. Intemational law. Reprisals. Florence head
of tbe Tuscan League.

T HE classic Vale of Amo was, in latest of the Dark Ages, the

wholesome nursery, where fair Florence-gentle nurse-
fostered three young sisters :-Art, Science, and Literature.
No invidious Paris fared that way, casting apples of discord
before the fascinating Graces of the Renaissance. No question
ever arose as to whose was the subtlest witchery, but each de-
veloped cbarms, distinct and rare, yet not outrivalling one the
other. "'..With harmonious voices blended, and ambrosial tresses
miogled, the three interlaced their comely arms, and tossing with
shapely feet the flowing draperies of golden tissue, which softly
veiled the perfect contours of their beauteous forms, they gaily
danced along. Their enchanting rhythm·was the music of the new
A

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 . ..
2 .. . . ·. THE· GUILDS OF FLORENCE

Civilisation :-it we know-and them-but what of their origin ?

wbence came they? and wbo were their forebears?

Commerce and Industry,-well-matcbed and well-mated pair,-

very early made their busy home by Arno's healthful bed. Sheltered • :I
by the gracious clifl's of Fiesole and the umbrageous woods of San
I
Miniato, tbey stretched their vigorous limbs along the virgin fields
and pregnant uplands, dipping themselves anon, and theirs, in the
tonic stream. Invigorated by the crisp Tuscan breezes, and
cheered by the sunlit cerulean skies, they set about the rearing of
their sturdy family.
Industry,-fond Mother,-kept by tbe domestic bearth, un-
wearyingly nourishing and encouraging her children,-some of
whom are chiselled upon Giotto's famous Campanile,-whilst Com-
merce,-energetic Father,-ranged the wide world over for markets
for bis wares, retuming, ever and a day, with hands well filled with
gold and other treasures rare.
Together this strenuous pair evolved, from Nature's generous
womb, the woolly web, the silky tress, and brilliant dye, which,
sagely intermixed, by cunning hands, well dowered her growing
ofl'spring witb health, and wealth, and wisdom too.

To the intelligent student of Florentine History it comes as a

matter of no surprise that her people,-so violent in political
quarrel, so refined in culture, and so magnificent in circumstance,
-was ali the while a nation of shrewd business men-enterprising
merchants, skilful artisans, and diligent operatives.
From the twelfth to tbe end of the sixteenth centuries Florence
easily held the first place in the life and work of the known world :
she was in fact Athens and Rome combined I The reason of this
pre-eminence must be adjudged to three potentialities :-accidents
of climate, geographical position, and peculiarities of race.
The climate of Tuscany,-a highland country of hills and
plains,-partook neither of the enervating temperature of the
indolent south, nor yet of the rigour of the frozen north. Men
FLORENTINE COM~1ERCE AND INDUSTRY 3
throve mightily under stable atmospheric conditions which aided
healthful labour and inspired enterprise.
Geographically, Florence was the Mistress of the intercourse
of the world. In her hands she held ali the northem roads to
Rome, whilst, Colossus-like, her feet were placed upon the water-
ways of Venice and Genoa-the emporiums of the south. From
Pisa she ruled the seas.
The race of Tuscans was a fusion of many vigorous strains:
Etruscan, Greek, Latin, and Teuton. . Each ingredient had its
special function in forming a people, physically and mentally,
equal to any and every task they chose to set themselves. Dino
Compagni describes the Florentines of the fourteenth century as
"ftwmali di !Jel/a statura oltra /e Toscani," and calls them, "the
favoured race."
Vigour of mind and body, and the free exercise of industrial
instincts. were the germs whence sprang ali the splendid character-
istics of the Florentines of the Renaissance.
The Muse of Shelley sings thus : -
" Florence, beneath the Sun,
Of cities, fairest one I •

The origin of Florence is wrapped in mystery and obscurity.

Fiesole is said to have been one of her maternal forbears, and
Dante calls : -
"Etruscan Fiesole-the hilly cradle of a noble race." 1
Anyhow at a very remote period the warlike people of the hills
were wont to descend .to the river banks to barter with such
intrepid lowlanders as adventured themselves so far.
At the junction of the Fiesolean stream,-the Mugnone,-with
the Arno, gradually sprang up a small settlement of peaceful men
and women, and there centred the primitive markets of the country-
.side. This settlement speedily became a town of considerable size
and importance, and was known to the Romans, civilly, as Fluet~tia.
1 " Inferno," n. 61-3.

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4 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
When Julius Caesar carne to Fiesole to avenge a Roman defeat,
wherein the Consul Fiorinus had been slain, he changed its name.
-marked on bis military chart as Campus M arlis,-to Fiorentia, in
honour of bis kinsman's memory.
Florus ranks Florence with Spoletium, Interamnium, and
Przneste as, "those splendid munia'pia of Italy "; and Pliny in-
cludes "Flumtini vel Florentia " in bis list of Romano-Etruscan
Colonies.
Whilst dates are ali uncertain we know that the Romans
re-built the town on the usual Castrum plan of intersecting streets,
and lived tbere amid ali the usual edifices of a Roman commercial
city. A great impetus was given to her growtb and trade by the
making of the splendid Flaminian road, whicb crossed the Amo
at the point wbere the Ponte Vecchio still unites the two portions
of the modern city.
The civilisation and prosperity of the Roman Castra were
swept away by the wild inroads of tbe barbarians from the North.
Wave after wave of savagery rolled over all the land. Goths,
Vandals, Longobarbs, and Saxons worked their will amid Arno's
smiling fields and pleasant gardens. Last of ali came Totila,-the,
cc Scourge of God,"-and bewed in pieces the remnants of her folk,
and made of fair Florence nothing but a dunghill and a waste. _
Roman farmsteads, villas, baths, and theatres were levelled to
the ground. Wbere, by busy gate and teeming quay and mart,
had gathered crowds of skilful toilers,-from fruitful fields and
prolific flocks, from sea and riverside, from busy looms and noisy
shops of smiths,-instead were ruined walls and battered portais.
Behind the scattered stones slouched the craven sons of hard-
working sires. Their hands, devoid of bonest crafts, sought only
their fellow's pelf.
Along with the conquering Longobarbs, or Lombards, came
many a German family, to whom tracts of Italian land were
assigned for habitation and for culture. Attract~d by its fruitful
promise many a bearded and fur-clad barbarian settled on Tuscan
soil, and .there, too, their chieftains built their castles-employing

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 5
the pressed labour of the wretched people of the land. From
these strongholds did they exercise over-lordship on plain lab-
ourers and rough workmen, whilst they, one and ali, rendered
due homage to their liege.
The barbarians came, and the barbarians went, hundreds of
years rolled by, and nought but the ancient Christian shrine of
San Giovanni remained to teU where Florence once had been.
There, under its sheltering eaves, the good Baptist,-the second
Patron oftheir weal: warlike Mars deposed,-rallied the frigbtened
relics of a city's throng, and tbe driven refugees from Fortune's
frown.
By tbe river bank clustered frail hovels,-the homes of simple
fisber-folk,-adding their quota to a new township ; and boats
began once more to drop adown the stream in search of food and
gain. Men breathed again, their bopes revived, and dreams of life
and peace, of healtb and work were theirs. The old tire in their
blood awoke the lion of their energies, and up, out o f the ashes of
the dead, phrenix-like, sprang another Florence.
U nder the virile rule o f good Queen Theodolinda wbo, at
Ravenna, held her Court, in the years between 556 and 625, busy
hands unearthed the blocks of Roman masonry, and around the
budding city they threw the Primo Cn-&hW-the first medizval
walL A turn in the tide of misfortune had set in and fair Florence
raised proudly aloft her head to greet the Monarch of the West.
In 786, Charlemagne entered through her gates with an
imposing retinue. He found ber people rebuilding the Romano-
Lombardic town and bestirring themselves in many useful
industries.
The wise king noted the vigour and the intelligence of the
townsfolk, and recognised especially their skill in dressing skins
and wool. Greatly did he encourage these worthy crafts and
granted new privileges. By decree 1 he extended the Comilatw or
Ctmtado to a three miJes radius from the Baptistery. The tears
he is said to bave shed at Leghom over the sight of intrusive
1 G. Villani, Lib. iii. cap. 1·3·

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6 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Viking ships sapping the resources of Tuscany, must have been
brusbed aside, as, approvingly, he bestowed upon the new city the
title :-" Firmee la Bel/a I "--and beautiful she was--a ftower-
basket-in the words of Faccio degli Uberti :-" Clu linz posta u~~a
gran cest dei flori!" /
Two sapient Popes-Adrian I. and Leo Ill.-did much in the
eighth and ninth centuries to encourage the arts and crafts. No
Italian could at that time! do foundry work, consequently Greek
artificers in gold and bronze, especially, were invited to settle in
Rome. Rich silken hangings, which could not be manufactured
in Europe, were imported from the East, and men were set to work
to imitate them.
Paschal 1., Gregory IV., and Sergius 11. took up the mande of
their predecessora, and encouraged industrial arts of ali kinds.
Bas-reliefs in metal and sanctuary lamps, glass vessels for the Mass
and ornamental glass work, mosaics in pottery, lapidary objects
encrusted with gems, enamel painting, fresco decorations, and
many other ornamental and useful crafts were fostered not only
in the Eternal City, but by craftsmen who travelled all over Italy
and made settlements in Florence, and other places.
And still the toilers toiled and still the city grew until, in 825,
there was established, as in other centres of population, a Collegitml.
--a commercial university for the Arts and Crafts,-under the
auspices of the Emperor Lothair. This was the Coronation of
Florence. Every head of a family, and every captain of a trade,
became a ruling councillor in the popular government by public
meeting.
Fief of the Romano-German Empire in the tenth century,
Florence commercially governed, taxed, and defended herself.
Her inftuence and her example were extended on every side.
Her markets attracted dealers and adventurers from every land :
her industries workmen and apprentices. By liberating the
peasants of the soil from the sway of feudal lords she became the
mistress of their destinies as well as of her own.
By ali these means Florence laid the foundations of the only
FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 7
free government possible in the Middle Ages-that of the
Commune.

It is a question of unusual difficulty to determine precisely the

end of the ~iddle ~ and the beginning of the ~enk~
I talians, and Florentines in particular, never quite san to tbe
dismal levei of otber peoples-their faculties and energies were
always far more acute and lesa benumbed than tbose of most of
the inhabitants of the States around them. In a word Florence
was a precious Jantem, whicb bumt with unquenchable brilliance,
and illuminated ali the cities of Eurc;>pe.
Bonifazio III., Marquis of Tuscany, died in 1076, and left bis
titular sovereignty to bis daughter, the Countess Matilda.
Popularly known as "Tbe great Countess," she dwelt at Lucca,
holding frequent Courts in Florenco-when not engaged sword in
haod upon the field of battle. Her fame was such that very many
of the children bom in Florence, and the Contado, were ever after
named " T essa," or " Contessa " in her honour.
Matilda was renowned for her strict administration of justice,
and, in the earlier years of her reign, she presided in person in the
Court of Pleas, aided by assessora, wbom sbe chose from among
the Grtmdi, or leading citizens. She greatly encouraged the
industries and the commerce of the Commune, and readily
sanctioned the warlike expeditions of the Popolani, or traders,
against the aggressive nobles oí the Empire. The Countess,
nevertheless, had ambitions, beyond the circumscribed limits of
tbe Conltztiq, and left the city magnates to govem its affairs,
pretty much as they liked.
In 1078 Florence was encircled by her Second Wall, and, 't the
same date, she was divided into six Sutieri--or Wards-each
under tbe presidency of a B*Onwmo, chosen by Matilda from the
families of the Grandi. This magistrate administered justice,
governed the population, and commanded the armed men, of his
ward.
In 1101 the Countess made a prolonged stay in Florence, and

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8 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
called together into Council the A1Uiani, or Ancients-heads of
Grandi families, and also the Capitudi'ni or heads of Popolalli trades,
-to frame a Constitution for the government of the Commune. In
this instrument the BU~»~uomini adopt a new style, one indicative
of personal authority and independence, namely :-Consul-a title
hitherto borne only by supreme rulers of States.
Upon the death of Matilda in 1115 no one took her place as
ruler of Florence, but the government of the city was carried on
by the Six Consuls-who thus became the Rulers of the Com mune.
Florence at the same time threw off her allegiance to the Emperor,
and proclaimed herself mistress of her own fortunes.
The yearly records of the city which have been preserved, begin
only in the twelfth century. Eighteen of these,-written on the
back of Sheet 71 of Codex 772 in the Vatican Palatine Library,
-cover the years I I IO to I 173. A longer series ofRecords, running
from I I07 to 1247, is preserved in Codex 776 in the Magliabecchian
Library in Florence. In these documents are entries of the names
of Consuls and other officers of State, together with notes of
contemporaneous events connected with the progress,-political
and commerc1al,-ofthe inhabitants ofFlorence. It has been truly
said: "Merchants made her history, and merchants have
chronicled the same." 1
Ali the while another agency was at work, in the Middle Ages,
which kept ative skilful toil and enterprising trade-the agency of
the monasteries. In these institutions ma.nual labour was pre-
scribed to prevent idleness. Some communities indeed were
founded mainly upon co-operative principies: for example, the
Umiliati or The Humble Fathers of St Michael of Alexandria.1
The Order originated in the banishment of numbers of Italians,
chiefly Lombardians, in to Germany bythe Emperor Henry I. in 1014-
These exiles associated themselves together, in religion and in toil,
by working at various trades, more particularly that of dressing
wool. Returning to their own homes in IOI9, they retained their
1 Dr Davidasohn, " Geschichte von Florenz " (Preface).
1 L. Pignotti, " Storia della Toscana," voL iii. p. :z66, note.

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PATRONESS OF INl>liSTRH:S (COUNT~:ss :\IATIJ.IlA "!)

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 FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 9
organisation, and kept up their occupations, whilst their diligence
and integrity were renowned far and wide.
Down to 1140 the Umüiab" were laymen, but in that year the
Order was changed into one composed sol~ly of men of Holy
Order. It is true that they no longer worked themselves, but they

- gathered arounâ their monasteries and cells, everywhere, great

numbers of lay-workers, of ali ages and of every class, whose
labours they directed, and whose morais they protected. The
head of this early Labour Bure~u was called "Mercato."
In no other city or republic did the H umble Fathers
achieve anything like the. success which marked their .work in
Florence. lndeed, in some places, the industry entirely failed
to attract workers ; for example, in Pisa,-where they hád com-
menced operations about the same time as in Florence,-they
were obliged, in 1302, to beg alms to maintain their factory ; and,
a few years later, they were obliged to give up operations and quit
the place entirely. In Florence it was very different, and their
advent in 1238 was warmly welcomed, and its importance
recognised by the shrewd manufacturers and operatives.

Three conditions· appear to bave been constant in the political

and commercial history of Florence, which, viewed in connection
with their possible effect upon one another, were absolutely con-
tradictory. First:-the incessant warfare-feuds, brigandage, and
reprisals, which kept tbe population in a constant turmoiL
Florence herself fomented some of these, as, by degrees, she
acquired rural districts, and went on to conquer and to annex more
distant townships and lands. Second :-the extraordinary fre-
quency with which the form of govemment was changed : "Mutar
lo Stato " became a household proverb. Magistrates one day
acclaimed and trusted, were on the morrow disgraced, dismissed,
and even slain. Third :-the amazing prosperity of the city, and
the rapid increase of trade associations or Guilds, under fixed
rules and duly elected officers. In truth, on one and the same
day, a man might be called upon to fight to the death in

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10 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
some fell conflict. to exercise bis privilege witb respect to the
franchise of the city, and to undertake some new industrial
enterprise I
The following is the refrain of a Folk Song of Old Florence,
sung by the sorrowing women, as they looked in vain for tbe
retum home of the bread-winners :-
" Gather up his tools and bring them
With bis apron of brown leather.
Father, wilt thou not be going
To thy work this summer weather?
Father slain and brother wouoded-
They have struck them dowu together ! " 1

The strife between Guelphs and Ghibellines which actually

commenced soon after the death of the Countess Matilda, was a
struggle for supremacy on the one hand, between a democracy of
merchants and traders,-aided by their work-people,-and, on the
other, an aristocracy of nobles and soldiers of fortune,-backed up
by their retainers. The names were first used in Florence in 1215,
but were originally given by the Emperor Frederic 11.,-the
former to designate the upholders of the Pope,-the latter to
distinguish the adherents of the Empire.
The Battle of Campaldino on June I 1, 1285, proved, bythe victory
won for Florence, the progress made in commercial enterprise and
prosperity. In spite of the many and lengthy wars with all her
neighbours, Florence was in a good and happy condition. Her
population was increasing rapidly in number and in wealth. Every
man was making money in his trade, and everything went merrily
like a marriage bell. Festivais and feasts were multiplied,
children went about clothed in new garments of fine cloth and silk,
and women, with garlands of fresh flowers and coronets of silver
and of gold,-the work of cunning craftsmen,-sang and danced
the livelong day.1
But the triumph of Campaldino was brief. Beneath the brilliant
robes of her nobles and her merchants and the goodly garments
1 Old Tusc:an Folk Songs, " Y«eY~~. " 1 G. Villani, "Cronica," Yii. 131.

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 FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 11
of her artisans and her peasants, there rankled still the class-hatred,
which had ever threatened her internai peace.
The constant feuds and factions which distracted Florence,
from the first day, when, in 1,177, the Uberti tried to seize upon the
Lordship, until the very end of the Republic, did nothing more
or less than winnow parties and thresh out policies, leaving
behind as a substantial result a solidarity which had no equal in
Europe. Hei" rulers were men of sterling grit, and her laws,-
forced by exigency of circumstances,-were perspicuous for liberty,
large mindedness, and justice.
Merchants of the "Calima/a "-the finishers of foreign woven
cloth-for example, carried on their business undaunted by troubles
at home. Its members belonged to ali and every party in the
State. When the feud of the Donati and Cerclli was at its height,
thirty-eight mercbant-families sided with the former-the Neri or
"Blacks," and thirty-two with tbe latter-the Bi'anclli or" Whites"
-whilst as many more were neutra1. 1
Machiavelli bas, in bis "History of Florence,'' given an ex-
cellent and sententious view of the vicissitudes to whicb govem-
ments are subject. He says :-" The general course of changes
that occur in States is from a condition of order to one of disorder,
and from tbe latter they pass again to one of order. For as it is
not the fate of mundane affairs to remain stationary, so when they
have attained their higbest state of perfection, beyond which they
cannot go, they of necessity decline. And these again, when they
bave descended to the lowest, and by their disorders have reacbed
. . . the very deptb of debasement, tbey must of necessity rise again,
inasmucb as they cannot go lower." 1
"Cities that govem themselves under tbe name of Republics,
and especially such as are not well constituted, are exposed to
frequent revolutions in their govemment" a
" The causes of nearly all the evils wbicb afflict Republics are
to be found in the great and natural enmities that exist between
1 VillaDi, Y. 38· 1 MachiaYelli, "Le Istorie di Firenze," Lib. Y. sect i.
1 MachiaYelli, Lib. iY. sect I.

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12 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the people and the nobles, wbich result from tbe disposition
of tbe one to command, and the indisposition of the other to
obey." 1

Perbaps tbe most perfect, and certainly tbe most beautiful,

building in Florence is the famous Campanile. Vasari says:-
" G!otto not only made tbe design for this bell-tower, but also
sculptured part of tbese stories in marble, in wbicb are represented
the beginnings of ali the arts." These stories are told in panels o f
hexagonal sbape, not in the conventional and devotional manner
of the age, but freely from tbe standpoint of everyday life. Giotto
gloried in bis Florence and in her progress, and so be has adorned
bis Campanile witb the records of her industries and of ber
commerce.
His first subjects are "Tbe Creation of Adam," and cc The
Creation of Eve "; next he presents "Tbe labours of Adam and
Eve"-the man working patiently with bis spade, the woman with
her laden distaff ;-and then u J abal-the fatber of sucb as bave
cattle,"-setting fortb man's pastoral work. After Jabal follows
his brotber, "J ubal-the fatber of all wbo handle harp and organ."
Tubal Cain is_ next in order,-the instructor of tbe art of working
in metals. Labour in the vineyard, personified in Noah, succeeda;
and here ends . the Scriptural subjects so called. The seven Arts
and Sciences follow in turn-Astronomy, Arithmetic, Geometry,
Grammar, . Logic, Rhetoric and Music,-each pourtrayed in a
separate panel.
Three panels are devoted to the crafts of Building, Pottery,1
1 Machiavelli, Lib. ili. sect. i.
1 Some say this panel representa a Physician in hia cbair, attending to hia patients.
Hia pose is that commonly depicted in the examination of urine, and a similar pose
ia seen in woodcuta of the end of the fifteenth century: e.g. Jacopo de Cetsolis's I/
Git~«elu tlelk SetUeÀi, printed by Antonio Miscomini, in 1493, where the doctor, or
apothecary, as the Qtmsis PtntltU, is testing some ointment or other mixtare. Others
assert that the panel exhibits a master-potter examining eartbenware vessels, made in
the C~flll4, and brought into tàe city by women with wicker bearing-baskets, u was the
custom. Probably tbe panel representa HtÀ Medicine and Pottery-the row of IJ«eali,
ai!Janlli, etc., on the sbelf indicating the usefnl purposes served by tbe Potters' craft, and
indiapensable in the prosecution of the Science of Healing. ·

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 13
and Wool-weaving-the special industries of Florence. A dignified
group comes next,-probably illustrative of the Judicial function,-
and then three subjects, setting forth man's mastery over land, and
air, and sea---a horseman, àn aeronaut (Dzdalus), anda ship with
its crew of navigators.
Pastoral industries follow :-Ploughing and Transport, with
Paintiog-Apelles, and Sculpture-Pbeidias. Tbese chiselled
pictures of life and life's activities have made of Giotto's Campanile
a pulpit, wbence for ali time is preacbed the " Gospel of lntelligent
Labour."
The Florentines of old looked down witb ill-disguised contempt
upon the cltizens of otber States, and especially upon the in-
habitants of cities which they had conquered. Tbese in their tum
had petty rivalries amongst themselves-Siena, Pisa, Volterra,
Montepulciano, San Gimignano, and tbe rest. Nothiog pleased
tbe citizens of Florence more tban to boast of their victory in
126o at Montaperti, and of other successes, when they met people
from the defeated cities.
Tbis peculiarly Tuscan characteristic led every city to boast of
its own importance, and of the superiority of its public institutions
and buildings. Tbe " Spirito tkl Campanüe," as it was called, was
nowbere else more rampaot than in Florence, wbere everybody
seemed to be only too ready to disparage bis n~ighbour, whilst be
vaunted bis own eminence, or tbe excellence of bis craft, or tbe
superiority of bis City.
Tbe Florentines were essentially a nation of shopkeepers, but,
at the same time, they were a Republic of independent gentlemen.
Whilst industrious beyond all their contemporaries, and .frugal
beyond the generality of men, their leisure was marked by
creations in A~ ~enc!: and J:.::!!eratur-5. and tbeir table
distinguished by mirth, erudition and bospitality.
Each party in the Sta~e in turn sougbt to outdo the otber
in the advancement and adomment of bis well-beloved city.
Fine work set on foot by one party was elaborated by anotber.
Wealth, honour, and dear life itself, were ever at tbe service

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14 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of thc State. Each man was, first of ali, a citizen, and then a
private individual. The glory of "Firm11e la Bel/a " was the true
seal of family distinction.
The Commune flourished amazingly amid the invigorating
influences of constant political disturbances, and became the centre
of such a high and generous mental culture as has not a compecr
in the world's history. This culture was a democratic trait, not thc
exclusive possession of the few ; and, as a true characteristic of
the Florentines of the twelfth to the sixteenth century, it is
exhibited in the architecture of Arnolfo, the painting of Cimabuc,
the sculpture of Giotto and the poetry of Dante.
Speaking of the Acts, Statutes, and Laws of Florence, Dante
represents the people as superior tó all others in ltaly for civil
virtues, incorrodible faith, sincerity in religion, and noble charity.
H e considered that all these excellent qualities were the foundation
upon which rested the commercial pre-eminence of the city.
Florence was a Republic of merchants and artisans, and her
citizens, distinguished as Nobili and Popolani, were united in thc
general designation "Le Genti di Firmu,"-" The People of
Florence."
A very important feature in the extraordinary enterprise and
success of the merchants and craftsmen of Flo;ence was the
influence of education and literature upon ali classes of thc
population. The commonest people were casuists, metaphysicians,
diplomatists, keen observers of human nature, and instinctive
judges of character.
In the Middle Ages learning was regarded almost exclusively
as the handmaid of religion, but in the era of the Renaissance
it was looked upon as the companion of everyday life.
One of the civil phenomena of the times of the Republic of
Florence,-and one very difficult to understand from our present
point of view of educational economy,-was the union in the persons
of merchants and artisans, of fine literary taste and scholarly
culture, with rare qualifications for poJitical office and kcen
instincts for commercial enterprise.

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 15
Industry, the object of which is ordinarily the supply of
necessaries and luxuries, was, from the first, a meo~.ns of power or
at least amelioration in all the regions of human civilisation. It
furnished Florentines with a Royal Road to the highest summits
o( Art, Science, Literature and Discovery. Whether nobles,
merchants, craftsmen, or operatives, they have come down to us
as philosophers, rhetoricians, astronomers, writers, poets, painters,
sc:ulptors, architects, and the rest.
So keen was the interest displayed by all classes in ali and
everything which made for greater knowledge and ability in the
prosecution of their various crafts, that teachers of every degree
did not lack attentive audiences. In a letter of Petrarch to
Boccaccio he calls the Florentine intellect quick and subtle
rather than grave and mature :-" O ingmia magis teria quam
malu1'al"
Historians, such as Ricordano Malespini, Dino Compagni,
and Giovanni Villani, teU us many interesting stories about the
universality of education in Florence in their days. Tailors left
their beochés to attend the Greek lecture, Blacksmiths laid aside
their hammers for the pen of history, Woolcarders found time to
study law, Barbers sought the chair of poetry, and Butchers went
in for literary research, and so ferth. There was " nó one," says
Dino Compagni, "in Florence who could not read," and "even
the donkey-boys sang verses out of Dante I "

The initiation of tbe University of Florence was accomplished

in the same manner as that which called tbe Guilds into ex-
istence lt was the consequence of the great movement towards
association which began to sweep over Europe early in the
eleventh century.
By the middle of the thirteenth century the association ·of
learning and industry was fully recognised as a necessity for i'<
successful commercial pursuits. Classes were, from time to time,
established for higher technical culture, and at length, in 1349, the
" Stflliio Fiwmtino " was founded with an annual endowment of two

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16 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
thousand fivehundred gold ftorins,-about ~ 1200 sterling,-Clement
VI. granting the Papal Buli for the recognition of the faculties. 1
The development o f the U niversity was rapid :-in 1348 there
were only six s&M/m,-facultles,-under as many teachers, whilst
in 1421, there were forty-two Professora, and by 1472, a great
number of branch academies and technical schools were thriving
amazingly. To the University of Florence belongs the distinction
of the foundation of the .6rst chaira of Greek and Poetry in Italy-
the former in 136o and the latter in 1373.
Among the earliest professora was Messere Filelfo, who had, in
the latter part of the fourteenth century, as many as four hundred
pupils belonging to leading families. In I 36o Giovanni Boccaccio
-the firat Professor of Poetry-introduced Leontius Pilatus to the
Signoria, by whom he was appointed first Professor of Greek.
His appointment proved to be a great incentive for the Florentines
to enter enthusiastically into the study of antique monuments,
whence resulted their superiority in the subtilties of the plastic art.
The Statutes of the cc Universitas Sclwlarum,"-as the legal title
had it,-were submitted to the cc Approbatores Statutarum Artium
Communis F/ormtia"-"The Revisers of Guild Statutes for the
Commonwealth of Florence." They were drafted in the same
spirit and order as the Statutes of the Guilds, with corresponding
offices, byelaws, etc.
Quite young boys were admitted to matricullJ,te, as in the
Guilds, and it was possible for a pushing youth to attain bis
doctorate or degree at the age of seventeen.
Every student was required to be of legitimate birth, and a
registered native of Florence. There was no age limit and no
class qualification. Each was allowed an honorarium of one gold
florin per month,-a beggarly amount in truth,-but medicai
students, who lived under very strict rules with respect to dissec-
tions, etc.,-were privileged to receive an allowance of red wine and
spices-" just to keep up their spirits I " t
1 Rashdall, "Universities of Europe," vol. ii. pp. 46-so.
'Statuta Populo Florentia:, p. 74·

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A LATJN GRAMMAI. IIAST&I. ANO HIS l'UPILS, FLOR.&NCL Flrf&KNTH CKNTÜR.Y.

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 18 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Four licensed merchants were appointed money lenders, or
pawnbrokers, for students, who were forbidden to borrow of any
other persons ; these officials were styled "Fnu,.aklri "-usurers.
No student might carry arms of any kind.
The Rector was elected annually by the votes of the whole
of the students, who had attained the age of eighteen, and
to him were accorded discretionary powers over the whole
U niversity.
Theological students looked to Rome for preferment and
benefaction!t. In a Roll of the University of the year 1404 some
students are mentioned as having asked the Pope for, and having
obtained, two or three or more benetices-mounting up in their
gross revenues to the annual value of three hundred gold florins
more or less apiece 11
Strict sumptuary laws were enacted. Students were forbidden
to wear garments of fine or "noble cloth "-as the highly 6nished
Florentine cloth was called ; whereas Professors were allowed this
rich material Black was prescribed for ordinary use, but on State
occasions scarlet robes were wom omamented with fur and gold
em broideries.
A few only of the distinguished men connected with the
U niversity of Florence can be named here :-I,.eonardo Bruni
Aretino, (13Ó9-1441}-the reviver of the study of Greek, Leon
Battista Alberti, (1405-1472)-architect and scientist, Angelo
Poliziano, (1414-1494}-philosopher and writer, Antonio Minucci,
(1431-1487}-reader-in-law and history, Pico della Mirandola,
(1461-1494}-theologian and moralist, and Leonardo da Vinci,
(1452-1519) engineer and humanist.
English travellers in Tuscany,-and there were many especially
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,-saw of course very much
to astonish them. Two of these, Sir Richard Guylforde and Sir
Richard Torkington, were the 6rst to give expression to their
impressions in writing. Their "Diaries,"-made in 15o6 and 1516
respectively,-were dictated by the spirit of medirevalism. The I
1 Statuta Populo F1oreatiae, p. 313·
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FLOREN'.fiNE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 19
civilisation of the Renaissance, which they encountered, seems to
bave been quite beyond their comprehension. The things which
struck-them most strongly were the manufacture of glass at Murano,
and the use, by the Venctians, of basins aad ewers in their daily
ablutions 11
In thc middle of the fifteenth century two other English
travcllers went on their separate ways through Italy. They were
far and away more intelligcnt, and more in touch with the
movcments of the age, than the pair which had preceded them.
Grcat admirers of the Florentines, they eulogise both their charac-
teristics and their customs.
Hoby's " Diary " is full of personal experiences. Everybody
with whom he h~d intercourse charmed him by their gentlemaaly
manncrs. He was, later on, induced, solely from this cxperience, to
write bis famous translation of " 11 CorttKümo." The richness of
domestic decoration also impressed him. H e slept, he says : "in a
chamber hanged with cloth of gold and velvct," whilst on the bed
was, "silver work, and the bolsters were of rich silk." 1
Thomas's narration 1 is of a more ambitious character; he con-
trasta the universitics of Italy, whcreia the students were mostly
gentlemcn, with similar English centres of education, where, as he
writcs, • there mean men's children are set to school in hope to live
upon hired learning." The Italiana, he says: "are modest in dress
and neat at table and sober in speech." Regarding the division of
classes he was impressed by the fact that the leading merchanta
were, for the most part, gentlemen. " I f there are," he writes, "three
or four brothers, one or two of them go into a trade ; and, in case
there is no division of their father's patrimony, then the merchanta
work for their brothers' benefit, as well as for their own. And in-
asmuch as their reputation does not sutrer by reason of their trade,
it follows that there are more wealthy mcn in ltaly than in any other
country."
H c admired . too thc skill and comparative wealth of the
I Camden Society, 1881. 1 EgertOD MSS. 2148. British Museum.
• "A Historie o( ltalie," 1549-

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20 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
working classes. " I regard," be writes, " the I talian artificers as
being the finest and most inventive workmen of all otbers." H e
adds, later on,-speaking of the cities of Lombardy in particular,
-" there is almost no craftsman's wife that hath not her gown of
silk, and ber chain of gold ! "
With respect to Florence, ali classes struck him by their tallca-
·tiveness, and their manifest desire to appear eloquent. " He is
not,.. be writes, "reputed a man among them that cannot pÍay
tbe orator in bis tal e, as well in gesture as in word." The
Academy was one of the most interesting sights he saw during
bis visit He describes how the leamed Florentines, from various
grades of society, met there,-the Duke amongst them. One.
chosen beforehand, would ascend the pulpit and detiver ·an
oration lasting more than one hou r. cc Never have I beard," writes
the narrator, " reader in school, nor preacber in church, handle
themselves better."

After the fall of the Roman Empire tbe trade routes, with
their bostelries and posts for horses, were restored by Charlemagne,
and maintained by successive Emperors and their feudatories.
Three kinds of establisbments were provided by tbe Imperial
Govemment for their couriers and for foreign expeditions.
1. Cfuitates, in the towns-where numbers·of horses were kept for
despatcb anywhere througbout the State. 2. Mt~tatiolus, in
the villages-wbere relays of animais were stabled for immediate
use. And 3· Mansiones, in the country-where men and horses,
engaged in long and wearisome. joumeys, might rest awhile.
Generally commercial travellers from Florence were men
travelling in companies, but frequently enough ali the members
of a family went abroad witb father or son, wbo had received
tbe appointment of resident agent, in a foreign city, of some rich
business bouse.
The interests of the .forwarding company were supposed to be
the principal object of these joumeys, but, as a rule, a good deal

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 FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 21
of quite natural self-interest was associated with the expedition,
wbich was never devoid of adventure and romance.
A notable soldier, mercbant, diplomatist and man of letters,
Buonaccorso Pitti, in bis Chronicle,1 relates how he accomplished
bis journeys in France and Germany in the year 1395· "Being
obliged," l)e writes, " for the service of the Florentine Republic
t~ undertake a mission to Paris I set out on the 28th of January
of the'same year. I took the road to Friuli, and spent thirty-five
days. among the snow with the diggers clearing the glacier, before
I was able to pass with ten oxen. I stopped in turn at Constance,
Basel, and Langres. . . . I returned by way of Burgundy and
Germany. After my arrival at Treviso, I sent on my laden pack
horses to Padua, whilst I went on to Venice. I left Venice on the
22nd of March, rested at Mestre, and was at Padua that night.
On the moming of the 23rd I s~t out, with two good riding horses
belonging to the Lord of Pàdua, and, without eating and
drioking, l 'reached Ferrara at eight n'clock that evening. Here
I hired some of the Marquis' horses, and went on to San Giorgio,
within ten miles of Bolognà. 1n the morning, before sunrise, I
arrived at Bologna, and taking two fresh horses I reached
Scarperia late at night. I arrived in Rome early in the moming
of March 25th.
This distinguished Florentine, who had already, in I 374. been
sent as Ambassador to Paris was also something of a financiai
plunger. He made hazardous investments, gave and accepted
loans at high rates of interest, and was addicted to selling for a
fali--as we now say. One day he was rolling in riches, and the
honoured guest of princes and wealthy merchants; the next, he
was out of elbows, and could not raise a few soldi for a shave nt
. Burchiello's I
Many of the agents of Florentine commercial houses became
famous jn tbe annals of their city no less than in the greater world
of Europe. Filippo degli Scolari,-a traveller for the" Cali"'ala" in
Hungary,-was appointed cashier to the king, and director nf
1 Cronica, (?) I 396.

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22 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the currency. He restored the kingdom and was named Govemor
of Servia and Captain-General. Castruccio Castracani,--a
member of the Interminelli banking-house,-who was exiled in
bis youth for a trivial offence, raised himself as a soldier and a
statesman until he was elected Lord of Lucca. Farinata degli
Uberti-merchant, soldier and statesman, became the master of

CO~UIJtRCIAL TRAV&LLitlt OR AMBASSADOR. F I FT&ENTH C&NTUJtY.

Tuscany. Niccolo Acciaiuoli-a member of the noted steel manu- -

factoring house,-ruled the kingdom of Naples as dispenser of
Justice.
Along the trade routes were Ostenun:.__Commercial Inns-at the
disposition of the members of the Guilds. The Ostel/ani undertook
to lodge and feed Florentine mercbants and their agents upon their
joumeys, and to store their merchandise. These men were under ·
the observation and order of the Guild Consuls and visiting in-
spectors. They were forbidden, under penalty of losing their
licences, to participate in mercantile speculations. Tbey were
FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 23
established in Paris, Caen, Arles, Perpignan, S. Gilles, and other
places in France, and also throughout Flanders and Germany.
Trade routes crossed and re-crossed one another, but all
converged upon Florence ; and over these her merchants entered
into arrangements with their respective rulers. In early days,
however, it was a common practice for the hill tribes to swoop
down upon pack trains, which conveyed to and fro consignments
of merchandise. To safeguard her commercial interests Florence
entered into many treaties with her neighbours : Pisa-1171 ; Lucca
-n84; Signori del Mugello, who were robber chieftains-1200,
for safe conducts; Bologna-1203, against reprisals; Faenza-1204,
with re~pect to jurisdiction; Perugia-1218, concerning the wool
and silk trades; Maremma chieftains-1251, for securlty of cattle
droves, etc. Severa! treaties were made with Siena and Pisa which
treated of territorial as well as commercial policy.
, With respect to sea-bome merchandise, the chief ports for the
trade of Florence were Ancona, Rimini, and V enice, on the east,
and on the west, Pisa, Leghom, and Genoa.
Tbe commercial relations of Florence grew apace. Go~o Dati
glories in the fact that,-as he puts it,-" The Florentines were
well acquainted with ali the boles and comers of the known
world.,. 1 In the fourteenth century more than three hundred
agents were qespatched every year upon commercial joumeys.
Resident Florentines were first appointed Consuls at foreign
ports in 13ig. The qualification for this important office was
simply citizenship, but only such men as might be expected to
extend the fame and inftuence of Florence, by their own personal
force of character and aptitude for business, were chosen.
These officers were established in Eastem ports, where each
was assisted by a secretary,-with a monthly salary of four gold
ftorins,-two assistants and a native dragoman. Each Consul had
three horses at bis disposal. H e was forbidden to engage in trade, .
or to. act in any way for other States. H is salary was paid by rates
levied upon merchandise entering and leaving the port.
I Goro Daâ, ,. Istoria di Firenze," Lib. jy, P· s6•
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24 '.fHE GUILDS OF }'LORENCE
In London the income of the Florentine Consul was obtained
by percentages upon the Lettwt di Cammo,-bills o( Exchange,
-and upon the values of cargoes sold and bought. At Con.:
stantinople, Lyons, Bruges, and other principal trading centres
similar rates were in force. Florentine merchants and bankers
were found in numbers everywhere, in Turkey there were fifty-
one houses, in France-twenty-four, at Naples-thirty-seven, and
so on.
Tbe first substantial gain to the Republic was the concession
o( land ·at various foreign ports for the erection of residences for
the Consuls, offices, warehouses, hospitais, and churches. Between
the year 1423 and the end of the century resident Florentine
Maritime Consuls had been appointed at Alexandria, N aples,
Majorca, Constantinople, ia Cyprus, and away on the shores of
the distant Black Sea, and in Persia, lndia, and China.
To each of these high officials were attached Chancellors,
Purveyors, Interpreters, Inspectors of all kinds, and clerks, and ·
quite a numerous body-guard of men-at-arms. In short, miniature
Florences sprang up everywhere, and claimed, and obtained, equal
rights,. privileges, and honours as were accorded to the mother
city. Tbe expenses of these establishments were bome by freight
dues on cargoes entering and leaving port. Pisa was the most
accessible port in Tuscany, and she was well worth all the sacri-
fices which the wars with her brave and industrious inhabitants
cost the men ef Florence. She had a Consul ali to herself, who
ranked as the chief magistrate of a great maritime Guild, or
University, in connection with the "CaJimala" merchants of the
capital city. The bulk of the raw wool imported by the Woollen
Manufacturers, and the foreign cloth consigned to the " Calimala,"
was landed on her quays, and despatched thence to Florence, or
to the severa} depots established at Prato, Empoli, Volterra, and
Poggibonsi.
lt is impossible to say exactly when the Florentine merchants
and venturers first tumed their attention to the acquisition of
maritime facilities. Probably the successes of the Pisans, the

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 25
Genoese, and the Venetians, opened their eyes to the possibilities
before them. Naturally the three cities did all they could to
impede the rivalry of their inland sister, and probably, had not
their own internai dissensions played such an important part in
their commercial prosperity, they would have succeeded in
hampering her ambitions.
Apparently the first actual step taken by Florence to acquire
seaboard rights was in 1.254. when Pisa granted free import and
export to Florentine merchandise. Tbe treaty of that year was
the ground-work of the many disputes between the rival cities
which led to tlíe ultimate downfall of Pisa. For many a long
year however Flqrentine merchants were content to make use, by
hire; of the ships of maritime States. .
Rosso Bazzaccari, a ship-master of Pisa, in 1279, lent bis fine
new vessel the San Pietro to · Nasico Nassi,-a merchant of
Florence,-to transport from Porto Pisano two hundred mule lQads
õf goods to Palermo. 1
The power of Florence was so great in 128 5 that the people
of Pisa, wishing to maintain good relations, sent an embassy to the
Florentine Govemment. The ambassadors took with them great
opaque glass bottles of what purported to be rich white V emacera
wine by way of presents; but they were found to be full of gold
florins 11
Many treaties were made with Pisa.for the beriefit of Florentine
transport trade. These were ali more or less favourable, although
the Pisans did not hesitate to tax Florentine goods when and how
it suited them. In 1329 Florence was placed upon the same
footing as Pisa, and her merchandise was relieved of ali restrictions.
In 1356 the port of Talamone was acquired from the Sienese, in
consequence of Pisa's reversion to taxation, and the Florentine
merchants hired fourteen war galleys to protect their trade from
the Genoese and Pisans. The capture of Pisa i~ 1406 gave
Florence possession of the whole seaboard of Tuscany.
Two other ports were acquired by Florence in the early part
1 Arehino di Pila, Atti Pubblichi. ' 11 Villaoi, 'rii. 97.

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26 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of the fifteenth century :-Porto di Venere, a small harbour in the
Gulf of Genoa, in 1411, for the sum of eight thousand four hundred
gold ftorins-as a check to Genoese trade ; and Livomo-Leghom
-in 1421 for one hundred thousand gold ftorins.
In 1421 I Sn' ConsoH túl Mar'e-Six Maritime Consuls-were
elected over and above the trade Consuls already established at
Pisa. Ali six resided at Pisa till 1426, when three were stationed
in Florence. Their duties were in the main similar to those of the
Consuls of the Guilds. In fact the sea and its navigation Wel'e
annexed to the Republic of Florence and were enrolled among
her Ar'ti I
The three Consuls at Pisa were occupied mainly as follows :-
I. To watch all the commerce of the Port. 2. To encourage
traders and navigators to use that Port. 3· To prevent contra-
band and to protect Florentine merchandise. + To prepare the
way for commercial treaties with other cities and states. 5- To
examine ali bills of lading and ships' business papers. 6. To
inspect the crews, and supervise the wages paid out 7· To inspect
the vessels, and undertake repairs. 8. To keep accurate ledger
accounts, etc. etc.
The three Consuls resident in Florence were required :-1. To
receive and file reports from Pisa. 2. To furnish every sort of
shipping information, which they were required to post in the loggia
of the Mercato Nuovo and in other public places. 3· To approve
the appointment, or the reverse, of ali men named for foreign
consulates. 4· To receive complaints and suits in respect of
marine matters, and to adjudicate thereupon. S· To make
representations to the Council of State in cases requiring official
interference, etc. etc.
The Sea Consuls settled the number of the crew of each vessel
and its armament, and appointed the officers ; but relatives of the
Consuls could not be enrolled. Vessels taking the Eastern route
sailed usually in September, those to the west in February.
Fifteen days before their departure public notice was posted.
Merchants, skippers, and crew, were permitted to reside at Pisa

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'FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 27
fifteen days before departure and ten days after arrival, but on no
account for a longer period.
Contracts with seafaring-men were drawn up by the Maritime
ConSÚis. Sometimes they loaned galleys at a monthly, or yearly,
rental, reserving certaia rights and extorting certain conditions.
For example, in 1429. to Domenico Dolfini a galleon was con-
'signed for five years, on condition that he made five voyages
annually, freighted bis vessel with gold, silver, wax, and some
thousand pieces of Florentine made cloth, and discharged bis
cargoes only at Porto Pisano.
Both at Pisa and in Florence the Maritime Consuls were
charged with numberless responsibilities outside their technical
authority. For example, at Pisa, the three Consuls performed the
functions of the old city magistrates, and had the superintendence
of the"lhrests, fisheries, etc., in the neighbourhood of the city, and
of the éxport of native grown com, together with the duties of the
drainage and cultivation of the land.
The "Arte de/ Mare" was an immediate and immense success.
In the year of its initiation six guardships were completed in the
Port of Livorno-which had been declared a free port for Florentine
merchandise. Through her Maritime Consuls Florence encouraged
foreign workmen to settle at Pisa and Livomo, and at her minor
ports, who were masters of shipbuilding. To each man was
granted a gold ftorin a month for the space of two years with free
quarters for ten years. Shipwrights and caulkers were exempt
from ali taxes for a period of twenty years.'
Four broad beamed galleons-Ga/ee di Mercato, and six
shallow bottoms-Fuste, were put on the stocks forthwith, and one
of each was launched month by month. The timber came from
the Forests of Cerbaie in Tuscany, which were declared State
property, in 1427, and the Mugnone saw-mills were erected at the
public expense.
The cost of this first Florentine mercantile fteet was charged
upon the revenues of the Corte di Mercansüz,-Tribunal or Chamber
of Commerce,-whereof one hundred thousand gold florins were set

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28 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
apart each month. Tbe command of tbe squadron was given to
Andrea Gargiolli, a citizen and mercbant of Florence, and he was
appointed also Superintendent of Marine at Pisa.
Direct sea-borne commercial relations witb England seem to
have existed since 1329. and in 1385 Sir Jobn Hawkwood was
sentas ambassador to Florence to negotiate a Treaty ofCommerce;
but not until the year 1441, did tbe Republic despatch a Florentine

A "GALitlt Dlt MBR.CATO." A M.lt&CHANT VBSSBL, SIXTBBNTH CltNTOJlY.

built and manned fleet to Englisb ports. T en galleons sailed that

year to England and ten to Barbary, wbilst the ensign of "The
Florentine Lily" flew in every port in Europe and tbe East.
Freights by otber tban Florentine galleons were subjected to a
rigid tariff, wbicb bad a tendency to rise with the increase of
trade. In 1457 the tax upon eacb piece of foreign clotb delivered
at Porto Pisano, amounted to one gold florin, but some years after
the large sum of sixty gold florins was extorted. 1
By the year 1458 quite a considerable fleet of armed vessels
was collected at tbe mouth of the Amo, to convoy the galleons of

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 29
commerce. Tbe earliest trade routes by sea were,-eastward,
.Tunis, Alexandria, Cyprus, Jaft'a, and Constantinople, westward,
Sicily, Majorca, Barcelona, Marseilles, Algiers. Certain vessels
traded direct with British and Flemish ports. The voyages were
accurately timed, and so regulated that a serviceable connection
was maintained between ali ships at sea. Porto Pisano was
the ultimate rendezvous of ali freight vessels.
The first private merchant ships were built in 148o, and to
their owners were conceded the rights hitherto held by the six
Maritime Consuls. They were pennitted to sail when and how
they liked, and to load whatever freight their owners, or skippers,
desired ; but ali parties interested in the enterprise were placed
under the same conditions as had obtained previously. Beyond
this owners paid toll for the use of the piers, harbours, and ware-
houses.
By the end of the fifteenth century the merchant navy of
Florence numbered eleven great and fifteen small galleons-all in
full commission, and her special galleon-ftorin,-coined in 1422,-
at the instance of Taddeo Cenni, a Florentine merchant at
V enice, was in free circulation at high exchange. In short the
"Arte de/ Mare," "the Guild of the Sea," was the parent of the
present day syndicate of Lloyds I
The invention of the compus did very much to simplify the
trade routes by sea-voyages were shortened, coasting pirates were
eluded, and ports of call became unnecessary.
The oversea commerce of the Renaissance and its development
led to the world's supremacy of Florence in material prosperity
and social progress. Goro Dati, writing about this ascendancy,
valued the stationary funds of the Republic in bis day-the middlc
of the fourteenth century-at twenty million gold ftorins. 1

What is now called lnternational Law was entirely unknown in

old Florence and her borders. Nothing appeared to those busy
traders more reasonable. than to shut the door against neighbours
J Goro Dati, "Istoria di FireDZe," c. •iü. pp. 129-131.

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30 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
who would not submit to their terms, and to impose taxes upon all
foreign products. Hence the treaties with Siena, Volterra, Pisa,
Genoa, Lucca, Areuo, and other communes and cities, were dictated
rather from commercial than from political motives.
Contracts of assurance were usually made out for all consign-
ments whether of goods or bullion. They were aimed against
three chief contingencies-accidents by land, riska by sea, aod
depredations of light-fingered gentry in generaL The premiums
paid by Florentine merchants ranged from six to fifteen per cent.
of the declared value of the goods.1
The question of reprisals or retaliation was always very important
in the policy of the Florentine merchants. The origin of the
system goes far back to the days of Frederic 11. In 1239 the
Podesta of Pisa, having failed to forward to the Vicar of the
Empire, Gebhard d' Amstein, the sum of nearly five thousand
pounds due to Count Ridolfo di Capraja, the latter receivcd
authority and license to "make distraint for that sum upon the
goods and persons of the Pisans." Tbe castom grew apace, until in
12g8 the merchants of Florence put reprisals into force against
Perugia-for the sum of six hundred /ire, F ano-for two thousand,
Spoleto-for two hundred and fifty, Pisa-for fifty-five, and Forli
-for fourteen hundred. Each of these towns had borrowed money
from Florentines, or had distrained merchandise on its way to or
from Florence. Viterbo, Venice, and Padua came in for similar
treatmen_t.1
Against Sinola, where, in 1297, a sumpter-mule laden with fine
Florentine cloth had been stolen, the Podesta, with the advice of
the Consuls of the Seven Greater Guilds, accorded a sum of two-
hundred and forty gold florins, for the value of the goods, two
hundred for damage, and forty for expenses attached to the suit.
The same year the Pisans were adjudged a fine of eight hundred /ire
against the pillage of a ship laden with com.
Under date August 14. 1329. Ser Nerio Miei di Bibbiena com-
1 G. A. L Cibrario, "Della Ecouomia Política del Medio Evo," vol. ü. p. 244-
1 Provvisione ix. 174, 185, aoS, etc.

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FLORENTINE COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY SI
plained to the Ofticials o f the M ercauia that he bad suft'ered
bighway-robbery, in the Borgo Ghiaceti. He asserted that he
cried out, "A.aw tMJmO! A.t:&OY tMJmOI "-" Help 1-Help 1"-but
that no one carne to bis assistance. Then he tabled a list of
tbe articles of which he had been despoiled ~-a wreath of gold
and silver, four fine mitre ornaments, six fine linen mitres, three
dozen broad decorated belts, two dozen embroidered filagree
belt:s, three dozen black leather belts, three dozen belts of plaited
hair, two dozen pairs of breecbes, two dozen San Ghalgano
belt:s, twenty yards of imitation Pirte,-woollen cloth,-two pairs
of tailor's scissors, two ounces of crushed silver, twelve feet
embroidery in fine gold, eighty measures of silver, one red fur
lining for a man's cloak, one knife chest with four knifes, three
dozen fine leathern pouches, six dozen plain pouches, one purse
wrought in gold, and very many other articles of various
kinds. The unfortunate man then entered a legal process, and
claim for damage, against two unknown inhabitants of Borgo
Gbiaceti.1
With respect to the levying of retaliations upon cities and
towns outside Tuscany, the difticulties were, naturally, very great.
It frequently taxed, to the utmost, the patience and the ingenuity
of her merchants and tbeir agents to avoid a resort to arms.
lndeed many of the minor military expeditions, of which the
Florentines were so lavishly fond, were due to this question and
its solution.
Questiona of retaliation were constantly cropping up between
Florence and her great rivais Genoa and V enice, and, as a rule, they
were settled to the advantage of the tactful and resourceful men
who led ber destiny. With respect to foreign nations, the immense
wealth and inftuence of the Florentine merchants, and the heavy
monetary responsibilities incurred by rulers and leading men with
Florentine bankers, had undeniable force in the settling of trade
disputes.
All questiona of retaliation or reciprocity were submitted to a
1 Dr Davidllohn, " Foncbancm &llr Altere~~ Geschichtc voo Florem," p. 190-

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 82 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Tribunal sitting in Florence, composed of a Judge from the
establishment of the Podesta, and one from that of the Captain
of the People, and their findings were approved, or not, by the
Priors and their assessora. As head of the "Tuscan Leaguc of
Cities," Florence held a predominant place, and her law was
smartly laid down for the acceptance of her allies.
In later days such matters came before the Tnõunal of the
M ercanna with the assistance of the three resident Maritime
Consuls and delegates from the interested states or cities•

.sum- dill hjq~ t6 Jiinn~~:.

A red c:roa upon a white field •

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...
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.

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 CHAPTER 11

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS

I. ORJGJN.-Co//egia 0/Jific.m et Arlijidum. Community of interest.

Mutual protection. Lothair. First Florentine Consuls. Potente, Gra.uo, Mimll#.
Ancient famllies. Consorúrü, or" Society of Towers." Compag'11ie, or "Trade
Corporations." · Early notices of Trades.
II. DEYELOPMENT.-Buonrulmmi, or Trade Consuls of Guilds. The council
of tlae " Heacls " or " Priors" of the Seven Greater Guilds. First List of Guilds
-seven Greater-fourteen Lesser. PDliuta-Guido Novem. Gtnlfabmürl.
Stalldard Bearers. Military element. Cbarles of Anjou. Five Intermediate
Guilds. _ StnJggles between Capital and Labour. Giano della Bella. SecoDd
List of Guilds -twelve Greater, nine Lesser. " Defender of the Guilds.'' Freedom
of iod.ustry. The "Ortli1Ja11U111i tle//a Giuslilia." A Code of Guild Statutes.
Fiuancial Position of the Guilds. Duke of Athens. " Le PolmM." Tbe
"Pttrú G1u/fa!' The "Ciomjli" Rising. Michele Lando. Three W orkmen's
Guilds-Arlien' e operai Numberleu minor trade associations. Tbird List of
Guilds. Four Universities of Trades UDder the Medici. Sbrinbge and decay.
UI. COMSTJTUTJON.-Compulsory Guild membersbip. Scioperati I Con-
ditionsand Roles. Apprenticesbip. Women eligible. Ofticers. Difl'erencesand
disputes. Emigration of Artisans. Paios and Penalties. Sundry Probibitions.
Hoars of worlr. Public clocks.

T HE Origin of the Florentine Guilds has been rightly traced to

the Corporation!'l of Merchants and Artisans, which existed
in Rome under Numa Pompilius. They were called "Co/úgia" or
"Ctwpwa Opijkum et Artificium."
Tliese " Colleges," which by their constitutions could be mobi-
lised for military purposes, also bore the name of" S&luJ118"-
" Schools" or " Professions." In times of peace they were styled
"S&IUJI• Artium," but in war they were enrolled as "S&IUJ/(8
M ilitum." 1 ·

Men of like age, instincts, tastes, and occupations forgathered in

the several " S&/10118," which safeguarded their common interests
and lookéd after their morais and general well-being. Each
1 Dr Giueppe Alberti, "Arti e Mestieri," Milano 1888, chap. i.
c 33

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 V ADI X'UllYIIA'TIINr,_.
ADI·11V • !C.VlRitl ti\'Ul"f ·
AJ)I )t)l · S:IIALGHMITA·
~>.bi+Y>xll-i:~P.I A MAbAI.t!Cit ·
Al>l ·lllflii · S API.INARO·UlllfaiD«
t,OI ·liX!niSCIUSTI~ · t VIGILIA.
Ml>l uv SI.IICOPO-AI>IPI -SlQiMNo
A01'/oll Vn-S·P4NT418)1ft ·IW\nR
ADI tn·S ~1.1 · t1' · ~fN1

NOI'DIIIR-; Nll Y.ICX ·'""'

1\01-tl · T\111 I$AI(I1.'
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ADI 'I() J ~1"0· <ôRSCil+
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ADI ·~ . S«~UA·VIIIG!Ni .
Nll·lOIII S:aw11'11·il'M·
s
Ali! 'tXV Q.'ISIJII' 'Vli\<:IIIE-4-
Afll'lOC:l• S ANDiiA- AI'L~
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SUV·\'0-'tiiOVAIII' ·1iiiiliDO·fiNAS""" ' LTt ~O:IVIII!l
... s.omlfiiii·NIUU '\f 1\ SI-·I'IIWO·

A CALENDAR. With Rondels of monthly occupationa-calculnted for the Feast of

Easter from 1465 lo 1517.

14

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 35
" SduJla" was fumished with a staff of duly qualified and legally
appointed teachers, who instructed young men and boys in the
duties and responsibilities of craftsmanship. U nder the supreme
authority of the State each " Seno/a" or "Collegium" was govemed
by its own officers chosen from among, and by, its admitted
members, the chief of whom were designated "Consuls."_
For a lengthy period the "Sckoll8" ftourished exceedingly, and
were productive of immense benefit to ali classes. From the fali
of the Roman Empite, however, until well . into the ninth century,
the " Sckoll8, seem to have suspended their benevolent operations :
anyhow very little is heard of them or their members. Ceaseless
feuds and devastating wars scattered far and wide merchants and
artisans alike. The lamp of industry and the torch of commerce
were extinguished. The land was laid bare, cities and towns
were destroyed, or became camps of mercenary soldiery.
Still some of the industries and enterprises which the " Sckolll"
had fostered were carried on fitfully and uncertainly in families,
or by individuais working alone, without regular organisation.
When the stress of adversity became less severe, and security of life
and property were more assured, traditions, which had been handed
down in secret from father to son, again became formularies.
CommunitY of interest-the needs of mutual defence, and
the advantages of co-operation, once more asserted themselves.
Here and there sprang up revivals of something of the economy
of the old Roman " Co/legia." This was the condition of things
in Italy when, in 825, the ~ror Lothair issued bis " Constitu-
túmes 0/onmses," wherein eight cities and towns of northern Italy
were named as suitable centres of population for the establishment
of new " Collegia " or " Sckoll8."
These were Bologna, Cremona, Florence, I vrea, Milan, Padua,
Turin, and V enice. The " Sckoll8" in each place bore a different
designation, each indicative of the special industrial economies of
the severa! cities. For example :-at Bologna-" Compagme," at
Florence-" Capitudini" or "Arti," at Padua-" Fragili," at Venice
-" Consorli" or "Matricok"; whilst Rome retained the original

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36 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
style of "Co/legr"um" or "Universitas." It is not a little interest-
ing to note that in the case of Florence, the title "Capitudini,"-
Heads o( Families, exactly expresses her political constitution,
whilst the designation "A.rli" indicates her industrial character-
istics.
Apparently the Florentines were somewhat slow in availing
themselves of the provisions of Lothair's" ConstitutiotUS." Rome had
Consuls at the head of her industries in 901, Ravenna in 990.-
•
where the Corporations of Butchers, Fishermen, Merchants and
others were regularly organised,-and Ferrara in 101 s. Florence
made no distinct sign until the first year of the twelfth
century. For nearly three hundred years sbe had been going
through an almost countless succession of petty strifes and class
jealousies until at length we find her people in two camps,
Grandi-the nobles and Popolatli-the traders.
These nobles were the lineal descendants of the old Teuton
lords, who, after playing the rôle of robber-captains, made over-
tures to the traders, and were by them received as leaders of
punitive and aggressive expeditions against raiders and their
strongholds. As early as 1081 a joint expedition against bands
of robbers, which infested the territory of Florence, and despoiled
the trains of pack mules passing to and fro, proved the wisdom of
united action between noble and trader.l
Some of these GratUÜ, such as the Uberti, the Donati, the
Alberti, the Caponsacchi, the Gherardi, the Lamberti, and the
Ughi united the life of landed proprietors with the occupation of
city magnates. 1
Many noble families were also allowed a ruling influence in the
affairs of the trade associations, and not a few scions of nobility
sought admission as active agents in commercial pursuits.1 These
nobles laid aside their titles, and even changed their names that
their absorption into the industriallife of the Commune might be

1 F. T. Perrens, "Hiatoire de Florence," vol. i. p. 190.

t 1'. Villari, "Two Centuries ofFlorentine History," vol. i. p. 93·
1 S. Ammirato, "Dell' Istorie Fiorentine," Lib. iii. pp. 288-:190.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 37
complete. The Tomaquinci, Popoleschi, Tornabuoni, Giachiotti,
Cavalcanti, Malatesta, and Ciampoli were among the Grandi who
thus threw in their lot with the Popolani. Speaking of the early
noble families associated with the trade of Florence Dante says :-
" Already Caponsacco had descended
To the market from Fiesole : and Guida
And I nfangato were good citizens.'' 1

In this way the division of the population into two parts was
modified, and we find Florence arranged in three classes: 1.
Potente-the ruling-class, 2. Grasso-the middle-class, and Minu~
-the working-class.
The population of Florence, ber trade, and her fame, increased
by leaps and bounds, but along with ber prosperity a dangerous
rivalry was developed between the noble families and their
retainers, and the merchants and their workpeople. The latter,
wbilst readily admitting nobles ·into their trading and industrial
societics, resented the Grandi claims to pre-eminence in the control
of public affairs.
Usurpation of power, on one hand, was met by encroachment
of privilege, on the other. A spirit of rancour was engendered
wbich for many generations embittered the conditions of Florentine
life. The breach between the two extreme parties in the Commune
widened gradually, and the infl.uence of the middle-class was
ineffectual to bridge the gulf.
Tbe pobles formed themselves into defensive organisations
under the designation of Consorterie-or Societa del/a Torre-
Society of the Towers. Each Consorteria consisted of a noble
family,-or a union of ·noble fami1ie~!-their households and
dependants. They built embattled pafaces, which served them
as residences in times of peace, and as fortresses in times
of popular tumult: "Famig#e di Torre e Loggie" became a
common expression for families of distinction.
Early in the thirteenth century there were upwards of seventy
a "Paradiso," canto xri. 121·123·

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Dígítízed by Goog [e
 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 89
"Towers," and twenty of them had "Loggie," or arcades, for
festivities and show. Some of them rose to a height of 270 feet,
but in 12 so they were all pulled down to a height of fifty feet in
compliance with the demand of the Popolani. It is a thousand
pities that no pictured representation of Florence and her Towers
has been preserved ; probably she presented a far more imposing
appearance than even San Gimignano does to-day.
Of the noble families who as early as 1186 had Towers within
the city boundarie.q were the Uberti, Malespini, Amidei, Buondel-
monti, Donati, Adimari, Pazzi, Tosinghi, Ubaldini, Caponsacchi,
Amieri, Nerli, Vecchietti, Tornaquinci, Soldanieri, Abati, and
Infangati.
To counteract the power of the nobles the traders ranged them-
selves in Compagnú-Companies or Corporations ; each one being
made up of families of merchants engaged in similar industries, and
their workpeople. These Compagnú were not only associations, with
fixed rules and regulations for the prosecution of the trades, but
they were also bands of men, trained in the art of self-defence,
and quite able to give a good account of themselves in days of
conftict.
Researches into the Archives of Florence 1 reveal tbe existence
of the following traders and trades during tbe eleventh and twelfth
centuries :-
934 " Amalpertus - diaconus et
medico " Minister and doctor.
1021. "Florentius-paliarius" Straw-seller.
1028. "Ursus-pistor" Baker. -
1031. "Martinus-caballarius" Horse-jobber.
1032. "Casa Florentii Sarti" Tailor's shop.
1038. "Johannis, qui tornario vocatus
est" Tumer.
, "Olivus-faber" Smith.
1050. " Setberimus-pellicarius" Skinner.
1070. " Paganus, qui vocatur vinadro" Wine-merchant.
1 Dr Davidsaohn, " Forschungen zUr Álteren Gescbichte von Florenz."

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40 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
I073· "Aezo-sellarius" Saddler.
1076. ' 1 Barone--scutarius " Shield-maker.
1<>84. "Bonus f. Johannes baro " (for
" barullo ") Hawker.
1o87. "Rusticus--Calzolarius " Shoemaker.
,, " Ildebrandus q. Petri qui fuit
vocatur mannorajo " Stonemason.
•o89. .. . . . .-tegularii " Tilcrs.
1090- "Johannes f. Rodolfo, pugni-
tore" Dagger-maker.
1091. "Benzolus--pentelarius" fotter.
1094- " • • • . Curtis di Marmorio" Stone-sculptor.
J09S· "Vivenzo--aurifex" Goldsmith..
1()96. " Petrus--tintore " Dyer.
1og8. "Paganuccio-galligario" Tanner. .
1101. "Sichelmus--stafarius" Stirrup-maker.
I 104- " Bonizo-olearius " Oil-merchant.
11o8. " Florentius-clavajolus" Lock-smith.
1110. " Martinus--beccadore " Butcher.
I I I 3· " J ohannes-zocolarius" Wooden-shoe maker.
1128. " Florentius-spaliarius" Armourer.
I I 32. " Beriguallo f.-barlittario " Cooper.
1136. " Scartone-pettinario " Woollen-comb maker.
I I 39· " Lupaccia-lo tricco " Fruit and vegetable seller.
1 I4I. " Bemerius--Campanarius" Bell-founder.
I 146. "Johannes(faber)f.-Brictonis" Knife-maker.
, "Uguicione-calderarius" Copper-smith.
1147· "Bemardus-mugnarius" Miller.
1 I48. " Petrus f. Petri-pelliparius" Clothpresser.
1 I §8. " Marcellus-tabernarius " Tavern-keeper.
1184 " Ildebrandus-catularius , Paper-maker.
I 188. "Arigito-piezicario" Victualler.
I I9I . "Ugolinus-granario" Com chandler.
, "Martinus-pignolajuo " Maker of fine linen.
1 I93· "Guerius-tonditor " Fleece-shearer.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 41
1195. " Martinellus-orciolarius" Dealer in glazed pots.
1198. "Bartbolus-speciale" Apothecary.
I 199- "Reinaldus-pancone" Carpenter's - bench and
Loom-maker.
1205. "Perinus-corregiarius" Strap-maker.
1207. "Guillelmus-barbiere" Barber.
1209- " Cice-pergamenarius" Parchment-dresser.
1211. "Ristoro f. Pieri-buorsajo" Purse-maker.
. " Servodeo--osste" Inn-keeper.
, "Ispenello-kasciajulo" Cheese-merchant.
, " Albizi di Fferrare-pezzaio
di Lung' Amo" Ragseller.

Ammirato gives an account of how the city was govemed in

1204,1 and the order of precedence for the magistrates. At the
head were two Consuls-called the Military Consuls-precursors of
tbe ~a and Capitano del PopoiiJ,-then three Priors of the
three principal Guilds,-" Calimala," "Wool," and " Bankers,"-next
six Senators of the City, one Officer of Justice, twelve "BU01UU1111ini,'•
"Good Men "-two representing the people of each sestiere,-and
lastly, Special and General Councils of inftuential citizens,-the
latter including all the above officials with the exception of the
members of the Special CouncU. In addition six Syndics or
lnspectors were appointed by the three Priors-one for each
sestin-e, who reported to them daily all that passed-public and
private-in their several quarters.
This. magistracy exhibits the immense power of control in
public business,-both commercial and political,-exercised by the
representatives of the Guilds, for the six Senators of the city were
appointed-one by each of the six Greater Trades,-in fact they
were the ConsuÍs or the Guilds.
The year 1204 is also memorable for a treaty between Florence
and Siena, which, whilst safeguarding the liberties of the Sienese,
vastly increased the renown and the fortune of the Florentines.
1 Ammirato, Lib. i. pp. 62-67.

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42 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
This document is the first which bears the signatures of the Priors
of the Trades or Guilds.
In the Govemment of Florence several sub-councils bore their
part. One of these,-the third in dignity and authority,-was the
"Consiglio tkl/e Capitruli't•i tkl/e Setú Arti Maggiori"-the cc Council
of the Heads of the Seven Greater Guilds." This Council was
summoned whenever new taxes had to be levied, and in all matters
which concemed the trade and progress of the city.
In 1236 Thirty-six Buonwmi'ni assembled in council at the
residence of the Consuls of the " Ctúima/a " merchants, by special
ordinance, to determine the styles and precedence of the principal
trade-corporations working in Florence. They placed them in
two divisions which they called "Greater" and cc Lesser Guilds,"
respectively-accentuating thus the distinction bet\Veen the popola
passo and thepopoiD miato. In the former category they arranged
in the following order :-'I. "Giudid e Notai"-Judges and Notaries;
2. Mwcatanti o Arle di CaJilirala-Merchants of the "Calima/a ";
3· "Camõio"-Changersof Money; 4- "Lana"-Woollen-Manu-
facturers; S· "Seta," Silk-Manufacturers; 6. "Medici e Spuia/i"-
Doctors and Apothecaries; 7· "Pelliuiai e Vaiai"-Skinners and
Furriers.
In the second category were placed the following Crafts :-1.
"Beccai"-Butchers; 2. "Caúo/ai"-Shoe-makers; 3· "Fa/J!Jri"-
Black-smiths ; 4- " Cwiai e Ca/igai" - Leather- Dressers and
Tanners; S· "Muraton' 1 Scarpellini" - Builders and Stone-
masons; 6. " Vinattieri" Wine-mercha~ts; 7· "Fomai"-Bakers;
8. " 0/iatulo/i e Piszicagnoli "-Olive-oil merchants and Provision-
dealers; g. "Linaiw/i"-Linen-manufacturers; 10. "CÁiavaiuoli"- .
Lock-smiths; 11. •• Coraazai e Spadai"-Armourers and Sword-
makers ; 12. " Coreggiai"- Harness-makers and Saddlers ; 13.
"Legnaiuo/i"-Carpenters; and 14- "Alóergatori"-Inn-keepers.
The year 1266 was a most important one in the annals of the
Guilds. Count Guido Novelli, who had been Podesta for two
years in succession, and was virtually absolute master of Florence,
invited two members of a quasi-religious Order in Bologna, to follow

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 .... .... ~·. .: ..

GIOTTO'S "HISTORY OF LABOUR."-cAMPANILE PANELS

I. BOATMBN OY THK ARNO 2. PLOUGHING ON THE CONTADO
)o WBAYING WOOL 4-o BLACIC•SMITHING
S. OOCTOR ANO t'OTTRRY
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 ..
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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS •s
bim in the Chief Magistracy. The Order, or Club-for such it
really was,-was called " Fratelli tú/la Santa Maria V ergine" ; but,
in jest, "Capponi di Cltinto "-" Crowing cocks"! Its members
were young men of good family of the degree of knight, who,
through the gaiety and luxury o f their lives, were popularly known
as Fnzti Gat«Ünti-Jolly-Fellows l
The two " Frati " in question were Roderigo degli Andalo, and
Catalamo de' Malavolti,-the former a Ghibelline and the latter a
Guelph.1
The new Podestas were duly installed in the Badia-the official
residence of the Head of the State. To assist them a Council of
Thirty-six Buonuomini was chosen by Novelli, composed of
Merchants and Artisans in equal numbers, and one half Ghibellines
and one half Guelphs.
This Council met daily in the Offices of the "CaJimala" Merchants
to give counsel to the Podestas to deliberate for the common
good, and to provide for the expenses of the Govemment of the
Republic. \The business that first engrossed their attention was
the reorganisation of the Guilds. \ Two aims were kept in view ;
First.. their greater efficiency in industrial and cominercial enter-
prise, and, Secondly, their adaptation to the warlike circumstances
of the times.
The Council drew up a list of the six more important Corpora·
tions, placing the professional " Guild of J udges and Notaries , at
the head, as in 1236. After a careful and detailed examination of
ali existent regulations and provisions,-the outcome of traditions
and customs,-the Council drafted a tentative Constitution gene-
rally suitable for the severa) Guilds.
In each Guild were appointed three chief officers :--( 1 ),
•• Consul"-as the representative of the Guild in the supreme
Govemment of the Republic; (2), "Capitua'o,"-Head or Master,
-as the controllt:r of the internai affairs of each Guild ;
(3), "Gonfa/onüre,"-Standard-bearer or Leader,-as the director
of civil functions and military affairs.
1 Villani, Yii. 13·

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44 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The last appointment was an absolute novelty, and it indicated
an important development of the political character of the Guilds,.
no less than a new departure in the Government of the Republic.
To each "Gonfaltmiet"e" was committed the care of a Standard, or
Banner, upon whicb was emblazoned armorial bearings there and
then assigned to each Guild, the free use of the same being
allowed to the craftsmen, wbo thus became bands of armed
citizens, to be called to their Standards when occasion required.
" Tbese Standards, Banners, and Ensigns," says G. Villanl, " were
ordered to the intent that if any one of the city rose with force of
arms, the members and associates of eacb armed Company or Band,
might under their Gonfaltm stand for the defence of the people and
Commonwealth." 1
These Bands were called " Companies of Militia," whicb in the-
city numbered twenty and in the Contado ten to twenty. Accord-
ing to the same authority, there were in the year I 338 twenty-five-
thousand men between tbe ages of sixteen and seventy capable of
bearing arms.
Documents • of the year 1266 prove conclusively that the policy
which dictated, and brought to a successful issue, the arrangement
of the Guilds in that year, wa.'l strongly opposed by the Ghibelline
Podesta, acting in sympathy with the Gt"and,: But tbe popular
movement was too strong for him, and he had not only to yield ..
but to smooth the way for ao alliance with the Pope.
The new constitution of the Guilds was distinctly democratic
in cbaracter, and raised violent opposition from the aristocratic
party in the State, who ultimately succeeded in sweeping away
the Thirty-six Buonuomini, and restoring the ascendency of the
Gbibelline nobles.
King Charles of Anjou, wbo in 1268 usurped the office of
Podesta, revived the Guelphic inftuence. He recalled the
"Thirty-six," but appointed a sort of private advisory Council
of twelve Gt"andi. To allay popular feeling against reactionary
govemment, Charles accepted a Council of One Hundred, taken
1 Villani, :d. 9:11. t Archivio Fiorentino, Atti Pubblichi, 1:115~75·

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 45

exclusively from the Popolani to assist bis Privy Council. At

the same time the Consuls of the Seven Greater Guilds were
constituted a Court of Final Appeal in ali causes, political and
commercial.
The Popo/o Minu/Q,-the members of the Lesser Guilds,-were
entirely ignored, and consequently a vast política} and social
antagonism was called into existence, which, later on, broke out in
destructive revolution.
Below the Popo/o Minuto,-which consisted really of only those
members of the Lesser Guilds who had received the franchisc;-
was the great body of the population,-the Ciompi, or working
classes,-" Wooden Shoes," as they were called derisively, with no
civic rights of any kind. They were denied the privilege of free
associations, in Companies, Corporations, and Craft Guilds, and the
conaitions of labour were nearly as hard as had been those of the
early inhabitants of Florence, under the system of the old Lombard
lords.
Times however were changing, and there was an ever rising
ambition among the lowest classes to attain at ali events the
freedom of the franchisc; and the power of trade-association, if
not the right to a share in the govemment of the Republic.
Forces were slumbering which needed very little awakening, and
that awakening was not far off.

Gradually, but surely, the Lesser Guilds were nsmg in im-

portance, not only.on account of the number of their members and
the social status which their increased wealth gave them, but
because of the investment of money which members of the Greater
Guilds etrected in the various minor Crafts.
What was really a levelling-up of classes was achieved in 128o,
wben five of the Lesser Guilds had attained such inftuential
positions, that they were publicly acknowledged as a group apart
from the other nine, and were designated A rti Mediani, "The
Intermediate Guilds." They were in order of importance as
follows:-

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46 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1. "Beaai." Butchers--wholesale and retail.
2. " Ca/zo/ai." Shoe-makers and leather workers.
3· "Faóóri." Smiths and workers in metais.
4- "Maestri di Pitlrt t di Ltgnami." Master-masons of stone
and wood.
5· "Rigatti'tri." Retail-cloth and Linen-merchants.
The Five lntermediate Guilds-to whose chief officers the
distinction of Consul had not yet been accorded,-were often invited
to join the deliberations of the Consuls of the Seven Greater Guilds
on equal terms. Such occasions were April, 1285, September, 1287~
July, 1293 and January, 1297.1
At the election of Priors in 1293,-among whom was Giano-
della Bellá,-along with well known members of the families of
Albizzi, Gualterotti, and Peruzzi,-there spoke Lapo Salterelli, a
J udge,-and Di no Pecora, a butcher. These associated consulta-
dons were usually held in the Baptistery of San Giovanni, and were
presided over by the Podesta and by the Capitano dei Popolo.
The Five lntermediate Guilds do not appear to have taken
any steps for actual enrolment among the Seven Greater Guilds.
The reason may possibly have been that their antecedents and
associations were dissimilar. There is ever a social gulf between
the leisured and professional classes and the ranks of the tradesman
and the artisan.
Probably however we must look a little more thoroughly into-
a question which presents such an unexpected aspect. Eman-
cipation from a position of inferiority-social and political-and
incorporation by a higher circle of prestige and influence, must
have had vast attractions for the shopkeepers and superior
workmen of Florence. On the other hand the danger of absolute
absorption into an elaborate system of civic life, wherein the
dominant powers were supreme in rank, wealth, and authority wa~
quite apparent.
The rôle of the Five Intermediate Guilds was that of holding
a balance between the two political elements of the time-the
l"Le Consulte della Repubblica Fiorentina," Yol. i. pp. 75·97·

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 4T
aristocracy and the democracy. By joint action they were enabled
to check the ambitious usurpations of the nobles and merchants
and, at the same time, to restrain the revolutionary aspirations of
the working classes.
A very well written manuscript,1 preserved in the British
Museum, entitled "11 Foro Fiortnti'no overo dtgli Ujfisi antici dtlla
Citta di Firmu. Trattato di Tommaso For/i, .. has the following
" List of the Guilds " under the date 1282 : -
1. Twelve Greater Guilt/s.
1. Giudici e Notai.
2. Kalimala.
3· Lana.
4- Cambio.
5· Seta.
6. Medici e Speziali e Merciai.
7: V aiai e Pellicciai.
8. Beccai.
9- Calzolai.
10. Fabbri.
11. Maestri di Pietre e Legnami.
12. Rigattieri.
I I. Nine. Ltsser Guiltls.
1. Vinattieri-Wine-merchants.
2. Albergatori maggiori-Greater Innkeepers.
3· Venditori del Sale-Dealers in salt.
4- Galigai grossi-Master Tanners.
5· Corazzai e Spadai-Armourers and Sword-makers.
6. Chiavaiuoli e Ferraiuóli-vecchi e novi-Lock-smiths and
workers in iron old and new.
7· Sanolacciai e Coreggiai e Scudai - Hamess-makers.
Carriage-builders and Shield-makers.
8. Legnaiuoli grossi-Master-carpenters.
9· Fomai-Bakers.
The same authority says that this order was . retained until
1 MS. DO. 28.178. B. M.

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48 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1415, when the Guilds were again arranged as Seven Greater and
Fourteen Lesser, and so continued until I 534-
In 1282, Bartolo de' Bardi, of the " Ca/ima/a" merchants, sitting
for the sestiere of Oltrarno, Rosso Bacherelli, of the "Bankers,"
sitting for San Piero Scheraggio, and Salvi del Chiaro Girolamo,
of the "Wool-merchants," sitting for San Pancrazio, were elected
Priors. They held office for two months, and assumed the right of
residence with the Captain of the People, in the Badia, and cc by ~
their lordly manner, created an aristocracy among the Traders." 1
During their tenure of office a new officer was created, with the
title of" Difmsore tklf A rli e tkg/i A rt':fid, e Capi/atl() e Conseroaton
del/a Pace "-"Defender of the Guilds and Crafts, and Captain and
Keeper of the Public Peace." The first holder of this dignity was
Bernardino della Porta-a wool-merchant of renown. Thus there
were three supreme magistrates-the Potksta--or President of the
Republic-a foreigner; the Captain ofthe People-a noble; and
the Defender of the Guilds-a merchant.
To the "Defender" were attached two councils composed
exclusively of members of the three Senior Guilds. The following
year, through the incessant representations of their Consuls. three
more Priors were added, Ghanus Detaineti for the "Ar~ tú/la Seta''
Viezus Vecosii for the "Arte de' Mediei e Sj)Uiali"; and Toginus
Aurifex for the "Arle & Pe/Jiaiai e Vaiai." At the same time the
title of the " Defender of the Guilds" was changed to " Captain of
the Guilds,"and hetook preccdenceofthe"Captainofthe People,"
immediately after the Potksta. ·
The ever-growing wealth of tbe Merchant Guilds and the
strongly aristocratic tendencies of their members awakened feelings
of discontent and jealousy in the Craftsmen of the Lesser Guilds.
Whilst in theory all citizens strove for the common good,
in practice differences arose from time to time, and, under many
pretexts, became more or less acute between the members ·of the
several Guilds with respect to customs, processes, privileges, and
monopolies.
1 "Le Consulte," pp. JJ6·I40 (Dr Hartwig).

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 49

Merchant and artisan alike did not hesitate to break with old
established methods. Questions as to price and sample, and
business agreements, which had ruled industries for years, were
openly disregarded. Each man sought to take advantage of
bis neighbour, in short a sort of inner-toll system was erected
between trade and trade, and between man and man.
To such a pitch did these vexations reach, that on June 30th
1290 the Priors issued a Decree which re-established the freedom
of trade, and prohibited custom-dues, and compositions, of every
kind within the limits of Florentine territory. Secret Inspectors
were appointed to see that no craftsman, whether belonging to the
Greater or to the Lesser Guilds, attempted infractions of the liberty
of labour and of sale. 1
On J uly 3rd of the same year two Decrees were passed by the
Priors, which prohibited Merchant Guildsmen under heavy penalties
from creating monopolies, compacts, and agreements, for spurious
sales. Every sort of business procedure calculated to lead to the
imposition of arbitrary prices for commodities was also strictly
prohibited. 2
Any merchant or trader guilty of neglect of these provisions
was- subject to legal proceedings and was liable to a fine of one
hundred pounds. Moreover the Guild, to which such an one
belonged, was mulcted in a penalty of five hundred /ire for not
enforcing the decrees ; and the Consuls, Rectors or Priors were
each fined two hundred /ire.
Other Decrees were passed in 1291 and 1292. In the latteryear
the Consuls and Heads of ali the Guilds met in Conference, and
added one more severe regulation to the Code of Prohibitions-
namely, erasure from the Matriculation Registers of the respective
Guilds, of the names of offenders convicted of fraud and falsifica-
tion ·of every sort and kind.
Appeals to the Pope, to the Emperor, or to any foreign power
or prince, were severely punished; and the Notaries who assisted
1 Archivio dei Stato di Firenze, Provvisione iv. p. 29·
1 Provvisioui ü. c. 24-25, c. 30-31, and iv. c. 175·177·
D

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 50 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
· in drawing up sucb appeals, were punished by suspension from
their offices. These measures,-Draconian almost in character,-
formed efficient bulwarks against usurpations and encroacbments
on the part of the Merchant aristocracy upon the liberties and
rights of tbe Artisan democracy.
Liberty of industry was always a distinguishing mark in tbe
political constitutions of the Republic. In 1475 the Signoria
actually passed a Law enacting that every man was free to gain
bis living as be liked, without reference, as to capacity, to judges
of law and doctors of medicine ; and without let or bindrance from
unscrupulous citizens.
A conspicuous and important landmark in tbe liberties and
trade of the Republic was fixed by tbe passing of the " Ordinat~UtJti
tk//a Giustúia," which became law on January 18th, 1293. Tbey
have been called the Magna Cbarta of Florence. Their sponsor,
if not actually their author, was the famous Giano della Bella, who,
althougb belonging to the noble house of Pazzi, espoused the
popular side.
This famous Edict, which contained twenty-four paragrapbs or
provisions, was promulgated for the protection of the people
against the increasing usurpations of tbe nobles. The three
principal provisions were :-
I. Tbe exclusion of tbe Grandi from the Government
2. The punisbment of the Grandi for offences against the
Popolani.
3· Tbe extension of the powers of tbe Craft-G':lilds.
/ U p to this period tbe office of Prior bad been always open to
any Grande wbo was a member of a Guild. Tbis privilege was
bencefortb to be enjoyed only after tbe noble had renounced his
rank with tbe public approval of the Council of State.
Among the penalties was sentence of death upon any noble
wbo, eitber by bis own hand or by tbat of a paid agent, took the
life of one of the people. His property was also ordered to be
confiscated, and bis bouse razed to the ground. 1
1 P. E. Giudici, "Storia dei Comuni ltaliani," Bk. vi.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 51
The "Ordi11z:"-as they were also called,-confirmed the
number and order of the Guilds ; and, at the same time, enacted
that every member and apprentice sbould be required, upon
entry, to take a solemn oath, for the maintenance of peace and
concord.
The promotion of trading companies alien to the Constitutions
of the Guilds, and agreements and contracts, unsanctioned by
recognised commerciallaw and custom, were made capital otrences.
Any Guild entering upon such transactions, or condoning them,
was declared liable to a fine of one thousand /ire, and its Consuls,
five hundred each.
The passing of the " Oniit~i" o f course roused angry and powerful
opposition on the part of the nobles and aristocratic merchants.
Their resentment was in a sense shared by many of the craftsmen
and shopkeepers, who depended upon the patronage of the richer
citizens.
By the end of the thirteenth century a vast number of trade
customs and business usages had become fixed, which, whilst in
some measure safe-guarding the interests of the Guilds, led to
more or less confusion and uncertainty in commercial matters.
In 1300 a revision of these Statutes, Regulations, and Bye-laws
was determined upon by the He~ds of the Guilds in consultation
with the Chief Magistrates. On April 4th a "Commission of
Seven Merchants " was appointed with power to choose other
seven members, Neri Berri being named President, and hence the
Commission is known by bis name. The fourteen Commissioners
were secluded in the monastery of the Seryité Brothers for many
days ; food, stationery, and thirty-two /ire being allowed to
each Commissioner.1 Their deliberations were attended with
unanimity, and they embodied their resolutions in the form of
Statutes which, in I30l,.received the approval of the Consuls of
the Guilds and of the Chief Magistrates of the Republic. They
were entitled "The Statutes .of the University of Commerce of
Florence."
1 P.ronisione x. :ar6-:a:a6.

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52 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The Statutes were made generally applicable for all the Guilds,
and the embodiment of them, in the form of a charter of incorpora-
tion, provided each Guild, whether of merchants or craftsmen, with
the main part of its corporative constitution. The " Calimala"
Guild, as being the leading trade organisation of the city, led the
way by adopting the new Code.
The signatures 1 attached to the report of these deliberations
are interesting as showing not only the order of precedence at that
date of the Seven Greater Guilds but also the various degrees and
styles of the signatories. The names of "Judges and Notaries ,,
come first, they are six-one for each sestiere, and of these three
are judges, styled " DO'minus," and three are notaries-one being
styled "Dominus,'• and the other two simply Ser or Messere.
Next in order come the signatures of the four Consuls of the
" Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries ; " two are styled "Ma,gisttr
meaiau"-the others have no title.
Then follow the names of the three Consuls of the " Guild of
Bankers and Money-changers," they have no titles, but one is
distinguished as" Piero Borgi who has bis office in the old market,"
and so forth. Four Consuls of the "Merchants of Calima/a" come
next, without any distinguishing titles ; and they are followed by
the six Consuls of the " Guild of W ool,'• also untitled, except
the first, who is styled "Ser Notarius "-a lawyer wool-stapler!
The "Por San Maria Merchants" are represented by four Consuls
-three untitled and the fourtb is styled "Domi'mu" ; and last come
tbe four Consuls of 44 the Skinners," each of wbich has the name of
bis special constituency added : I. "tú populo Sancti Stepltani a
Ponte," 2. "tú populo Saneie Cidiit,'' 3· cc tú populo Sancte Man'e
Ugh,:" and 4 "tú populo Sancte Libera/e."
The financiai position of the several Guilds at the beginning of
the fourteenth century may be understood by their proportionate
co-relation in the payment of taxes levied by the State.. On
October 1321 the Guilds were mulcted in tbe following
amounts:-
I "Le Consulte," vol i. p. 27.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 53
The Guild of Wool 2000 gold florins.
The Guild of Silk 400 "
The Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries 330 "
The Guild of Butchers . 325
The " Cab'ma/a" Guild . 320
The Guild of Judges and Notaries 100
"
"
The Guild of Bankers . 100 .
The Guild of Masters o f Stone and W ood 8o ,,
The Guild of Locksmiths and Workers in Iron 8o ,
The Guild of Carpenters so .
The Guild of Flax 38
"
The Guild of Skinners and Furriers only 200 /i,-e, wbilst tbe
smallest contribution was that of tbe " Society of Cross-bow
Makers "-eigbt /i,-e I
Tbe Duke of Atbens began bis term of office as Podesta in
I 342, by yielding to the solicitations of the nobles and more
prominent mercbants, but, wben be saw tbat bis overtures met
with distrust, and that a movement was being made to curtail bis
authority, he looked about bim for some other source of support. 1
By way of currying favour with the lower people, at the bead of
the Priors, wbom be nominated, be placed a butcber, and with
him three mercbants and three artisans. Tbis course met with
violent opposition, but the Duke persevered in bis democratic
policy.
His own position was largely dueto tbe favour of the populace,
and consequently be was bound to make some returns. Of the
inferior classes be always spoke as" Le 6ene Popolo "-" Tbe good
people."-Among smaller, but quite significant, measures, he
permitted the "Association of Wool-Carders,"-subordinate
hitherto entirely to the Guild of the Wool-merchants,-to have
and to display a banner of their own, bearing upon it a Lamb. To
the "Association of Wool-Dyers,"-wbo represented that they were
oppressed by the two great Gu~lds of " Calima/a" and " Wool," he
I Villani, xil 8

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 54 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
conceded the privilege of being ruled by Capitudini of their own
free choice.
For the benefit of the lowest orders of the population the Duke
formed six Brigate or Societies-one for each sestiere, with the style
of" La Potm8a" or Local Authority. The duties of these Societies,
which were comprised of the more prominent men or leaders of the
lower classes, in each quarter, were to elevate the tastes and
pursuits of the people, and to encourage them to emulate the
fashions of the better-to-do citizens.1
These measures proved to be encouragements and incentives
to the people to seek, by fair means or by foul, a general better-
ment of their social and political condition. The way was thus
made clear for the terrible "Rising of the Ciompi" in 1378,
which registered the high-water mark of democratic ascendency.
Severa! causes contributed to the accomplishment of this coup
d'ltat.
Jealousies and feuds between the nobles and the aristocratic
merchants of the Greater Guilds were incentives to imitation on
the part o f the operatives. The Parte Gueifa through its
immense wealth and power had become an instrument of op-
pression. The promise of liberty and equality made by the dis-
comfiture of the Ghibellines was not redeemed. Espionage and
tyranny were rife. Every man's hand seemed raised to oppress
those beneath him in position or in wealth. Such were the
embers of a smouldering fire, which only needed the torch of
revolution to kindle into a portentous conflagration.
<? Piero degli Albizzi in 137,6 made no secret of the intention of
/ his family to convert the Republic into an Oligarchy. The Ricci,
the Strozzi, and other influential families sided with the Albizzi.
The Popolo Minuto saw the danger which threatened the liberty of
the tradespeople and artisans, but in Salvest.ro de' Medici,-wbose
family ranked among the first of the Popolo Grasso,-the popular
cause found a true cbampion.
Salvestro was appointed to the office of Gonfaloniere di Giustüia
1 Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, " Delizie dc:gli Eruditi Toecani," viii. 566.

.. I
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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 55
in 1370, and he at once summoned an assembly of the people in
the Palazzo V ecchio. An immense throng filled, not only the
Palace, but the Piazza della Signoria. U pon Salvestro's threat to
retire from office, under the opposition of the oligarchical party,
dire confusion arose, and, at the height o f the excitement, Benedetto
degli Alberti looked out of a window and shouted :-" Viva il
Pqpolol"
This was the spark which fell upon inftammable material
The cry was re-echoed through the city. Shops were closed and
the whole of the populace was under arms. The Parte Guelfa also
armed, but did not dare to provoke an encounter with the masses,
who surged up from every quarter of the city.
The Consuls of the Greater Guilds intervened, but to no effect,
and the armed Companies of the Guilds under their banners
marched into the Piazza. The "Ciompi" supposed .these Bands
were arrayed against them, and at once the spark blazed into
ftame, which devoured the palaces of the Albizzi, Pazzi, Strozzi,
Soderini, Castiglionchi, Caviccioli, Buondelmonti, Serragli, and
of other noble families. Fire was put to the Residences of the
Consuls of the Guilds, and some of them were wholly destroyed,
whilst the archives, documents, and the rolls of matriculation,
of many of the Guilds were ruthlessly consumed.
A reign of terror followed, and the city was given over to pillage
and outrage. At length an attack was made upon the Supreme
Magistracy sitting at the Palazz<? V ecchio. The magistrates fted,
and the mob, headed by a wool-comber called Michele Lando,
bearing the Gonfalon of Justice, which had been seized at the
Office of the Gonfaltmin-e, rushed in to the Council Chamber.
Lando tumed about, and facing bis followers, cried out,. "See
the Palace is yours, and the city is wholly in your hands. What
will you do now ? "
"Make you Galfalonin-e di Giustizia I" was the tumultuous
reply.
A new Government was installed on July 23rd, consisting of
nine Priors,-three from the Seven Greater Guilds, three from the

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56 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
F ourteen Lesser Guilds,-and three from three new Guilds o f Opera-
tives,-the latter being enrolled in response to the demand of the
victorious democracy.
Lando was confirmed in the office of Gonfa/oniere di Giustizia,
" who," as writes Dino Compagni, " in courage, prudence, and
goodness surpassed any citizen of that time, and deserved to
be remembered among the few who have done good to their
country."
The other demands of the " Ciompi" were agreed to, namely :-
1. The reduction of the taxes, 2. The increase of State interest
upon workmen's savings, 3· The rescinding of laws against small
debtors, 4- The recall of exiled workpeople, and S· The ex-
tension of the municipal franchise. The three new Guilds, with
the assistance of the "Nine of Commerce" and the "Ten of
Liberty," were established under rules and regulations similar to
the Statutes of the Greater Guilds.
The first of these Subordinate Guilds was made up of nine
or ten thousand Wool-wa:;hers, Wool-sorters, Wool-beaters, Wool-
combers, and W ool-carders, who had hitherto ~ttached to
the Great Wool Guild. To this Corporation was granted a banner
bearing a figure of the Angel of J udgment with a sword and a
cross.
The Second Guild was composed of Dyers, Fullers, Carding-
comb-makers and Loom-makers, and Weavers of woo~ silk and
flax : their banner displayed a white arm upon a vermilion field,
the hand holding a sword upon which was inscribed " Giustizia "-
" Justice."
The Third Guild united together Sheep-shearers, Butchers,
Menders of skins, Hosiers, Knitters, Tailors, Makers of doublets,
of banners, of church ornaments, of sandals, etc. etc. Their
banner bore the Divine Arm with a red sleeve, thrust out of a
cloud and holding a branch of olive.
The latter two , Guilds numbered only some four thousand
members between them, hence the first of the three held a position i
of greater importance ; and, by reason of its members belonging t

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 57
to one industry alone,-that of wool,-it presented a much more
homogeneous appearance. than did the other two Corporations. 1
There is much uncertainty as to the manner in which the
Statutes of 1301 were adapted to the peculiar conditions of the
new Corporations. Nevertheless there are entries in the Records
of the six sestieri, and in those of the Councils of the Capitudini
or Priors of the Three new Guilds which show that their officers
ranked as equals with those of the other Guilds in the tenure of
public office. For example :-in Santo Spirito are named Giovanni
dei Capponi, Woollen-manufacturer of the "Guild of Wool-
merchants," and Leoncino de Francino, Carder, of the " Guild of
W ool-workers " ; in Sa1z Giovanni-Giovanni di Bartolo, Spicer
and Apothecary of the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries," and
Benedetto da Carlova, Sandal-maker of the " Guild of Workmen
and Artificers.2
The Incorporation of these three Guilds gave much satisfaction
to the humbler and rougher citizens. The labouring class, though
viewing with natural envy the pleasanter lot of their richer fellow-
citizens, were really animated with the grand old Florentine
spirit. This natural leverage, which was a constant force for the
amelioration and advancement of every class, was based upon the
universal sense and appreciation of high ideais.
Prospects of contentment, however, were speedily dimmed, and
the newly enfranchised craftsmen became once more restive.
They began to assume the manners, and even the dress of the
richer citizens, and to cultivate a taste for the exercise of arms.
The old spirit of insubordination was not dead, and men re-
fused to work under the existent conditions of labour. GiostYe, or
Tournaments, and feasting in the Markets, had fascinations which
were undeniable. Workshops were closed, and the streets were
filled with idlers and merry-makers. Disorder and rioting soon
became the order of the day. The axiom, "if a man wishes to eat
he must work," was ign<?red, and famine stared the city in the fa~e.
1 M.S. Stroz:zi, Diariod' Anonimo, p. 517.
1 Marcbionne di Coppo Stefani, "Delizie degli Eruditi Toscani," x. 797·

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58 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The Three new Guilds made a further demand that a staio-
busbel-of com sbould be given free to every man wbo asked for
belp. Tbey also proposed a division of public money. Tbe wbole
of tbe " Ciompl'" assembled in the Piazza Santa Maria Novella and
prepared to urge these demands by force of arms.
Micbele Lando again proved bis grit He set tbe great bell
tolling, and wben the militia companies of tbe Guilds had
assembled, be led them in person against bis former associates,
crying :-" Long live tbe Trade Guilds and the People ! " Tbe un-
disciplined niob gave way, and the wool-comber Gonfaloniere
yielded up bis gon.falon, a pledge that peace was assured. This
was tbe end of the " Ciompi" Rising.
Tbe predominance, nevertheless, of the democratic power was
of sbort duration, for the year 1382 was marked by the strenuous
exertions of the nobles and aristocratic mercbants to reduce the
ascendency of the Popolo Minuto. Reforms were introduced
into the election of dignitaries :-the office of Gonfaloniere di
Giustizia was again limited to members of tbe seven Greater
Guilds, that of Prior was sbared equally by the seven and by the
fourteen Lesser Guilds. Tbe Three new Guilds were suppressed,
and the number of recognised Guilds was reduced to the original
Twenty-one.1
In 1387 a concession was bowever made to the claims of the
operative members of the community, wbereby two new Priors
were appointed to represent particularly the working poRulation.
Thus tbe eigbt Priors, wbo formed the new Si'pwria, stood by
twos for each of the four quarters of the city ; and this arrange-
ment was confirmed by the Council of State in 1393.1
The subject of tbe Precedence of the Guilds, and tbeir several
degrees of bonour on the Roll of tbe Guilds, is one wbich can
never be satisfactorily explained. Some of the Guilds wbicb
appear low down in the scale were composed of men of the bigbest
distinction, for instance, the great architects and sculptors of the
1 A. von Reumont, "Tavole Cronologiche."
1 L. Cantini, " Legislazione," l'Ol. i. p. 29·

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 GENERAL HISTORY 0.14, THE GUILDS 59
Renaissance belonged to the Lesser Guild of " Masters of Stone
and Wood I" Again, why should the "Butchers" be thirteen
degrees higher than the " Bakers" ? Probably in old Florence
herself this inconsequent arrangement could not have been made
clear. After ali it was not so much a comparative table of
industries as a relative scale of operators which fixed each trade
and its agents in a conventional position upon the tablets of
Florentine Society.
Below the fourteen Lesser Guilds were, from time to time,
groups of workpeople, who enrolled themselves in trade associa-
tions, which were never recognised as Guilds in the generally
accepted meaning of the term. Under date I28S there is a
paragraph in a Codex : M anoscritti vari•~ referring to the Arte &
Frenai,-the "Guild of Bridle and Bit-makers,"-and the payment
made to the Guild on behalf of some land between the Porta Balli
and the Porta Via N uova.
The Records 1 of I309-1316 name many such associations under
the general term Arte, Guild :-" Bottariai"-Coopers, "Arcariai"
- Bow and Arrow-makers, "Madiariai"- Trough-makers,
" Cerckiariai" - Basket-makers. " Ba/drigariai panni" - Cloth-
remnants and cuttings-dealers, "Ritagliai"-Retailers of Sundries,
"Ferravecckiai"-Scrap-iron dealers, "PoOaiuoli"-Poulterers,and
"Materassai "-Mattress-stuffers.
The Archives have a curious entry under date February 6th,
I 32 I, in the shape of a list of Guilds which had paid their propor-
tion of the Ga!Jella, or war loan, levied the previous year. The
loan in question amounted to the sum of 300,000 gold florins,
-.Ciso,ooo,-and was undertaken not only by the whole of the
Merchant and Craft Guilds of the time, but also with the co-
operation of the all-powerful Parte Guelfa.
The number of Guilds or Corporations scheduled rises to
forty-:fqur I They include " Fornaciariai,'' -Ironfounders,-ninety-
two /ire, "Dadaiuo/i,"-Dice-makers,-two and two-thirds gold
florins,and "Prestaton· Ron.soni,"-Horse-jobbers,-sixty-seven /ire.
1 Arc:lljvio del Stato di Firenze, 245·

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60 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
In 1327, among the Corporations which are scheduled as con-
tributories to the year's public taxes, the following additional

VAIUOUS CRAFTS IN OPERATION-THE BUSTLE OF CITY LIFB.

"Guilds" are named :-" Vaginanai"-Scabbard-makers," Maestri

d' Abace e Gramatia""-Rope and Hemp-merchants, "Cuodai"-
Cooks, and "Fabbn"canti de//' Utensili di Cucina "-Makers of

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 61
cooking-utensils. "Sarli"-Tailors, and "Cunaton'"-Cradle and
chest-makers, are named in 1378 as separate associations, and so
are "Ba,.büri"-Barbers and Hairdressers, "Ricamatori"-Em-
broiderers, and" Tessiton' di D,.appi"-Stuff-weavers. These five
associations are also grouped together as a distinct A,.te or Guild.
The why or wherefore ofthis alliance it is impossible to state.
Again reference is made frequently to Cona'ate/Ji:-House-tilers,
" Conciaton' di Fomace "- Glass-blowers, "Rivendi/Qri"- Old-
clothes Dealers, "lndsori in Rame"-Engravers in brass," Ve,.,i-
catori "-Varnishers, " Velettai "-Canvas-makers, " C,-en'ai "-
Wax-moulders," Tin/Qri"-Dyers, and "Cardatori"-Wool-carders.
These groups of workpeople, however, were generally subordinated
to one or other of the Greater Guilds, and to the more important
of the Lesser Guilds.
Throughout the fifteenth century the number and precedence
of the Guilds remained unaltered. In 1415, the order was as
follows:-
1. Le Arli Mag:sion._tbe Greater Guilds (7) : -
1. L' A,.te dei Giudici e Notat._ Judges and Notaries.
2. L' Arle di Calima/a-Merchants of Foreign Cloth.
3· L' A,.te del/a Lana-Woollen-manufacturers.
4- L' A,.te de' Camót'aton'-Bankers and Money-changers.
S· L' A,.te del/a Seta-Silk-manufacturers.
6. L' A,.tede' Medici e Spezt'alt._Doctors and Apothecaries.
7· L' Arle de' Pellicciai e Vat'ai-Skinners and Furriers.
li. Le Arti Minon'-the Lesser Guilds (14) :-
1. L' Arle de' Beccat._Cattle-dealers and Butchers.
2. L' Arle de' Faóón._Blacksmiths.
3· L' Arte de' Calso/ai-Sboemakers.
4- L' A,.te de' Maestri di Pietre e di Legnami-Master
Stone-masons and Wood-carvers.
S· L' Arte de' Rig'attieri e de' LinaifiO/i-Retail-Dealers
and Linen Mercbants.
6. L' Arle de' Vinattieri-Wine-merchants.

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62 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
7· L' Arle deg'/i A/6ergatori-1nn-keepers.
8. L' Arte de' Gal.g-ai-Tanners.
9o L' Arte degli Olia.ulo/i-Oil-merchants.
10. L' Arle tU Coreg-pu-Saddlers.
I I. L' Al'te de' C.iúwa#loli-Locksmiths.
12. L' A,te tU Coru.eai-Armourers.
13. L' Arte de' Lepai'uo/i-Carpenters.
14- L' Arle de' Fomai-Bakers.

An attempt was made in I426 by the aristocratic party in the

State to reduce the number of the fourteen Lesser Guilds to seven.
The leaders in this movement were the Albizzi,--ever opponents of
the popular cause,-under the leadership of Niccolo da U zzano ;
but they were thwarted in their endeavours by the chivalrous
opposition of members of the rising Medici family, who consistently
posed as the friends of the people.
Early in the fifteenth century,-in view of the increased import-
ance of the operative classes and the improved conditions of labour
and wages,-two new Arn: or Guilds, were enrolled, though not
formally incorporated. One of these,--called L'Arle de' Merciai,
"Guild of Haberdashers,"-was an association of small shop-keepers
and traders; the other,-L'A'te tU Lavon:-comprised the inferior
class of operatives and unskilled labourers.
The Guild system had by the year 1530 reached the zenith of
its magnificence and power, but then new economic forces came
into action, which led to the decadence of much that was
characteristic of the Florentine industry and commerce. These
forces had perhaps little effect upon the Greater Guilds, but in the
Lesser Guilds and among their members they were productive of
many reforms and rearrangements.
A final grouping of the Lesser Guilds was effected in 1534-
By a Provvisione dated July I7 of that year, the "Fourteen Lesser
Guilds" were divided into four Universities. Each Unhcersity was
ruled by one Consul, one Chancellor, two Pl'ovvediton·, three
Treasurers, three Syndics or lnspectors, and four Donse/k-

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 63
Sergeants or Porters-as the word carne to mean. The Consuls
were chosen from each associated Guild or Corporation, in tum,
and served for six months.1
In the First University were placed :-" Beccai'~-Butchers and
Cattle-dealers," 0/iando/i"....,..Oil and General Provision Merchants,
and "Fornai"-Millers and Bakers; with the common title of
.. L' Univwsita di Por San Piero "-" University of Saint Peter's
Gate "-so called from the locality of greatest activity.
In the Second were: "Caúo/ai"-Shoemakers, "Gali'rai"-
Tanners, and " Coregg'Üii"-Saddlers; under the style of "L' Uni-
versita de' Maestri di Cuoiame "-" University of Master-workers in
Leather."
The Tbird included :-" Fabbri"-Blacksmiths, "Ckiavaiuoli"
-Locksmiths, "Maestri di Pietre e di Lelnami"- Master
Builders, "Coruzai e Spadai"-Armourers and Sword-makers,
and "Legwaiuoli" Carpenters; and · they collectively bore the
designation of "L' Universita tD Fabbricanti "-" University of
Artisans."
With this third University were incorporated the trade associa-
tions of "lncessori in Rame," Copper-plate workers, "Ottanai''-
Copper-smiths, "Calderai"- Braziers, "Ferraiuoli"- Edge-tool
makers, "Ferravecckiai"-Scrap-iron dealers, and "Stagnaiuoli"-
Makers of pewter. In fact all workers in metal, wood, and stone
were allied in one University. The privilege of matriculation into
the "Arte e Universita de Faóbricanti" was extended, soon after
the incorporation of the Guild, to residents in the City and
district of Pistoja and other districts. Members living more than
three miles beyond the Contado of Florence proper were required
to pay fourteen pi«ioli, every six months, for the privilege of
membership, whilst city workmen paid five piccioli."
The Fourth University united five dissimilar corporations :-
" Ri.rattieri"-Retail cloth-dealers," Vinattieri"-Wine-merchants,
"'Alber.ratori"-lnn-keepers, "Linait:«Jii"-Workers in flax, and
1 Benedetto Varchi, "Storia Fiotentina," 1721.
' L. Cantini, "Legislazi.one," iv. 247·

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MODES 011' TllANSIT, COUNTI.Y PU.UUITS, BTC.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 65
"Sarti"-Tailors; their title was "L' Universita de' Linaiuoli"-
" U niversity o f Linen Drapers."
This system of amalgamation was necessary for various reasons.
First and foremost, the shrinkage in Florentine industries through
foreign competition; secondly, changing fashions and customs,
and the invention of fresh trades; thirdly, absorption of the
richer members of the Craft Guilds into the more aristocratic
society of the nobles and merchants.
The fifteenth centqry closed upon a Florence so prosperous, \
beautiful and salubrious that she was without a rival in Europe. 1

The shutting of manufactories and shops, which was remarkable

in the sixteenth century, did not however prove decadence in
wealth and influence, but simply that fewer men found it needful
to engage in humble callings. The ranks of the monied and
leisured classes were being steadily fed by new made men ; whilst
at the other end of the social ladder there was a marked decrease
in poverty and mendicancy. ln fact by the middle of the
sixteenth century-the limit of this volume-Florence presented
the rare spectacle of a State whose citizens were either all
wealthy, or, at least, comfortably off. Not till then did the spirit
of leisured ease begin to enervate the mental and physical vigour
of her enterprising people.
The old Florentine proverb, which ran as follows :-" Clli vuo/
dte i/ mmto ba/li alie mani façda i ca/li"-"Who wants bis mind
active must make bis hands hard,'' had proved its truth !

Some idea must now be given of the general conditions of

Guild-membership.
Every man and boy, turned sixteen years of age, was obliged
to become a member of a Guild or Trade Corporation. Any one
who failed in this respect was dubbed "Sdoperato"-" Loafer," and
had no voice in the city's affairs. He was a bye-word and a
mocking to ev~ry passer-by, and was treated to more kicks than
denan~ and, not uncommonly, was taken up and lodged in a
dungeon, or bis feet placed in the stocks, as being a useless in-
E
66 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
-cumbrance anda disgrace to the city. Moreover, bis family lost
caste in wbatever circle it was, and had evento pay a penalty for
possessing such a good-for-nothing fellow !
On the other hand, the strenuous life of good Florentines in
the prosecution of their many industries is very strikingly ex-
emplified in a will of the year 1395.1 A certain Lapaccino del
Toso de' Lapaccini, wbo died during that year, left an instruction
that a penalty of one tbousand gold florins should be paid by
each and all of bis sons who, between the ages of sixteen and
thirty-five, should spend a whole year without working at some
trade or undertaking some commercial enterprise.
To enter a Guild five conditions bad to be fulfilled :-
1. To be a native born Florentine.
2. To bave two sponsors for family and personal character.
3· Never to have been before magistrates for.any misdemeanour.
4· To be possessed of a property qualification-either bis own
or accruing at tbe deatb of his father.
5· To pay a tax of silver to the State by way of caution-
money.
6. To pay an Entrance-fee to the particular Guild.
The silver tax varied,-it was 6xed from time to time by the
Signoria,-and was looked upon as a poll-tax or capitation-fee.
Tbe payment of tbis tax conferred immediate political rights upon
the payee. Tbe Entrance-fee,-generally a fairly good round sum,
-varied according to tbe circumstances of the individual or his
family.. Its payment entitled the payee to full membersbip in
his Guild.
A considerable difference was made in the amount of eacb of
these payments as Members of the Merchant Guilds, or as
anembers of the Craft Guilds. The members of the former were of
two classes :--{1) Maestn'-Masters or full members-and (2) Dis-
czj>uli-Probationers or apprentices. In Latin manuscripts, and
early printed books of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, "dis-
1 L'Oaaervatore Fiorentino, Vol. iv. p. 193- D. M. Manni, Osservaziooe e Giunte
I~toriehe sopra i, etc., Sicilli, Tom. xi. p. 1o6.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE: GUILDS 67
apulo" is used in ·a general sense. ;·ne member5 of the latter,-
the Ctaft Guilds,-were of three Classes :....;,_( 1) M aestri-Masters,
{2) .Lavoranti-Workmen, and (3) Ganoni-Apprentices. ,
. The Ti,.ocinio-ot Apprenticeship-was for five to seven years,
but sons of Masters were entitled to easier and sborter terms-
generally four or five years.
At tbe end of bis time the apprentice was . still bound to
work for bis master for three yeai'S witb a small annual recompense.
At tbe end of that period the workman was entitled to call bimself
Capo lavof'O-Master-workman. The sons of Masters were also
permitted to serve a workman's probation of two years only ; they
.also paid reduced taxes and lower fees.
In bis tentb year each individual paid bis Master's Recognition
fee, or Buona Ent,.ata, and became · a full-blown Master of bis
Craft. 1
A few extracts from the records of Apprenticesbips be will
interesting as sbowing the variety of employments and tbe details
of mutual arrangement between master and apprentice at certain
dates:-
1272. A fatber, from )Ema, binds bis boy to a Tanner for eight
years. Tbe lad to receive " clothes and board as befits a
merchant and artisan of tbat trade."
1274- A man binds bis son for two years as disci'pulo to a Retail
cloth-dealer to learn tbe trade-tbe father paying down
three /i,.e.
1291. A man "of the parisb of San Giovanni di Cbuota, in tbe
country of Count Guido Novelli, gives bis son, as dis&ipulo
for tbree years, to Messere Cambizzino, a Sboemaker, of
Uberti in tbe parish of Via degli Santa Felicia in Piazza.
Tbe master to give yearly a tunic, a vest, bose, and a
pair of good sboes.'' ·
1293. Another binds bis nepbew for one year to bis master-an I nn-
keeper-the latter to give tbe apprentice " wine and food
and bed ali of good kind and wortby of tbe trade.''
1 Dr G. Alberti, " Le Corporantione d'Arti e di Mestiere."

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68 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1295. A young man "from Castlenuovo is apprenticcd as
disdpulo to a Locksmith for one year, the master being
bound to pay him forty sold1:"
1300. A man "binds his orphan brother for five and a half years
to Ricchio Bonsignori and Venturi Ammanti, Merchants-
dwelling in a house upon the new bridge of Rubaconte.
The discipulo to receive food and clothing,-good and
decent,-as well as shoes ; and to be carcd for, whether well
or ill, up to anything less than a month."
1300. A certain man from San Savino in Monte Carelli engages.
himself as disa"pukJ to a Baker, of the parish of S. Pancrazio
for seven years-to receive clothing and board and lodg-
ing," and so on.
That women were not disqualified by their sex from enjoying
the rights of membership in the Gunds is proved by many entries.
in the articles of matriculation and the records of association.
For example in 1294. in the Council of Capitudini, Donna Santa~
wife of Palmerio of the popokJ of San Ambrogio, who wished to be
admittedas a worker intothe" Arte e Universita Zonariorum,"-"the
Company of Belt and Gbdle-makers,"-states that she has paid, to
the Treasurer of the Guild, three pounds, by way o f Entrance-fee.
Thereupon, by the approval of the Council, she swears to observe
ali the statutes and regulations of the Guild, and Messere Lapo-
Benci, the Rector, admits her to full membership. A witness's.
signature is appended to the instrument of enrolment,-" Cornu
Guel/ilme,-Rector arh"s Coreglilnórum,"-Rector of the "Guild of
Strap-makers."
In the earliest records of the Trades we find the style of
" Consul " bome by the Heads of each Craft-the title also
accorded to the rulers of the Commune. This led to considerable
confusion, for example, in the negotiations entered into with the
people of the Commune of Pogna, in I 184, for the protection of
the latter, the "Consuls of Florence " attach their signatures above
those of the " Consuls of the Trades."
1 Daviduobn, " Forschungen Zl11' Alteren Gescbicbte von Florenz."

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 . "•· . . .: ·...

AN APPRENTICE: A TYPICAL FLORENTINE YOUTH

'' OA\"10 1"-\'ERROCCHIO

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 .. :.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 69
A document 1 of I 193 contains an account of the Convention
between the Commune of Florence and the Lords of the Castle of
Trebbio, in which the confusion of titles is overcome by the use
of the designation "Rettore "-Rector, for the Heads of the
Trades.
Again another change was effected in the style of the" Rtttore "
in 1204. when "Pn'ore "-Prior-was adopted; but this was very
shortly dropped, because it âtso clashed with the designation of
the three Priors of the Three Great Guilds. " Consul" was
again used as the title of the Heads of the Guilds, when that
style ceased to be borne by the Head of the State.1
No citizen might serve the office of Consul unless he was in the
active exercise ofhis calling, and resided at bis shop or place of
business. All who were elected were required to be natives of
Florence, except in the Guilds of" Judges and Notaries" and "Masters
of Stone and Wood "-both of which were open to foreigners.
Every citizen appointed to the supreme office of the Guild was
compelled to serve his term or submit to the payment of a fine of
one hundred gold florins. a
Divided counsels, as might have been expected, constantly
broke the unanimity of the Council of Consuls of ali the Guilds.
Something of the sort occurred with respect to the peace negotia-
tions instituted, in 1280, by the Cardinal Latino dei Frangipani
acting as Papal Legate.•
These were attempts at a reconciliation of the adherents of the
two great parties in the State,-the Guelphs and the Ghibellines,
-for the repatriation of the latter. Among the commissioners
were Lapo dei Prato, Orlando Baldovini, and Cervo del Foro, re-
presenting respectively the Intermediate Guilds of Butchers, Black-
smiths, and Shoemakers. They, along with the Consuls of the
J udges and N otaries, the Silk Merchants, and the Doctors and
1 Archivio delle Riformagione, Bk. xxvi.
'L. Cantini, "Legislazione," vol. i.
• Statuta }lopuli et Communis Florentiae, collected 1415. Fribur&, 178:1, vol. ii. p.
159· Rub. i., ü., iii., iv.
• Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, "Delir.ie degli Eruditi Toscani," vol. ix. 96.

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r~ THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Apoth~caries, promised, in th~ names of their GuH.ds, to do all in
their power to carry out the conditions proposed, and vigorously
to oppose all attempts to set the peace settlement at nought.
_ · The names of the Consuls of Calimala, W ool Merchants,
Bankers and Money-changers, Skinners and Furriers, and Retail
Cloth Dealers were not appended to the document. Hence we
may conclude that they were not .favourable to the Cardinal's
terms; Anyhow the Settlement came to nothing, and the Parte
G.ulfa waxed still stronger.
The constant and erratic:; changes which took place in the
standing and powers of the Guilds and of their Consuls, are;
nowhere better set forth than in a Codex of the thirteenth century.1
In the list of Consuls from October 1295 to May 1296 two were
appointed to sit in the General Council of the Guilds by each of
the_Twelve Greater Guilds, except that ofthe" Judges and Notaries,"
whose representatives had the prescriptive right of presiding at the
meetings without special election.
The sa~e Codex goes on to state that the number of Consuls
elected for the above, and other purposes, was variable and
disproportionate, for example : " Calimala " had only three ;
" Bankers "-four to six ; " W ool" and "Shoemakers "-five to six ;
" Silk," "Doctors," and "~utchers "-four; "Smiths "-three to
five; " Retail-dealers "-two to seven, "Furriers "-one to six
and "Masters of Stone and Wood "-three. Doubtless these
variations were caused by the nature of the business which
engaged ~e attention of the General Council, or by special trade
circumstances.
. . From time to tim~ disputes and jealousies arose about the
election of Consuls of the various Guilds, and caused heart-bumings
and even feuds among the. members of the several Corporations.
Many efforts were made by the Priors to put an end to these
quarrels. In 1329 they summoned a general representative
Council to consult as to the best ·measures to adopt in face of the
universal dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs.
1 ArchiYio delle Tratti Fiorentini, Codu LIX.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 71·
From each duly-constituted Guild they chose two members
with the Gonfa/onien of eacb. The result of their deliberations
was that no man should be elected to the office of Consul, in any
Guild, who failed to receive at least fifty votes of fully qualified
members. The candidates elected were authorised to hold office
for four montbs.
The voters' list for each Guild in the election of Consuls was
enclosed in a small box, the keys of which were held by the
Consuls for the time being. All these boxes were packed into
a large chest of which only the Captain of the People, the Priors
ofthe Guilds, and the Standard-bearer of Justice had keys. Such
precautions were numerous, and were necessary to preserve in-
tact the good faith and just practice of the members, and the
Constitution of each Guild.
Disputes between the Guilds,-whether in their corporate
qlpacity or in relation to individual members,-which could not be
arranged in the courts of the Consuls, nor terminated by the
Consuls of all the Guüds in united s~ion, were referred, first
of all to the 'Tribunal of the Mercanzia,' and finally laid before
the Podesta, the Captain of the People, and the Defender of the
Guilds, as a Supreme Court of Appeal. The ruling of these
three dignitaries was accepted as decisive.
Once every year, in January, each of the Guilds appointed a
Syndic to assist the Consuls in carrying out their injunctions.
They were required to swear before the Captain of the People, in
the presence of the two Councils and the Heads of the Greater
Guilds, to render true and laudable service to the State, and to
cause the members of their Craft to observe just obedience to
Magistrates. They were required to examine the credentials of
all companies, leagues, conventions, undertakings, obligations, and
contracts, which they found existing among the people. All such
as were contrary to, or deviated from, the strict letter of their
Constitutions were annulled and forbidden.
They were a1so required to enter, in the Registries of their
Crafts and Districts, the names and dates of baptism of all men

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72 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
from eighteen to seventy years of age, with their trades or occupa-
tions, and habitations; and to add notes as to health, character,
ability and diligence.
The companies of families, or traders, numbered usually
many persons ; for exampl«;, in the State Archives, there is
a notice dated October 2S. 1304. of a declaration of bank-
ruptcy, before the Court of the Poduta, of the Ranieri Ardinghelli
Society, or Company, with nineteen partners,-fourteen of the.
latter family and five of the former,-merchants of the " CaJimaJa."
The total liabilities were one bundred and twenty-three thousand
lire. 1
The emigration of skilled artisans and artificers was strictly
forbidden by several PrOfiVisioni issued at various times. The
classes of workmen mostly indicated were of the" Calimala " Guild,
-finishers of foreign cloth, of the "Wool Guild,"-dyers and
fullers, of the "Silk Guild,''-weavers of gold and silver cloth.
With intense earnestness and constant watchfulness the merchants
and manufacturers strove to retain to Florence the production of
ali merchandise, in the manipulation of which the Florentine workers
excelled other workpeople. In nothing was the keen spirit of
monopoly more conspicuously exhibited.t
Offences of every sort and kind, whether against the Guild
Statutes, or against individual Guilds, were heavily punished, as
were those committed against persons not members of the Guild
in question. In the "Council of the Hundred" a petition was pre-
sented in 1292, by the Priors of the " Calimala," Merchants praying
that felonies, or other misdemeanours, committed by members of
Guilds, should be punishable only through the Courts of the
Consuls of each Guild. The petitioners undertook :-( 1) to be
answerable for such persons on pain of fine for breach of promise
and (2), to subject delinquents to expulsion from their Guilds, and
to prohibition from engaging in the severa} industries connected
therewith.
I Archivio de! Stato di Firenze, 65 f., 146.
t L. Cantini, "Legislazione," viii. p. 225.

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 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE GUILDS 73
Among a number of prohibitions set forth by the Signoria and
put in operation by the Consuls of the Guilds were the following :-
I. No animal suft"ering from disease shall be allowed to drink
at the public fountains.
2. Swall~ws shall not be interfered with, and frogs shall not
be carried through the city.
3· No one shall be allowed to spin tops in the streets, and
boys shall be whipped for throwing stones at fish in the river.
The hours of work of course varied from time to time, and
were dift"erent in the several industries. From dawn to dusk was,
as elsewhere, the rule, with breaks for food and rest. There were
not more than two hundred and seventy-five working days in the
year, for Church Festivais and other holidays consumed the remainder.
Clocks were not common in old Florence and only well-to-do
people carried watches, consequently the time of day was regulated
by the striking of bells. Perhaps the earliest record of a public
clock is dated March I s. I 352, on which day the big clock of
the Palazzo V ecchio struck the hours for the first time.
The first bell used to mark the flight of the busy hours was
that hung up in the Campanile of the ancient Church of Santa
Maria Ughi, which was situated in the Piazza delle Cipolli, just
behind the Palazzo Strozzi. Every aftemoon at three o'clock
sundry strokes told workmen to cease from their toil. This early
hour was due to the fact that in winter at dusk, the city gates were
closed alike to egress as to entry, for many labourers lived in the
C011taá1J outside the city walls.
There is a legend of an attractive flower and herb-seller called
Berta, who left a sum of money to the Church of Santa Maria
Maggiore, that at four o'clock a supplemental bell should be rung,
winter and summer, to indicate the completion of the day's paid
labour. This bell was called "La Trecca"-"the Fruiterer's bell,"
and, from its shape, "La Cavo/aia," the "gentle cabbage I " The
first Grand Duke, Cosimo 1., transferred the functions of the
workmen's bell to the big bell of the Duomo, and directed it to
be rung at half-past three daily the year round.

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74 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The bell of the Bargello went by the name of" La M0111anara,"
from the name of the town whence it was taken by the Florentines
in 1302. This bell tolled every evening to warn loyal citizens to
lay aside their arms and withdraw themselves indoors. To this
eustom was due another name, "La Campana del/e Armi."
Cosimo I. ordered that any servant found idling in the streets,
or hanging about for want of work, at the evening tolling of this
bell, should have bis right hand amputated I At all public execu-
tion~ "La M ontanara" tolled during the progress of the condemned
to the gallows.
On the succession of Alessandro de' Medici to the place of bis
fathel'S, on May 1, 1532, Florence became the capital of a Duchy.
By his order "La CaMJana" was taken down and broken in pieces,
"lest its sound should awaken echoes of lost freedom I " The
last knell tolled on October ISt, 1 532, and it marked the close of
an eventful strenuous life. The liberties of a free people, and of
a free parliament, were buried in · the grave of the Republic of
Florence!

St1mN1a H" Priflri di LW#rla," 1434-

(Red "Liberta" on a wbite field.)

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 CHAPTER 111

THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES

L• ÃRT.E DE• GIUDIOI E NOTÃI

I. ORIGJN.-Judicial system built up upon tbe requirements of Trade.

Florentine love of Equity. Bologna in 1262. College of Judges. Early
mention of Consuls of tbe Guild.
11. CONSTITUTION.-Proconsul and bis Court. Matriculation obligatory
for a legal career. Tbe two sections of tbe Guild and tbeir precedence. Guild
jealousies. Rules of membersbip and examinations.
111. TRIBUNALS.-The P()(Ús/a and tbe Capilalfo túl Popolo. Tbeir Courts. '
Courts of tbe six Seslieri. Or San Michele. Tbe ContaM. Giudid alia Rola.
The .Mercann"a. Court of Appeals. "// Slaluto di '96·" Sessions of Courts.
Sentences. Debtors. Capital Off'ences. Trivial Suits. Slin&lil. Sumptuary
maners. Women litigants. Amusing cases. The "Stick" I Gambling.
IV. JUDGES.-Higbesteem• .Messen: Dress. Salaries. Sporle/11'. Veniality
Saccheni's skit Boccaccio's strictures. Knightbood. Tbe Ringlu'tra.
V. NOTARJES.-Special training. Each his own manual sign. Guarautees
required. The No/aio túlla Riforma~ione. Chancellors of tbe State. Lucra-
tive fees. Eacb Department of State, Guild, Business-bouse, etc., tbeir own
special N otary. Advisers and pleaders. Special commissions. Everybody
happy to go to law witb bis neighbour : Disquali6cations and tricks. Dress.
Statistics of Legal Profession. Ser Lapo Mazzei. Demeanour of legal
functionaries. CoUege of Judges and Notaries, 1597.

I T seems, at first sight, to be somewhat of an anachronism to

include a Guild of legal and professional persons among the
Trade Corporations of the Republic of Florence.
Although the members of the Guild of Judges and Notaries
were in no sense men of business, strictly so called, their functions
were absolutely necessary to the prosecution of the industries and
the commerce of the artisans and merchants around them. On
the other hand, the judicial system of Florence was built up
mainly upon the requirements of trade, the interests of which
75

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76 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
were paramount in the political constitutions of the city and its
territory.
Extraordinary characteristics of the Florentines of the Middle
Ages were their love of equity and reverence for justice, and their
administration by persons and councils without bias or partiality.
Tbroughout the wbole history of Florence notbing is more
remarkable than the frequency and regularity with whicb tbe aid
of individuais and powers wbolly externai to the purposes in view
was evoked. Tbe most notable example of tbis is offered in the
selection of foreigners to fill the higbest office in the State-that
of Poáesta. It was considered,-quite rigbtly,-that a stranger
would be likely to bring to bear upon ali questions submitted to
his judgment a mind absolutely free from all leanings to one side
or the otber.
The application of this principie was looked for by the
pioneers of the industrial and commercial activities of Florence,
in the settlement of all matters relating to trade and traders.
Wbilst family ties and class distinctions were exacting and pro-
hibitive in tbe allocation of judicial functions to men brought
up and educated within the bounds of tbe Commune, no such
limitations existed with respect to men trained in other centres
of learning.
Bologna, the motber of universities, was at an early date
tbe source to wbicb tbe men of Florence looked for tbeir legal
advisers. Her fame· as tbe teacher of jurisprudence was un-
rivalled, and ber faculty of law attracted 'Students from every
city and country in Europe. In 1262 there were upwards of
twenty thousand men engaged in the study of canon and civil
law witbin her confines. Many a clever young Florentine found
bis way thitber, and baving made bis name as a legal expert, he
was welcomed bome again as a valuable assistant to his fatber or
his father's partners in business.
Tbe prosperity of the city, and tbe prospect of honour and
emolument at tbe hand of the ricb citizens, also attracted men
of other States, who bad qualified in law. U pon all such

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r.rHE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 77
graduates of the University the degree of "Doctor-juris" was
conferred.
The constant and increasingly numerous questions, disputes,
and settlements, inseparable from all intercourse between man
and man, trade and trade, created the necessity of a publicly
recognised body of men learned in law and equity.
A College of J udges existed in Florence during the twelfth
century, but the actual date of its establishment is conjecturai.
Anyhow rolls of membership and records of acts are extant of
the year 1187.
The first mention of a Tribunal of Judges is in a document
o f the year 1 197. This probably led to the formal incorporation
of a Guild of Judges, at the same period that the early Compagnie,
or Companies of the merchants and artisans, were developed into
the more ambitious Arti or Guilds.1
A document 11 of the year 1193, preserved in the Archives of
Florence, contains an account of a convention made between the
Commune of Florence and the Lords of the Castle of Trebbio, in
which are named the Seven ~etton'-Rectors of the Guilds. This
is especially interesting as the instrument in question was drawn
up for signature by certain Judges and Notaries of the city.
In the Treaty of 1204 between Florence and Siena, the
signatures of the Consuls of five Guilds are appended, namely :
-Judges and Notaries, Calimala, Wool-merchants, Bankers and
Money-changers, and Silk-merchants. Again in 1229 the Treaty
with Orvieto is similarly signed, and it is noteworthy that the
Consuls of the " Guild of J udges and N otaries " come first in each
case. Such records prove that the Guild had been in active and
honourable existence for many years.
At a State Council, held on April 15th, 1279, summoned to
discuss matters relating to the Court of Rome,-whereat ali the
Guilds were represented by their Consuls,-the signatures of
Dominus Ugo Altoviti, Dominus Jacobus Gerardi, Dominus Alberti
J L. Cantini, "Legislazione," i. 105·107 and iü, 62.
1 Archivio della Riformagione, Bk. xui.
18 'fHE GUILDS 0}' FLORENCE
Ristori, Ser Benzi Da:ndi : Notarius, Domi"us Gerardus Maneti :
Notarlus, Ser Cioe fil. Jacobi Buere--" Crmsules judialm et
Notarion4M," an!: appended first
The precise meaning of the title " Consul " is clearly set forth
in distinction to that of " J udge." The former's office was "pro
manutmdum justitite,"-for the maintenance of Justice,-tbe
latter's was " atl emuas cog'II(JsatltiMm et te,.,itlalum,"-for the
searching and determining of causes. This distinction is
stn1dngly brought out in the use of the two terms in documents
of I 197, 1225, 1227 and 1235.
These documents, and the Statutes of the Guild, were always
written in Latin, and never exhibited in the vemacular. Ali sucb
authorities and enactments, however, were required to be copied
out in the ordinary language of the time : the entdition of the
notaries .employed being eviden~ by the use, more or less, of
the " del/a Cnuta " or polished manner. The exemption of the
"Guild of Judges and Notaries" from this custom was a mark of
the superior leaming of the members, who were habituated to the
study and use of the classic tongue.
In the Archives, and other authorities, the infrequency of
reference to the "Guild of J udges and Notaries" is quite remarkable.
Whilst t'he difl'erent industries were being gradually formed into
Corporations the legal facitlty appeared to have had no cohesive
existence. This may have been due to the fact that judicial and
notarial functions were originally called in to play as complementary
and subservient to the interests of the various commercial operations.
Goro Dati, however, in speaking of the Guild, says :-" lt bas a
Proconsul at the head of its Consuls ; it wields great authority,
and may be considered the parent stem of the whole Notarial
profession throughout Christendom, inasmuch as the great masters
of that profession have been leaders and members of this Guild.
Bologna is the fountain of doctors of the Law,-Florence, of
doctors of the Notariate." 1
1 "Storia di Firetue," ed. 1775, p, 133·

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 THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 79
The magistracy of the Guild was composecl of the Pro-
.corisul and eight Judges, who were styled Consuls as in the
Merchant Guilds. The Proconsul was the .co-opted head of the
Consuls, and it was requisite that he should have exercised the
legal profession, for at least twenty years, and that without
reproach of any kind. This highly placed dignitary, at ali
public functions took precedence immediately after the Poáuta
and the Captain of the People. He was the first of all the
Consuls of ali the Guilds, and to him was accorded a supremacy
in their jurisdiction. He was accorded a Palace for bis residence,
in the street, later on, called Via dei Proconsolo.1
The Proconsul and Consuls could at any time summon a
meeting of the whole of the members, both judicial and notarial.
They could also associate with themselves, as assessors, any
number of judges when occasion demanded. They sat in ali
civil and criminal causes affecting members of the Guild. Their
advice was sought whenever new laws were proposed to the State
by any section of the inhabitants.
With respect to the Guild itself, the Proconsul and Consuls
presided at the matriculation and enrolment of new members.
The examination incumbent upon candidates was conducted by
the same high officials.
Membership in the Guild was sought by the sons of noble
families and of the inftuential merchant citizens, quite as much on
account of the social position it bestowed, as for its professional
endowments.
Matriculation was obligatory upon ali who sought legal
appointments. No person however was eligible for matriculation
who had resided ten or more years away from Florence ; or whose
father, brothers, or uncles had failed .to pay in full ali dues required
by the State. Capacity for legal functions, and ability in notarial
exercises, were incumbent upon all candidates, who were subject
to a rigorous public examination by the Consuls.
The association. of the Judges and the Notaries in one Society
1 Cllntin:i, Ui. 169.

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80 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
was an early necessity of commercial convenience and legal juris-
prudence. The delivery of judgments, and their registration,
involved two distinct but inseparable functions.
Whilst in the internai economy of the Guild all members were
equal in brotherhood, in all public business priority of position
was accorded to the Judges. There was, at all times, no little
jealousy on the part of the Notaries at their apparent inferiority
of station. Sometimes the rivalry became serious, and in 1 2 8 7
it led to a partial separation of the two branches of the
Guild.
Each division, in that year, elected separate Consuls to
manage its affairs apart. All Guild business which required the
consent, or dissent, of both divisions,-Judges and Notaries,-had
to be voted upon, first in separate Session; and then, an adjoum-
ment was made to the Church of San Piero Scheraggio, where a
final decision was arrived at by a union of votes.
By the end of the century the disagreement was suppressed,
and the labours and honours of the Guild were loyally bome by
both sections together. Henceforth the high tone which charac-
terised the bearing of J udges and Notaries raised the Guild in
honour and reputation to the highest place in the hierarchy of
Corporate Life.
The Residence of the Consuls of the " Guild of Judges and
Notaries " was at the comer of the Via de' Pandolfini, a modest
building which offered little rivalry with the fine palaces of the
Consuls of the Merchant Guilds. Over its principal entrance was
put up the Stemma or escutcheon of the Guild-a gold star in a
blue field. These armorial bearings were varied in later times
and four blue stars in a golden field were substituted.

The Podesta was the Supreme J udge in all criminal causes,

but he delegated bis authority to the three Senior J udges of the
Guild-not being Consuls, and rarely, if ever, sat in Court,
except in special cases, which involved the honour of the State.
The first Podesta,- appointed in I 207,- was Gualfredotto

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'fHE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 81
Grasselli, of Milan. H e had for bis Council four J udges and
fourteen Notaries. The "fami/zga,"-household,-of the Podes/a
usually consisted of seven J udges-called " Col/aterali,'' three

LOGGIA OP TH& BA&G&LLO-PALACE OP TH& PODESTA

Knights, eight Esquires, eighteen Notaries, ten Horsemen, two

Trumpeters, twenty Javelin-men, and one page.
The Capitano de/ Popo/o had three J udges, two Knights, four
Notaries, eight Horsemen, and nine Javelin-men attached to his
person. He took cognisance of civil causes-such as trade
disputes, commercial frauds, and industrial questions generally.
F

Dígítízed by Goog [e
82 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
His functions were commonly discharged by a Court of three
Senior J udges. Uberto da Lucca was appointed first Captain o(
the People in 12 51.
These two Chief Magistrates always subscribed the oath of
allegiance to the Commune before the Proconsul and the Consuls
of the "Guild o( Judges and Notaries." The former was bound
over to defend the Republic, and to lead her forces in time of war;
whilst the latter was charged with the protection of the Guilds,
and of the peace of the city.
In each sestiere o( the city as originally divided under the
rule of the good Countess Matilda, was a Tribunal presided over
by the BUOttou01no, whose title was early recognised as Consul.
From tbe year 1 242 he was assisted in the discharge o( bis duties
by two Judges, two Notaries and two PrO'VVedi'tori, or Superin-
tendents of the Court.
The two J udges took cognisance respectively of civil and
criminal causes, under the styles of "Giudice Civile túi Quatúri " -
Civil Judge of the Quarter-and "Giudúe t~n• Malaji6i"-Judge of
Misdemeanants. Each Tribunal displayed a sign or banner with
~rmorial bearings, which were also wom by the officials attached
to each court in addition to the escutcheon of the Guild.
By the middle of the thirteenth century, however, all causes
and trials were removed to the Central Tribunal established at
Or San Michele. This was first held in the church or oratory,
and then in the granary, but the inconvenience of crowding
became so great, that buildings were erected in the Orlo or garden
attached to the Sanctuary. Over the entrance were put up the
escutcheons o( the Guild,-a great golden star upon a light blue
field.
To the J udges,-who presided here in rota,-were assigned
the investigation of claims and dues, the interpretations of rules
of prccedent and procedure, the meanings of enactments, and the
<letermination of ali ·matters affecting custom and antiquity which
arose in any and all of the Guilds. Criminal suits also were heard
in this Central Court of Justice and determined.

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 83
In the fourteenth century a retum was made to the earlier
system of Courts of the Sestieri,-a step made imperative by the
increase of the population, and the inabilfty of the Central
Tribunal at Or San Michele to deal with the business which
ame before it.
Tn'bunals were established at Santa Maria Novella-for the
Sestiere of San Pancrazio and Borgo SS. ApostoU ; at Santa
Croce--for the Sestiere of San Piero Maggiore, or Porta San
Piero, and San Piero Scheraggio ; at San Giovanni-for the
Sestiere of Santa Maria Maggiore and Porta del Duomo ; and at
San Spirito-for the Sestien" in Oltramo.
To these four Courts were assigned, in I 343, equal portions
of the Contat/q, where population and building had increased in a
wonderful manner. The old Central Tribunal was retained for
special causes, and consequently the duties of Judges and Notaries
were largely augmented.
Another addition to the facilities of suitors was made in
connection with the extension of the municipal jurisdiction to the
Contado in the creation of a movable Court of " Docúwes et
Sapientes ]uns," or men skilled in legal technicalities-under the
presidency of the Priors of the Greater Guilds, who attended by
rota and attached their names to the decisions of the Court. This
council of experts,-practically a Court of Assize, as we understand
the term,-was served by six J udges appointed by the Proconsul
and Consuls of the Guild. They were well paid, in considera- .
tion of the inconveniences and difficulties attending the
c:xercise of their authority; but they were required to deposit
caution money to the amount of two hundred /ire each, as a
guarantee of just and equitable conduct when beyond the city
boundaries, and so, in a way, were a law unto themselves.
The "Consi'g'li'o di Giustisia," or "Giuáici alia Rota,"-Council of
justice-was appointed in I 502. Five Judges- Doctors of Law
-were elected for a term of three years. They sat twice a week
in the lower and inner chamber of the Palace of the Poáesta.
This hall had a pavement of circular blocks of red and green

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84 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
marble like a wheel-hence the altemative title of the Court.
" J udges of the Wheel." Their decisions were laid before the
Proconsul, to whom the delivery of sentence was assigned.
This arrangement, which was maintained until the end o( the
century, was very excellent and far more conducive to the
despatch of legal business than the former haphazard systems.
At the same time ecclesiastical suits were wholly removed from
the purview of the Court, and ecclesiastical personages were no
longer appointed assessors, as had been the custom.
The " Giudid ai/a Rota " was removed in the sixteenth century
to the Piazza dei Castellani-renamed Piazza de' Giudici.
and now tbe quarters of the National Library.
The most important legal Tribunal in Florence was "La Corte
deUa Mercanzia." Founded somewhere about the year 1296 it
embraced the attributes of a Court of Justice and the functions of
a Chamber of Commerce. lt was composed of six Senior 1udges,
-members of the "Guild of 1udges and Notaries,"-under the
presidency of a foreign juris consultor doctor of laws,-generally
a graduate of the U niversity of Bologna. This President bore
the style of Uffida/e Forestiere, a title which reveals, quite char-
acteristically, the innate desire of the Florentines of old for the
absolutely free expression of an unbiassed and impartial
judgment in matters concemi!lg the general well-being of the
Commonwealth.
The President of the Court, by the way, as a matter of fonn,
was required to be enrolled a member of the "Guild of 1udges
and Notaries." He had the power to summon before him ali
citizens who, by themselves, or by their partners, incurred
liabilities abroad ; and also ali persons who were supposed to be
in possession of information or evidence relative to any suit. In
agreement with the six 1udges he could requisition all merchants..
and tradesmen's books, and could compel defaulters to make such
restitution as the Court directed, at the demand of any foreign
auitor.
The Code which this bench of judicial dignitaries were called

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 85
upon to administer went by the name of "IJ Statuto di '96." Its
objects, whicb were threefold, were : -
1. To insure that Florentine mercbants, and tbeir merchandise,
should go with ali possible security and freedom
throughout the whole world.
2. To secure that the credit of the State should be maintained
under all circumstances and at all bazards.
3· To provide that foreigners should have no just cause of
quarrel
The jurisdiction of the Court was, at first, confined to the
interests of tbe six Greater Guilds ; but, as the inferior crafts
grew in inftuence, it was extended over the members of the
fourteen Lesser Guilds, and )ater on, over ali sorts and conditions
of men.
The greatest difficulties with which the MercanHia had to con-
tend were in connection with international questions. These arose
from the fact that every Florentine trader in a foreign land was
regarded as a surety for bis fellow-citizen at home. lt was to
this Tribunal that ali questions affecting the interests of Florentine
<ommerce beyond Tuscany were submitted for adjudication.1
It is interesting to note, in the records of Florentine history,
how strikingly the highmindedness and judicial probity of her
mercbants and craftsmen were exhibited in the favourable view
taken by the MercanHia of appeals addressed to it by foreigners.
The most elaborate precautions were taken that the subjects of
other States should bave no excuse for complaining of partial or
unfair treatment.
The Mereauia was also the final Court of Appeal in cross
suits between members of the various Guilds.2 One of the many
and customary disputes which arose daily between traders in the
Market and their customers came before the Tribunal of the
Mercanzia on March 31, 1315. Two innkeepers sought to
1 Giudo Beuoli, " La Giurisdi&ione della Merc:anaia di Firenze nel Secolo, xiv.
Saggio Storico Giuridiceo," Firenze, 1901. ·
~ Arcbivio del Stato di Firenze, "Mwttu~w," IOJO, f. 13.

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86 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
restrain two fishmongers from selling eels, salted and fresh. The
fish in question had come from Padua, and was oft'ered for sale
in the Merc:ato Nuovo, and the innkeepers dec::lared it unfit for
use although they had purchased it, and now they dec::lined to pay
for it.
Among other functions, almost too numerous to mention, the
Court took charge of the goods and eft'ects of deceased members
of the Guilds, and appointed trustees to manage such estates for
the benefit of the lawful heirs. 1
In 1327 the seven Magistrates of the Mercaruia had been
appointed collectors of the Assay, or Masters of the Mint, for the
" preservation of the good fame of the city, which is spreac:l
abroad through the whole world, for the lawfulncss and value of
the good coin and the golden florins made therein." A !ater
decree in 1394 gave the Mercaruia the right to proceed against
forgers and depreciators of the coinage, as well as against makers
of " corners " for the hardening of the money-market
Powers were also exercised by the seven magistrates to re-
open closed accounts, to inquire into misapplication of monies, to
tax debtors' statements, and to sit as a Court of Bankruptcy. In
the latter behalf the Mermnsia acted during the severe banking
disasters which followed the course of the war between England
and France in 1340.
In 1347, by a further extension of its powers, it embraced in
its jurisdiction questions and offences touching maritime aft'airs.
Indeed, the "University of the Merc:anzia," as it was fully
styled, was to ali intents and purposes the prototype of our
modem Courts of Arbitration.
The Tribunal of the Mtrcansia was held at the residence of
the Uffia'alt Forestüri, a massive edifice in the Piazza della
Signoria between the Palazzo Vecchio and the Palazzo Uguccione.
There alse resided, during their tenure of office, the six assistant
Judges. Within the Hall of Audience, immediately over the seats
1 Lapo Muzei, "Lettere di uno Notario a UDO Men:a~~te del Secolo, lllv.," 901. ü.
.p, note a.

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 87
o f the J udges, were frescoes of the Seven Virtues, designed by
Antonio Pollaiuolo. On the façade Taddeo Gaddi painted bis
celebrated fresco-" The Six Virtues and the Six Judges."
Although this, alas, has long ago disappeared, the shields bearing
the coats-of-arms of the Greater Guilds, cut in stone, still remain
over the principal entrance. Above ali runs the legend : "Omnis
sapientia a Domino Deo est."
The greatest period of the Mercanzia was from 1 391 to 1470.
In the latter year Lorenzo il Magnífico arrogated to himself much.
if not ali the functions of the U.ffidale Forestiere, and greatly
reduced the authority of the .Tribunal.
Lorenzo's successors, as Rulers of Florence, were, many of
them, not too scrupulous in their administration of public affairs :
Jaw and order frequently yielded to circumstances and expedi-
ency. In I 532 the Signoria was abolished and Alessandro de'
Medici proclaimed Gonfakmiere di Giustizia for life. Hcnce-
forward Florencc bccame thc victim of what shc had striven for
centuries to avoid-i/ governo d'un so/().
Certainly, at times, glimpses of frcedom and good government
are seen as the years roll on. For example, in I S68, Cosimo I.,
first Grand Duke of Tuscany, gave a new constitutfon to, and
bestowed many privileges upon, the Tribunal of the Mercanzia.
With respect to the Sessions of the various Courts in old
Florence little is known of the hours or the proccdure. Business
was, however, greatly interrupted by the frequency of public
holidays and ecclesiastical festivais. No J udges sat on Sundays,
and on Saints' Days, of which there were upwards of thirty in
the year. At Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, Pentecost, Corpus
Christi, feasts of Saint Mary, and of Saint John the Baptist,
many days of vacation were observed.
In addition to the public courts the Councils of the various
Guilds in council required the assistancc of Judges, who not only
acted as assessors, but were the actual proclaimers of the decisions
arrived at.
The laws against debtors were very severe. Not only was it

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88 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
permissible for creditors to subject unfortunate debtors to personal
ill-treatment, but they were liable to imprisonment at the instance
of the Magistracy, "with scant provision, crowded and packed
together in a filthy place."
At a council of the Twelve Greater Guilds held December 7,
1304, Guilio, Vanno, and Cheio, silk-manufacturers, merchants of
the "Por Santa Maria," were declared defaulters, and the Syndics
were instructed to sell their goods. The same course was followed,
in February 1305, when the Society or Company of Lamberteschi
Lamberti, failed. 1
A law of 1398 2 compelled debtors to act as executioners.
On the other hand it was provided that whenever the great Bell
sounded, summoning the citizens to general meeting, no one
should be liable to arrest for debt.
Judicial sentences erred often enough on the side of severity.
I t was consequently a common practice for appeals to be
addressed to higher courts for a redress of penalties. The re-
duction of a sentence in no way lowered the position or prestige
o f a J udge. lf they were accounted rigorous they were always
in accord with the directions of the Statutes, and with the
Code of morais of the time. License was ever associated with
harshness.
As indicative of the methods pursued against the perpetrator
of a capital crime there is an interesting record 8 of the case of
a man named " Lorenzo Pieri Chorus, of the Popoli of Santa
Felicita, who, on February 18, 1 3 18, was adjudged, by the Council
of One Hundred, to pay three thousand /ire for wounding to the
death a certain person unnamed of the Popoli of SS. Apostoli,
with whom he was at peace. The father of the criminal having
paid fifty /ire, according to the decision of the same Council in
the November following,-and the said Lorenzo, who is now

1 Arcbivio dei Stato di F"uenze, Provvlsioni xii. f. 100, and f. 104.

a Ademollo, Lib. ii. 425.
1 Arcbivio dei Stato di Firenze, under date December 30, 1Jr8, noted by Davidssohn,
" Gesc:hicbte von Florenz," vol. ii.

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THE GUILD OF .JUDGES AND NOTARIES 89
banished and an outlaw, having concluded friendship and
rnarriage with the family of the deceased, his petition for resti-
tution of civic rights is granted, and he is directed to be brought
into the city, and conducted to San Giovanni without having to
submit to the ignominy of wearing a fool's cap or mock-mitre."
"In Florence,'' to quote the words of Francesco Guicciardini,
the famous historiao (1483-1540), it commonly happens that
when a man has committed some violent offence no attempt is
rnade to punish him with severity, but efforts are made to assist
bis escape on bis engaging to disarm and not to renew bis evjl
conduct." 1
Capital punishment and physical torture were resorted to
only in extreme cases, or in times of popular tumult. Fines and
imprisonment were the punitive measures meted out by the
Judges to delinquents. Suspension, too, from the prosecution of
his craft was the ordinary punishment of an artizan found guilty
o( misdemeanour.
The Archives are full of references, of cot,~rse, to the rulings
o( ali the Courts. Generally the suits w~re of a trivial character ;
but, in those days, as now, when a man was determined not to be
mulcted in costs, he did not hesitate to carry bis case to the Court
o( Appeal. For an instance of this, a tavernaio,-a small tavem-
keeper,-in 12 79, appealed to the Superior Court against the
sentence of twenty soldi imposed by the four Consuls of the
" Guild of Butchers." The man appears to have lost bis appeal
because he had, upon the evidence of one of the Consuls, sold
drink in contravention of the regulations of the trade.
The State Prison, called Stindu, was erected in 1307. The
name was derived from the Castello di Stinche in the Vai di
Geve, which belonged to the Cavalcanti. A popular movement
against the growing power of this ancient family Jed to the
capture of the castle. I ts garrison were made prisoners and con-
signed to the dungeons under the prison, which thus gained its
appellation.
1 F. Guicc:iudini, "Opere Inedite," voL iii. §177 (Coansels of Perfectioa).

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90 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
lt not unfrequently happened that priaoners were left to die
miserably and alone in the Stindu and the other prisons of
Florence. Condemned criminais were imprisoned, if sentenced
for a life incarceration, or for a respite before execution, in the
dungeons o f the BargeJlo, where also was an OldJiiette. H uman
skulls and bones have frequently been discovered under this
building.
The release of a prisoner was a somewhat rare occurrence ;
it was usually effected on a Sunday or Saint's-day, when, by a
touching religious ceremony, the prisoner was conducted to the
Church of San Giovanni, and offered at the altar, which he
quitted a free man.
Women,-to judge by a great number of legal enactments,
-gave thc authorities mucb troublc. Tbcy were absolutely for-
bidden to enter a Court of ] ustice, and ] udges were warned not to
give ear to their complaints. A Statute of 1 294 gives this
quaintly ambiguous caution :-" Women are a sex to be looked
upon as most dangerous in disturbing the course of justice I "
Many sumptuary laws were, during the fourteenth century,
directed against the excess of feminine adomment, and these
Judges were called upon to administer strictly. Many they very
cunningly evaded by invoking the aid of Notaries, upon whom
reposed the worry of investigation and the odium of correction.
A tale is told by Sacchetti 1 of Messcre Amerigo Amerighi
of Pesaro,-a Judge, during Sacchetti's priorate,-who was directed
to execute certain orders for the regulation of the fashions of the
time. Hc instructs a Notary well vcrsed in sucb matten to
prepare a statement. The Notary reported that one woman,
whose headdress was too high, refused to lower it, saying, u Why,
no, don't you see it is a wreath." Another, wearing many buttons
on her dress, defended herself with the remark, " Yes, I can wear
these, they ue not buttons, you see they have no banks." A
third, accused of wearing ermine, replied, " This is not ermine,
it is the fur of a suckling." When the unhappy Notary asked :
1 F. Saccbettl, "Novelle," c:xxxvU. YOI. L p. 327.

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WOMEN LITIGANTS BEFORE THE PODESTÁ

LAT& FOURTBBNTH CBNTURY

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 91
" What is this suckling? " she replied : " Oh, it is only an
animal!" •
" A good woman and a bad one equally require the stick I "
was an old and familiar saying of the Florentines : somewhat
harsh and ungaJlant perchance, but never more applicable than to
would-be female litigants I
The Statutes ~ith respect to gambling, card playing, etc., are
frequent and minatory, and their application gave the J udges
endless trouble and presented many inconsistencies. The "Ardli-
vio del/a Grasda " preserve many such acts, and also show how
greatly worried judicial dignitaries were in Florence in the
enforcement of such decrees. A friend of Messere Amerighi
indeed scribbled upon the margin of one of the excellent Judge's
sumptuary Summings-up : -
" lf there is a person you do bate,
Scnd bim to Florence as a magistrate I " 1

Thc ability, integrity, and urbanity of the Florentine J udges

soon gained approval all ovcr Europe. This recognition had a
reftex inftuence upon the individuais, and encouraged them to
live up to their high rcputation. The esteem in which the office
of J udge was held in Florence is evidenced by the honourable
title of " Messen,'' which was gencrally accorded to the judicial
members of the Guild.
J udges were accorded equal precedcnce with Knights an.d
Doctors of Medicine in all ceremonies, whether public or private.
Thcy were always invited to marriage feasts as guests of the
highest distinction. In common with their equals, Judges worc
long red cloaks, Jined with miniver, and an inner and tighter
fitting garment of the same colour. Degrees in official rank
were exhibited by variations in the length and fulness of their
robes, and in the quality and quantity of fur adomments. The
head covering,-a dose fitting cap, with a falling curtain or
sash,-was also red.
1 See Glrido Bilci. "Tbe Pmate Life o( tbe Reoai•ace FloreDtiDe,'' p. 46-

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92 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Some counsels of perfection, almost whimsically written, are
found by any who have time to search the Archives of Florence
for matters relating to the " Guild of J udges and Notaries " and
its individual members.
One learned and sententious scribe says :-" Bear well in
mind that when you pronounce a sentence you go on straight-
forwardly, loyally, and justly; and do not let yourself be swayed
aside from this, either by bribes, love or fear, by relationship or
friendship, or for the sake of a companion. For the person
against whom you give your sentence will be your enemy, and
he whom you would serve will hold you neither honest, nor loya1,
nor straightforward, and will instead always distrust and despise
you."
The payment of Judges depended as much upon the man as
upon circumstances. Each was required tó be possessed of a
certain private income as an essential qualification for office.
This income might accrue from iriheritance, or from practice as
advocate in the Supreme and Foreign Courts. The amounts paid
by the State to Judges for judicial services were not so much in
the way of salaries as commissions upon the business transacted.
For example, in 1 290 two "jurisprudents," to assist the Treasurer
of the Commune, received each only one gold florin a month 11
Civil causes of first instance were heard before the J udge of
the Court of each Sestiere. He was required to have attained
the degree of Doctor of Law at Bologna, or at some other legal
University, and to be an enrolled citizen of Florence. His term
of office was six months, and he might be re-elected, or not, as the
Council of State decided. The salary was hardly commensurate
with the dignity of the office--a paltry sum of twenty-five li're!
In 1291 the Judge of a certain Sestiere received, however, as
much as twenty-five /ire a month, whilst another only obtained
twenty-four, for four months. 2
The J udges who sat as assessors or delegates o f the Chief
Magistrate were well remunerated. In 1292 the judicial assis-
'Provv. ii. 144, Oct. 11. ' Provv. iii. 17, 1291 ; 85, 1292; 100, 1292.

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 93
tants of tbe Captaln of the People were paid forty-five /ire eacb
for presiding at the drawing of the" Taglia." 1
J udges of Appeal, bowever, were regarded as superior digni-
taries, and were paid on a still more liberal scale. In 1286 one
sucb personage received five bundred li're for bimself and bis two
Notaries.2 In 1358 a Judge of Appeal received as mucb as
fifteen bundred li're per annum.
Judges were forbidden to exercise tbeir functions privately,
as well as publicly, on ali Festivais and Fasts. Tbeir sportelli', or
wickets, might indeed be open on tbe days of obligation, but only
for tbe delivery of messages and for brief replies to inquiries.
Tbe dignity of their position, and tbe bigb esteem witb wbicb
tbey were regarded generally by people of ali classes, did not, ali
tbe same, prevent tbe miscarriage of justice, nor tbe degradation
of tbeir office at times by both Judges and Notaries. Tbe common
experience of noble ideais failing to enforce tbemselves at ali
times, and under ali circumstances, was confirmed, alas, often
enougb, in busy, turbulent Florence.
Boccaccio, Saccbetti, and otber popular writers and critics of
tbe various periods, adduce numbers of instances wbere rigbt and
justice were made to yield to veniality and fraud. Bribes were
freely offered, and often enougb as freely taken. One litigant
baving otfered the Judge a fat ox to obtain a favourable verdict,
bis opponent promptly sent in a fine cow in cal f: tbe wily magis-
trate accepted both, and dismissed the case ! " I would rather sce ·
my son,'' said Saccbetti, " a sportsman tban a J udge" 1
Wbilst travesties of justice were made tbe occasion of ridicule,
tbey bad tbeir etfect upon the public opinion. The strictures of
Boccaccio upon unrigbteous Judges are very severe. "Tbey,'' he
says, " pretend that they are ministers of justice, and of God, but
they are indeed tbe executors of injustice and the friends of the
devil." 4
Tbe mention of Knights in connection with a Republic of
1 Villani, xi. 92· 1 Provv. pp. 1, 14, 1286.
' F. Sacchctti, "Novelle," 77, t. ii. pp. 17, 21.
4 Boccaccio, "Giornl," iii. nov. 7, t. 11, p. 119-

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_j__ _
94 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Merchants seems to be an anachronism, nevertheless Knighthood
was not only generally recognised, but greatly sought after by men
o( position.
The creation of Knights in Florence depended upon three
drcumstances :-The visit of a foreign monarch, the assumption
of the Podestaship by an alien sovereign,-both Charlemagne and
Charles of Anjou bestowed the accolade,--and the will of the
people, either expressed by the rulers of the State in public
meeting, or vehemently pronounced in tumultuous assembly. In
the latter category were Michele Lando and sixty-four citizens,
who were created Knights by the popular voice in the Ciompi
Rising in I 3 7 8.
New Knights were invested publicly, and to their care
were committed in the name of the Republic a standard, a lance,
a sword, and a shield,-the latter ~aring the arms of the State.
Of the sym bois o( Knighthood Dante sings how : -

" . . . . Galigaio show'd

The gilded hil.t and pommel.' 1

Their ennoblement required also the attestation of the Superior

Court of Judges, to whom they were required to present their
credentials after preparation by Notaries.
The lnvestiture was held after I 323 at the Ring!Uera, a raised
platform erected along the front of the Palazzo Vecchio, whereon
the Supreme Magistrates were solemnly admitted, Decrees of
State publicly promulgated, and Military Commanders received
their insígnia of office. lt was the Florentine Agora or Forum.
No one desired more earnestly the distinction o( an Order of
Chivalry than Judges and Notaries,-the former to qualify for the
highest offices in the State and for ambassadorial appointments to
foreign States, and the latter to attain, at a bound, the step whereby
they might exchange their humble writing equipage for the golden-
sheathed dagger of knighthood.

1 " Paradiso," Canto tn·i.

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 95
Tuming now to the other section o( the Guild,-" the body
of honourabJe Notaries," as they were called, we must remember
that, unlike their lordly brethren of the ] udicial Bench, they were
men who had been bom, educated, and trained in FJorence.
As boys attending monastery schools, or later, the elementary
scbooJs of the Sttláio, or Academy, they obtained the rudiments of
notarial Jaw at the feet of one or other of the many teachers of
legal studies who were to be found in every part of north and
central ltaly in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries.
These preceptors were for the most part graduates in law of
Bologna, looking out for
posts as judges in the
civil and criminal courts.
Ali Notaries, before
pleading in Court, were
obliged to appear before
the ProconsuJ and the
eight Consuls of the
"Guild of Judges and
~otaries," and to produce
a guarantee of two hun-
dred /ire that they WOU)d UGIST&I.B.D IIAaK OR SIGNATUU OF THB
"exercise tbeir profeSSÍOD NOTARY NICCOLO DA I'BRI\NTitRUIO, 1236.

faithfully, and lawfully,

and would never be guilty of the least exaction or extortion."
Each .was required to register his special signature, or mark, on
admission to pJead.
One of the Statutes of the Guild decreed that no Notary
should be qualified to plead or to practise within the judicial
boundaries of the Republic who had not lived for the last ten
consecutive years in Florence. A Notary was required also to
be of a respectable family, whose members had duly paid all the
taxes and rates for at least twenty years. Regularly admitted
Notaries were styled in documents "Sapientes Juris." They
were attached to every court and to all the principal offices of State.

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96 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
One of the most important officers of the Republic was the
Notaio tkl/a Riformagione. His duties were those of Secretary
to the Priors, and bis business was to keep a register of their
decisions. He was always a foreigner, generally a Lombard, and
bis salary ranged from one hundred /ire in 1 3 S 8 to four hundred
and fifty. 1 Three days before quitting office he had to hand to
the Gonfaloniere di Giustüia a copy of all acts issuing from the
Supreme Council of State. For serious dereliction of duty he
was liable, not only to heavy fines, but even to imprüonment.
·A special Notary was appointed annually to assist the State
Treasurer to keep the public accounts, and to prepare the annual
Exchequer balance-sheet. By way of auditors of this department
of the Govemment, two senior Notaries or advocates, doctors of
law, were named, whose duty it was to examine, check, and
pass or refuse, ali statements of receipts and disbursements of
public money.
Two Notaries were attached to the person of the Gonfaltmüre
di Giusti•ia. One acted as personal secretary, and retired from
office with bis chief. The other was the permanent secretary of
the office, and had charge of the law-books, registers of business,
list of reforms carried out or proposed, and ali other documents
relating to the department. His salary was only one hundred /ire
a year. Another officer of this Department of State was the
Cancel/iere, who was also a Notary. He held the privy-purse of
the Gonfa/lmüre, and conducted bis correspondence.
These three offices, though quite subordinate, were greatly
sought after by young men endued with literary tastes, or
ambitious to rise in the employment of the State. Coluccio de'
Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, Carlo Marsuppini, Poggio Bracclolini,
Marcello Vergilio and Niccolo Machiavelli were among those
who in tum held the Chancellorship.
Four Notaries, "duly matriculated and of good fame and
intelligence," were appointed annually for service in tbe Supreme
Council of State. Wbilst holding these appointments they were
I M. de C. Stefani, "DeUzie," xii. 351.

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 THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 97
forbidden to undertake any other professional duties. They kept
the State Records, and had at hand all documents and materiais
which would be likely to be asked for in the course of delibera-
tions. They were paid so much for the copies they wrote,
ranging from seven /ire for complete lists of citizen~t chargeable
with the " Catas/o" or Income-tax, to seven so/di for drafts of the
motions before the CounciL1
Lucrative fees were often paid by the State to Notaries for
copying Statutes and other documentary matter. In 1 291 two
Notaries received forty-two /ire for · copying, illuminating and
binding two new Statutes. To a Notary, who compiled an alpba-
betical register of the names of exiles, from the time of the
Podesta Pietro dei Stefaneschi to the year 1 29 I, was granted a
sum of forty gold ftolins. Six Notaries were bidden, in I 246, to
copy out the Register of Citizens for the "Estimo,"-Valuation
of Property,-and tbey were paid thirty /ire."
Each Guild had its own special Notaries, whose nominations
and appointments were generally made at a joint meeting of the
Consuls cf the Guilds. Under date December 31, 1326,1 the
following Guilds were thus provided for six months :-Bakers,
Armourers and Swordmakers, Oil, Cheese, and Provision Mer-
chants, Woollen Mercbants, Tanners, Doctors and Apothecaries
Judges and Notaries, Butchers, Skinners and Furriers, Retail
Cloth Dealers and Linen Merchants, Wine Merchants, Carpenters,
Innkeepers, Locksmiths and Metal Workers, Silk Merchants and
Blacksmidts.
These legal officials were engaged daily, either in the Superior
Courts, or in the Consular Courts of the several Guilds. In tbe
latter Tribunais they acted as confidential advisers to litigants,
and also as pleaders in Court. They were allowed to take fees
from tbe persons seeking their assistance, and they received, in
addition, fixed biennial payments from the Guilds on whose
behalf they acted.
1 L. Cantini, " Legislazionc, n ill. P· I :a.
1 Provv. iii. 8 .,o., Scpt. 3, 1291. Provv. 20 v"·, Scpt. 3, 1291. Provv. 'fi. 146
Y"·, Dcc. 3, r 246. 1 "Archivio dcl Stato di Fircu.c," R. A. foi. 96. '
G

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98 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
This twofold avocation led gradually to the creation of a new
order of legal functionaries--an intermediate degree, so to speak.
in the membership ·of the Guild. Senior or more ambitious
N otaries obtained general recognition as Leaders, Advocates of
Appeal, and so forth, and were entrusted with the higher duties
of the profession, and at times were admitted as Assessors in
certain suits to the Judges on the bench. This is an interesting
development in legal procedure, and was no doubt the parent of
the British system of barristers and solicitors.
Muclr of the time of Notaries was taken up with drafting
charters--commercial and political ; drawing up business agree-
ments, contracts, and adjudications; preparing balance-sheets
and other auditoria} matters; conducting foreign correspondence
for merchants; and dealing, generally, with the thousand and one
clerical details of the immense trade of Florence.
Every business house and bank had its own special Notary.
and so had the richer nobles, and the more important private
citizens. Besides this, Notaries were despatched, for longer or
shorter periods, to the many foreign cities and districts in which
Florentine merchants had branch houses and agencies. One,
Lamberto Velluti,-a member of the wealthy silk-manufacturing
family,-was emplo~ed as Notary on one of the ships of the
Peruzzi Company. Of him it is recorded that, after he \lad gained
sufficient capital by fees and charges, he set up in business on
his own account as a shipper of merchandise.
All embassies to foreign Courts, and all special missions for
signing treaties and other international engagements, required
the services of Notaries. They were bound. to give notice
at the Monte Comune,-public Pawn Office,-of all instru-
ments drawn up by them for the payment of taxes, and, within
a month of their execution, to deposit copies at the Offices of
State.
Notaries, too, were employed in drawing up wills,-copies of
which they were required to file within thirty days after the
testator's death. They were forbidden to draft instruments

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES 99
benefiting themselves, or any member of their families, under a
penalty of fifty lire-the instrument so drawn was also declared
null and void.
Notaries were appointed from time to time to inquire into,
and to report upon, disorders among the hired soldiery of thé
Republic. These mercenaries were originally members of mili·
tary companies, which were first enrolled under Condottien~­
Foreign Captains,-in 1 2 5o, when the faction fights between the
Grandi and the Popo/ani were at their height Their duties, in
tbe first instance, were defence of the Contado, but their services
were retained, later on, for the safeguarding of the city also.
Four hundred were required each night to patrol the following
streets :-Porta Rossa, Calimala, Baccano, Por Santa Maria,
and the Corso degli A9imari, and other streets and squares,
where were situated most of the Residences and Offices o(
the Guilds, the principal Banks, and the great Mercantile
Companies, together with the shops of the more considerable
tradespeople.
lf women troubled worthy Judges with their fashions and
tbeir witchery, out-of-elbows Notaries worried the fair sex, in
their quest for. citations-at-bar, for breaches of the sumptuary
laws. The protocols concerning dress were written out by
tbe gentlemen of the long robe, who, not content with their
faultless penmanship, busied themselves in the application of the
prohibitions.
The officials of the "Gras&ia" were quick-witted Notaries.
1t was their amusement and their profit to interrogate ali the
women they mel When they saw one wearing, for example, two
rings omamented with fine pearls, or a little cap or wreath em-
broidered and embellished with gold, they noted down her name.
A summons was probably issued against her and her husband.
and the latter, to avoid a public spectacle, paid the fine and the
Notaries' costs to boot 11
lt may be truthfully said that every walk in life in old
' Arebivio della Gruda.

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100 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Florence was associated with the busy ministrations of these
universal clerks and pleaders. lndeed, so much bad the functions
of the Notaries entered into the private life of the citizens, that
wbilst on the one band every one was only too bappy to go to
law with bis neigbbour ; on the otber, the curse of the law became
a byeword. Tbose wbo had experienced the miseries of litigation
were wont to greet their more fortunate neighbours with the
trite saying :-" May sorrow, evil, and lawyers be far from
thee I"
Tbe position of the Notaries in Court was immediately under
the seats o f the } udges. Tbey were accommodated with raised
desks, over wbicb they were accustomed to bend for conference
with their clients.
Their dress was more sombre tban that of the Judges. Tbey
originally wore black or dark grey cloaks witbout fur, but, at a
later date, they obtained tbe right to add tbat decoration.
Attacbed to the cincture of their long tunics they carried pouches
or bags,-much after the fasbion of the merchants' Scarse/11,-
containing writing materiais, and these were the distinctive marks
of their profession. They were usually wom quite plain and un-
adomed, in contrast to the elaborate emblazonments upon the
money-bags o( tbe nobles and merchants.
Strict regulations were enforced against Notaries contumadous
or delinquent. For example, if any were ten days behind in pay-
ment of taxes, dues, and contributions of ali kinds, he was dis-
barred, and not permitted to practise until he bad fully discbarged
bis indebtedness.
Antonio Miscomini in " 11 Giuocdto del/e Scaccni" has a
woodcut of tbe Bisbop's Pawn, as we call the dignitary on the
King's right in the game of cbess ; and this pawn is thus
described by William Caxton in bis "P/aye o.f Cnesse" in
1481:-
" Tbe third pawne, wbicb is sette tofore the Alphyn on the
right side, ought to be figured as a clerk, and this is reson that be
should so be. For as moche as among ~ common peple of

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THE GUILD OF JUDGES AND.NOTAiÜES: lól
wbom we speke in this book they plete the differences, contencions,
and causes wbile the wbicbe beboveth tbe Alpbyn to gyve sentence
and juge as juges. Tbis pawne boldeth in bis rigbt band a pair
of sberes or forcetis, and with the lift:e hand a great knyf, and on
bis gyrdell a penner and an ynkborn, and on bis eere a penne to
wryte wyth. • . . I t appertayneth to tbem to cut tbe clotb

NOTAilY-WOOL M&llCHANT. FIFT&&NTH C&NTUilY.

signefied by the forcetis, as tbe coupers, coryers, tanners,

skynners, boucbers, and cordwanners being signefyed by tbe
knyf . . . and certain otber crafty men ben named drapers,
or cloth workers, for so tbey werke wytb wolle . . . N otayres
.•• work by skynnys and bydes as parcbemyn, velume, pittrye,
and cordewan and tayllours, cutters of clotb, wevars, fullars,
dyers . . ."
Tbis extract, from tbe old Frencb moralist, translated by
Caxton, is interesting as indicative of tbe intimate relations wbicb
existed between the Notaries and tbe craftsmen of ali kinds.

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: i02 :- ..·: ·irHE· GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The integrity of industrial methods was ever under the ken of
legal personages.. Besides this, Notaries were permitted to deal
wholesale in textile and other commodities. In several docu-
ments they sign their names with the twofold qualification-for
example, Sw Notaio-Ltmaiuolo, Notary Woollen-merchant, or
Dominus Ltmarius-Notarius, Wool-stapler-Notary.
Whilst the senior Notaries assumed ali the dignified and
supercüious airs of their more highly-placed brethren of the
Guild-the Judges-the younger were denied the title of Messwe,
until they had absolutely mounted the judicial bench, but were
classed merely as Notaries whatever their attainments and
inftuence might happen tQ. be. In 149 S the Notaries were q1ade
a class apart, and were disqualified from entering any commercial
house or accepting any trading agency. They were forbidden
also to undertake retail business of every kind.

With respect to the numbers of Judges and Notaries, who

from time to time exercised their functions within the boundaries
of the State, it is difficult to deaL The latter were, as might
have been expected, always in a considerable majority~ In the
year I 3 S8, Villani says, "there were nearly one hundred ] udges
and upwards of five hundred Notaries." This is a high àverage
for a population which had been decimated by famine in 1346
and by pestilence in I 348. Boccaccio records that the latter
scourge slew, between March and September, as many as g6,ooo
out of a total of 16o,ooo inhabitants 11
·No writer has given posterity a more vivid and unvamished
story of the legal profession in old Florence than has Ser Lapo
Mazzei, the good Notary of Prato, the wise man of "rough soul
and frozen heart" A man of ascetic spirit, with sound religious
sympathies, and a well-versed moralist, bis letters are full of
interest.
At jousts and during public festivais, if any member of
1 G. Vlllani, ''Cronic:a," xi. p. 93·

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1'HE GUILD OF JUDGES AND NOTARIES lOS
the "Guild of Judges and Notaries" did anything whatever
against ordinary decorum and convention, he at once became
an object of satire, and no one hesitated to make fun of him.
Breaches of correct manners often enough led to some funny
fellow or other placing a thistle under the tail of the legal
functionary's borse, and, as the poor beast tore back to bis
stable at a wild gallop, the air was rent with the derisive cries
of the passers-by I
The Guild continued to thrive ali through the "reigns " of
the earlier Medici princes, although many of the prerogatives of
the J udges were greatly curtailed and the peculations o f the
Notaries were covertly connived at.
Almost the last record, in the Archives, of the " Guild of
Judges and Notaries" was that of December 28, I 597, on
which date a decree was signed by the Grand Duke Ferdinand I.
which abolished the ancient title of the Guild and substituted
that of "College of Judges aud Not~ries." Membership was
made of three degrees :-I: Judges; 2. Advocates, 3· Notaries;
thus recognizing the intermediate · order framed in the last
century.
Eight consuls were elected, two of the degree of Judge, two
of that of Advocate, and four of that of Notary. The Council
of the " College" was made to consist of eight members-four
] udges and four N otaries. A Matriculation Board was also
formed, composed of two ] udges, two Advocates, and four
Notaries. Each year, it was ordered that two Advocates should
be appointed as Counsel for the poorer citizens in criminal cases,
who should plead for their clients, without taking any fee or
emolument, the Guild undertaking to pay them.
The great reputation of the Judges and Notaries, dcspite
many and serious blots and blemishes, has been handed down
to modem times. To-day, the legal profession is still the most
important in Italy, and the most popular. The ambition, even
of small tradesmen, well-to-do farmers, and skilled artizans is to
see their sons graduates at law and advocates in the Court.o::.

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104 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Of the ornaments of the Profession, the aphorism of good old
Francesco Guicciardini is as true now, as it was in bis tilne :-"In
Florence he who is a wise is also a good citizen, since were he
not good he would not be wise." 1
1 "Opere Inedite," YOI. üi. (Counsels of Perfection).

'' S/emma tklf Ar/e de' Git~di(i e N•ttli."

l<·oar Gold Stars on a blue field, 1343; originally only one star.

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 CHAPTER IV

THE "CALIMALA" GUILD

L'.A.RTE E UNIVERSITA DE JIERO.A.NTI DI O.A.LlJI.A.L.A.

I. OIUGJN.-Meaning of the name. "Panni Franasdli." Tbe dressing of

foreign clotb. Merchants of tbe Calimala, 1190- Cavalcanti. Tbe Chiefs of
the Muggello. Early predominant inftuence of the Guild.
li. CONSTITUTJON.-Statutes-Code, 1201-1209- Pious Uses. Usury. Legal
Procedure. Trade Restrictions. Matriculation. Associated Trades. Games.
Hours of Work. Disputes. "LI lxme tuanu di K a/imala." Accounts. Oflicial
marking of clotb. Sbarp dealers summarily dealt witb. Tricb of the trade.
Officers, and method of electioo. Consular Courts. Couriers. lnspectors.
Sln"rri. Agents. Dyers. Patcbers. Cutters. Folders. Finisben. Bernardo
Alamanno. Sear/a/14 d'Oria//o. Pre-eminence of Florentine dyers, 1279-
Spots and blemisbes. De&.ulters and fines.
lll. DEVELOPMENT.-Superiorityof Florentine methods. Mercantile Com-
paoies. Friction between tbe Guilds. Guido dei' Antella and bis "Rúordalue."
Tbe "Calimala" in F rance. Famous Florentine Commercial Agents. A tor-
st//o-packing, freight, and invoice. Credit. Expansion of Trade in 1338.
Tarül's. Dangers of commercial journeys. F ame of Florentine clotb. Leading
"Calimala" families. Foreign Competition. Tbe Record of five hundred
years.

V ARIOUS names and styles are given in documents and

authorities for the Master Merchant-Guild of Florence : -
" The Guild of Merchants,'' "The Guild of Merchants in Foreign
Cloth," "The Guild of Calimala," "The Guild of Calimala Fran-
cesca,'' etc., etc.
The spelling of the distinctive name "Calima/a" also varies : -
" Kalú'smale,'' " Calimara," etc. etc. I ts most probable derivation
comes from the fact tbat the Residence and Offices of the Guild
were situated in the Via di Calimala, a narrow street whicb led
into the Mercato Vecchio,-the Old Market,-where also the
chief business of the merchants of the Guild was transacted.

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106 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Over the doorway of the .Residence was stuck up a shield
bearing the arms of the Guild :-a golden eagle perching upon a
white bale of wool in a red field ; and the same was blazoned
upon the Gonfakn.
Machiavelli, writing about the enterprise of the merchants of
the " Calima/a,'' says :-" The production of tissues of wool was so
flourishing, that the work-people had only to dye and finish them
in order to export them at once. The merchants who were
engaged in this industry founded an "important Guild, called
' Calimiúa,' from the name of the street." 1
With respect to the term " Francuca,'' or " Franascm," as
applied to the Guild, it is noteworthy that Fernando Arrivabcne,
in speaking of Religious Orders, says :-" In I I 82 the celebrated
St Francis, founder of the great religious Order, was bom at
Assisi, in U mbria, being the son of Pietro Bemadones, a man of
humble birth. At the sacred font he was given the name of
Giovanni, but when quite young he was called " Francesco,''
because of the facility with which he spoke French-a language
then necessary to the ltalians in commerce, for which he was
destined by bis father." 2
This may be taken to prove that before the year I I 8 2 there
was active commercial intercourse between ltaly and France.
Doubtless the words " Francuca " and "Franaschi" were used
originally in Florence as applicable to France and French markets
alone, but they were quite easily extended to the produce of other
countries. Thus "Pat~t~i Franaschi" signified cloth manufactured
in England, Flanders, and Spain, as well as in France.
From a remote period wool was the staple industry of the
Florentines, which they manipulated with such admirable assiduity
and skill, that very soon the output of their looms was in excess
of the home consumption. Markets were sought beyond the
confines of the growing town, and traders, moving about in com-

1 "Le Istorie di Firenze," L h·.

' F. Arrivabene, "11 Secolo di Dante," vol. i. cbap. i. See also Dante, "11
Paradiso," xi. 88.

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 THE "CALIMALA n GUILD 107
panies for mutual protcction, undertook systematic joumeys
tbrough the nei~hbouring States.
With England commercial relations were in existence in the
reign of Henry I I. At ali events that monarch established
a biennial Cloth Fair within the precincts of the Priory of Saint
Bartholomew in the city of London ; and he also encouraged
the incorporation of a Guild of Weavers, taking as bis pattem
similar associations in Florence and in Flanders.
With rare acumen the Florentine traders bartered their stuft"s
for rich fteeces and fine woollen yams, and, as they traded, the
eyes of both parties were opened-the Florentines, to the superiority
of the native raw material : the people of the countries, to the
superior workmanship.
In addition to skill in weaving, Florentine workers excelled as
cutters and folders; whilst as dyers they were unrivalled. The
business of the Guild was exclusively the re-dressing and finishing
of foreign-woven woollen cloth. Foreign cloth submitted to the
metbods of the Florentine merchants became a material which
had no peer, and which when put upon the markets of Europe
obtained the very highest quotations.
Whilst it is impossible to fix an actual date for the first
formal incorporation of the " Calima/a Frafe&Uca M ercat~ti," it
may be safely asserted that the initial steps were taken iq,. that
direction at the end of the eleventh century. At that period,
under the fostering rule of the Countess Matilda, the industrial
progress of Florence was already remarkable.
Perhaps the earliest documental evidence of the existence of
the " Calima/a " as a body-corporate is in the year 1 1 go, when the
"Merchants of the Calimala" are named. Under the same date
it is recorded that the Florentine family of Cavalcanti bore a
leading part in the foreign cloth trade; and that they gave up
their house in the Via di Calimala to serve as Offices for the
purposes of the Merchants.1 It may be interesting also to note
that the very first names entered in the earliest extant Roll of
1 Arc:hivio di Fll'eDze, No. xvli. 1422. "Spoglio Strozziaoo," •· i. p. 25.
108 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Matriculations of the Guild of " Calima/a FNnasca " were those
of the two sons of tbe donor of this property.1
From 1 I 90, and onwards, notices of the " Calimala " and its
operations are frequent enough in the Archives of Florence ; for
example, under date October 21, 1190-a document speaks of
the Guild as in active operation.1 lt is in the form of a deed of
gift of land and buildings for the benefit of the Guild, whereby
Giambone di Ceft"uli and Diede, his son, with the consent of
their wives, make over irrevocably to Giovanni di Buoninsegna
and ·Ugone d'Angiolotti, "Consuls of the Old Merchants of the
Calimala," such and such property.
Tbe earliest entry in the List of the Consuls is dated I 192,
when the names of Giano Cavalcanti, Ranerio di Ugone delta
Bella, .and Ugo d'Angiolotti are recorded as having served the
office.
The importance of the " Calimala " Guild was duly recognised in
the year 1 I 99 in a document, which states that in the Superior
Council of tbe Commune the " COtUUies M ercatorum,''-Consuls of
the Merchants' Guild,-sat along with the three representative
Priors of the Guilds and the ten Buonuomit~i under the presidency
of the Podesta, Pagano de' Porcari,l At that date tbe number
of the " Calimala " Consuls was six, their chief being Stoldo da
Musetto. The business before the Council was the framing of
a treaty of peace and amity with the robber chieftains of the
Muggello, and otber districts belonging to Lombardy, Venice, and
Bologna, through which lay very important trade-routes.
Stoldo da Musetto and Raniero della Bella,-two of the
Consuls of the " Calimala,"-were appointed to sigo the treaty
in which the Chiefs promise : -
I. To protect Florentine Merchants and their Merchandise
throughout the feudal territory.
2. To consider the requirements of Merchants as their own.
1 Codex Ríeciardini "Register, or Roll of dell' Arte dei Mercantl di Callm•le,
1235·1495•" Lib. i. R. 1. xnii.
t Arcbivio del Stato Florentino" Cartapecora Strozziana Uguecioni."
a L. Cantini, i. r so. ii. 65.

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 109
3· To supply trustworthy Guides for convoys, etc.
4· To compel ali their followers to observe these conditions.
In 1 202 Chiarito Pigli,-a Consul of the Merchants of the
" Cali'mala,"-was invested with full powers by the State Council
to reduce Semifonte, a turbulent little republic, which long

A CALIMALA MI.RCHANT IN HIS GARDI.N. SIXTI.II:NTH CI.NTURY.

withstood the growing power of Florence. One of her poets

incited opposition by bis effusion : -
" Florence stand back
That 1 too may be a city."

In the treaties with Siena and Capraia,- both in 1204,-

with Prato in I 2 I 2, and with Bologna in 12 16, the first signa-
tures are those of the Consuls of the " Ca/imala." Indeed the
influence of the Guild had already assumed a potential position in
the counsels of the Commune.1
J S. Ammirato, " Dell' Iatorie Fiorentioe," \'OI. i. p. 76.

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110 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Tbe officlal designation o( the " Ca/i11Ul/a," during the first
twenty years of the thirteenth ccntury, was :-"L'Arte e Utrivwsita
& Mwaz11ti tli Cali11Ul/a."

The Statutes of the "Cali11Ul/a " Guild are found in Latin in

many manuscripts praerved in the Florentine Libraries. The
earliest Codex bears the date 1301-1 309 ; it is in the Maglia-
becchian Library, and is in the handwriting of Matteo Beliotti and
of Giovanni Ser Lapi,-both Notaries of Florence,--and of thcir
assistants.1
lt opens with a dedication to the Deity which states that
the Constitution of "the Craft and University of the Merchants
of the Ka/lisma/e of Florence" is projected in revcrence of
St Mary, St John Baptist, SS. Peter, Paul, Philip, ]ames and
Miniato, and ali the Saints ; in honour of thc Holy Roman
Church and the Sovereign Pontift"; the Lord Potlesta, the Lord
Capitano, and the Commonwcalth of Florence ; and, finally, in ali
due respect for ali worthy merchants and companies bclonging to
the " Calimala." 1
The First Part consists of thirty-two Sections, which treat, as
tbe quaint heading says, " of ali things pertaining to God and to
the Soul." I t speaks of pious observances, good works, intcgrity of
conduct, obedience to magistratcs, and of all else which goes to
make a virtuous, industriouS, and respectable citizen.
The pious profession of faith, with which the First Section
deals, is noteworthy as indicating the intimate relation which
existed, in the Middlc Ages and early Renaissancc, between the
religion of daily life and its industrial and commcrcial activities.
Every moming monks chanted Mass, in the ancient church of
San Giovanni, on bebalf of the members of the Guild and in
furtherance of their enterprises.
Guildsmen were constrained to observe the annual church
festivais, wbich numbered forty without reckoning the Sundays.
I Archivio del Stato di Firenze, Statuti dell' Arti, 1301-9.
11 S. L. Peruzzi, " Storia del Commercio e dei Banchieri di Firenze."

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 THE " CALIMALA" GUILD 111
On tbe Eve of St Jobn Baptist,-the Patron Saint of Florence,-
every member of the Guild was required to visit the cburcb, and
to deposit a wax candle of the weight of nearly balf a pound as
an offering to the Patron Saint.
Tbe " Merchants of tbe Calima/a " bound themselves never to
use blasphemous language. U sury was forbidden " because it is
a sin specially displeasing to God."
Among the pious uses of the Guild were numerous annual
contributions to the monasteries of money and gifts in kind for
the relief of tbe poor and sick of tbe city. Several hospitais
also were maintained at the cost of the "Calimala."
In matters of food and drink moderation and abstinence were
advocated among ali persons connected with the Guild. Forty
pounds per annum was the very modest sum allocated for the
table of the Consuls, wbo were boarded during tbeir six months of
office at the expense of the Guild at the Residence in the Via
di Calimala.
The workmen employed by the "Calima/a" in the repairs and
decoration of the churcbes of San Giovanni and of San Miniato ai
Monte were subject to strict rules of conduct. They, and indeed
ali the members of the Guild, were admonisbed, under paio of
beavy penalties,-including exclusion,-to maintain unblemished
lives, and to treat women, cbildren, and domestic servants with
respect and kindness.
The Second Part of the Statutes contains forty-five Sections,
wbicb bave to do with legal questiona, pecuniary matters, disputes
affecting members of the Guild, rules of membersbip and
apprenticeship, and regulations affecting trading companies and
associations of operatives.
The First Section deals with the powers of the Consuls, who
are decreed to be supreme over ali persons and causes within the
Guild. Methods of procedure, employment of legal assistance,
and obedience to the ruling of tbe Court of Consuls, are ali fully
explained.
Tbe Statutes dealing witb the customs and laws of debtor and

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 112 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
crcditor are emphatic, and provision is made for winding up
estates in bankruptcy. The sale of a bankrupt's etrects could
only be made at the instance of the Consuls in Council. Earnest
money,-ranging from ten to fifty per cent.,-was due at the
initial stage of ali transactions, and payments are requircd to
be made by instalment. Ali receipts requircd the seal of a
cashier, before whom they were signed, and they were attested by
the Syndic of the Treasurer. Defaulting merchants, or agents,
were postcd at the Guild Office in the Via di Calimala ; but a
time limit of ten days was allowcd before resource to extreme
measures.
Ali disputes, whether with respect to the interpretation of
Statutes and Bye-laws of the Guild, or of the associatcd companies,
or atrecting the interests or customs of the Guild, were submitted
to the Consuls in Court. A Special Commission of merchants
was appointed by the Consuls, at their pleasure, to examine into
ali such matters. •
Merchants were not allowed to seU any other kind of cloth
except that which was namcd in the Statutes, nor to export fine
wool and any of the ingredients necessary for the industry.
Sales were confincd to the interior of shops, and pieces af cloth
for sale were not permitted to be exposed outside. The exchange
of stutrs between the warehouses of merchants was also forbidden.
Nobody was authorizcd to deal in foreign cloth, unless fumished
with the formal permission of the Consuls. Persons seeking such
authorization were required to make an affidavit, before the Guild
Notary, of the respectability of their family connections, the
integrity of their own character, and the probity of their pecuni-
ary relations.
Membership and participation in the privileges of the Guild
were only obtainable through Matriculation, as the formal and
public recognition of the applicant's fitness. Acc.eptcd candidates
made a money deposit by way of caution·money. They were
required to have exercised, at least for one year previously, one or .
other of the callings in connection with the " Calitnala," and to

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 113
have been in habitual attendance at the Offices of the Guild, and
at the warehouses of members. Sponsors were required for good
behaviour. The Matriculation-fee averaged four /ire. Members
of the Guild could introduce their sons without guarantees, and
without the payment of fees, but they were held responsible for
their good conduct untiJ' they had reached maturity.
lt was competent for the Consuls, upon advice of the Notary,
and with the consent of the General and Special Councils, to
withdraw the privileges of membership, but a full statement of
delinquency was required to be prepared, and to be posted in the
" Ca/imala " Offices. The property of absconding merchants was
confiscated by the Guild, and disposed of as determined by the
Consuls.
Operative societies, or companies, were affiliated to the
" Ca/ima/a " only with the view of avoiding confusion with similar
organizations under the W ool Guild. Their privileges, and scope
of operations, were strictly limited. No workmen, or group of
workers, were permitted to work for both Guilds. The cc Calima/a "
operatives were exclusively engaged in dealing with foreign-made
woollen cloth. As a rule the cc Calima/a" employed sets of
families rather than aggregates of individuais. The Statutes and
Bye-laws of the cc Calima/a " are full of records of names and
occupations where ~hese limitations are obvious.
On the other hand " Calima/a " merchants welcomed the sons
of merchants of the other Guilds, and especially of the Guilds of
"Judges and Notaries" and "Doctors and Apothecaries." The
sole condition of the apprenticeship in such cases was abstention
from the avocation of the parents. Sometimes premiums were
paid for introduction into the leading mercantile houses, but gener-
ally a mutual arrangement was effected, which not unfrequently
bad a matrimonial alliance in view.
Apprentices were obliged to be the offspring of Florentine
• parents, but the actual place of birth was immaterial. Tbey were
forbidden to work for other masters than their own. When living
under their master's roof,-as was the .rule,-they were not
H

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114 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
I
allowed to be about in the streets after the last stroke of the
evening bell. 1
Admission to the Guild, whether as apprentice or full work-
J
man, required that the candidate should appear personally before
the Consuls and a Special Council of twelve merchants, who gave I
I
their unanimous testimony that he was satisfactory and worthy.1
Against apprentices and work-people generally severe penalties
were enforced for tale-bearing, idle gossip and stirring up quarrels.
~
Prohibitive bye-laws were passed which made the use of indecent,
blasphemous, injurious, and provocative language, witbin the
neighbourhood of the Markets, Old and New, punishahle by
imprisonment.
Ali games of chance were forbidden after dark upon any
premises belonging to the Guild, or its affiliated associations of
work-people. W agering at any time was strictly forbidden. The
only amusements tolerated indoors were Scáccki,-chess, Merella,
-back-gammon,-and Tavo/e,-draughts.
lt was only permissible to work in foreign cloth between the
matins bell and that of vespers. Operatives were forbidden to
roam from workshop to workshop seeking work. Those who
worked at home, or at factories, outside the city proper, were not
allowed to visit the offices of the. Guild, nor the establishment of
their employers i9 the " Calimala " district ; hut were required to
receive and deliver their pieces of cloth, and to make all com-
plaints to the syndics and overseers of the Guild, in their respective
neighbourhoods.
Certain Sections of the Second Part of the Statutes treat of
the deatbs of members, and the arrangement of their affairs.
Whenever a full member, an associate, an apprentice, or the son
of a member not yet matriculated, at least of the age of eighteen,
died, the Consuls did not sit in Court that day. Ali workshops
as well as the Guild Offices were closed until after the funeral,
only 11 sportetlo,-the wicket,-being open just as when looms were
idle on a Festival.
1 Archivio di Callmala, Codex vi. 1, R. 87, Statuti 1309-

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 THE "CALIMALA " GUILD 115
The Third Part of the Statutes has fifty-six Sections dealing
with " !e buune usanze di Ka/imala, "-the customs, practices, and
regulations of the " Ca/imala."
The First Section fixed the value of the dmario,-the standard
coin of the Market,--and enacts that any deviation in value can
only be authorized by the Consuls in Council.
Several Sections treat of the methods of payment of accounts,
the lengthof credits,etc. Thesewcre,-touse our modero phrase,-
" bills " at three months, two months, eight days, or at sight, issued
upon notice of the forwarding of cloth, whether for finishin~
through the agents of the " Ca/imala " merchants from foreign
sources, or handed to foreign buyers after completion of the
process of improvement in Florence.
It is distinctly stated that only cloth in whole pieces, imported
from " beyond the mountains and from England,'' may be sold
retail by merchants of the " Ca/imala" in Florence, and by a fixed
taritf; but they were permitted to sell remnants of any kind of
cloth to the Retail Dealers.
All pieces of foreign cloth which had been " finished " in
Florence by the workmcn of the " Ca/imala," after receiving the
official stamp of the Guild, were required to be put upon the
market before the expiry of eight days. The reason of this is
made clear by the Statute, wbich warns merchants against holding
back stocks so as to raise the prices.
At the time of the drafting of the Statutes,- I 30 I -1309,-the
price for dressed cloth of good quality was one silver ftorin per
canna-inferior pieces were cheaper. The canna, a yard measure,
was the official standard.
Sales were confined to the interiors of shops, and pieces and
samples were not allowed to be exposed in doorways or windows.
V ery likely this was enacted in deferen~ to representations of
the Consuls of the W oól Guild, whose interests might have been
prejudiced by rival sales of woollen-cloth. Garments made of
foreign cloth, finished by the " Ca/imala," were prohibited as
articles of merchandise in the markets of Florence.

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116 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
U pon every piece or length o f the finished cloth, of every
kind and colour, was attached an official ticket or card, easily
visible, bearing the fixed price, the name of the vi/la or factory,
and the name of the maestro or maker.
An officer was enjoined to trc&.verse ali the strcets, and to
visit all tbe houses, wherein the industry was carried on, to see
that every detail of the work was fully up to the standards, or
models, which were deposited in the central hall of the " Calimala "
Offices. Ali such matters were done with the utmost exactitude,
and the smallest deviation,-even in the size, or the writing upon,
the tickets,-was visited with fines and removal.
Sometimes a manufacturer was wayward, but he had to pay
for bis folly by double fines, and, if be continued negligent, be lost
bis "Bo//o,''-tbe Guild guarantee,-and bis name was removed
from the Guild-Roll.
As early as 1 292, the Consuls of tbe " Ca/imala" bad recei\'ed
the ratifications of the Greater and the Special Councils of the
Craft to their punishment of delinquents by fines and by striking
off the Matriculation Registers ali members, who transgressed the
rules and customs of the Guild, together with their accomplices
and the receivers of ali illegal material.l
Many Statutes in this Third Part are directed against fraud
and irregularity in dealing. Tbe aim of the " Ca/imala " was to
conduct the business of the Guild in a strictly honourable and
almost religious manner. Every contract begins with an ascription
to the Trinity, and supplicates the benevolent aid of Saint Mary
and ali the Saints.
The well-known profanity whereby a dishonest or grasping
salesman passed bis canna along the piece whilst each name of
the Trinity, or names of the Saints reckoned so many óraccia,-
forearm lengths,-was constantly practised. Sales too by guess
work on the part of the buyer, whereby a bid exceeding the actual
value by Statute was accepted, was another scheme to defraud.
Dipping cloth in water and, when soaked, stretching it beyond
1 Provv. i. J, p. 112.

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 THE " CALIMALA" GUILD 117
its standard length, and then selling it at the excess measurement,
was a common trick in the baser shops. Sacchetti teUs in one
of bis charming "N0'1Je//e" what happened to a certain Soccebonelli
of Friuli, who went to buy some cloth. The merchant measured
out four yards, but managed to steal some back again ; to cover
the fraud he said to Soccebonelli : " lf you want to do well with
this cloth, leave it to soak all night in water, and you will see how
excellent it will become." Soccebonelli did as he was told, and
then he took the cloth to the cutter, and asked him to measure it
" lt seems to me," said the latter, "to be five óraccia." Socce-
bonelli told how he had been cheated, but he gained little sym-
pathy, indeed one man he met told him about a person " who
bought a braccio of Florentine cloth, kept it in water all night, and
by next moming it had shrunk so that there was none of it left I " 1
I t was believed that many pieces of cloth, which came from
Milan, and other places, and which were sold before the bales were
opened, were dyed there. Andrea del Castagno,-a naturalist-
painter and cynical diarist, who lived 1390-145 7 ,-writes as
follows :-"I heard that a certain agent,-Giovanni del Volpe by
name,-seeing that this sort of cloth sold well, thought of saving
money for his firm by dyeing it in a cheaper and inferior way."
Against all these and other sorts of fraud the Consuls con-
stantly issued denunciations and penalties, the first offence
counting for three gold ftorins, and the sale being pronounced
null and void Repetitions of dishonesty, or questionable dealing,
were visited with still heavier fines, and even incurred suspension
and expulsion from the Guild.
The Fourth Part of the Statutes contains fifty-eight Sections,
which deal exclusively with the election of the officers of the
Guild and their functions.
At the head were four Consuls, and a Treasurer, who were
elected every six months by the votes of the Master-merchants
generally, and confirmed by the Masters of the various Companies
incorporated into, or affiliated to, the " Ca/ima/a " Guild :-such as
l G. Biagi, "Private Life of Renaissance Floreutioes," p. 23.

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118 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Dyers, Pressers, Cutters, Dressers, etc. Candidates bad to be
"adherents of the Parte Gtulfa, lovers of the Holy Roman Church,
and of untamished reputation, in the Guild and in the Commune."
The mode of election was as follows : -the names of eligible
candidates were first inscnõed upon paper and placed in an um,
whence, under the direction of three mcrchants chosen as scrutators
for the purpose, the oldest merchant present drew five slips. The
five candidates, thus selected, could not be partners in the same
business house or company, nor associated with any of the retiring
five officials.
Electors, who were fully matriculated and active members of
the Guild, resident within the Contado, bad, for each retail shop
held by one individual, one vote ; whilst the possession of a whole-
sale factory, gave the company two votes. The voting was by
casting black and white beans. I f any chosen candidate was
" white beaned " the three scrutators caused another selection of
names to be drawn from the um ;-and so on until the election
was consummated. Failure on the part of merchants to attend,
and to vote, was punishable by fines ; whilst those who wcre
finally elected were obliged to serve their terms of office, or forfeit
twenty-five /ire. Each Consul received a salary of about forty
/ire, and the Treasurer ten /i,.e, for their terms of office.
The four Consuls were bound by strict rules. They were
not allowed to go beyond the boundaries of the Contado, except
for religious purposes, or on behalf of the interests of the Guild-
or, when so nominated, as ambassadors of the Republic to foreign
States.
The duties of the Consuls were :-( 1) to grant matriculation to
those whom they considered worthy ; (2) to decide civil and
criminal suits between members of the craft, and their work-
people; (3) to protect the factories, shops, and agencies of the
members of the Guild, whether at home or abroad; (4) to assist
merchants in the recovery of credits; (5) to disburse thc charities,
and superintend the pious works of the Guild; (6) to represent
the Guild on ali official and ceremonial occasions ; and (7) gener-

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
COURT OF CONSULS, WITH NOTARIES AND LtTIGANTS
FIFTB&HTH c;JINTIIRY

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE " CALIMALA " GUILD 119
ally to safeguard the interests of the Guild and of its individual
members.
The Consuls were also called upon to nominate repre-
.sentatives of the Guild in all foreign countries, with which there
were commercial relations. Lastly they had authority to appoint,
when necessary, a Court of Arbitration to settle ali trade disputes,
whether within or without the obedience of the " Calimala." This
court was composed of six inftuential merchants, to whom was
entrusted the interpretation of the Statutes and Ordinances of the
Guild.
Every month the Consuls of the "Cali'mala" met the Consuls
or Heads of the other Guilds of the City, in consultation, upon
general commercial matters preparatory to the preservation of
measures and provisions to the Council of State. These meet-
ings bore a political aspect, and were ali powerful in the govem-
ment of the Republic.
The Consuls were assisted in the exercise of their functions
by two Councils. The first,--called " General,"-was composed of
twelve members,-merchants belonging to separate houses or
companies within the Guild. Ali matters of general interest
were submitted, during three successive days, to this Council for
approval or the reverse. The second Council,-styled " Special,"
-.had eighteen members, chosen from among master-merchants,
who had knowledge of special departments in the operations of.
the Guild and the affiliated Crafts. To them were submitted by
the General Council all matters which required expert advice ;
their session also extended over three days. Their report was
handed to the General Council, who, after arriving at a final
decision, placed the matter before the Consuls. To avoid packing
the Councils no companies, or affiliated trades in connection with
the " Calimala," were permitted to have more than two repre-
sentatives. All votes were taken by means of beans.
The Treasurer, who was required to be at least thirty years.
of age, was called upon to deposit a sum of one hundred /in, by
way of caution money upon taking office. To bis charge were

Goog [e
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-
120 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
committed tbe cash books and the keys of the Guild. He was
not allowed, bowever, to make any payments on bebalf of the
Guild, witbout tbe approval of all four Consuls. To prevent
undue influence, and to protect bim from claims and bribes, no
member of bis family, or of bis company, was eligible to succeed
him until two whole years had passed after bis term of office had
expired.
In addition to these principal officers there were a number of
officials wbo assisted tbem in tbe discharge of their duties : -
I. Tbe Notary,--a member of the "Guild of Judges and
Notaries "-was attacbed to the persons of tbe Consuls. He was
always non-Florentine by birth and training, and was forbidden
to be on social terms witb the members of tbe Guild, and on no
account to eat or drink witb tbem I He acted as spokesman for
tbe Consuls in Court and at meetings--a very sensible arrange-
ment seeing that tbere was no educational or elocutionary quali-
fication for the superior office I It was bis duty to instruct the
Consuls in tbe execution of tbeir functions, to explain to
them tbe bearings of the Statutes, Provisions, and Bye-laws,
etc., upon ali questions of procedure, and to see that every regu-
lation was duly observed by the Guildsmen at large, and by
the Consuls in particular. He was directed to render bis report
every month to a special panel of merchants-cbosen by lot. In
cases wbere matters required investigation and correction, the
report witb notes was submitted to a second panel consisting of
twelve master-mercbants. His office was for one year, at the
termination of wbicb bis acts and general conduct were reviewed
by tbree experienced examiners. Tbey imposed upon the unfor-
tunate fellow, fines, in proportion to the beinousness of bis dere-
lictions of duty; and, so far as we can discover, Notaries never
escaped scot-free, nor, it goes without saying, were they ever
recompensed for faitbfulness and impeccability I
2. The Treasurer, too, bad an Assistant, or executive officer,
wbose title was Sina'aco,-perhaps Casbier. His duty was to
check the current expenditure, and to keep the daily cash account

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 THE "CALIM.ALA" GUILD 121
at the Headquartcrs of the Guild. Ali payments passed through
bis hands after their delegation by the Treasurer, and he acknow-
ledged receipts of ali kinds. To his charge consequently was
committed the common seal of the " Calima/a," without the impres-
sion of which no acts were deemed official. At the end of eath
day he submitted bis report to the Treasurer, and transferred to
him all cash in hand.
3· In the month of January each year, three Sináa&atori or
Genercll Inspectors, were chosen from those who had already
served the offices of Consul or Treasurer. Their duty was :
( 1) to check the acts of officers of the Guild ; ( 2) to ex pose
irregularities and to publish the names of offenders; (3) to
institute legal proceedings against such persons ; ( 4) to endorse
good govemment and praiseworthy services; and (S) generally to
point out and prevent impositions of all kinds.
4· Once a year also twelve master-merchants, called Statutan·,
were empanelled for five days,-gen.erally in December,-and
housed and fed at the expense of the Guild. Their functions
were to examine carefully the wording, and the sense of each
Statute, with a view to any correction, or alteration, required in
furtherance of new objects and interests comiected with the Guild.
They were called upon to read the charters of incorporation, and
the regulations of affiliated companies of workpeople, and to
listen to any complaints or requests made by them. Their labours
were not ended until they had issued, in the vemacular, all additions
or alterations, suggested or agreed to, and had posted them for
public examination at the Offices of the Guild.
Minor offices were Nuuii-Heralds, Corrie~i-Couriers, and
C!Jiavan·-Registrars. The first,-two in number,-made public
proclamation of the acts of the Consuls, and published ali matters
necessary for the members of the Guild and their workpeople to
know.
There were three Corrieri-two travelled between Florence
and France, an~ one between Florence and Rome. Their duty
was to fix, upon the spot, the amount of earnest money in ali

Goog [e
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-----
122 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
transactions of the merchants, and to hand over the balance, or
to receive the same, upon the completion of ali contracts and
orders. The C!Jiavari were Registrars of population, member-
ship, deaths, wills, etc., as well as auditors of the cash-accounts
of the affiliated operative companies. Thcy kept the keys of ali
the minor offices, and acted as cashiers for deposits by work-
people and small dealers made in the Guüd Treasury. Their
number varied according to circumstances.
Besides these officials there were small Committees o(
merchantS appointed from time to time, who scheduled the
wage-tables of operatives employed by the " Ca/intala." They
superintended the numbering and labelling of foreign cloth before
and after it had been finished in Florence. Once a year, in July,
two merchants were deputed to fix the price of dyeing, to which
ali dyers were bound to adhere, unless, of course, they chose to
take lower prices on their own account.
The testing of weights and measures belonged to the care
of another sub-committee, together with the examination of cloth
lengths for the prevention of short measure, deficient weight, and
inferior quality.
The watching, cleaning, and lighting of the vicinity o( the
Residence of the Consuls was in the hands of a Watch Com-
mittee of three or four members, wh" employed twenty or more
sbi1'1'i or watchmen for the purpose, each anned with a stout staff
and a lantem.
Members of the Guild and their workpeople were subject to
severe disciplinary measures, with respect to tbeir behaviour in
the streets, particularly in the Via di Calimala and in the
Mercato N uovo. The entertainment of friends and social inter-
course were subject to restrictions. Thc Consuls had plenary
powers for dealing with ali unruly citizens. Fines and imprison-
ment in the Sti~~elu-city prison-were impartially served out to
friend and foe alike.
The Fifth Part of the Statutes treats, in twenty Sections, of the
Smsa/i-Brokers or agents, the Tintori-Dyers, the Ract:IJtldatori

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 128
-Patchers, the Tag-/úúori-Cutters,the Piegatori-Folders,and the
Compitori-Finishers employed by the merchants o f the " Calimala."
The duties of the Smsali were to inspect all imports of foreign
cloth on arrival, and to distribute it to the various associations of
workpeople. Within twenty-four hours of delivery in Florence at
the Oflices of the Guild, Periti de/1' Arl4 di Calima/a,-experts,-
made a careful examination of every piece of foreign cloth, with
respect to quality of wool, manner of manufacture, and length and
weight. Satisfactory pieces were at once sent on to the work-
shops, whilst those which failed to satisfy the requirements of the
trade were set apart for further consideration.
Any citizen might be admitted to the position of Smsale who
had a good character for piety in religion and uprightness in bis
business capacity. Such were required before being enrolled upon
the books of the "Calimala" to give personal security in money,and
bail in the persons of their friends.
They had to render, once a month, to the Consuls sitting at
the Residence, a detailed report of their operations with respect
to the origin and condition of all cloth received, and to the pro-
cesses to which it had been subjected. Their report also was the
medium of complaints made by the work-people, and of delin-
quencies on the part of those with whom the Smsali had dealings.
The first operation in the treatment of foreign cloth was not
the actual dyeing, but the preparation of the pieces for that pro-
cess. When first unrolled they were generally found to be
covered with knots and blemishes which coarsened the surface.
These required the very greatest care to eradicate and smooth
over, and this process was carried through by women as well as
men, who used very fine plyers and needles and hot irons. Some-
times even darning was necessary, but this had to be done with
extreme delicacy, and with foreign wool of exactly the same
quality as the piece.1
1 NIIÜ: Tluee old "Tinrüli,"-FalliDg-Mills,-beloogiDg to members of tbe Guild
were still standing in 1898 :-in tbe Via de' Servi, del Castellucclo, and degli Alfani-
esc:h boriug tbe name of "túlf .Apüa"-the Eagle=the arma, or trade mark, of the
Guild.
124 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The Dyers of the " Calima/a " were required to weigh and
measure ali pieces of foreign cloth directly they received them
from the Smsali.
No piece of cloth was handed over to the dyeing cauldrons
until it had been inspected in detail by the foreman of that group
of workers.
Most foreign cloth, by reason of its finer texture,-in which
it greatly surpassed the
native manufacture,-was
also far more sympathetic
in the absorption of colour-
ing matter, and in the
production of far more
beautiful tints. After being
dipped many times, and
stirred by the introduction
of smooth wooden poles,
in the colour bath, the
pieces were hung up to
dry, stretched on frames.
The opinion of expert
dyers was asked at this
stage, and attention was
paidto fashionand fashion's
behests. Every faulty
EXPKIUMENTING WITH DYES. piece was at once retumed
SIXTEENTH CENTUJlY.
to the cauldron for a further
soaking. U pon a successful result in the dyeing process, the
pieces of cloth were again weighed and measured by the Sensali.
Losses in weight and dimension were charged to the Dyers,
who had the power of recovery by a fixed set-off price against
shrinkage.
The introduction of dyes and dyeing materiais, and the rules
conceming their use, were immediately under the administration
of the merchants of the " Calima/a." V egetable dyes only were

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 THE " CALIMALA" GUILD 125
employed, and they were sought in every accessible land The
time and abilities of the most prominent citizens were given
ungrudgingly to the discovery of new colouring plants and to their
export to Florence. The acquisition of a new dye was just as
much a question of State policy as was that of obtaining mordants
and other adjuncts of the dyeing industry. The war with
Volterra, for example, was made solely for the possession of the
famous alum pits of that district, the use of which material was
essential.
The chief plants used for dyeing were Guaáo or woad-for
blue, Robõia or madder--for red, and Oriai/IJ or white moss--for
scarlet
Woad grew in abundance all about Florence, but careful
cultivation produced a wealth of growth, and ensured a richness
of product, that made its rearing a lucrative employment along the
countryside.
Madder, too, was common enough in Tuscany, but the finest
kind was found in the neighbourhood of Rome, where it had been
a speciality ever since the time of Pliny.1 The country about
Chiana, and the valley of the Tiber, produced, in the fifteenth
century, madder to the value of many thousand florins, almost ali
of which was bought up by the" Calimala "merchants.1 Very much
madder was imported from the valley of the Rhone.
The introduction of White Moss was due to a Florentine
"CaJimala " merchant named Bernardo, or Nardo, Alamanno. His
discovery of its property as a colouring medfum was due to mere
chance. He observed during a commercial exploration in the
Levant, in 1261, that a little plant, when moistened with uric
acid, gave out a crimson-violet liquid. Experimenting with this
colouring matter he soon noted its value for distinction of hue
and fastness of stain. Bernardo accordingly made up a goodly
bale of the moss and took it back with him to Florence.
Once home he called in the assistance of some members of
the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries," and presently the eyes
1 Plilly, Lib. xix. c. J. t Targioni·Toaetti, "Viagi in Toscana."

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
126 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of the inspectors of the " Calimala " opened wide at the brilliancy
of the new dye. Nothing so splendid had ever been seen in a
Florentine dye-shop. The fortune of Bernardo was made, and be
assumed for bis family the cognomen of cc R~Kellai," whicb bis
descendants still retain, carrying on to-day in Florence tbeir
ancestral industry. One of bis most famous descendants, Giovanni
Rucellai, was a perfect type of the noble merchant wbo valued the
dignity of bis position. He not only knew the secret of making
money, but be also understood how to spend it well. cc I think,"
he wrote in bis "Zi!Jaldtme,"-cc Stray-thougbts,"-" that it has
brougbt me more honour to have spent well than earned well."
The method of extracting the superb scarlet-purple dye was
very simple. Bunches of orial/o were cut after ftowering, and
hung up in the sun to dry. The dried moss was then reduced to
very fine powder, in a mortar, and mixed in a wooden vessel with
a sprinkling o f sou r wine. Whilst stirring U ric acid was added
gradually, and the mixture was well shaken once a day. To this
liquid soda-ash was added, in the proportion of twelve parts to one
of the powder, and the whole was filtered through chalk or lime.
The utmost stringency was enforced upon dyers to ensure the
perfection of the colours. Only tbe purest and most expensive
qualities were allowed to ·be used in the treatment of the finest
cloths. Woad was guarded with as mucb care as the white moss.
No one was allowed to sell it outside tbe membership of the
Guild, under penalty of a fine of five hundred pounds (.l2o). Each
dye had its strict sale price and official quotation in the markets.
The privilege of selling colouring ingredients of ali kinds for
the purpose of dyeing woollen cloth was possessed exclusively by
certain members of the Guild, and all other persons were for-
bidden to offer sucb for sale. There is a note in the Florentine
Arcbives to the effect that in the year 1347 a Company of
c• Calimala" merchants sold, to two merchants ofValencia, forty-four
thousand pounds weight of woad for a sum of eigbt hundred
gold florins (.l400). 1
1 S. L. Pei'UIIi, p. 95·

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 127
The export of rollóia, beyond the limits of the State-
especially what was called " di R()11tant/io/a,"-was strictly pro-
hibited by a Rubric in the Statutes of 141 s, a fine being imposed
in fractions of one hundred lire. 1
lt was forbidden, moreover, to pass ofl' one colour for another,
and to imitate recognised tints, by a blending of various shades so
as to deceive the dyer or the purchaser. Cochineal, Brazil-wood,
and various other dyeing ingredients were used for other cloths
than those classed as " the finest." Blending of colours was quite
allowable, when special names were attached to cloth so dyed ; but
all such names were required to be written on Jarge white labels,
and fastened upon each length or roll. Madder might be used
freely in dyeing cloths other than fine white or grey of foreign
manufacture, which were claesed as Scar/attini.
The favourite colour,-Scar/atto d'oricello as it was called,-
in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was a rich
purple red, the product of the oricello dye, with a small admixture
of madder. This shade was prescribed for all robes of state and
for ceremonial tapestries and hangings. lt was also used for the
6erretta, or cap, worn by ali who had the right of entry to the
Superior Courts. This scarlet colour was most carefully guarded.
Any dyer who ventured to produce "Scar/atto di Co~o,"-imitation
scarlet,-was excluded from bis trade, and all pieces of cloth so
dyed were seized and bumt. Tuscan. painters have preserved to
us this rich colour in the backgrounds of their pictures and in
the gannents of their figures.
As early as 1279 the pre-eminence of the Florentine dyers
was affirmed by a correspondence which was conducted between
the Papal Court and the Consuls of the "Calima/a " Guild. The
latter maintained the exclusive right of the Florentine dyers to
dye and to finish the cloth used for the red robes of the
Cardinais, and for other ecclesiastical purposes where that descrip-
tion of cloth and colour was used.
The dyers of Florence rapidly became famous the world over
1 Statuta Florentiae, Rub. clxxii., 1415.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e rl
128 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Rosetti says : " The V enetians must confess that they have leamt
their art from the Florentines." 1 Their skill and care are evi-
denced to-day also by the fineness of condition, and freshness of
colour of the hangings, tapestries, banncrs, costumes, etc. etc.,-
which are preserved to us in many of the public muscums and
privatc collections. They rival, if indeed they do not surpass,
the best workmanship of the present day.
When dry, the cloth which was considcred sufficiently and
satisfactorily dyed was taken in hand by the Cutters, Patcbers,
and Piecers, who prepared tbe pieces for the final stage of its
manipulation. These workpeople were often of inferior ability,
and, as their work was comparatively easy and unimportant, they
were very indifferently paid. Nevertheless their handiwork was
rigorously inspected by the foremen of the Folders and Finisbers
lest they should make blunders in cutting the prescribed lengths
of the pieces, and in joining pieces of cloth of dissimilar quality
and shade of colour. Scrutiny was also exercised very keenly
conceming remnants and cuttings, which might serve as market-
able commodities for the Ri'g'attúri or Retail Cloth-dealers and
other hucksters of the markets. Patching was only resorted to
in the second qualities of foreign cloth. The aim of the process
was to hand on to the Folders and Finishers a perfectly even
texture.
The F olders and Finisbers were, along with the Dyers, the
most important and most highly in~tructed of the labouring classes
of Florence. They had first to detect and set right the blunders
of the intermediate workers and their slipshod ways. Constant
jealousies raged between the two sets of opcratives, the former
chaffing the latter for their fastidiousness, and the latter cbiding
the former for their carelessness.
The Folders were required to test once more the weights and
measures of the pieces of cloth, and to note the various qualities
with a view to their several destinations. In the case of transit
the rolls and pieces had to be folded in a peculiar way, whicb
1 G. Venturi Rosetti, " L'Arte dei Tiagere. ''

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 129
should do nothing to disturb the " nap " of the cloth, or cause
friction.
The Finishers had to smooth the cloth and correct its surface,
by the employment of heat either applied by weighted rollers, or
by heated flat-irons. The methods which they used have never
been exactly stated, but that they were laborious, and not a little
technical, may be gath-
ered from the fact that
every yard of finished
cloth was submitted to
rigorous examination.
A special Committee
of Experts, entitled,
U.flidali del/e Maanie e
Magagne, - lnspectors
of Spots and Blemishes,
-was employed by the
" Ca/ima/a " Guild to go
the round of the Cloth
Finishers' workrooms to
test the cloth in hand
under every condition.
Work, whether cutting,
piecing, patching, finish-
ing and folding, was FJNISHING CLOTH, SIXTBBNTH CBKTtJ'aY,

submitted to the minu-

test examination. Inferior workmanship, presence of blemishes
and roughness of surface were ali heavily penalised. Fines
were imposed, and, in case of non-payment, the whole guarantee
or bail of the delinquent, or a portion of it, could be seized.
The defaulters' names were. posted at the "Ca/ima/a " Offices, and
in serious cases they were deprived of the right to prosecute their
trade within the boundaries of the city.
Such then were the Statutes of the "Ca/ima/a" Guild, and
such their interpretation and uses which, promulgated in the

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e _..4

130 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
first decade of tbe fourteentb century, and many times revised
and added to in the succeeding centuries, became the substance
of tbe Constitutions of ali tbe other GuildL

In documents preserved in the Florence Libraries, and among

tbe archives of many noble families, very interesting notices are
to be found, treating of the members, their duties, their charities,
and of the general progress of the Guild. Among them are many
directions dating from the middle of the twelfth century concem-
ing the upkeep, decoration, etc., of the Baptistery of San Giovanni ;
and records of the purchase and sales of land in 1 192, 1 19 3, and
1216, on behalf ofthe Hospital of Sant' Eusebio. In 1228 and
12 3 7 many Provvisiotu~ or agreements, were made with respect to
the ancient Church of San Miniato al Monte, which was placed under
the protection o f the " Calima/a." In the latter year the cere-
mony of taking an oath by ali members of the Guild was enjoined.
This oath, which was registered before the Consuls, bound each
member to observe for the year ali the regulations and bye-laws,
customs, and privileges, of the Guild.
The constitution of the first Florentine mercantile company
was, in connection with, and under the auspices of the " Cali.ata.••
The PrO'flfJÜi()fu creating it bears ·date 12 34, and it was enrolled
for the sale of foreign clotb after it had been redressed and
finished by the workmen connected with tbe Guild. One of the
earliest companies was that of the Scali, which failed in 1326,
after being in existence for nearly one hundred years.
In a Codex of the fourteenth century the following list is
given of .mercantile companies, working in correspondence with
the " Clllimala" Guild 1 :-de' Canigiani, degli Sp1ni, de' Migliori
de' Guadagni, di Lapo Bounagrazia, di Buonaccorso Soldini, de'
Marino Soldani, di Diotifici Filippi, di Lapo Marini, di Lapo
Soldini, di Simone Giamini, and di Diotisalvi Artimisi. A parch-
ment of the year 1 300 contains twenty-one other names, including
Cenchi, Bardi, Puzi, Frescobaldi, Peru%zi, Scali, and Nerli.
I Arch1.to del Stato di Fireaze, Statuti deU' Arti, IJOI.

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L'.VO A.VTICO .lfAXGA.VO-AN 01.1> ROLI.l:-IU ~III.L FOR FINISHI!IOU FOREH;r-; CLOTH

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 131
It should be remembered that the " Calitnala " merchants
(jeaJt with foreign-made cloth only. lt was expressly prohibited
for them to dress, finish, keep, or seU, cloth manufactured in
Florence. This regulation was due not only to the risk of
(jamage to the native industry in wool-weaving under the Guild
o f W oollcn Merchants, but it was also a necessary precaution
against difficulties with the operatives.
There was, as might have becn expected, a constant danger
of confusion and friction between the agcnts and the workpeople
employed by the Guilds. Many Pf'OVIJisiot~i, or regulations, were
passeei to minimise and to remove all clashings of interests
Separate commilnities of Dyers, Piecers, Patchers, Cutters,
Folders, and Finishers, were established in connection with the
•• Ca/imala " merchants, in order to prevent workpeople engaging
themselves under the two Guilds. On no account would a
" Ca/imala " merchant employ an operative who did not belong
to a " Cali1IUI/a " organisation.
There was also from time to time friction between the merchants
and workpeople attached to the "Por Sat~ta Mana"-" the Guild
of Silk Manufacturers." This Guild had also dyers, carders, and
other operatives, as well as agents and salesmen. In 1324
mutual arrangemcnts were made whereby certain associations of
operatives, and certain workshops and stalls for the sale of the
merchandise of the two Guilds, were set apart so as to avoid the
clashing of interests. The same year saw too the first official
Register of " Cali'1IUI/a " merchants in foreign lands.
With respect to the foreign relations of the merchants of the
•• Cali•ala " there were equally precise and minute regulations as
there were conceming the details of the home industry.
By the cnd of the thirteenth ccntury there was not a country
in Europe where Florentines were not the chief controllers of
trade. The " CaliMala " Consuls obtained the authorization of
the Govemment of the Republic to establish Agencies in
all the principal wool-producing and cla.th - manufacturing
centres.

DlgítízedbyG o~
132 THE GUILDS OF.FLORENCE
One of the agents of tbe " Calimala " Guild, wbo travelled far
and wide, was Guido di Filippo di Ghidone dell' Antella. He was
bom in Florence in 1 2 S4, and bas left the "Ricordanze," 1 or
diary, of bis joumeys and experiences. In 1267 be went, he
says, to Genoa on business connected with the Company of
Lamberto dell' Antella, and dwelt there eighteen months. In
1270 the Company of Rinuccio Cittadini sent him to Venice, and
there he remained two years. With bis father he visited Ravenna
in I 2 7 3 on business connected with a loan. His next employ-
ment was at home-five years in the office of Lamberto deW
Antella, and twelve years in the counting-house of the Scali
Company. During the last period he was sent as representative
of his house at various times to Pisa, to N aples, to St Jean
d' Acre, in to F rance, and to tbe Court of the Pope. Leaving the
Scali, of which company he had been made a partner in 1290, he
lived in France three years, working with the Franzesi. In 1296
with two partners, Neri Filippi and Lapo Ciedemi, he rented a
tavo/a,-banker' s table,-in the Mercato N uovo from the banking
house of Baccherelli. Two years later he threw in bis lot witb
Giovanni de' Cerchi and bis Company, but quitted them in 1301
when the quarrel between the Cerchi (Biancl") and the Donati
(Nen) began.
In every part of France,-which now became a second
Fatherland to the Florentines,-the " Calimala" merchants had
agencies :-in l'Íle de France-Paris, and St Denis ; in Cham-
pagne-Provins, Lagny, and Troyes ; in Berri-Bourges ; in
Provence-Marseilles, Toulon, Arles, Saint Gilles, and Avignon ~
in Languedoc-Ntmes, Montpellier, Narbonne, Béziers, Perpignan,.
Carcassonne, and Toulouse.
In ali these places Florentine agents and traders abounded~
receiving and executing orders, and, whilst they rendered obedience
to the laws of the land wherein they resided, they laboured- under
the same regulations as these which ru1ed their countrymen at
home. The agency at Ntmes was established in 1 296, and that
1 Archivio Storiço ltaliaDo, I. Seria, Yol. iY. p. 5·

1
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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 133
in Paris in I 3 2 S,-the same year whicb saw Montpellier become a
residential and commercial centre for Florentines.
The French agencies were placed under the direction of a
resident Consul, or Consuls,-for later on there were two or three
such magistrates,-chosen by the votes of the resident "Cali'mala"
merchants and traders. They were received at the Court of the
King, and treated witb
the honours of an am-
bassador from a foreign
power. Their duties and
powers were exactly simi-
lar to those of the Consuls
in Florence. They had
jurisdiction over posts,
couriers, and communica-
tions of every kind. They
confirmed dates, routes,
and payments, for ali com-
mercial travellers, and re-
ceived reports as to the
transit of merchandise.
They also controlled ali
transactions between mer-
chants of the Guild and
native traders at the M&llCHANTS BAilGAINING OVII:R BALES OF CLOTH.
SIXTBII:NTH Cll:l'ITOR.Y,
country wool-sales and
cloth-fairs, which were very numerous all over France, and
especially in Champagne.
In these and other multitudinous duties the Consuls were
assisted, as in Florence, by Councils and officials of various
degrees. Appeals were allowed to the Court of the Consuls in
Florence, and the ruling of these Magistrates was accepted as
final.
Paris was, of course, the central seat of the "Calima/a" Guild in
France, and there the scions of many inftuential mercantile houses

oígítízed by Goog le
134 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
were employed from time to time. Among the more famous were
Brunetto Latini, Cino da Pistoja, Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and
the Giovanni Villani.
Pieccs of cloth consigned to Florence were carefully measured
and weighed before despatch. Each bore in two places the
seal of the agency, making the consignment, and, in addition, a
label indicating the length, the width, the price in gold florins, the
name of the manufacturer, and the name of the town of origin.
From ten to twelve pieces made a torse/lo or bale, which was
wrapped in felt, and covered with two thicknesses of canvas
sacking. The bales were conveyed generally direct to one or
other of the General Depots at Narbonne, Montpellier or Mar-
seilles, and thence, after inspection by " Surveyors of cloth-in-
transit," stationed at each centre, despatched to Florence.
The twofold trade of the " Ca/imala " merchants in the
purchase of native cloth, with its transport to Florence for
redressing, and the sale of finished pieces received from the
workshops of the Guild, was of course not confined to lt'rance
alone. Agencies and offices were opened in ltaly, in Spain, in
Portugal, in Flanders, in England and in Germany.
The following is a copy of an invoice of the contents of. a
to,.se//o-forwarded from Avignon by Piero di Borgognone and
Company to Alberti di Borgognone, their principal in Florence.
by way of Nice, under date December I 4th, I 348 1 : -

"Nel Torsello segnato I. si tra-

I Melle (piece of cloth) violetto di Borsella da Gian di Lintotto.
I Bianco di Borsella de' p : e di macchero.
I Melle verdetto di Borsella Gilis taccho.
I Violetto di Borsella Gilis di V eduena.
1 Violetto di Bors : Gian di Businghen.
1 Melle Alcipresso di Bors: Gian fenpo.
1 I Scarlattini di Loano Gualteri Vilignalla.
1 Verde fistichino di Loano franco Randolfo.

• G. F. Pqnini, wl. ü. p. 99-

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 135
1 Melle bruschino Domenico Pietro Vansclfelt
I Melle mandorlato d'Ordinaido d' Angela Chiaro.
I Nera di Bernai rubino nattino.
1 Bigio di Guanto Gran locrano.
fu questo per invoglia, ebbevi feltro, e tela doppia (packed in
felt and double corded).
Segnato 11. Soretti e uno Cappucia di Cafaggino di Gherardo."
This bale consequently contained thirteen pieces of cloth and
also a garment and hood for a special customer. Francesco
Balducci says 1 that only ten pieces went to a bale.
The Guild of " Ca/J"ma/a " forbade its members to give credit
beyond three months under severe penalties for non-obscrvance.
Later on the time was extended to six months for consignments
of foreign cloth to or from Florence, and to eight for bales of wool
from beyond the seas.
Under date I 338 Villani 11 records that :-" the 'Calimala'
merchants receive annually more than ten thousand pieces of cloth,
from over the mountains and from France, to be improved in
Florence. Their value exceeds three hundred thousand gold
florins, ali sold in Florence, without including such as was scnt out
of the city, and sold in the East, along the Mediterranean and in
ali the principal cities of Europe."
The demand for tbe finished cloths of Florence became
enormous, and there was consequently a tendency to keep up the
prices not alone of the commodity, but of the freights. This
condition of things culminated in the middle of tbe fifteenth
century, when the means of communication became more ex-
tended, and the business relations of the " Cali"'ala " merchants
increased prodigiously.
To retain their hold upon the markets of Europe, they
abeolutely forbade the emigration of skilled workpeople, and the
export of ma terials, and objects pertaining to the Guilds.8 Heavy
1" Muaale del Mercante Jo1orentino," tom. 2, p. 45·
' G. Vlllani, Lib. si. c:ap. 94- • Villani, si. 5·

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-
136 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
rates were cbarged upon cloth manufactured in, and finisbed for,
countries whicb erected tarift"s against Florence ; as mucb as five
gold ftorins was tbe irapost for picces of thirty-four !Jra&&ia in
lengtb.l "Tbe objects o( this policy, as Pagnini rightly says,11
was to create reciprocity, to prevent competition, to cbeck the
output, and to limit tbe traffic."
The " Calimaia " Consuls and Council in their corporate
capacity, and also tbe individual companies of mercbants, were
accustomed to send Visiting lnspectors from time to time on
tour to look after tbe intcmsts of tbe Guild and of tbe Trade.
Matters wbicb concemed private interest and enterprise were
no more tborougbly investigated tban questions of international
importance.
Tbe dangers to wbicb mercbants and agents were exposed at
tbe hands of bostile and oppressive rulers of foreign states, or con-
trollers of foreign manufactures, were plainly indicated by tbe
seizure, in 1271, by order of King Pbilippe le Bel,• of all Floren-
tine traders in France. He and bis rapacious counsellors extorted
beavy ransoms, making no discrimination between honest and
fraudulent mercbants.'
Tbe Visiting Inspectors had no light work to do, but tbey
entered upon tbeir adventurous undertakings bravely. Tbey
generally started on tbe joumey in companies, and were joined
by otbers desiring to visit France and other European states for
business or for pleasure.
The sole means of locomotion was by horseback. Gaily
attired, and accompanied by tbeir wives and otber lady friends,
and many retainers, and mucb baggage, the cavalcades assumed
imposing dimensions, and became occasions of mucb revelry and
of many adventures. When time bung heavy, or wben darkness
set in, a common occupation was to count tbeir beads and to
recite Paur-Nosters in fulfilment of vows taken before they started
1 StatuteiiJ09-IJI6, Bk. iv. J. 'Pagnini, voL ii. 88.
1 N(JÚ: Dante calla Pbilippe le Bel "Mlll tü Fr~" Evil Star of France.-
" Purptorio," canto vi. 4 G. VillaDi, vü. c. t and 6.

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 THE "CALIMALA" GUILD 187
at the altars of their Patron Saints. Every voyager had also
before leaving bis casa, or bis ;«~ere, or bis vil/a, taken the wise
precaution of making bis will, and of committing bis soul, and
ali bis earthly belongings too, to the protection of St Mary and
St John the Baptist.
Tbe fame of tbe Florentine cloth was vastly enhanced by the
high reputation of the " Calima/a " mercbants. Wbilst eagerly
seizing every opportunity for self-enrichment and for the aggran-
disement of their beloved city, and the bonour of tbeir Guild, they
were, ali the wbile, quite remarkable for self-restraint and nobleness
of character.
Between tbe years 1401 and I S48 we find, in tbe public
records, that tbe following families contributed most membets to
the Guild :-Altovi ti, I oS ; Strozzi, I o 7 ; Marbegli, 7 S ; Ghiudetti,
7 2 ; Acciaiuoli, 7 I ; Capponi, 6 I ; Nas i, S9 ; and Solderini, SS·
The names also of the following appear many times :-Alberti,
Albizzi, Adimari, Amidei, Buondelmonti, Cerchi, Frescobaldi,
Guicciardini, . Lamberti, Medici, Pazzi, Peruzzi, Ridolfi, Ricci,
Spini, Tomabuoni, Vettori, and Villani. Still earlier families were
Cavalcanti, Donati, Bardi, Corsini, Rinucci, Pucci, Ardinghetti,
Rinuccini, Chermonisti, Bandinelli, Buonaccorsi, and Dell' Antella.
All Europe looked on amazed at the enterprise, the wealth,
and the power of the city on the Amo, and for many a long day
no merchants and no manufacturers but bers ruled the inter-
national commerce of tbe world.
Tbe methods and tbe secrets of their craft had the " Calimala "
merchants safely guarded, but tbere was springing up in England
and in FJanders a spirit like unto their own. Tbere was no reason
wby other men should not do what the Florentines had done, and
many a student, and many a statesman, as well as many a trader,
set their minds to work to find out the why and wherefore of the
ascendancy of Florence.
England stepped first of all into the arena, and, under Henry
VII., a Jaw was passed by the British Parliament to prohibit the
export of unshom cloth. Other countries followed suit. This

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 .-.

138 THE GUILDS OF FLO.RENCE

was a blow to Florence .from which she never recovered, for,
togetber with the prohibition of export, there appeared upon
the scene native workmen, who had leamt something of the
methods of the Florentincs.
Before she had got over the effects of adverse legislation and
treatment on the part of her erstwhile customers the Grand Duke
Cosimo 1., with fine old Flo~tine protectionist instinct, issued,
in I S6 I, a decree of the Government, which forbade the importation
of serges .and light woollen cloths from England and Flanders !
This action was by way of " cutting off one's nose to vex one's
face I" This was a final anda deadly blow, and the whole stately
edifice of the " Arte e U niversita de' M ereanti di Calimaia "
tottered to its falJ I
In I 359 the State had bestowed upon the " Cali'ma/a" Guild
a site for the erection of a Residence for the Consuls and their
Courts, in lieu of their narrow quarters in the old Cavalcanti
Palace. The doors of this Temple of Commerce were opened in
prosperous times, but they were closed in days of waning power.
Who closed them, or when they were shut,-never to open again,-
no historian has recorded. After the Republic was abolished, in
the year I 532, the grand old Guild drooped slowly but surely,
but its death and burlai are alike unnoted, and no Scrivano has
left even one word to tell of its last moments.
The " Calimaia " Guild had held a preponderating position-
industrial, commercial, social, and political, in the history of
Florence for five hundred years and more I

'
I

1
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AR:\lS OF "THE GU!LO OF CALI:\IALA .. - ~<;.v;L~; .UII> 11.\I.E o~· CLOTII

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 1
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 CHAPTER V

THE GUILD OF WOOL

I. ORIGIN.-Wool lhe oldest textile industry. A quain~ old "Tract." AD

ancient Florentine document. The Countess Matilda. A fulling-mill of to6z.
Early workers in wool. Actual origin of Guild uncertain. Destruction of
documents by Ciompi in 1378. Home consumption. Foreign markets. Two
sections of original craftsmen. Separation of " CaJi111111a" merchants.
li. CONSTITUTION.-Similar to that of" CaJima/a" Guild. Particular legis-
lation to avoid confusion. Code of IJOI-IJ09. Duties of Sh"malllrl and
SIIUalt". Adulterations. Standard weights and measures. Payments in ad-
vance. Letters of credit. Many revisions of the Statutes.
111. THE UMILIATI.-Their inftuence, metbods of work, and example.
Borgo d'Ognissanti worksbops and workpeople. Great encouragement of wool
industry. A oew bridge. "Pi'llig-lioso I" The CtUd~~e. An anachronism.
Tbe " Bretbren " retire from business.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUILD.-Many classes of workpeople. Pro-
cesses. The Carding-comb. Dyers. Cost of dyeing. Tbe Duke of Athens.
Favourable regulations. Good wages. Fixity of tenure. Pawuing. Noises.
Games. Emigration. An old 1oom. Supply of wool. lnferiority of Tuscan
products. l.Aifa tii Gtvllo. Trade with Great Britain. Prices of raw wool
Freights. Tarift"s. Wool sales. Transport. Leonardo da Vinci's sbip-caaal.
Description of woven cloths. Allied mecbanical trades. Foreign workpeople
welcomed. Florence covered witb cloth. Prosperity. Cloth sales. Residence
of tbe Consuls. Factories in the Ct~~~lado. Momentous questions. Protection.
Strikes. Hardening of prices. Foreign competitioa. Taxable articles. "Ft~n
z1 Si'.f'llllre I" Tapestry and Cosimo de' Medici. The Military Order of tbe
Knights of St Stephen. A new Constitution. Silent looms.

T HE manufacture of woollen cloth is doubtless one of tbe

most ancient industries of the buman race. In an old
volume, entitled "Trattato della Pittura, Scultura, ed Arcbi-
tettura," written by Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo,-painter of Milan,
-with the sententious legend out o f Ecclesiastes : " In tbe
hands of the skilful sball the work be approved," there is tbe
following quaint reason for the existence of tbe wool industry 1 : -
1 Published In Eagllab. Oxford, •591·
,,,
140 'l'HE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
" In so much as our bodies being bome naked by Nature were
diversly annoyed by the intemperateness of the ayre, it most in-
geniously invented the . Art of Weaving and Tailery; not so
much for defence and safegarde of our bodies from iniury of the
wether, as for omament and decencie ; and to the selfe same end
hath it also found out (in a word) ali the other Mechanical
Artes."
Tbe historical records of every civilized nation give early and
prominent position to the working of, and the trading in wool. The
Persians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans,-the great
civilizing and commercial races of the world,-used and improved ·
the manufacture of woollen cloth. Under the universal dominion
of the latter power the extension of the woollen industry syn-
chronised with that of military and civil jurisdiction,-the trade,
then as now, followed the flag.
The first reliable notices of the woollen industry in Tuscany
present it to us as already in a flourisbing condition, and giving
employment to the majority of the inbabitants of the towns and
villages. From a document,t dated May 10, 846, it appears that
tbe weaving of wool was carried on in Lucca, under terms of
trade association, and with a code of regulations.
We may fairly presume that Florence was not far behind her
neighbour in the matter of date. Tbe capital of an enlightened
succession of Marquises and Dukes of Tuscany, we may be
sure that the principal industry of all time was not without
encouragement and co-operation, within the limits of her
influence and jurisdiction, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
centuries.
U nder the beneficent rule of the Countess Matilda the
prosperity of Florence advanced greatly. The workmen at her
looms and the merchants in her marts spread her fame far and
wide. The · Commune became a Republic of Industry and
Commerce, and her wool merchants and manufacturers were
enrolled among the earliest of the Consuls.
1 Penurd, P· 64· I

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 1,HE GUILD OF WOOL 141
Among the many trades which were actively prosecuted in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries the following are noted in the
portions of the State Archives which are preserved : -
" 1o6:z. Gtlakniera-a fulling-mill."
" I 096. Petrus-tentore-wool dyer."
" 1136. Scartone--pettinario--woollen-comb maker."
" 1 148. Petrus fil. Petri-pelliparius-cloth-presser."
" 1 I 9 3· Guerius-tonditor-sheep-shearer."

The scenes of these early industries was well within the

Secondo Cercnio,-Second Wall,-of 1074: security oflifeand pro-
perty not being assured in the Contado beyond. In the Prato,-
which along with Monte Orlando,-was enclosed within the city's
boundaries, in I 107, were located a great number of workers in
wool. The dressing of wool was also carried on in Via Alfani,
Via dei Servi, Via Ginori, Borgo Pinti, Via della Pergola, and in
the Piazza delle Travi, in the twelfth century.
In a State paper of the year I I97 is a law conceming the
cities and lands of Tuscany, wherein the people of Florence are
described as :-" wool-workers from Olivero." 1
The precise date of the first incorporation of the " Guild of
Wool," in Florence, is quite uncertain. Much of the knowledge
we can obtain of its inauguration is from presumption, for
during the memorable riots of the Ci'ompi in I 378, most of the
documents of the Guild were destroyed by fire. Tbis fact, taken
in connection with the poverty of the remnants of the State
Records, leaves us very much in the dark with respéct to the
initial o~ganization and early development of the Guild. Perhaps
the earliest record preserved is a list of the names of the Consuls
up to the year 1 I JS.t
Almost certainly the "Wool Guild" was the first Corporate
Society or Trade Corporation in Florence, and was in existence
before ber wool and cloth merchants began to travei through
1 L Cantinl, "Sqgi," YOI. üi. p. 73·
t Pagnini, "Della Decima," Yol. ii. p. 83.

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U2 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Europe. The output of the Florentine looms was in excess of
the demand on the spot, consequently enterprising manufacturers
looked abroad for markets.
This development led to the division of the wool-workers of
Florence, and the establishment of a separate Corporation of
dealers and finishers of foreign-made cloth-the .. Calimala." In
a very true sense the .. Arte túUa IAM " was the mother of the
"Arte di Calimala," but as time went on, the greater profits
obtainable by the latter drew into membership the more consider-
able of the citizens, and hence the "Calima/a " merchants took the
first place in wealth and inftuence, whilst native manufacturers
had to be content with the second place.
Notices of the Guild are frequent during the first thirty
years of the thirteenth century, and the Consuls signed their
names to Treaties with other States along with the Consuls of the
Guilds of "Judges and Notaries," "Ca/iMala," "Silk Merchants,"
and " Bankers."

The organisation of the W ool Guild marched with that of the

"Ca/imala" merchants. Before the promulgation of the Statutes,-
drafted 1301-1 309,-the "Guild of Wool" was ruled by Priors,
later called Consuls, whose number in that year was eight They
had power to make regulations and laws for the direction and
benefit of the Guild, and had full jurisdiction in all civil and
criminal causes over all enrolled members. They were chosen
by lot from among lhe most skilful masters of the craft
Matriculation followed the rule observed by the " Calimala "
Guild,-qualifications of birth, education, and parenta! income,
were necessary. The relations between the matriculated members
of the Guild and the operatives, engaged in all the various pro-
cesses of the wool industry, were quite the same for the two
Guilds.
About the year I 300 three separate sets of master-merchants
were empanelled to assist the Consuls in the execution of their I

.I

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WOllfEN WORKERS IN WOOL
P'JYTEENTII CI!STUNY

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 'fHE GUILD OF WOOL 14.3

office. These were called COfUir/im,-Advisets or counsellors,

Rep/atori-Officers of byelaws and regulations, and PrDflf.letiitori
degli On/ini-Superintendents of enactments.1
The adoption of the Code of Statutes, enacted for general
use by all the Guilds in 1301-1309, was agreed to by the
members of the W ool Guild almost in its entirety.
At first sight it seems probable that difficulties and confusion
would arise between the " Calimala " Guild and that of W ool.
Certainly there were some inconveniences, at an early period, due
to the similarity of the merchtmdise in which each was interested.
However it was soon seen that the business of the former had
exclusively to do with the finishing of foreign made woollen
cloth, and had nothing in common with the treatment of raw
wool and the manufacture of cloth.
Regulations ·and rules were passed by the Consuls and
Councils of each of the two Guilds, which rendered it practically
impossible for one to injure the other. No member of the Wool
Guild was allowed to keep or seU foreign-woven cloth. The
weaving of expensive cloth was restricted-perhaps with a view
to avoid competition with the trade of the "Calimala" Guild in
redressing fine foreign-made materiais. 0n the other hand cloth
made up of inferior cardings was condemned to be bumt-a
wise precaution against any temptation to force shoddy pieces
upon the market. 2
The right of the "Guild of Wool," and of its Consuls and duly
elected officers, to control the business and the workpeople of
the Guild was affirmed by a special rubric. At tbe same time
the members were bound not to interfere in any way with
members of other Gullds. Persons not matriculated in the Wool
Guild were forbidden to make and sell woollen pieces, and further
were restrained from mixing dyes or doing other things connected
with the wool industry.8
The StitMtori and S~t~Sali,-the official measurers and brokers
1 L. Cantioi. "Segi," p. 96- 1 Statata of IJC9-1316, Blc. iv. 45·
a Statuta P.et (C.) F. 1415. Rubs. slY. aud slvii. ·

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
144 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of the Guild,--acting under the express orders of the Consuls.
made scrupulous examination of the pieces before they were
placed upon the market. Each piece had to be of the exact
standard length and weight-the latter varied considerably .after
the processes of fulling and dyeing.1
Falsifications, adulterations, and irregularities of all kinds
were severely visited by fines, destruction of the cloth, and post-
ing the names of ali offending manufacturers and merchants at
the Offices of the Guild. The mixture of linen thread with woollen
was condemned, except its quality and description were plainly
marked upon the woven cloth. This industry however was
fairly prosperous, especially for exportation : cloth thus manu-
factured bore the name of Mosco/ato,-mixture,-and Tintila110,
-grained.2
A piece of woollen cloth usually measured from thirty to
thirty-two u/ne,-the yard-measure of the workshops was a
little longer than the canna of the " Calimala," the yard-measure
of commerce. The canna, as used by the "Guild of Wool,"
measured one and a half õraca'o, or a forearm's length, each
õraca'o being 22.97 inches, English.
The average weights of woollen yarn in the bundle were as
follows :-Garbo serges, one pound,-for fine qualities, either white
or coloured, one pound four ounces; for San Marti110,-finest
qualities only,""""--One pound five ounces; each weight being that
shown by the scales of the Battitori,-Wool-beaters.
lt was permissible to buy and seU pieces of cloth, bo/droni,
-whole fteeces of lanabs' wool without the skin, woollen yam, and
aJl-woollen sundries, in packs or bundles; but, in each transaction.
absolute honesty was enjoined, in the deduction from the pur:...
chase-money of the weight and value of the tare, whether sacks.
exuding moisture, pieces of fat or skin, dust or any other
extraneous matter.
Smsa/i of the Guild were wamed to pay particular attention
1 T. Trucbi, "Dü- del Commercio dei Fioreatlni," p. 17.
1 Cantini, iv. p. 4S·

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 145
to these matters, and to make careful entries in their sale and
transfer books. Disputed tares were to be at once taken before
the Consuls for their decision. Any person attempting · to pass
off' rubbish of any kind as good sound wool was punished by a
fine of one hundred /ire. The use of unjust weights, and undue
pressure of the hand upon the scale, incurred a penalty of two
hundred /ire.
The office of Smsa/e,-agent,-was quite as important in
connection with the W ool Guild, as it was with the " Guild of
Ca/imala." Many of these " middle men " made huge profits, and
became inftuential merchants ; but, in the archives, under the
year 1326, is a curious entry, which states that a certain
wool-broker declared he had not eamed more than fifty /ire that
year!
The Consuls of the Guild required that ali payments for yam,
cloth, raw-wool, and tbe adjuncts of the industry should be made
in advance, for sales effected within a distance of one hundred
miles from the city ; and further; they forbade discounts of every
kind. Payments to customers, or agents, beyond that distance
were managed by " Letters of Credit," under special notes of
interest, agreed upon with the co-operation of the " Guild of
Bankers and Money Changers."
The Statutes of the Guild were revised in 13 17, 13 3 1, 13 3 3,
1338, 1362, 1415 and 1428; additions were made in 1319,
1333, 1337, 1361, 1427 and many times in the sixteenth
century. In ali of these proceedings the Wool Guild bears its
full title of "Artt e Universita dtlla Lana." 1

The arrival and settlement of the Umi/iati,-the Humble

Fathers of Saint Michael of Alexandria,-in Florence, in 1238,
had an instantaneous and beneficent effect upon the woollen
industry at large. Their fame had preceded them, and they were
welcomed by manufacturer and by operative alike. The former
saw the possibilities of greater gains throdgh the application of
1 G. Gouetta, "Bibliografia Statuaria deite Corporauzie d'Arte e mestieri d'Italia."
K

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146 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
better technical knowledge ; whilst the latter judged that higher
wages would rule.
In 12 3 7· the State granted the church and convent of San
Donato alia Torre, just outside the Prato Gate, for the use of the
Fathers ; and the benefaction was confirmed by Giovanni de'
Mangiadori, the Bishop of Florence. After labouring bere for
five years, more roomy quarters were sought, where, under the
direction of the "Mercato,'' or Merchant of tbe Monastery, the
various processes of manufacture could be more conveniently
carried on.1
At a Council of State held on May 21, 12 so,--at which it
is interesting to note that tbe Consuls of the W ool Guild took
part along with the Consuls of tbe other four leading Guilds,-
lands and buildings, in the district of Santa Lucia sul Prato, were
allocated to tbe use o f the Um#iati for the furtberance o f their
industry. In the same year the Brethren purchased for a sum of
four hundred and ninety-seven florins (silver) a piece of land and
two dwelling-houses from the Tomaquinci family for tbe purpose
of still more enlarging their establishment1
The responsibilities of the Monastery vastly increased, but
were greatly l~ghtened by the direct patronage and emulation of
the " Guild o f W ool." In 12 S6 the Brethren were again on the
move ; and this time, on their own initiative, they establisbed
themselves upon the banks of the Amo, just at the foot of the
Second Wall of 1074- Here they erected a church,-which they
dedicated to Saint Catberine of Alexandria,-monastery buildings
and workshops. U pon them they carved their heraldic arms,
or trademark,-a wool-pack crossed with ropes,-and tbey named
their establishment in honour of Ognissanti-All Saints.
Quite near these new quarters was already a considerable
population,-labourers at the river quay,-whilst not very far
away were the public fishing-grounds, and a water-mill owned
by the State. The Um#iati were accompanied by many
families of workers to whom they had imparted their methods
1 Cantini, .. Saggi," YOL iii. p. 73- 1 Cantini, "Legislazioni," iii. p. Ir.

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 147
of woollen manufacture. For them they built dwelling-houses
and a com-mill, along with warehouses and factories, where
now-a-days runs the fasbionable Lung' Amo. Pens for dipping
fteeces and dyeworks were erected by the river-side. In the
meadows, and under the old wall, and beneath the projecting
eaves of the roofs of the monastic buildings, were great wooden
frames wbereon tbe pieces of woven cloth were stretched to
dry. Tbe district soon became the centre of an industrious and
well-conducted community, and Borgo d'Ognissanti,-with the
Via Gora running througb it,-grew into an important and
wealth-producing suburb of the city.
As the trade of the Monastery increased,-and by this
increase the commerce of the Florentine wool merchants also
grew enonnously,-the necessity for a bridge across the Amo
became obvious. In 1 2 18 a w~en structure was thrown over
tbe ri ver by permission of tbe Podesta, Otto da Mandola, to which
was given the name of "Alia Carraia," on account of the number
of carts and waggons laden with wool, and pack-mules, which
constantly crowded it, coming out of the country, or going down
to Porto Pisano.
This bridge also served another useful purpose, for it provided
the inhabitants of the three Borghi or Suburbs,--across tbe river
collectively known as Oltramo,-with a ready means of access to
the new woollen factories. One of these Borghi was ignominiously
called " Pittiglioso," because of the poverty and squalor of its
denizens. These poor people were thus enabled to obtain work,
and speedily an entire transformation of their district was effected.
Later on in the history of Florence the main street gained the
name of Via de' Bardi, after one of the rich banking families who
built their palace there.
Many provisions and laws were passed by the Govemment
of the Republic, between 12 so
and the end of the century, which
extended the privileges and powers of the Umiliati. 1 In 1267,
for example, the " Porto," so called,--or landing stage,-the islands
1 L. Cantini, " Legislazi.olli," vol. i. p. 297.

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U8 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
in the Amo, and the whole riverside from the Ponte alla Cancüa
to the junction of the river Mugnone,-with all the adjoining
fields and gardens,-in fact the beautiful Cascine of modem
Florence-were allocated to the use of the Order for building
new factories and workmen's houses.
The woollen cloth manufactured in the workshops of the
Order was marked with their arms,-a bale of cloth tied with
cords in the form of a cross,-with the letters O. SS. C. in
the comers-" Om•i*m Satldonlm C011vmbls,"-the Monastery
of All Saints.1 The Monastery became the heart and soul of
the trade o f Florence, whilst the lives o f the " Brethren,"-as
they prefeJTed to be called,-fumished models of self-control,
business application, and religious zeal, each of which had an
immense inftuence upon the sympathetic nature of the people.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century, however, a marked
relaxation of zeal was seen in the conduct of the Umi/iab: so far
as their efforts were concemed in directing and encouraging the
woollen industry. Whether their religious Rule became more
exacting, or whether the anachronism of monks competing in the
world's markets with merchants, or prudence in view of political
controversies, or lukewarmness in the prosecution of their manu-
facturing enterprise, suggested the relaxation, no authority has
recorded.
Gradually the work of the Monastery dwindled away, and
the operatives began to ally .themselves more closely with the
"Guild of Wool." At last, in 1330 a resolution was arrived at by
the Generais of the Order, which shut their factory doors, and
for ever closed the labours of nearly one hundred years. The
monks retained possession of the Monastery of Ognissanti till
I 564, at which date Pope Pius V. suppressed their Order.

Among the trade associations subordinated to the Guild of

Wool Merchants were 2 : -
I L'Osservatore Fiorentino, iii. JÓ9-
2 G. Capponi, "Stoi'ÍII. della Repubb. di Firenze," vol. ii. pp. 3·5·

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 THE 'GUILD OF WOOL
Ttmztori and Cimatori. Shearers.
Lavatori. Washers.
St»~t~patori. Sorters.
Cart/atQri and St:ardassien·. Carders.
Filalori and Filatore. Spinners, - male and
female.
Tusiton: Weavers.
Folloni Fullers.
Ti11ton: Dyers.
Filatriu. Winders.
Stamaiuo/i. Master-spinners.
Batti/ani. Carding-machine oilers.
Lar.;,·. Special workers.
Ptthilaton: Combers.
Vergluggiatori and Battitori. Beaters.
Pettinagn4/i. Comb make~.
COIIt:ialon: Curriers.

The methods, employed by the various sets of operatives in

the manufacture of cloth, were to a great extent the same which
obtain to-day in countries where the introduction of modem
machinery has not been made.
After the fteeces had been cut off,-preferably in orie whole
piece,-from the sheep, they were washed, but not with hard
water, for that was found to make the wool harsh to the touch.
Ammonia, in one form or other, was usually' mixed with the
water. This had .the further recommendation of rendering the
dressed wool more susceptible of even dyeirtg. Scouring in
hot soap-suds in hollow vats required the services of two men
to a vat, for they kept on tossing, one to the other with strong
potes, the bundles of wool, separating thtis the dirt and dissolving
the grease. .;
The next process was lifting the scoured and c:leansed fteeces
out of their bath and allowing them to drain, meanwhile rinsing
them with· purc Amo· watet to remove suds. · Drying slowly was

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150 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
found best in draughty warm air, but the aim was not to let
the wool become too dry, for fear of cracking and splitting.
Combing the wool followed. Big brushes or rakes were used
at first, their teeth being bent into stout leather backs, wbich
offered a more yielding medium than wood. Later on, cylin-
dr:ical combing machines of iron and leather were introduced.
Oiling was an important point, to avoid harshness and
undue curling. The oil was applied to the combed-out wool
by sprinklers with rose mouthpieces. This process was found
to be useful in promoting adhesiveness when the spinning stage
was reached.
Blending the wool was a special science apart, practised by
the most experienced workpeople, but essential from an economic
point of view, and also from the point of view of the production
of novel materiais.
Carding, the initial step to the processes of making yam,
was a very important matter, and required the skill of well-trained
workmen. The carding-comb for weaving ,.asáa,-white serge,-
was ordinarily about sixteen inches wide, with wires of such
a number as would allow one hundred and ten threads to be
laid upon ·the 1oom. For sky-blue serges the comb was seven-
teen inches wide, with wires for one hundred threads ; for pale
and faded blue ·serges the comb was the same, but one hundred
and five wires were laid upon the 1oom. There was no restric-
tion in the size of comb or in the number of thread wires for
other kinds of coloured cloth.
Spinning and winding followed closely on the heels of one
another. They were usually done by women and girls ; but ali
apprentices were expected to know both these processes ex-
perimentally, and to be skilled in them.
It was the duty of the Stamaiuoli to give out woollen yam to
the Filatrice in knots or bundles, and to register the name of each
woman, and the number and quality of the knots, and at the
same time to agree with her about the price for winding each
particular job. The winders were forbidden to transfer their

• o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
o, 9ítízed by Goog I;., •
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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 151
work one to the other, and to make use of any yarn not delivered
to them by the master spinners.1
The actual making of cloth required many processes, of
course, between the delivery of the wound yarn and the output
o( the pieces of finished woollen clotb. W eavers, Fullers, and Dyers
each in tum manipulated the lengths of cloth before they reached
the presses of the Finisbers and F olders.
Tbe Dyers of Florence formed a considerable and numerous
element in the population. They seem to have been divided into
three classes :-1. Dyers of foreign cloth for the "Calimala Guild " ;
2. Dyers of native cloth for the "Wool Guild"; and 3· Dyers of
silk for the " Silk Guild." Ali were dependent upon the " Calimala"
for the supply of dyes, mordants, and ali other ingredients of their
trade. Each Dyer paid the sum of three hundred and ten gold
florins to the Treasurer of the Guild, by way of guarantee or bail
that be purposed to execute bis calling in goOd faith, and, in
retum, received an official permission to carry on the industry~
Eacb Dye-house and ali its contents, together with sampl~ of
dyed goods, were required to be prepared annually for a thorough
inspection by the officials of the Guild.
Whilst the Dyers were not permitted to incorporate them·
selves into a separate Arle or Guild, they were allowed to associate
themselves in families and groups, in the pursuit of any special
operations of their craft. All such companies were subordinated
to the " W ool Guild," with respect to their political and social
status, the only exception being made in the case of certain
foreign dyers employed by the " Silk Guild," who did not come
under the authority of the " Guild of W ool."
Dyers were obliged to show diligence in their work, and render
prompt and faithful service to their employers. They were bound
to enter in a book, within twenty-four hours, ali the cloth which
they received for dyeing. They were not allowed to go about the
city, ·or Contado, seeking work, but were to remain in their work-
shops, until they obtained pieces from the Setuali.
1 L. Cantini, " .LeeisJuione," i. p. 366.

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152 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The cost of dyeing woollen cloth per one hundred pieces in
Florence in the fifteenth century may be estimated by the
following List 1 :-SbüulaJo--sky-blue, Smeraláino--emerald, and
.llsnro-light blue, three florins; Pelo di úone-·-tan colow:, and
Verde cmaro-bright grcen, four florins ; Bigio di messo-middle
grey, and Cupo di ózanco--shaded white, five florins ; Rosa seaa...-
dead red, Sa11guigno di sMadato--pale carmine, and Glurofana/11
-pink, six florins ; Ce/eshno-sky-blue, Violetto-pale purple, and
Bn~Sckiiw--coffee-colour, eight florins; Vertk-Bnmo-dark green,
Berrethno di guado--Monk's-hood red, and Moreno di grana-
ivy black, ten florins ; Monackino-monkish grey, twelve florins ;
Rosato- deep rose, twenty-five florins; Lucckesino - Lucca
scarlet, twenty-eight ftorins, and Scar/atto-vermilion; thirty-five
florins. ·
These prices were fixed by the Consuls and Council of the
" W ool Guild," with the expert advice of the officers appointed to
examine into the subject. lt was imperative that the colours used
in dyeing should be fixed, not fugitive. Any cloth ba41y dyed
was either . remanipulated, cut up and sold to the hucksters, or
bumt. Dyers could, if they wished, use inferior colours, b11t they
were obliged to c;Jeclare the fact, and to place tickets stating it,
upon the dyed pieces.
Alum,-indispensable as a mordant for fixing the colours,-was
brought from mines in the Maremma, where the dlóris of early
excavations had been pulverised by the action of the air.
The Duke of Athens, on assuming the government of Florence
extended his favour to the Dyers-who by the way did much to
support bis authority, -by granting the petition they offered to him
in I 342.11 In this document, after paying the Duke some flattering
compliments, the petitioners go on to say: "Grant us Consuls of
our own, chosen out of our Corporation of Dyers and Washers
and free us from the yoke of the ' W ool Guild,' that we may cany
on our industry without let or hindrance in your Highness's
' Pagilini, vol. iv. 170.
1 An:bivio Giomale Toscana, vi. 210, Doc. 83.

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 153
service." Three Consuls were appointed, but they were not
s:ccognised by the " Guild of Wool."
No workman could be employed by any merchant who had
not nrst proved bis ability, ·and obtained a formal written
testimony thereo( Employers were required to provide their
workpeople with ali the instruments of their trade. For mutual
coílvenienee workers ·engaged in the same process were employed
in 'g'roups, and worked in the same {OOIDS. The manufacture of
woollen-cloth was forbidden in private dwellings.1
Each manufacturer was required to pay bis work-people suffi-
cient daily or weekly wages-the amount of which had to be
submitted to the CoMuls <>f the Guild for their apptoval. . The
nonn~ll prices paid to Filatori .and Lanini .were, for each bundle of
serge yam, one soldo, ten dmari or piccioll: Filatrice received
generafly one soldo, five picao/i, 'for the same quantity. The average
daily wage of'an adult worker wàs one stilth, six dinan·, about- one
shilling and sixpence. In times of trade depressk>ri prices haturall:r
declined, and a day's wage ainounted to ·no ·more than thirty
~/i-perhaps about eightpence. ·
Every 'Workman had security of tenancy irt ·his horne. A PrO'ÍI'-
vUioM prevented manufacturers expelling· their há.nds,--either
from their employment or their houses,-save for grave reasons,
which had to be stated in the Council of the Consuls, and
approved by· vote. House-owners also were forbidden to raise
the rents of dwellings except by c:xpress permission . of the
Coflsuls.
All citizens were strongly cautioned not to take in pledge-,
from woollen operatives, any instrument or implement used in
their trade. Sales of wool, woollen-yam, or woollen-cloth by
workpeople were strictly prohibited. No money-changer, or tender
of the market, was allowed to lend money upon whole pieces
of woollen·doth, remnants of ·cloth, · woollen-yarn, or raw wool.
·Every such transaction, in spite of the prohibition, was visited with
a fine of fifty lir1. . ...
1 .V. Follini, "Firenze Antica e .Moderna Illustra,'~ vol. Yi, cxxi. p. ~'/·

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154 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Wool-sorting and beating were forbiddcn within the walls of
the city, as was also the scutching of cotton and all other noisy
employmcnts, from the tolling of the three o'clock bell to the
striking of the bell at Matins. Overtime,-as we call it,-was
forbiddcn, no worker being permittcd to carry on bis trade even
secretly after Compli~~e.I ·
The care which the State extended to the well-being of the
woollcn operatives is evidcnced in a number of P1'tJflfiÜÜJtli
regulating the hours of work and rest. I t was strictly prohibited
for any noise to be made in the streets during the night.
In ali the workshops of the Guild games of chance were
strictly forbidden, indeed the only indoor game allowed was
chess, which as a quaint old chronicler has it,-" hath in it the
element of patience and quietness." 1
Certain PrOflfiÍsiom' dealt with the questions of the emigration
of operatives and of the location of foreign agencies. No
merchant, agent, workman, or apprentice, was permitted to leave
Florence, and establish himself in any foreign land except by
express permission of the Consuls of the Guild Later on-in
the fifteenth ccntury-the emigration of workpeople was wholly
forbidden. These measures were doubtless necessary for the
safeguarding of the secrets of the trade, and for the protection of
the Florentine monopoly of foreign markets. In the same way
the export of raw native wool and woollen yam, as well as of
madder, woad, and other dying materiais was forbidden.
It is a thousand pitles that all the old looms, implements, and
acc~ries of the industry have disappeared. As late as 1858 an
ancient telaio-woollen-cloth loom-was still in working order in
an old house, of the time of Amolfo di Cambio, in the thirteenth
ccntury, in the Piazza delle Travi, on the Lung' Arno degli
Alberti.
Neither Tuscany, nor the whole of Italy, could supply any-
thing like the quantity, much less the quality, of wool needed to
meet the requirements of the Florentine looms. The rearing
1 Statuta, 1415, Rub. :llis. t Statuta Populi Florentiae, Book iii. 191.

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A CLOTH·FULLIN!; MJLL WJTH A WA1ER·GATE
FUUKTRP.~·rH ,\SO Flt-.TEKNTH CV.SlTRJJo:s
[ Srt Ja~r r6J)

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 I
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 THE GUILD OF WOOL
of sheep was not, in early times, a paying occupation in
Tuscany. The breed was certainly hardy, but the scant eatage
of the barren hill-sides,-where the ftocks were pastured because
the bettu land was under cultivation,-was not productive of
the opulent fteeces of more generously nourisbed ftocks. In the
fifteenth century the number of sbeep in Tuscany excecded one
million ; but whereas some, in good condition, only gave three
or four pounds' weight of coarse wool, a Spanish, English, or
Flemish sheep rendered up a fteece whicb averaged eight and
nine pounds of excellent wool.1
The determination and the thoroughness which the sbepherds
and their masters,-most of them wealthy members of the W ool
Guild,-threw into the rearing of sheep produced good results.
Tuscan raw wool,-which eventually took the place of the famed
produce of Puglia, Taranto, and Modena,-obtained profitable
quotations in all markets for the manufacture of strong and
serviceable cloth.
The woollen industry of Florence had active and enterprising
rivais at Pisa, Genoa, Venice, Bologpa, Ferrara, and in Lombardy
and France. At the same time, in each of these manufac-
turing centres, there existed Statutes and Provisions, which
absolutely forbade the importation of foreign wool, and the
manipulation of foreign-made cloth. Florence, on the other hand,
followed an entirely different policy, with results, as remarkable
for their benefit to the home industry, as they were for their pre-
eminence in ali foreign markets.
The wealth, which poured into the coffers of ber merchants,
enabled them to purchase the pick of the wool offered at ali
foreign fairs. England, France, Spain, and Portugal, readily sold
their rich fteeces to the agents of the " Guild o f W ool." Prices
ranged from sixteen solái per hundred pounds' weight of raw
Tuscan wool, to sixteen hundred solái for the same weight of
the best French (Narbonne) and Portuguese raw wool.
From the Algarves came the best of ali wool-Tuscanized into
1 L. Pignotti, " Storia della Tosc:aDa," p. 27.

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156 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
" Gano." Hence "Panne di Garbo" was the finest cloth wovert
in Florence, and the street in whicb it was cbiefty manufactured
was called Via di Garbo. Spanish wool was also of very excel-
lent quality. The merino sheep introduced into the country by
the Romans centuries before, and crossed with the native breed, had
establisbed a high reputation for purity of colour and silkiness of
texture. No wool· was so useful as this pure white ·variety. for fine
manufáctutes : it also went under the name of " Lana di Gar6o." ·
Henry I I. was the first Englisb king wbo granted facilities
to Florentine traders for the purchase of Britisb-grown .wool
As early as 1284· the quantity of raw wool bought by
Florentiile merchants from English monasteries was considerable.
Several wool-trading companies were establisbed in London; and
elsewbere,--among thém being that of Messer Tommaso Spigliati
e di Lapo Ugbo : Spini.~ Letters are in existence, written by one
o( their . travellers,---Simone Gberardi,-who, in rendering an
account of bis commercial journey in 128 5, speaks of the elCcel-
lerice of the wool oft"ered for sale by the British monasteries.
Otbei' companies were Messen di Bindo Isquarta, di Jacopo, Ric-
comanno, de' Mozzi, Peruzzi, and Pulchi, with representatives of
the Bardi family.
By the year 1 3 1 5 more tban two hundred · monasteries in
England, France, Spain, Portugal, and Flanders, were supplying
the Florentine Guild o f W ool. The names o f these look very
funny in their ltalian dress, for example : -
Vichamo-in-costa·Rivalsi for Wykeham near Rivaux.
~occheselle in Chenti , Bexley in Kent.
Stalleo in Guarvicche , Stoneleigh in Warwick.
Guizzopo presso Abliada , Worksop near Nottingham.
· Guesame inChondisgualdo,. Eversham in Worcestershire.
Miense in Picardia , Amiens in Picardy.
Pro\.ino in Campagna , Provins.
Bosella in' Brabante , Brussels.
Inghiemino in Arnaldo , Engheim in Hainault.
·1 Pqninl, Yol. ü, Appendbc xri. p. 324·

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 157
Melrose they called Merusotte, Galloway-Gonellasso, and
Kelso-Chilosola, and so on.1
The best British wool. came from the Cotswolds and from
Chichester,-Tuscanised into Codignaldo and Scrisestri.
" The wool of Britain," wrote an old historiao, " is often spun
so fine that it is, in one sense, comparab!e to the spider's web."
This excellence was the result of carefully following the plans of
the old Roman settlers, who established immense sheep farms in
various parts of the country and ~t up woollen manufactories at
the old capital Winchester. Doubtless they were duly appreda-
tive of the splendid breed of sheep which they found in the island
and their rich yield of long silky fteeces.
The raw wool imported from England was of three qualities,
- " Buona"-fine, "Moi!zna"-soft, and "Loccki"-still-born lamb's
wool. The prices, per sack, of Scotch wool were,-for fine
qualities, twenty marks, English,-for coarse, twelve marks, and
for still-bom, nine marks. (English coinage).1
One hundred pounds weight English were equal to about one
hundred and forty Florentine, and each .English sack contained
about fifty-two pounds. For ease. of transport by mule-back the
sacks were packed in two equal bales,-each wei~hing about two
hundred and fifty pounds Florentine.
The exports of raw wool from England assumed vast propor-
tions, and excited the jealousy and opposition of native producers
and manufacturers. The annual consignments from Great Britain
to Florence, in the fourteenth century,-and indeed earlier,-filled
2,8oo sacks or bags, and were of the average value of .:C2s,ooo
to .:C 30,000.
Vexatious Acts of Parliament were passed to limit the facilities
of the Florentine traders. Edward 111. invited dyers, fullers, and
weavers from Flanders to settle in bis dominions, and teach bis
people their methods ; and, at the same time, he directed that

I Tbe whole liat ia given by Balducci Pegolotti fw the year 1315, from the MS.
Riccardiana, "La Pratica della Mercatura," vol. ii.
1 Perurzi, p. 324.

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158 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
exorbitant duties should be placed upon the exports of wool to
ltaly.
In 145 s. under Henry VI., a law was made forbidding Italian

A "FUSTA DI MIUlCATO," A f.IGKT MltR.CHANT VltSS&L. FIFTitltNTK CltNTURY.

merchants to buy wool and woollen yam and cloth except in

London, Southampton, and Sandwich. A few years later this
was made more stringent by the absolute refusal of Parliament to
allow sales to Italian wool merchants.
Legislation under Edward IV. forbade aliens to export wool,

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 159
and restricted natives from consigning bales or bags, to ali
foreign ports except Calais. Ali these repressive measures led
to the commissioning by Italian merchants of blocade-running
ships, by which risky means valuable consignments were got
through to I taly and elsewhere.
Such embargoes could not be tolerated, and so the Florentine
shippers appointed Bindo da Staggio,-a resident in London and
a pWS~mt~ grata at Court,-their ambassador, to plead for a relaxa-
tion of the prohibitive regulations. The outcome was favourable
to the foreign traders, and by way of securing their advaritage,
two wool merchants-Francesco negli Strozzi and Gierozo de'
Pigli,-both residents irt London,-were appointed Consuls of the
Florentine colony in England.1
In 148 3 a Royal decree was issued regulating sales to
Florentine merchants, and again restricting their trade. U nder
Henry VII. more enlightened counsels prevailed, and in 1486
a commercial treaty, between England and the Florentine Republic,
was signed, by which English merchants undertook to carry every
year sufficient wool to supply ali the States of Italy ; and Floren-
tine traders promised to buy no wool unless carried in English
ships. The Florentines obtained on their side corresponding
privileges with respect to the import into England of redressed
foreign cloth and dyed Florentine weavings.1 In 1493 modifica-
tions of the treaty were made. Greater freedom was allowed in
the purchase of raw wool for sole consumption in Florence, but
her merr.hants were forbidden to re-sell their imports, except six
hundred bales annually to the Venetians.
The reigns of Henry VI 11. and Elizabeth were full of enact-
ments for and against the Florentine woollen-cloth merchants.
The former sovereign encouraged their enterprise, and had per-
sonal dealings with the Frescobaldi, Bardi, Corsi, Cavalcanti, and
other leading houses. The policy of Elizabeth was however
repressive, and under her the export of raw wool was once more
1 Arehivio di Firenze, Filza Stroaiana, 294. etc., IJS·IJ6.
' L. Cantini, " Legislazione, '' i. p. 301.

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160 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
absolutely and entirely forbidden. This prohibition cut both ways
but the greater sufferers were the English sheep farmers, whose
loss was estimated at ten million pounds sterling I
At the same time no such restrictions or prohibition affectcd
the export of Spanish and Portuguese wool. From a document
of the year 1 3 26 we learn that prices ranged as follows : - 1
A whole fteece of " Garóo,"-less the skin,-one hundred gold
florins.
Undressed wool of "S. Matteo," and Majorca,-one lira, eleven
so/di per pound.
U ndressed wool of Minorca-one lira, eighteen soldt.· per pound.
Washed wool of Majorca-two /ire, five soldi per pound.
W oollen yam of " Garóo "-two /ire, eight soldi per pound.
With England as the . greatest wool-producing country in
Europe, from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, the com-
mercial intercourse of the Florentines developed rapidly. At first
the trade with the English grower was only through the medium
of the French and Flemish markets, and was carried overland-
from which circumstance English wool was called " la~~a
frandgena." After Florence had obtained possession of the ports
of Livomo and Porto Pisano, the bales were shipped direct from
London, or Southampton,-which was the chief wool-shipping
depot. One of the favourite trade routes was from London to
the coast of France by sea, then up the rivers Gironde and
Dordogne, as far as Liboume, thence overland, by Montpellier to
Aigues Mortes in Provence, whence by canal and sea to Porto
Pisano, and by river boat up the Amo to Segna, and finally by
road to Florence I Another was by Bruges in Flanders, through
Germany to Basel, and over the passes of the Alps.
The expenses of the land transport were enormous, and added
immensely to the value of the wool when it reached the hands of
the craftsmen in Florence. The freight from London to Leghom
or Porto Pisano was two soldi per mule load, and the charge for
porterage, trans-shipment, repacking, etc., on the way, added
1 Arcbivio di Firenze, " Tassa del/e Ga/Je/11."

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 161
considerably to. the cost. Warehouse dues also were paid upon
consignments of wool stored .in transit, even for brief periods :
the charge at Porto Pisano, for example, was six dmari per
mule load.
In the fifteenth century a ship-canal to connect Florence with
the sea was projected by merchants of the " Calima/a " and
"Wool" Guilds. Leonardo da Vinci actually made elaborate
surveys and drafted plans for thc enterprise. The scheme how-
ever fell through because the Republic had other costly projects in
hand.
During the course of the thirteenth century Florentine manu-
facturers were engaged almost exclusively in weaving cloth · of
coarse quality made out of native wool. These went by various
names :-bige//o--coarse camlct or frieze, frustagno--fustian,
araóasio-canvas-cloth, pignolato-rough hard cloth, sclziavina-
blanketing or slave-cloth, vülanesclzi-peasants' serge, óaraazne
-coarse camlet, mosco/ato-moss-like mixture, and other rough
and inferior descriptions.
" These stuffs," writes Villani, " were coarse, and of only low
value, the which indeed they had not learned to dress with the
skill afterwards acquired." 1
One description of the native manufacture was certainly of
"finer texture. It was called " Tit~tila110,"-6ne grained cloth,-
made from the silky fteeces of young lambs, and was further
distinguisbed as /oa!ti,-still-bom,-and moiana-soft and light.
Tbis woven material was greatly esteemed for the tight-fitting
body hose and drawers worn by men, and is referred to by
Boccaccio as thoroughly Florentine.2
Not only did the wool industry thrive under the auspices of the
Umüiati, but also through the energy of the Consuls of the" Wool
Guild," who welcomed artizans from Greece, and elsewhere, skilled
jn the making of carding-frames and weaving-looms, and the
other machines and appliances required by the Craft. .
The enterprise and the liberal wages, which marked the
l Villani, Yol. si. c. 94- t Boccac:c:io, "NoveUe" 111, Giomo 7·
1.

•
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......._.........
162 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
business policy o( the Florentine manufacturers, attracted a great
number of foreign workmen. The Govemment of the Republie
accorded to all these the same exemptions and privileges which
had been bestowed upon the Umiliati.1
This immigration made it absolutely necessary, for the sake
o( the public health, and to avoid inconvenience and overcrowding
in the quarters already inhabited .by the craftsmen, to allocate to
the new-comers new areas.. Hence we find that settlements of
mechanics and makers of carding-combs were established in
OItramo.
By the end of. the thirteenth century Via Maggio, Via San
Feli«:e in Piazza, Fondaco San Spirito--in Borgo Sa11 jacopo, and
about San Martino and San Procolo--in the Vigna, and near
Porta · Rossa, had received a new population, which, added to the
original wooJworkers in that quarter, bccame, Jater on, a very
powerful factor in the destinies, not merely of the Craft, but of
the Republic at ·large. Many of the more skilful foreign artificers
were located also in the óotteglu-small shops of the Via de'
Pellkciai and around the Residence of the Consuls of the 11 Guild
·of Doctors and Apothecaries."'
Thus, early in the fourteenth century, nearly the whole of
Florerice was given up to the woollen industry. Streets were
named after the various avocations in subordination to the
"Guild of Wool," for instance :-Via dei Cimatori,--Street of the
Shearers,-Via delle Caldai,-Street of the Cauldrons,-and the
Corso dei . Tintori,-Road of the Dyers.
All round Or San Michele, and in every street and lane in the
neighbourhood of the Residence, and away down the more impor-
tant thoroughfares, right along to Borgo d'Ognissanti, and the
monastery and manufactory of the U1~tiliati, almost every house
and building had iron upright rods fitted to ali the windows, sup-
porting wooden cross-bars, upon which were hung out, to stretch
and to dry, great hanks of spun-wool and long pieces of woven-
cloth. Some of these rods and bars may still be seen in the
1 Stat. Fio. Ub. iY. · Rub.· 38. 1 Belledetto Dei, " Crooica,,. p. :a:a.

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 STREET SCE!IIE: THE <;A)IE OF CI\TrTINO
f'IF T I".ESTII CENTt:HV

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TO OHV At' TIH< OYEI~( •• (Su ('Jt,rf'lt'r ,\T/}

(2) THE Sf\'LK OY HAIR·ONESSISG. ( 4lu Clurfttr XI'

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 1

.~

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 163
window-írames of the Palazzo d' Alessandri in the Borgo degli
Albiui. Indeed, when the woollen industry was at the height of its
prosperity, Florence appeared to be one vast drying and stretching
ground. Cloth of ali kinds and colours waved in great lengths in
every quarter, and imparted an extraordinary aspect to the streets!
More than thirty thousand hands were engaged in the manu-
facture of woollen-cloth, ali, or nearly ali, of whom, were working
in connection with the "Guild of Wool." Villani, speaking of the
year 1308, says there were in Florence and its immediate C0t1tath,
two hundred workshops belonging to the Guild, wherein were
manufactured from seventy to eighty thousand pieces of woolle~~
cloth. The value of this output amounted to· two hundred
thousand gold florins. Thirty years later there were three
hundred woollen-cloth manufactories, which produced upwards of
one hundred thousand pieces of cloth.
At the levying of the Catasto,-income-tax,-in 142 7 it was
found that there were one hundred and eight /arge manufactories
to be taxed ; and in that of 1460 the number had risen to two
hundred and twenty-three wholesale houses doing an enormous
business. These figures do not include the sma/1 manufactories,
the number of which was variable, but which were always quite
as numerous if not more so than the leading houses.
In the latter year Benedetto Dei relates that Florentine woven
cloth was sold largely in Rome, N aples, Sicily, Constantinople,
Pera, Adrianople, and ali over the East. At the same time
woollen-yarn spun in Florence was not allowed to be sold to
foreign customers.
Trade was flourishing in the declining years of Lorenzo de'
Medici, inasmuch as fourteen thousand pieces of cloth, made out
of Spanish wool calleci "Garbo," were woven in one year, and sold
abroad for twenty-one gold florins the piece. In the same year five
thousand pieces of cloth, made out of fine English wool called " San
MarliNJ," were woven, and realized sixty gold florins the piece.1
The Piazza della Signoria was the original site of the biennial
I Marco Foscari, "Disconi DeL EY. Tos." tom. uüi.

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164 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
cloth sales, but, in the fifteenth century, the fair had attained such
large proportions, that it was removed to the Piazza di San Spirito,
in Oltrarno, and the Via Maggio and the neighbouring streets. The
Venetians were great purchasers of Florentine-made cloths, which
they exported in considerable quantities to Syria, Candia, and lstria.
In the very centre of the city resided the Consuls,-within the
precincts of Or San Michele ; and their Residence,-the ancient
Palazzo de' Comprobbisi,-communicated by an arched-covered
stairway, built in the sixteenth century, with the Shrine and
Granary across the street. From the massive and battlemented
tower they could survey the operations of their workpeople in the
immediate neighbourhood, and the waggons and strings of mules
bearing in and out the materiais of their craft across the bridges.
lt bore the name of "Arclu"viQ & C0t1tratti,"-" the Registry of
Contracts,''-because within it were preserved the Registers of
Commissions made on behalf of the Guild.
This tower still exists and bears the sculptured arms of the
-Guild, which were emblazoned also upon the GOtlfalon, and
cunningly united the devotional instincts of the Florentine people
with the emblems of their city and of their craft. They were : -
Upon a red field, a white "Agnus Dei,'' bearing a red-crossed white
banneret, under four blue lilies, and a wool-comber's iron-rake.
The interior of the Residence was richly decorated. Tbe
Hall of Audience, which occupied the whole of the first ftoor,
had a finely painted ceiling with plaster mouldings supported
upon massive marble pillars, and the walls were covered with
frescoes. A wide staircase communicated with an upper storey,
which was lighted by large stained glass windows. Upon a
slab of pietra serena were the sculptured arms of the Guild,
with an inscription : -

MCCCVIII INITOE VII

DIE XI SEPTEMBRIS DO
MUS. ET CURIA ARTIS LANE
CIVITATIS FLORENTIE

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RESIDENCE (R) OF THF. CONSt.:J.S OF THE <;UII.D OF WOOL, AXO FACADE OF
(!.) OR S.\!'< ~IICH~:I.F.

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 165
This date synchronises with the restoration of the Residence
in the year 1 308.
The Guild possessed not only palaces, houses, shops and
farmS, but also six great cloth stretching grounds at Orbetello,
between the Via degli Alfani and the Via della Pergola, on the
Lung' Amo dell' Aquila, along the Via de' Servi, the Via San
Piero Gatolino, and the Via dell' Uccello; and many Fulling-mills.1
The "Guild of Woot" owned and rented many factories in
the Contado, among them the Fabbrica Castagnolo on the Pisa
road, which was sold to the Della Stuffa family in 1220, a date
remarkably early, and indicative of the pristine expansion of the
woollen industry. Very many convents and family dwellings,
within easy reach of the Residence of the Consuls, were. the
quarters of busy workers under the Guild auspices. The'
monastery of Santa Maria della 'Disciplina was, in 1340, in the
occupation of the famous Capponi family, and sheltered quite a
number of woollen spinners and weavers.1
Two questions constantly gave rise to fresh legislation-
wages and foreign competition. The workpeople knew per-
fectly well what enormous profits the wool merchants and
manufacturers made in their relations with outside markets.
They understood without the least difficulty that on the one
hand, their employers had command of the best supplies of the
raw material, whilst on the other, the prices for Florentine cloth
everywhere ruled the highest. This pre-eminent position, they
also judged quite rightly, was due very largely to their own
individual and collective skill in workmanship.
Joining forces, the operatives of the two Guilds-" Calima/a "
and "Wool "-placed the question of wages in the forefront of
the reckonings of the merchants.
1 Ntlle: The followiag old TiraiD/i,-Fulling-mills,-belonging to members of the
"Gaild of Wool," were still in existence at the end o( the nineteenth century :-" t/e/1'
A.~INIII" and "ti#/ Ctll1dlt. "-both near Porta Romana, "tlella Pergpl/a "-Via di Sant'
Egidio, "dl/14 c-rtile"-Via Chiara, and "tlqii Api&t~li"-Via deg Alfani, with
deU' Uc:ceUo, and deUa Porticciuola d'Arno-both on the river bank.
• L. CantiDi, "Legisluione," i. p. JOJ.

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166 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Another element also contributed to the urgency of the
matter-the constant hardening of prices in the commodities
of daily life. This response of the shopkeepen and dealers in
breadstuft"s to the constantly heightening quotations for wool
and cloth made the pinch upon the working classes a double
one. The only relief to be found was in asking for better pay,
and, wben masters were obdurate, coming out on strike.
Strikes were a constant phase of Florentine life, and often
enough they developed into political feuds and revolutionary
outbreaks. The culmination of the unrest was the CÍtnlljli
Rising in 1 37 8. The Ciompi were, for the most part, work-
people in the employment of the " Guild o f W ool," and they
generally obtained ali they asked for.
Together with the granting of workers' demands, employers
of labour found themselves faced by the constant tendency of
prices to fali, through the competition of foreign woven cloth.
The convergence of these two opposite forces led directly to
decadence of the woolJen industry of Florence, which had, ali
along, been supported upon a more or less insecure foundation.
A vidity o f gain had led to the establishment of factories by
Florentine adventurers in many parts of Europe, where, in addition
to the piling up of huge stocks of raw wool, large quantiti~ of
woollen-cloth were- manufactured. These establishments became
actually technical schools, wherein the native workmen employed
were instructed in the methods followed in Florence.
Not only so, but the natural mechanical instinct of British and
Flemish operatives led to improvements in the making of looms
and in the various implements required by the industry. Thus
a class of artizans sprang up equal in ingenuity and adaptive-
ness to their Florentine prototypes. Whilst timber was, perhaps,
less an important natural product than it was in Tuscany, iron
and coai were greater assets in England and Flanders than in the
Vale of Amo.
Florence, thus, in the sixteenth century, found herself matched
by enterprising rivais, and her wool merchants and manufacturers

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 THE GUILD OF WOOL 1-67
had to contend with superiority of foreign wool combined with
equality of manipulative proc:csses.
A remedy was sought in a Policy of Protection-whic:h,
whilst for the moment offering a solution of the diffic:ulties that
c:onfronted the members of the Wool Guild, really led to disastrous
c:onsequenc:es.
There is a long list in Cantini of artic:les and materiais used
in the woollen industry, which in the sixteenth century, were
forbidden exit at the gates of the city except by special permission
of the Consuls of the Guild. Among them are the following : -
Wool-picldngs and doffings, woollen-thread-white and coloured,
c:uttings of woollen-doth, pressed wool in the form of feltings,
woollen rags, iron nets for beating wool, carding-combs and
teazels--both old and new, iron-looms, stays, shuttles, glossing-
c:ards for serges, wine-lees-white and red-in casks, madder in
bags, white moss or lichen, woad-fresh or dried, ali c:rimson and
red dyes-liquid or powder, brazil-wood, gall-nuts, índigo, rock-
alum and alum-sc:um, vitriol, doth-soap, presses or boards for
bales, leaden marks and labels, etc:. etc.
A marked decline in the prosperity of the woollen industry
c:ontinued ali through the sixteenth c:entury. This was due in
great measure to hostile legislation on the part of the Rulers and
Govemments of foreign countries. A law, for example, of Edward
IV. was passed which ran as follows :-"No person, under the
estate o{ Baron shall wear any manner of woollen-cloth manu-
fac:tured out of the King's dominions, nor any furs of sable under
;l forfeit of ~Io." In the reign of Cosimo-the first Grand
Duke-the number of business houses, in Florenc:e, connected
with the " Guild of W ool " was reduced to one hundred and
sixty-six ; and before the end of the centuÍy only eighty-eight
remaiaed to tell the tale of former prosperity.
The dec:adenc:e of the wooJlen industry, no less than of the
general c:ommerc:e of Florenc:e, was marked by idle habits whic:h
were induc:ed by Jengthened and unchequered prosperity. "Fare
i/ Sipuwe" meant, that if one wished to be c:onsidered somebody,

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168 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
ali · that was necessary was to cease from active participation in
trade, and to put on tbe airs of persons in a superior station !
Tbis was undoubtedly, all through the Renaissance period of
bistory, a marked cbaracteristic of the people of Florence; and it
was the natural, thougb destructive, outcome of the conditions of
life in a community wbolly commercial, wbere everybody belonged
to the middle class. No branch of trade felt this more than tbat
of wool with its preponderance of operatives, and the withering
pincb of· decay fastened tigbtly upon the members of tbe "Guild
of W oollen Merchants."
Tbe Via degli Arazzieri-named after Arras in Flanders-
recalls almost the last despairing effort to revive the prosperity of
tbe "Guild of Wool.'! In 1 543 the Grand Duke Cosimo I.
wisbed to embellisb bis new palace with woven tapestries. He
applied to tbe woollen manufacturers of the city to carry out bis
commission, but, alas, manipulative skill and commercial enterprise
were dying, if not dead ; and no one would undertake it. Cosimo
then induced a number of tapestry workers from Flanders to
settle in Florence. He establisbed a weaving manufactory for
the public benefit, in a bouse, later on, called "Uffin"o detr
lpoúu." Under the direction of Johannes Rotter,-better known J
by bis ltalian name of Giovanni Rosto;-tbe industry developed
quickly. Tbe Florentine painters Bronzino and Salviati designed
cartoons for tbe weavers. Tbe pieces, whicb were woven, bore
Rotter's, or Rosto's; mark-a piece of meat roasting on a spit.
Fifty years later Cosimo 11. brougbt master weavers from Paris, and
in a sbort time Florentine tapestries excelled ali like productions.
A splendid collection may be secn in Palazzo della Crocetta.
Tbe final ruin of tbe woollen industry was due to the institu-
tion by Cosimo 11. in 1561 of tbe "Military Order of tbe Knigbts
of St Stephen." Many wealtby mercbants and manufacturers,-
wisbing to secure, in perpetuity for tbeir families, tbe honour and
distinction of the military cross witb its accompanying privileges,
-founded commanderies, and, fearing to demcan tbemselves,
disdained to continue the exercise of tbeir trade.

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\

ARl\IS o•· "THE GUILD OF WOOL"

LUCA DELLA ROBBIA
[Stt par< r64)

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 THE GUILD 0!4' WOOL 169
The same Prince accomplished in the same year a complete
revolution in the Statutes and in the standing of the Guild. The
old order of magistrates was abolished and four new Consuls were
appointed, who held office for four months only. Their powers
were limited to the cognisance of civil causes between members of
the Guild, and with respect to sums in dispute exceeding thirty
pounds.
A Council was created entitled, Congregasione dei Conserva/Qri
de/f Arle del/a Lana ,- composed ofa Senator-not a member ofthe
GuDd,-a merchant, and two manufacturers, under the presidency of
the Provuetú."tore de/f Arte-Superintendent of the Guild-with the
assistance of a legal dignitary styled Giudice de/f Arte-Judge of
the Guild-as assessor. The functions of this Council dealt with
Criminal Causes between members of the Guild.
I t was ali in vain that periodic efforts were made to rouse the
moribund body. The spirit of enterprise had departed from the
dying industry. The stones, which, one time, mischievous
apprentices and quarrelsome artizans had hurled one at another,
and they two at everybody else, were suffered to lie in the streets
and comers of the Piazzas, until blades of green grass and verdant
moss spread the mantle of idleness and sleep over them.
Busy fulling-mill and humming 1oom were left: to rust and rot
as they might The beautiful blue lilies of the garden of the
"Agnus Dei" were faded, and the sharp teeth of the woolcomber's
rake had lost their brightness and their bite !
The exact date of the suppression of the " Arte e Universita
tklla Lana" is not known, but in the reign of Ferdinand I. the
Residence of the Consuls was closed aad handed over to the
Canons of Or San Michele.

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 CHAPTER VI
THE GUILD OF BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGEBS
L'ABTB DEL CAMBIO

I. OR.IGIN.-" Peters Pence." Ca~~~Jsons PajJtr. Rivalry of Tuscan cities.

"Menatwes Tuscú." First mission of Florentine Bankers to England. The
Go\d Florin of 12 52. Agencies throughout Europe. Affluence of " Calimala"
and Wool Guilds called into existence the Guild of Bankers, 1201 (drca).
11. CONSTITUTJON.-Earliest Statutes of Guild, 128cr1299o Special oflicials.
Esecr~tore. The use of the Rack I Strict rules for admission. Sureties.
"Company of the Table." " Cum vela, ve/ laftelll, vel sitU." Books and book-
keeping. " /, s. d." Financiai terms. Dowriea. "The Kynges Pawne.•
111. BANIC.S AND BANIC.KRS.-Professional piety. Banldng families-
Bardi, Peruui, Frescobaldi, etc The Papal Schism. Francesco Balducci,
an enterprising Mi11t'stro. Couriers. Salaries. Peep into a Florentine baDk,
"On change I" Jobbing. Vastness of financiai business. "Letters of CrediL"
Brokerage. Loans. I/ Mo11Je Comune. Public taxes :-Preslatut~, Arllitrü.
Dea'mll, Cattuto. Rates of interest. Dante's strictures. Money-lending
tricks. Boccaccio and Sacchetti's satires. U sury. Sermons of Bernardino da
Feltre and Savonarola iD 1336. Clímax of Florentine prosperity. Foreign
relations. Edward 111. of England. King of Sicily. Colossal disasters.
The Medici. " Counsels of Perfection."

R OME in the Middle Ages was the actual ruler of all materiat
interests, as she was the teacher all moral conduct. lt was
of
an axiom of the Papacy that :-" Wherever Christianity prevails
everything, by right divine, belongs to the successor of Saint
Peter." Her faithful sons never thought of disputing her claims,
aild consequently wealth ftowed into her coffers in an ever
increasing stream.
The offerings of pilgrims, the revenues of vacant benefices, the
contributions of Peter's Pence, the fortunes of the Cardinais, the
tributes of dependent States, the plunder of ]ews and heretics,
and what not, called for skilful and experienced administration.
Throughout the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries,
Florentine merchants competed with those of Siena, Lucca, and
170

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 171
other cities for the control of thc Papal treasurc. Tbc tcrm
" Campsores Pap." was first appropriated by thc Sicnesc, although
thcy bclonged to tbe Ghibelline party.
The victory of Montapcrti,-wbicb madc the Gbibcllines
masters of Tuscany, with tbc exccption of Lucca,-led bowever
to thcir bumiliation in anotbcr dircction. In 1260 Pope
Alexandcr IV. excommunicated the Siencsc, ·and decreed tbat
no debts sbould be paid them until they bad made peace with
the Church. Tbis excommunication became cffectivc aftcr thc
Sienese bad ravaged Radicofani-a fief of the Papal See.1
Tbe ingrained dislike of tbc Curia, bowever, to cbangcs of
any kind prevailed to secure to the Sienese bankers their privi-
Jeges witb respect to thc HoJy See. As late as 1263 Siencsc
were still acting as Papal agents in England Flanders, and
elsewherc.2
Florence stoutly resisted the continuance of the Pope's favours
to her rival, and advanced her superior claims as tbe upbolder of
the Guelphs--or Pope's party. Besides this the bandling of the
vast Papal treasures was exactly suited to tbe keen commcrcial
instincts of ber citizens ; and Florence too stood like a toll-bouse
upon the high-road to Rome. ·
Commcrcial relations had existed between Florence and the
States of Europe from very early times. Agcnts of the "Merm-
tores Tuscü,"-as they were called in King Jobn's reign,-visited
the great fairs held in Cbampagne and other French centres of
trade at the end o f the eleventh ccntury, bartering their woollen
stuffs against raw wool, and carrying on financiai negotiations.1
Tbe first rccord of a mission of Florentine bankcrs to England
was in 1 I 99, when Otto degli Gherardinj settled and acquired
property and place. When the Pope Jaid the kingdom under an
interdict as many 8$ sixty-nine different Italian Banking-bouses
were reprcscnted collecting Peter's Pence and otherwisc cxploiting
the wefL}th Qf the cQuntry.
1 F. Patetta, "BollettiDo Senese di Storia Patria, ""'foi. iv. p. 331.
1 Calendar of Papal.Registers relatiDg to Great Britain, etc., W. H. Bloss.
1 Einstein, "Italian Renaisaanc:e in England," p. 230.

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172 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE·
The issue in 1 2 S2 of tbe gold ftorin by the Commune of
Florence proved to be a dedsive step in the race for financiai
pre-eminence among the cities. U p to tbat date every State, and
every banker, had dealt largely, if not exclusively, in debased
silver money, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. The
Florentines discovered that bonesty was the best policy, and the
world accepted them and their convenient new coin as the standards
of commerce.1
Everywhere Florentine merchants pursued an enterprising line
of conduct, whilst tbe Sienese and others haggled on still upon
the old lines. Then too the constant struggles between tbe cities
of the Tuscan league produced a revulsion of feeling until-as
the star of Florence rose higher and bigber-tbe party of peace-
at-any-price gained the ascendancy, and the Sienese and Luccbese
gradually retired from the contest. The Bankers of Florence
thus made good . their exclusive claim to tbe style and place of
Campsores PajtZ.
In this capacity, and also in their relations with foreign courts,
it is not too much to say that Florence inaugurated the modem
system of Banking, and her merchant Bankers are regarded as the
fathers of the financiai metbods of to-day.
Many names w~fferent times to the Banker-mer-
chants :-Camb~tori-Banke~nchkri-Changers, Tavolieri-
Petty-cash dealers, Prestaton"-Lenders, Feneratori-Spot-dis-
counters, Usurai- U surers, and, - in an evil sense,-Cani
Lombtirdi-·Lombard bloodbounds 11

The origin of the " Guild of Bankers and Money-Cbangers "

may be sought in the aflluence of the tbree great manufacturing
Guilds-" Calima/a," "Wool" and "Silk." These wealthymerchants
had need of some safe depository for their capital, and, in accord-
ance with that unfailing cbaracteristic of the Florentines,-which
ever sougbt 'unbiassed assistance outside their own particular
1 Lallllon Douglaa, " History of Siena," p. 34t etc.
I Pagnini,·YOI. Ü. p. 1]2.

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 173
interests,-they discovered what they wanted in the incorporation
of the fourth Great Guüd. Dante sums this up : -
" Commerce and Exchange combincd made Florence great." 1
Her citizens early discovered, however, that farming money
was a far more remunerative pursuit than manufacturing articles
of commerce ; and, quite early in the thirteenth century, Florence
became the banking centre of Europe. Tbe surplus capital, wbich
her Bankers were able to hold unemployed in their hands, was the
guarantee and the security of her merchants.
One of the earliest records of the Banking business of
Florence is of the year 1 194, wben the Marchese Aldobrandino
d'Este was obliged to have recourse to Florentine capitalists for
money to support the party and policy of Pope Innocent III. In
retum for the advance which he then received he pledged aU bis
available property.
Perhaps the first mention of the Bankers, as forming an Arte
or Guild, is in a document of 120 1, which describes a concession
of land, made by the Commune of Florence, to a certain Gonnella
di Guidaccio, wberein the Consuls of the " Guild of Bankers " are
named.
Tbe signatures of the Consuls of the Guild of Bankers,
together with those of the other Guilds of Florence, in 1 204 to
the treaty with Siena, also indicate that the corporation was in
existence and in full working order before the end of the twelfth
century.
Between 12 20 and 12 30 agencies of Florentine Bankefl8 were
establisbed in many parts of Europe, and were forwarding remit-
tances to Rome direct, or through the parent houses in Florence.
In this business they were joined by Sienese merchant-bankers,
and they were especially associated together in 12 3 3, when
Pope Gregory IX. issued a " Rule" authorising them to collect
the Papal revenues in France, England, Spain, and Flanders.'
In founding exchange offices in connection with their agencies
{n foreign lands for ~he purchase of raw materiais and the sale of
I "Paradilo," CaDto ui. 6. 8 Muratori, "Antichite Italialle," tom. i. p. u8.

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l'i"l THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
manufactured articles, the Florentine Mercbant-Bankers, by the
middle of the tbirteenth century, bad possessed tbemselves of the
key of thc wcalth of ali nations.
Tbe· general commercial activities of the Florentine bankers,
no doubt, lcd to some confusion from thc fact tbat tbey were
carricd on in fricndly rivalry with the cntcrprises of tbe merchants
of the " Calimala " and o f the Guilds o f " Wool " and " Silk." Pro-
bably tbere was a system of Freemasonry at work bctween them,
whcreby cach and all of them were at oncc dealers in wool and
cloth, ·and operators in moncy and financiai securitics.

Tbc carliest Statutes of the Guild preservcd in the Archives

of Florence are of the ycar 1 299. They are in thirty-four para-
graphs. An earlier code, which was compilcd in 1280, but no
longer exists, appears to have been the foundation for ali sub-
sequent Statutes.1
Thc commission of Merchants and Judges wbich was em-
panellcd at the cnd of the thirtecntb century for the purpc>R of
reviewing the Statutes and Bye-laws of all thc Guilds and Crafts,
and which compilcd the Code already describcd, as adoptcd in
1301 - 1309 bythe" Calima/a" Guild,drafted,in 1307,special rubrics
and regulations for thc " Guild of Bankers and Moncy-Changers."
Tbis Codc was amended and enlarged to seventy-threc rubrics
in 1334- Two copies of the latter bave bcen preserved, written
in a peculiarly bcautiful hand ; one is in perfect condition, but
the other has suffercd greatly by the handling of thousands of
inquirers, who in early days had occasion to consult its rulings.
Thc officers of the Guild were the same in number and name
as those of the . other Guilds, except that a special official was
appointed whose title was Esecutore-Executor, perhaps Prose-
cutor. lt was bis duty to proceed against debtors, as well as to
administer properties in the names of heirs during their minority,
and to order generally the affairs of deceased merchants. As
regards the first part of bis duties the Esll:*tore had authority to
1 Papiai, YoL ü. p. 132, etc.

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RANKEl<S IN CONFEKENC~:
I.ATI!: fo"OUH:TKF.:"\TH CJ:o:.NTt:NY

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 ,

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 115
summon the wife and the brothers, if any such exercised a similar
profession or trade, and ultimately to detain them in custody until
the debts were completely paid.
Rubric 56 is a very curious one, and proves the jealousy
which existed at the period between the Ghibelline nobles and
the merchants of the Guelphs. lt enacts that, "should any noble
of the dty or Contado of Florence presume to enter unasked the
Residences or the Offices of the Guild he would thereby incur a
fine of ten li,-e, and would not be set free until he had paid in full.1'
Another Rubric-N o. 70-is also quaintly punitive. The
Consuls were permitted to have a rack and other corrective instru·
ments at the Residence, to which recourse was had by the ] udges
attached to the Guild, in their examination, by word of mouth, o(
delinquents charged with concealing the truth about monetary
negotiations. This process was grimly stated as " éllabling the
Judge to give a just judgment I"
The ] udge, or Syndic, himself comes in for sharp treatment
under Rubric No. 71. He wa.111 fined one hundred pounds for
every malversation of justice which might be brought home to
him after an inquiry by a panel of disinterested Judges I
Strict rules were laid down in the Statutes concerning admfs-
sion to the Guild. Candidates were required, before engaging in
the profession of Banking, to enter their names upon the Matricu-
lation Roll. They had to undergo a rigorous examination before
the Consuls, which passed in purview each of the necessary . per-
sonal qualifications. Approval by this Board led to the payment
of the Admission Fee, which ranged rather high in amount in
proportion to thc capital at stake.
Thc fathcr, grandfather, and even the great-grandfather incurred
the same liability for a descendant, wbo engaged in trade, as
thoagh they actually stood surety for him. To escape responsi-
bility they were obliged to make a formal disclaimer of liability.
Individual freedom was obtained after a public process before the
Coundl of the Consuls of all the Guilds.1
J Stat.uta Populi Flonatlae, tom. ü. 10.

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176 THE
... GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Bankers and Money-changers belonging to the Guild alone
were recognised by the State, and they were assigned positions in
one or other of the markets,-generally in tbe Mercato Nuovo and
along the Via de' Tavolini. Tbis privilege gave the rigbt m a
table and a chair, which were placed conveniently for the trans-
action of business. Tbe table bore a cover of green cloth, and
upon it were placed the Day Book and a layer of clean parcbment,
for entries of the day's business. On one side was the " Bank,"
which consisted of a poucb or bag of gold, and a wooden, or
metal, bowl, full of small .coins for change. Tbe pouch was
usually a vcry decorative omament, of cunningly stamped or
paintedleather,embroidered insilk,-percbance bysome it~nat~UWata,
-and generally bearing the banker's arms or monogram. This
custom of the money-cbanger's table gave a special designation
to the regi&'tered Bankers of the Markets :-" The Company of the
Table."
There were, of course, many uncovenanted money-dealers-
for every Florentine wbo had a spare gold ftorin was ever ready
to lend it to bis neigbbour at a rate of interest agreed between
the two. Tbe operations of these men were more or less shady,
but were in a sort of way useful if not indispensable, in view of
the speculative proclivities of the citizens, and in regarei to the
constantly congested state of business. They were allowed to
place tables in the Markets, but without cloths and no chairs.
Old documents discriminate the two classes as : Cum vela, wl
tapeto, vel sit~t-" with and witbout table-cloths I "
In the "Giuo«<to del/e Scaalli," publisbed in 1493, by Antonio
Miscomini, with the moralisation of ] acopo de' Cessolis, and several
woodcuts, the Florentine Banker-Money-changer is represented as
tbe King's Pawn.
" Tbe fourth pawne is sette before tbe Kynge and is formed
in the forme of a man bolding in bis rigbt hand a balance, and
the weygbt in the lifte hand and to fore hym a table. And at
bis gurdell a purse full of monoye redy for to gyve the marchans
of cloth, lynen, and wollen, and of ali other marchandises. And

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 177
by the table that is to fore hym is signefied ye changeurs and they
that Iene monoy and they that bye and selle by the weyght
being signefied by the balance and weyght and the customers,
totters, and resseyvours of rentes and money being signefied by
the purse."
The books of ali the Money-lenders were required to be open
to the inspection of the agents of the Guild, who paid periodical

MKRCHANT·BANKitR·MON&Y·CHANGitR. FIFTKK:-ITH CKNTURV.

and surprise visits to every lender's table. Want of neatness in

entry and illegibility were quite as severely censured as were
inaccuracies and falsifications.
Money-changers were not allowed to transact business pro-
miscuously, but only at their tables, or within their own dwellings-
the latter privilege was a later concession, and led to the con-
stitution of Banks-as we now understand the term.1
No strangers and no ecclesiastics were permitted to become
1 Pagnini, vol. ii. p. 135·

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178 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
members of the Guild, and such persons were forbidden to
conduct public money transactions in the Markets.
The Statutes of the Guild ordered, moreover, that the daily
entries in the " Table" Ledgers should, invariably, be made in clear
cursive characters, the figures Roman, not Arabic, and no capital
letters, paragraphs, or points of punctuation.
U p to the time of the Medicean ascendancy Florentine
accounts were kept by single entry, although the double system
of the Venetians was recognised as superior. To safeguard, and
to check the simpler plan, duplicate books were endorsed, and
deposited in strong boxes ; these were called Lióri áell' Asse,
check-board books, or Lióri #"'ssi, biancki, neri, etc., according to the
colour of the cover. Each volume contained, on the first page.
an invocation of the Deity, and a dedication of the owner and
scribe to the protection of Heaven. Of these books, which were
made of ordinary Florentine-made cotton paper, and bound in
leatper, nearly all traces have disappeared. The Alberti certainly
still possess many of the ancient banking books of their ancestors,
and there are besides, in the Biblioteca Riaaf'diana, severa} volumes
and sheets belonging to the Peruzzi Company of the years 1292-
1343, in which latter year that Bank suspended payment
From these Day-books copies were made at stated times into
the Lióri M aestri,-Master Joumals-which were formidable
volumes with parchment leaves and heavy wooden or leathem cases,
clamped and locked with metal fittings. These volumes were
preserved at the offices of the Guild for consultation and correction,
and many of them are still in existence.
The Florentine bankers and merchants made tlaeir cash-
reckonings in lif'e, soldi, and denan'-the origin of our &. s. d.
Twenty so/di went to the pound and twelve deftan' to tbe uldt:
The spot values of these coins were constantly varying, hence tbe
standard coin for ali important transactions was the florin in gold,
first struck in 1 2 52.
It may be noted in passing, that many terms still currently
used in monetary transactions originated with the " Guild of

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 179
Bankers and Money-Changers" of Florence :--&a.rsa-cash,
~bank, /Jmu:arotta-bankruptcy, gWma/e----joumal, de!Jito and
de!Jiton--debt, debtor, and "Dr," credito and credito,.e--credit,
creditor, and "Cr.,''-whilst deito is our "ditto" and "do."
Every year the Consuls called into conference the financiai
officials of all the Guilds and the Priors of the Monastic Orders
to strike a balance in accounts in dispute, and to lay down regula-
tions to rule money values and loan interest for the current year.
Each year also the Consuls held a consultation with a number of
their predecessors in office for the purpose of passing in review
tbe names, characters, and methods of ali the Money-changers
and Money-lenders carrying on business in the city. Any dealer
in money who had become in any way notorious, or unjust, in bis
terms, was crossed off the Register, and his name was posted as a
delinquent at the Offices of the Guild.
The Residence of the Consuls, and the headquarters of the
" Guild of Bankers and Money-Changers " were established, at an
early date,. in the Mercato Nuovo, near the Porta Santa Maria.
This building was destroyed by fire in 1304, but in its place was
erect:ed an edifice which quite outdid all the other Consular
Residences in dignity and splendour-as indeed was befitting the
wealth and influence of the members of the Guild. The interior
was adomed with polychromatic ceilings, and the walls overhung
with rich hangings in embossed and gilt leather. Many fine oil
paintings, and noble statues in marble, found places, along with
splendid cabinets,-the work of excellent carvers and inlayers,-
and beautiful coloured windows.
Over this edifice was a bell, placed there by the benevolent
solicitude of a wealthy Money-changer, by name Giovanni della
Gberadesca. Rung twice a day, it heralded the opening of
financiai business, 1nd proclaimed the closing of the money

-----
market. In 1516,' when Cosimo I. put up the clock in the
market, the " Bankers-bell " was moved to the top of the Casa de/
Sag;gW-the Public Assay Office for gold and silver-and still
went on ringing in and ringing out the cashiers of the Guild.

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180 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The arms of the Guild were set up on the façade of the
Residence, and were of course emblazoned on the Gonfalon
intrusted to the Guild Standard-bearer in 1266. They were.quite
significant of the purposes of the Guild-a red field strewn with
gold florins.
An excellent system of dowries for young citizens of both
sexes was established in I 343· Parents and friends loaned sums
during a period of fifteen years,-more or less,-to the State ; and
received guarantees of repayment within certain time limits. The
interest at first was at the rate of I 8 per cent., and it naturally
attracted. many depositors. The administration of this fund was
committed to the Consuls and Council of the " Guild of Bankers
and Money-changers." Special officers were elected by the Guild,
who also had the superintendence of matters of bail and security,
and a base neglect of duty, or unfaithfulness of stewardship, were
rigorously punished by fine and imprisonment.

Bankers professionally were remarkable for their piety I Not

only qid each head of a house open the day's duties with prayers
in his family circle, but the avocations of the bank were inaugurated
by a reunion o f ali the staff for religious exercises. No class
of citizens was more regular in attendance at Mass and other
Church duties, than the Bankers and Money-changers. Their
calling too made demands upon their charity, and, in proportion
as they throve, they bestowed alms. The old-world sentiment,
that those who deal in the most mundane matters must put away
most deposits of heavenly treasure, was an ever-present con-
sideration.
The dates at which the great banking families of Florence
first made their marks were pretty much as follows :-Acciaiuoli-
1252, Alberti-1244, Bardi-1215, Buonaparte-1260, Fresco-
baldi-1252, Pegolotti-1 317, Peruzzi-1260, Sassetti-1260,
Scali-1235. ViJiani-1298. Unhappily the diaries, business
books and parchments of nearly ali the families have perished,
and almost ali we know is gathered out of the private records of

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MONEY·CHANGERS. A DISPUTEI llEFORE THE PODESTÀ
LATB t-·oUN.TEI!:STH CENTUKV

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 181
the Cavalcanti, dell' Antella, dei Salimbeni, della Sega, and Valori
families.
As early as 1228 there were Banks in Florence bearing the
names of Benevieni, Lamberti, Alamanni, and U golini, who
were already doing business with France, England and Flanders.
In I 264 the houses of Simonetti, Bacarelli, Ardinghi, and Spinelli
had agents in London, whose chief business was the collection of
Peter's Pence. Branch banks were opened by Giovanni Vanno
and bis company at Dover and Canterbury in I 302, as well as in
London.
The Peruzzi had sixteen such agencies :-Pisa and Genoa-
I302, Paris-I303, Avignon and Chiarenza, in the Morea-I305,
Tunis and Venice-I 306, Naples and Rhodes-I 3 IO, London
and Bruges-1312, Castel di Castro (Caligari)-1332, Barletta
on the Adriatic, and Palermo-1335. and Majorca-1336. The
number of their agents, in the middle of the fourteenth century,
was one hundred and thirty.
The Papal Schism-1305-1377-gave the Florentine Bankers
rare opportunities for reaping golden harvests. The contributions
of the faithful were unavoidably diverted into two rival channels.
Much money was either entirely lost or misapplied, and the con-
fusion added immensely to the business and the commission of
the Campsores Papm. The houses of Mozzi, Bardi, Acciaiuoli,
Scali, Spini, and Alberti rose to eminence during this period.
Two books are extant which show that in I 348 the company
of Jacopo and Caroccio degli Alberti was employed in collecting
Peter's Pence and other ecclesiastical dues, in the name of the
Avignon Pope, and had agencies at Paris, Bruges, V enice, Siena,
Perugia, Brussels, Naples, and Rome.
Other Florentine Bankers, whose names were well known in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were Strozzi, Medici, Cap-
poni, Salviati, da U zzano, Albizzi, Badesi, Bartolini, Corsini, Dini,
Ricci, and Covoni.
Perhaps the most famous of them ali were the Bardi, who
made their mark as enterprising merchants along with the Cavai-

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182 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
canti, Rossi, and Mozzi as early as 1 2 I S· They were concemed
in the feud between Cosimo de' Medici and Luca Pitti in 1434.
and, along with the Castellani, Ardinghelli, Rondinelli, Brancacci,
Guardagni, Baldovinetti and others, were exiled for a long tcrrn
of years. This severe treatment however obtained the substitut:ion
of the title" Prion' di Liberta "-for that of "Prion' del/e Arli" for
the Heads of the Guilds, so that the people " might," as Machia-
velli says, " at least preserve the name of the thing they had
lost" 1
On May 29, 1 3 I I, the Bardi Company, which numbered nine
partners, appointed legal representatives in France, England, and
Ireland, Tuscany, Lombardy, and Germany. In August ofthe same
year another such official was appointed for Cyprus and Rhodes.1
The power of the Bardi Company grew enormously, as did their
generosity. They certainly held tight to their monopolies, which
were many in number and various in character ; but, at the same
time, they opened branch offices everywhere, and gave employ-
ment to very many small houses. and to individuais. Builders,
dealers, merchants, tradespeople, and others, shared with them in
the success of their business relations. To be connected with such
a house as that of the Bardi meant, not only the enjoyment of
much social and personal comfort and emolument, but the respect
and confidence of everybody with whom contact was shared.3
Villani calls the Bardi, the Peruzzi, the Acciaiuoli, the Buon-
accorsi, and the Scali :-" The Pillars of Commerce and of Chris-
tianity."
An enterprising Ministro, or agent, of the Bardi Company, in
I 3 1 5, in Flanders,-Francesco Balducci,-procured from the Duke
of Brabant certain privileges for Florentine merchants :--( 1) a
reduction of the duty on silk per ship load, and (2) a maximum
tax of two dman· per one hundred and twenty pounds weight of
wool. In 1324 he went for bis Company to Cyprus, where an
oppressive tariff was laid upon all Florentine merchandise. He
1 Mllchiavelli, "Le Istorie di Firenze," p. 272.
2 Archivio del Stato di Jo'irenze.
' F. Truchi, " Difesa del Commercio dei Fiorentini."

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 183

gained terms as favourable as those in Flanders, for in I 326 a

concession was granted to bis bouse for five years, wbilst in I 3 2 7
Florentine goods were granted free import for ever.
Such agents were not men of inferior position or attainment.
Tbe heads of tbe large Banking-bouses were too keenly ative to
tbe possibilities of business to appoint any representatives but
tbose who possessed tbe very highest qualifications. Among them
we come across scions of the great bouses of Donati, Guicciardini,
Villani, Strozzi, Soderini, Macbiavelli, Pazzi, and Portinari and
many others. In after years seven of these agents served in tbeir
time the office of Gonfa/oniere di Giusti8ia, and as many as
L
twenty-seven the higb dignity of Prior.
Ali of tbe agents or couriers not only were matriculated
members of the Guild, but their names were registered upon the
Foreign Agents' Roll. In addition to fixed liberal salaries they
received ample funds for tbe expenses of tbeir joumeys, and letters
of recommendation and of credit. Each one bad a medal, or token,
bearing the beraldic cognisance of bis bouse, as a furtber pledge of
official responsibility. 1
Some idea of tbe salaries annually paid to agents, couriers,
and clerks of the great Banking-bouses may be gathered by con-
sulting the books of the Peruzzi Company for the years I 335-
1338.1 The amounts range from ten /ire, three so/di-paid to a
discipulo, or apprentice,-Giusto di Beno Battelli by name,-to
three bundred and twenty-two /ire paid to Bartolo Uguccioni-an
agent.
No more interesting and exciting scene could be witnessed in
old Florence than the daily transactions of tbe Bankers and
Money-Changers.
Let tbe reader transport bimself in imagination to one of tbe
numerous Banks of Florence during the epoch of her prosperity.
In the ball he will see great parcbment ledgers, wide open upon
solid wood desks, awaiting the entries of tbe day's business as it
1 Pagnini, Voi. ii. 135; Cantiui, Voi. iii. 165; Peruzzi, pp. 261-266.
2 Peruz.zi, p. 26o.

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 184: THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
ebbs and ftows. Ali about are the agents and travellers of the
house, either just retumed from, or starting otf to, Armenia, China,
and the East, and London, Paris, Antwerp and other Westem
capitais.
The home-comers are seated busily revising their cash-state-
•
ments of business done, and consulting their order books, pre-
paratory to their inspection by the cashiers at the counter. Some
are walking up and down and exchanging greetings and informa-
tion with the couriers about to start upon outward joumeys. Ali
is bustle and excitement,-men are bragging about their travels,
and showing off the cranks and foibles they have picked up by
the way,-whilst others are boasting of what they are about to
achieve and are swaggering up and down !
The heads of the house are either closeted in their private
office, discussing high finance, or maybe are haughtily wending
their way in full official attire to participate in some important
atrair of state in the Council at the Palazzo V ecchio.
lf the Bank has attached to it a Lo~rgia or Borsa,-a vestibule
or clearing-office,-the scene is still more animated. In addition
to the ordinary statf, customers of all sorts and kinds are popping
in and out, and voices are discussing in shrill tones the state
of the money-market, and the rise and fali of stock, etc. etc.
U nder the Loggia,- portico,-of the Mercato N uovo, especially,
bankers and merchants and their clients foregather. Speculators,
and plungers-" Bulls and Bears "-are there as they are in our
day in the purlieus of the Stock Exchange.
"The shares of the Monte (Pawn Office) are at thirty. Can
we do business? " cries one. "Say, this time next year, 1'11 seU
or 1'11 buy as you like."
" What's your price? " is the reply. " What premium do you
propose ? " 1
Stock changed hands constantly, and accordingly a tax was
imposed, of two silver florins, upon every transfer, which vindicated
the love of levying money for State purposes in every imaginable
1 Marcbionne di Coppo Stefani, "Delizie degli Eruditi Toscani," Lib. viii. p. 97·

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11.\NKERS' LOGGIA-~!Jo;RC.-\TO 1"1;0\'0
[Su c../t(lj'{(r XV]

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 185
direction, and also establisbed the regularity of the contract.
"Jobbing,"-as we call it,-was in full swing in the Mercato Nuovo
ali througb the fourteentb and fifteenth centuries. In tbe year
I 37 I a tax of two per cent was establisbed and imposed upon
every completed bargain.l
Tbe Palaces of tbe great banker families made quite a
distinctive feature in the street arcbitecture of old Florence.
Sometimes the wbole of a street was occupied by members of
a single family, for example :-Via de' Peruzzi, Via de' Tomabuoni,
Borgo degli Albizzi, Borgo de' Greci, Via de' Bardi and Via de'
Cerchi.
The Peruzzi Bank, at tbe beginning of tbe fourteentb century,
consisted of three brotbers, wbo lived with tbeir wives and cbildren
in the Via de' Peruzzi. Tbe combined families numbered thirty-
one persons, wbo were served by upwards of twenty domestics of
ali grades. Tbe annual expenditure of these united establisbments
reacbed tbe considerable figure of tbree tbousand gold florins,
equivalent to C I soo.
V ery mucb of tbe expansion of tbe banking business of
Florence was directly due to tbe wanderings about of Guelphic
exiles, wbo became, for tbe mom~t. agents of tbeir bouses in
foreign lands.
Cbarles of Anjou, before he set out from France on bis way
to ltaly, not only received many loans from Florentine bankers
and mercbants, but surrounded bimself witb Florentine judges,
notaries, doctors, apotbecaries, armourers, saddlers, and tbe rest.
Four bundred exiled Guelpbs formed bis Body-Guard, cbiefty
Florentine Bankers. Tbrougb bis inftuence tbe greater part of
the trade of Naples passed into tbe bands of Florentine mercbants.
Exclusive sbipments of wine, corn, and oil, from Manfredonia and
Ravenna, were made by tbe same enterprising traders under
Charles's patronage.
In 1338 tbe number of Banking Houses in Florence was
eighty. Thirty years later, owing to tbe privileges and encourage-
1 Marchionne di Coppo Stefaoi, Lib. ix. Rub. 727 .

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186 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
ments conferred by the peace with Pisa, the business of Banking
increased greatly, and by the end of the century, there were fully
one hundred and twenty Companies in active operation.1
Towards the end of the fourteenth century Florentine
Commerce had made such an immense advance that a whole
body of Statutes and Regulations, dealing with the financiai
matters, came into existence. Among them was a series of
enactments enabling ali mercantile affairs to be conducted with
greater speed by the avoidance of legal details, and releasing
merchânts' credits from mortgage and sequestration. At the
same time attempts were made to effect a codification of the
laws of perjury, fraud, and bankruptcy.
The vastness of the Banking business, which Florentines were
doing in the fifteenth century, drew a remarkable admission from
the unwilling lips of the ruler of a rival Republic-Venice. Doge
Tommaso Mocenigo declared that :-" Florence is drawing out of
Venice 392,000 gold ducats a year!"
Troubles carne in their tum, and by 1422 there only
remained seventy-two firms engaged in Banking and Money-
changing, and these were for the most part small houses. Further
shrinkage was experienced, until, in I 47 4, not more than thirty-
two Banks were able to keep open their doors. This low-water
mark was the commencement of the decadence of Florentine
commercial prosperity.
The extreme complication and variety of monetary values,
which existed in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, in
every city and town of Europe, made the existence of an
association of exchange agents an absolute necessity.
The foreign coinage which found its way to Florence was
remarkable for variety and fluctuation in value. The standard
piece of Naples was the Carlin, of Venice-the Mark or Ducat,
of London-the Pound sterling, of Paris-the Livre Toumois,
and of Rhodes and Tunis-the Besan. Ali these were current
in Florence.
1 Villani, xi. 94-

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 187
I f J ews, and Greeks on the one part, and V enetians and
Genoese on the other, were the gr~at original factors in the
monetary expansion of the Middle Ages, Florence was undoubtedly
the centre of all banking interests in the Renaissance.
To Florentine initiative is wholly due the admirable facility
of exchanging cash values against paper. This system revolu-
tionised and vitalised the entire conduct of commerce, not only
in Florence herself, but throughout the known world.
"Lettere di Cam6w,"-Letters of change, or of credit,-became
an indispensable means of transacting the intemational business
of bankers and moneylenders. The transmission of bullion became
more and more risky, and its bulk increased the difficulty of
transit. .The depreciation of coinage in habitual use was also
a serious objection to dealing in cash directly. These admir-
able and convenient money drafts provided a ready and secure
means of dealing in credits. They were first used in Florence
in 1260, but possibly, they had their origin in Venice, during
the middle of the twelfth century, where they were confined to
certain business houses dealing together.
The system of " Letters of Credit " made the transmissiQn
of money, even to such distant places as Jatfa, and Tana on
the Sea of Azof, a matter of comparative ease.· For example,
when a Florentine citizen wished to transmit, say, a couple of
hundred pounds to Antwerp, he had but to saunter into the
office of some " Caiimala," " W ool " or " Silk " Merchant, who,
in a few words addressed by courier to his agent there, caused
the payment to be made.
The use of " Letters of Credit " made it possible for vast
operations to be carried through, like those of the Bardi and
Peruzzi, up to the year 1 340, for well-nigh a million and a half
gold florins, equal to f.75o,ooo,-to be placed at the disposal of
King Edward 111.
A table of time-limits between Florence and the principal
cities of Europe and the East,---copies of which were displayed
at all the Banks,-shows the days required for consignments

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188 'l'HE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of specie and goods to reach their destinations, as follows : -
Bologna-3, Pisa-s, Genoa and Rome-15, Venice and Naples
-20, Milan-30, Sicily, Provence, and Tunis-45, Flanders-70,
England and Constantinople-7 5, and Cyprus-go.
The days occupied by the couriers of the Florentine Mer-
can~ile and Banking houses, in travelling were as follows :-Rome
and Genoa, each five to six days; Milan, Venice and Naples, ten
to twelve; Paris, Bruges and Barcelona, twenty to twenty-five;
London, Sicily and Constantinople-twenty-five to thirty.
The brokerage sanctioned by the Guild varied according to
the standard value of the money employed, whether gold or
silver; the average amount was from ten to fifteen per cent.
Probably one of the principal causes which contributed to make
Florence so prosperous was the system of loans at interest.1
In Florence it was rather a sound system of finance than a
sordid love of money that infl.uenced her commercial policy.
V ery early her merchants discovered that capital, borrowed at
a high rate of interest, was not the readiest way to advance
their operations. Speculators doubtless there were, and even
" plungers,''-to use a modem term,-who craved money for its
own sake, but these men were regarded with little esteem, and
their methods were not generally attractive.
At first the ecclesiastical powers opposed the lending of
money at interest, and the making of profit upon a temporary
loan was deemed usurious. Even to the end of the fourteenth
century, "it was considered usurious for any one to make a loan,
which was not drawn upon an official form, and where, in the
instrument itself, it was not stated that the loan was made
gratuitously." 1
Public loans were raised in the following way :-The
State named certain citizens,--:-members of the chief Banking
Companies,- with full power to find the money required,
assigning to them, by way of security, taxes placed upon certain
commodities entering the gates of the city-such as sa lt and
1 l'~ruzzi, p. 8t. 1 Lapo Mazzei, "Lettere," vol. i. :241).

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 -r.

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 189
wine ; or commissions upon the rents of the shops on the Ponte
V ecchio. The Companies accepted the contract, and furnished
the necessary sum wholly or in part, raising the remainder among
the citizens, upon certain conditions, and at a reasonable interest.
Another method was aqopted when it was desired to force the
citizens to take up the loan,-the amount of the sum required
was publicly proclaimed, and part assigned to every street in
accordance with the wealth and number of the inhabitants.
After the portion to be paid by each had been fixed, it was then
delivered to the State Treasurer, who repaid it to the creditors
when tbe loan expired, from tbé .proceeds of the customs. To
facilitate this the contributors were also granted a quantity of
salt at 6 tire the bushel, and were allowed to sell it at the
ordinary fixed rate, which was higher.
The loaning of money to the State for a fixed time at a
certain rate of interest, led to the creation, in 1 2 2 2, of a new
Government Office, which carne to be known popularly under the
name of "I/ Monte"-" The Money-pile ! " Instead of calling on
the Banks for a loan, as had been usual before, the Government
divided the money required for the public exchequer into portions
according to the assessment of each citizen, and each was expected
to contribute bis full share. The rate of interest placed to the
credit of each contributor in the "Monte" Books varied from
three to twenty-five per cent. · This Book was known as "I/ Libro
tk' Settan~J1ioni,"-" The Book of Seven Millions,"-from the
amount of the original loan.
In 1307 the credit of the Republic was staked to the Bankers,
the "Calimala," and the Parte Gue/fa to the amount of seven
million gold floriqs. In the war with Arezzo, the " Guild of
Bankers and Money-changers " gave the State credit for eight
million gold florins, which amount was repaid by a Provvi.rione,
or Order in Council, of the year 1307. 1
The Republic was a community of Merchant-Bankers whose
aim was the scientific exploiting of money. Their ingenuity an..d
1 Provv. xiii. 132 vo.

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190 THE GUILDS OF FI..ORENCE
resourcefulness were the consequences of their systematic training
in the adaptability of capital. When one expedient appeared to
have gained the end in view, these wideawake capitalists were
never at a loss for another.
Up to the middle of the fourteenth century the State Revenues
had been raised without difficulty by custorns and duties on con-
tracts called "Gaóelle." Among Provvisioni of the year 1 290 is one
which shows how the " Gaóella " was raised, and how the diff'erent
Guilds not only contiibuted, in their corporate capacity, but how
individual members were appointed to undertake the collection.
Millers and Bakers, Masters of Stone and Wood, Tailors, and
Barbers, of the Contado were specially taxed; each rnan paying
forty soldi a month, and the tax ranging over two months.1
In 1336, however, the expenses incurred in the many warlike
expeditions were far and away too heavy to be met by ordinary
taxation. A national debt,--as we should say,-was created
by forced loans, and was called " PrestanJ1a " from prt8stipm-
tribute.
The allocation of the amount required was quite arbitrary, but
contingent upon seven separate assessrnents of the property of
which each individual was possessed. An average was struck,
which was the sum accorded to each citizen of sufficient means.
Failure to pay this impost within seven days led to the delinquent's
name being entered in a book which was called " i/ Specc/Uo,"-
" the Looking-glass,"-and h~ was subjected to fines and dis-
qualifications.
Several registers for the " PrestanJ1a " are preserved in the
Archives of Florence. One,-a paper book, in good condition,
has the following entry : -
"In the name of God, Amen. Hereinaft:er is inscribed ali
the money which I, Tano di Lapo della Bruna, have received for
Gherardo Lanfredini, Camarlingo of the Commune of Florence,
towards the impost of Fifty thousand gold florins, levied by the
Commune, which has been collected by the four companies
1 Provv. ii. 117 v•·

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 191
Peruzzi, Bardi, Scali, and Acciaiuoli. The said money is to be
paid as a loan to the said Commune, to pay to our Lord the
Duke of Calabria 3 3,000 gold florins,-a third of which was
assigned to the Bardi on the feast of S. Piero Scheraggio, the
25th of March I325."
The " Gabe/la " o f the year I 3 39 produced a great sum o f
money, from very many sources. Some of the items were : -
The Porte, or Gate, dues about Fio. 90,200
The tax on Wine 50,300
The rate levied on the people of the Contado at }
30,200
1o so/ái per lira . . . .
The tax on Salt at 49 so/ái a bushel for a citizen, }
and 20 so/ái for a peasant . . .
Tax for cattle killed in the Market I 5,000
Rate levied on the goods of Rebels and Exiles 7,000
Tax on Com ground into flour . 4,250
A poll-tax upon members of the Guilds . 3,000
House-tax in Florence and liut-tax in the Contado 1,000
and many other items, amounting to a total sum of 343,300 gold
ftorins.
The public debt in I 344 amounted to thirty thousand gold
ftorins, which the State could not pay. To clear the amount a
"Monte,"--or Public Bank,-was opened tbat persons, who were
patriotically disposed, might contribute their quota. Each
depositor received in exchange, credit ora promise to pay, whicb
became a negotiable asset capable of being transferred from one
to another, very much after the manner of our present cheque
system.
The "Prestan•a" having done its work, there was not the
least difficulty about the further manipulation of the revenues of
the State with respect to the absorption of private resources.
In I 34S a "Monte Comune" was raised to meet the rapacity
of the Duke of Athens and bis party. By it ali loans made to
the Republic were merged into one consolidated fund or debt,

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192 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
which was made to bear interest at five per cenL, and secured
upon the State revenues. This was actually the creation of
Govemment Stock for each person interested in the loans was
entitled to buy, seU, pledge, or excbange bis share as he willed.
The market prices in the Mercato N uovo fluctuated with tbe rise
or fali of the credit of the State. The Florentine "Mtmú
Ctmtune" was the first National Debt, as such, ever called into
existence.
The "Arllitrio "-an individual valuation, and the "Dea'ma"
- a general percentage of property, were other means employed
by the State, acting upon the advice of the Consuls of the
"Guild of Bankers and Money-changers," for raising loans easily
and quickly. The former was a tax upon the conjectured eam-
ings of the citizens. It was very unpopular, and failed to realise
the purpose of its inception. Cosimo I. finally abolished it after
an existence of sixty years. The latter,-the " Decima,"-was an
impost of ten florins upon every hundred gold florins of the
net income of each individual. Hence it was the rate of a tenth
part of the income, and thus gained its name. The assessments
were subject to a triennial revision. Fraudulent retums led to
confiscation of unscheduled properties.
The "Catasto,"--Income Tax,-called so from the book in
which the names of ali taxpayers with descriptions and values of
properties, were entered,-was devised by Filippo Ghiacceteo, but
actually introduced by Giovanni de' Medici in 1427. The name
was derived from accatastare,-to accumulate. lt was the most
elaborate and exhaustive register of persons, and properties, which
had ever been undertaken by any civilised State, and is a monu-
ment to the financiai capacities of the people of Florence. Each
person's exact monetary position was stated from every point of
view, and the sum total arrived at was charged half a florin to
every hundred gold florins. The " Catasto " worked very smoothly,
and did much to increase the popularity of the Medici. Between
1427 and 1453 the Joans raised amounted to the enormous
sum of 6,374,000 gold florins, contributed by seventy-six Banks;

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 193
whilst four successive wars, which the Republic had waged, cost
more than I 1 ,soo,ooo gold florins 11
The system of raising money by " Gaóe/la " for ordinary
expenditure and by " Catasto " for extraordinary outlays re-
mained in ·force until I 494·
Banking for the Republic, whilst attended with risks and

PAYING TAXBS. FIPTUNTH C&NTt11lY,

dependent upon the will of fickle Fortune in the shape of

frequent and erratic changes of Govemment, w~ the aim and
ambition of ali the financiai houses of Florence. Competition
to secure loans and other business was as keen as keen could be.
Many a wealthy and noble house became eminent upon the suc-
cessful negotiation of a State loan. The Medici owed their rise
and their prosperity to the skilful way in which members of the
1 C. Landino, "Dante Aligbieri Fiorentioo," Llb. xi. c. 91 ; and Lib. ix. c. 264.
Jf

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19~ THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
family, in successive generations, manipulated public accounts.
Wbilst posing as the friends of the people, they were enabled,
witbout compunction, to belp tbemselves pretty liberally to the
contents of the public purse I
Lorenzo "il Magnífico" was tbe first Medici to give up entirely
ali connection witb commercial and banking interests, wbilst bis
tenure of office marks the termination of tbe financiai liberty of
Florence-apparently a paradox, but nevertbeless a fact !
Tbe wealth amassed by tbe mercbant banking families may
be judged from tbe example of tbe Medici-wbose pre-eminence
in the political and social life of tbe State was an important
factor. Giovanni de' Medici left 179,221 gold ftorins, Cosimo I.
235,137, and Piero 237,982; wbilst eacb leading member of
tbe family bestowed enormous benefactions upon tbe city and
its inhabitants-Cosimo alone, it is said, gave away more tban
5oo,ooo gold ftorins ! 1
Tbe rates of interest paid upon borrowed capital varied con-
siderably not only in general use but in relation to particular
classes of the population. Going back to tbe days of Justinian,
when fixed rules and rates were first codified, it is not a little
interesting' to learn that persons of rank and inftuence paid
usually four ~r cent on loans, whilst mercbants were charged
eight, and unfortunate dc:alers in grain and otber breadstuft"s
were mulcted in eleven per cent. I 1
It was sought to strike a balance, and an attempt was made
to charge generally frofll six to seven per cent For a time this
succeeded until tbe Duke of Atbens, in revenge for tbe lukewarm-
ness to bis cause on tbe part of merchants and bankers, declared,
in I 345, that the original figures of Justinian sbould be restored.
Tbe irregular quotations in tbe value of tbe gold ftorin caused
a similar sliding scale in tbe rates of interest Witb respect to
State Loans tbe interest varied considerably witb times and
circumstances. In I 345 tbe creditors of the "Mtmte Com"u"
1 J. Ban:kbardt, " Die Cultur des RenaiiMace iD ltallen," vol. i. 141.
1 Peraai, p. :105-

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 195
received five per cent., whilst between 1349 and 1380, the rate paid
was between twelve and twenty per cent. 11 -
On the other hand the rate for extraordinary business trans-
actions was moderate. The Bardi Company charged the King
of Sicily only two per cent., and in Seville their price was but
five per cent. The Peruzzi Company made similar charges.
The wide extent and importance of the Banking-trading in~
terests of the Bardi and Peruzzi Companies is evidenced by the
interesting fact tbat, the King of Armenia excused merchandise
cleared to or from Florence, in the names of either of the houses,
at one half the usual dues. The King's official permit had his gold
seal attached by a broad green silk ribbon.
Money-changers and Money-lenders appear to have been fre-
quently at variance in their operations. To the former were due
almost all the Statutes passed after 1394, affecting the status and.
privileges of tbe latter. These became so oppressive that ali
interest was looked upon as theoretically usurious, though
practically as much as fifteen per cent, was permissible.1
Dante is very severe, in bis" /nftmo," upon the crime of unjust
usury, as prostituting the fair rôle of Nature and Nature's laws : -
..• "Your Art is,
As it were, grandcbild of God, and it beboves
Mankind to gain an bonest livelibood ;
But, since tbe usurer takes another part,
Disdaining Nature and her just bebests,
Placing elsewhere bis fickle hope. . . • " •

He speaks too of
• . • "that seventb circle, wbere the moumful tribe were seated." . . . 4

and he finds his examples, not in the persons of persecuted Jews,

but in those of well-known Merchant-bankers, the Gian6gliazzi,
the Ubbriacchi, and, worst of ali, Giovanni Bujamonti.
In his eighth circle he places sellers of justice, evil councillors,
corrupt barterers, and public deceivers of all kinds, and says :-·
1 M. Villui, lib. üi. c., m. 1 u Inferno," Canto xi. lOS.
I Statuti, 1415, lib. ü. 19- •" Inferno," Canto xviii.

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196 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
• • . " All meo are there,
Except Bontaro, barterers of 'no' rigbts as ply,
For filthy lucre's sake, an 'aye' becomes.''
Money lending became a pr:ecise science, a fine art, a fraud,
and a burlesque in tum. Men's wits were sbarpened to gain
money,-bonestly if it migbt be,-by tbe practice of every con-
ceivable artífice. Tbe dignitaries of the Cburcb were as keen as
the laity to borrow, and to lend, witb the sole view of their own
ultimate benefit. If a Money-lender died, wbo bad been known
as a sbarp fellow, sepulture was denied bis remains, until a
recompense bad been paid to the bisbop I Men were adjured te>
make bonourable terms witb heaven, before tbey carne to their
deaths, by banding over considerable sums, or property, to tbe
safeguarding of tbose wbo beld tbe Celestial keys I
An appearance of respectability, and even sanctity, in Money-
dealing was not unattainable. The nomenclature of the period
presented reprebensible and doubtful transactions under pleasing
eupbemisms, sucb as :-dono di tempo-quick retums, merik1--
-sligbt recompense, interesso-smart gaiÓ, cambW--tit-for-tat.
dvan.ra-unexpected profit, baroc&Oio-sly advantage, ritrango/a-
trifting advance on quotation, and so on.1
Sacchetti teUs tbe story of one Sandro Tomabello, wbo bad
an extortionate love of money. Meeting an old creditor, wbe>
tbreatened to arrest bim for the non-payment of an account,
whicb bad actually been settled by bis fatber and of wbicb no
record had been kept, be paid a visit to bis Notary, wbo advised
bim to let tbe man proceed against bim in the ordinary course.
Wben tbe legal official appeared to take bim into custody, be
proposed tbat be sbould pay bim one-balf the claim of tbree
bundred gold florins, and obtain in excbange the quasbing of the
suit in the Podesta's Court ! 1
Boccaccio levelled many a cutting sbaft of sarcasm at tbe
monetary insincerities of bis day :-Que e poca dva,.ra 1 mm
guadagna, " He who steals a trifting benefit, tbereby acquires an
1 Saccbetti, "Novelle," xxxil. vol. i. p. rJ6.
t Saccht tti, " Novelle," Jii.

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 197
ample gain I " 1 And he sums up bis indignation in the expres-
sion-" Grossa USN1"a I " z
" Tbat man," wrote Macbiavelli, " will never be regarded as
good who for the purpose of always making a pro6t from an
occupation which he carries on proves himself rapacious, fraudu-
lent and violent" a
Constant etrorts were made to restrain usurious interest
Unhappily they were usually rendered nugatory by the action of
the Govemment, whicb aimed at extorting the highest possible
rates from citizens who dealt directly with its officials. In 1420
usury, or,--as we sbould now call it,-interest upon money, was so
high and so arbitrary, that the State took steps to issue 6xed
rates and prices. One decree ordained that no mor~ than 6ve
dellan· might be charged per li1"e per month.
A banker's ledger of the year 1427 is still preserved. It
belonged to the company of Guiliano di Nannino dei Bardi and
Piero di Francesco Piccioli, and reveals the fact that the interest
upon a capital of 2928 /i1"e amounted to 878 li1"e a year--a rate
of nearly tbirty per cent. I A goldsmith, Oderigo da Credi by
name, borrowed twenty li1"e for six months, and paid four /i1"e
interest thereupon, and in addition deposited bis rich green
doublet, lined with velvet, as a guarantee for the repayment of
the amountl
The exactions of Money-lenders,-whether licensed by the
Guild, or uncovenanted operators in the Market, became at the
end of the 6fteenth century so excessive that not only was the
State forced to issue repressive P1"ovvisioni, but the forces of the
pulpit were arrayed in violent oppGsition.
Between 1430 and 1436,-when the city gates wereonce more
opened to the Jews,-the "Guild of Bankers and Money-changers"
forbade all Money-lenders under its authority to ask more than
four ámari for a /i1"a per month--a rate of twenty per cent
Tbe extravagant way . of managing the 6nances of the
1 Boc:c:acc:io, "Decamerone" GÍ#nU i. N#Wl/4 I. vol. iv., p. 42.
1 Gi#nu vüi. Nw. x. voL ili. p. 308.
1 Machiavelli, " Il l'rincipe," chap. zl.

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198 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Republic gave the preaching friars,-the Augustinians and
Dominicans in particular,-much matter for vehement invective.
They attacked the "M0111e Com•ru," where the subscribers paid
ten per cent. upon the valuation of their annual incomes. The
mode in ·.wbich this tax was levied pressed hardly upon the
labouring and poorer classes. They, in their difficulty, tumed for
assistance to the Jews, wbo had become numerous in the city,
and whose operations had escaped the notice of the authorities.
The hardships whicb their exactions brought upon famiUes in
humbl~ circ.umstances inftamed the zeal of a famous preacbcr at
the end of the fifteenth century. Preaching in the church of
Santa Croce, in the year 1488, Bernardino· da Feltre raised bis
voice on behalf of the unfortunate citizens, .and violently
denounced 'the rapacity of the Jew money-lenders. He proposed
the institution of a Pawn-shop, where the distressed and im-
poverished might receive just dealing. This proposition was
carried out, but not until 1495, after Matteo Strozzi had led a
raid against the Jews who were banished the city.
Savonarola entered heart and soul into the contest between
might and right. He espoused the people's cause and advocated
the overthrow of the selfish and opulent oligarchism wbich
threatened the liberties of Florence. His preaching had ·an
immense effect, and led to the creation of two parties in the
city-" Arraóóiati,'' thc party of reaction, and "Pi'agwot~i,'' the
friends of reform. Through the inftuence of the Frate., the
" Tribuna/e del/a Mercanaia," which had become inoperative, was
revived. He attained a position of unparalleled power, and
ultimately inflicted great disasters upon the richcr citizens, which
entirely changed the conditions of Florentine business and
society.
The fame of the Florentine Bankers for brilliancy in financiai
operations, backed up by their reputation for honourable conduct,
and equitable administrative ability, spread far and wide. Many
States and Cities ali over Europe called in members of the Guild
to regulate public business and direct the issue of coinage. From

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 199
the end of the twelfth century the management of the revenues
and mints of London, Naples, Halle, Aquiela, and many other
places, was in the hands of Florentines.
Among the earliest recorded loans to foreign States made by
the " Guild of Bankers and Moncy-changers " were, Faenza-
1257, Arezzo-1278, and Citta di Castello--1290.
Before the end of the reign of Henry 111. Florentine bankers
had obtained a firm footing in England. They issued " Letters
of Credit " to ambassadors, and bills of exchange were monopolies
in their hands. Money was scarce, and it was raised only with
difliculty, consequently not only Henry I I I. but the three first
Edwards had recourse to Florence.1
Edward I. incurred heavy expenses in Palestine, but he got
help from Florence. Interest in such negotiations was rarely
promised, for it spelt usury, and usurers were treated as heretics ;
and so the king paid ~ 1o,ooo to the Frescobaldi, by way of
compensation. He also appointed their London agent to correct
the mistakes made by London banks, and named him " Director of
the Currency " of the Kingdom. The same house and many others
furnished the Queen also, and severa} of the nobles of the Court,
with advances o( money, receiving, by way of security for pay-
ment, imposts upon wool, hides, and other native produce.
· The Salimbeni and Peruzzi Companies had similar dealings
with Edward 11:, and also with the Dukes of Burgundy.
The clímax of Florentine prosperity was reached in 1336,
when her population amounted to 180,000 inhabitants, and fifteen
hundred nobles were inscribed upon the Rolls of the Greater
Guilds I The value of the currency was 400,000 gold florins-
~2oo,ooo, and the State revenue amounted annually, to 300,000
gold florins-~ 1 so,ooo, whilst the ordinary expenditure was only
40,000 gold florins-~ 20,000.
At this epoch in her history Edward III. was at war with
F rance. Having need of supplies he applied to the "Guild of
Bankers and Money-changers" of Florence through the banking-
l "Arcbivio Fiorentillo," xuiii. 214o etc.

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..
200 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
agents resident in London. The Bardi, Peruzzi, Frescobaldi, and
Scali took the lead in aupplying tbe monarch's needs, and in
exchange received the farming of the customs of the kingdom,
the superintendence of ali royal revenues, and the monopoly of
exporting wool.
The expansion of the financiai business of Florence produced,
as might be expected, anomalies and vicissitudes. The specu-
lative operations of the Scali company for example, led in 1326
to stoppage of payment Their failure was to the amount of
400,000 ·gold ftorins, and, although the most considerable, was by
no means the only disaster on the Florentine money-market.
Moreover it involved misery and litigation far and wide. Among
the creditors were the Holy See itsel(, and the two Queens of
Naples-Sancia and Joan. The Spanish Cardinal Pietro di
Santa Sabina appealed to the Avignon Pope Clement, and they
together importuned the Govemment of Florence to compel the
Company to pay the claim ; but their debt to the Papal chair was
upwards of seven thousand gold ftorins, and the only result was the
issue of an lnterdict, not only against the Bankers in particular,
but against the entire City, which was not removed until 1347.
· In 1 3 39, like "a bolt shot out of the blue," an English
Royal decree was promulged, suspending the payment of monies
due to creditors of the Crown. This involved the companies of
Bardi and Peruzzi alone in a loss of 1,3 55,000 gold ftorins-
nearly ~ 700,000-a colossal sum, which Villani quaintly says
was " worth as much as the kingdom itself." 1
This was a disaster of the first order, and the whole banking
interest of Florence reeled under the blow. "Ali Christendom,"
says the old chronicler, " came to suspect and distrust every
merchant and every Bank." The catastrophe led to the undoing
of other Banks. The failures, between 1340 and I34S. of the
Acciaiuoli, Buonaccorsi, Corsini, Cocchi, Antellesi, da Uzzano, and
other inftuential Companies, provided a succession of crises which
had far-reaching results.
1 Villani, " Cronica," :Di. cbap. SS·

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 201
The smitten bou.ses liquidated in full. Their credits, their lands,
their houses, and all their available possessions, were 50ld, but at
an enormous sacrifice--quite thirty per cent. of loss. The Bardi
succeeded in paying their creditors seventy per cent., but the
Peruzzi did not do 50 well~nly totalling fifteen to twenty per
cent.
Giovanni Villani,-whose writings are 50 frequently quoted
in this volume,-was a Banker by profession. He served the
office of Director of the Mint whilst a member of the Sig'll()ria.
He failed along with the Acciaiuoli, Buonaccorsi, Corsini and
Cocchi, and was involved with many other bankers and banking
companies, in tbe great smash of the Bardi and Peruzzi. Being
completely ruined he was, according to the law, imprisoned for
life. He was one of thc victims of the terrible plague which
ravaged Florence in the year 13 so!
From another 50urce the members of the " Guild of Bankers
and ·Money-changers " were also heavily bit. The King of
Sicily,-imitating his brother of England,-refused to honour his
engagements, wbich included debts to tbe unfortunate Bardi and
Peruzzi of over 200,000 gold florins-.& 1 oo,ooo. ·
Troubles carne in legions, and one·more blow was struck at
the stability of Florentine finance when tbe King of France, con-
tinuing the traditions of bis house, persecuted and deprived all the
Florentine merchants and Bankers in bis realm I
These financiai crasbes and. political defeats were followed by
a calamitousplague,-"The Black Death"-which slew one-third of
the population of the city and its suburbs. The Rising of the
"Ciompi" too, in 1378, led to the destruction by tire and pillage
of the palaces and oftices of many of the leading bankers. In fact
the fourtcenth century closed over a broken and bereaved Florence,
and men wondered whether recovery were possible, and wbether,
Phrenix Jike, she would ever rise again.
The Archives of Florence contain a contract drawn up on
May 1 3, 1446, between Cosimo de' Medici and Giovanni Benci on
the one side, and Gierozo de Pegli on the other, for the purpose of

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202 THE' GUILDS OF FLORENCE .
carrying on a banking business, with purchases of wool and cloth in
London. It shows how that new men and new methods had come
to the front. The senior partners are to find the capital-.&2 Soo
--and Gierozo is to go to London to establish and manage the
branch-house. His salary is a paltry pittance-Á33-a year,
and he is only to receive one-fifth of the net profits I
Strict directions were given for Gierozo's guidance, with limi-
tations of his buying powers, whilst rulet · for the consignment
of bullion were carefully laid down. He had to promise not to
gamble or play dice. Winnings of any kind over ten gold florins
in value, were to be placed to tbe credit of the Company,and the
same figure limited bis acceptance of gifts I Balance-sheets were
to be regularly submitted to the parent bouse. Rulings of the
Corte túl/a M erm~~8ia were to be observed by ali parties concemed
in any trade dispute. 1
Another Medici brancb bouse was establisbed in London in
146 S,-the partners being Piero de' Medici and Tommaso
Portinari, and their agents Gberardo Canigiani and Giovanni de'
Bardi,-with a capital of i: 2000. One-tentb part of ali profits were
dedicated to cbarity and cburcb building in Florence.
Henry VIII., Cardinal Wolsey, and Thomas Cromwell, greatly
encouraged Italian enterprise, and protected the Florentine Bankers
and mercbants wbenever tbe populace assaulted them, whicb, by
tbe way, was no very uncommon occurrence. .. Very great
vengeance was taken on them, and bis Majesty showed great
good-will to the strangers." ll
We cannot do better than close this chapter with some wise
remarks of a noted Florentine.
Francesco Guicciardini in his " Cout~.~els of Per.f«<Íott " gives
excellent waming and advice with respect to money transactions.
He says :- " Draw not wbere you bave no assets, nor discount
prospective gains, for often enougb tbey cannot be realised. We
see the common cause of the bankruptcy of great merchants to be
1 Arcbivio di Firenze,-<:arteggio Mediceo uanti il Principato, Fila 94-
1 "Calendar o( State Papers, Venetiu," ,.ol. ü. 385-

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 BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS 208
this, that anticipating large future retums, they draw bills of
exchange bearing high interest, which have to be met at a fixed
date." Again he says :-" Spend not on the strength of future
gains, for often these either fail altogether, or else fali short of
expectations." 1
1 "Opere Inedite," vol. iii. p. 79-

" Slm~tu IM/f llrl1 de/ CIJMH "

Gold Florins upon a red field
 CHAPTER VII

THE GUILD OF SILK

IJ.4.RTE DELU SET.4., OR "POR 8.4.NT.4. Jl.4.RlÃ"

I. OlUGll!l.-Early History of Silk industry. lntroduced into Tuscany, 1200

arca. The Father of the Silk industry of Florence. The Pavement of the
Baptistery. Guild incorporated end oftwelfth century. A coatly material. Early
"Lilwo tli .Malrieola." Alternative title. A splendid Residence.
11. CONSTITUTION. - Customs lead to Regulations. Codification. "Il
Statrúo Vucllio." Ct~~~pegruiDIU tli DejnllaJi. Officers. "Met~UJrie lltltklu
# IIU11Ün14." Guild Registers. Matriculation. "Setaiu611" ~ssi" and "s~·
lllinuli." Agents. Relations with other Guilds. An entirely new Code, 1557.
111. DKVELOPMJtNT.-Trade Associations. Affiliated industries. "Rotl#ra
deOa Sela." Silk-workers from Lucca. Lom'bard dyers. lmportance of the
Mulberry. Sir Richard Dallington's testimony. Processes. Balducci Pego-
lotti's instructions. Silk velvet and the Velluti family. Lapo Mazzei and the
"Treatise upon the Craft of Silk." Directions about dyeing. Prices of raw
silk. Weights. Sizes. Sale-prices for Silk-pieces. Work:ers in Gold andSilver.
"L'Arle degll" Orejid." Goldsmiths' apprentices. Rich attire of Floren-
tines. Beautiful lace. "0/Jera & .MMa&lu." Embroideries. Gold-filagree.
Veil-makers. Painted sillc. lmmense. trade and wealth. Royal Patronage.
" Field of the Cloth of Gold." The Guicciardini family. Song of the Silk Girls.

T HE Silk industry was brougbt from India to Europe in the

reign of Justinian. lt is said that two monks, just bome
from tbe East, presented to tbe Emperor~ at Constantinople, in
the year sso, some silk-worm eggs and cocoons, wbicb tbey had
brougbt, concealed in a bamboo ; and, at tbe same time, exbibited
the metbods of hatching and unwinding used in Cbina.1 These
worms were tbe forebears of ali tbose varieties, whicb for wellnigb
one tbousand years kept Europe supplied witb raw silk.1
Tbe Emperor immediately recogni~tbe importance of these
natural curiosities, and tbeir potentialities in"the arena of commerce,
and took tbe monks under bis special protection. Turkey thus
1 Muratori, "Antichite ltaliane," Di~aert. 25, vol. i. p. 379-

- t Francesco Mengotti, " 11 Colbertismo."

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 205
became the mother of silk-worm cultivation and of silk-manu-
facture in Europe.
The first extension of the area of the silk industry was to
Greece, in the eighth century, almost at the time·of its introduction
into Spain by the Moors. Greek emigrants, colonising the shores
and islands of the Mediterranean, still further increased the
commerce in silk.
The date of the introduction into Italy of silk-worms and
cocoons, if somewhat late in time, was effective in result. In
1 I 48 King Roger of Sicily led an expedition against Thebes,
Athens, and Corinth; and, having subdued them, and the sur-
rounding country, he took back to Palermo, among the spoils of
tbe conqueror, a number of Greek artizans skilled in the manu-
facture of silk-brocade and gold-work. These people settled
down wherever the King placed them, and immediately set about
their various callings.
Within fifty years of the establishment of the Silk industry in
Palermo a number of silk-workers had emigrated to the mainland
of ltaly ; and, of these, a considerable party found their way by
sea to Leghom and Pisa, and thence to Lucca, Milan, and Venice,
-in each of which cities silk-manufacture was actively going on
late in the twelfth century.
How exactly silk-worms, and the making of silken goods, first
reached Florence are matters of uncertainty. Probably the suit-
\. ability of the Vale of Amo for the cultivation of the mulberry
. _ was known to the inhabitants of Lucca, and by them imparted to
the new settlers.
The earliest silk-worker, however, in Florence, whose name
has been recorded, was a Neapolitan,-called after the name o f
bis birthplace Napoleone,-who, in the Archives dealing with the
year 1 200, is described as "a merchant in silk-cloth." Anyhow
before the end of the twelfth century, not only the precious verme
-sllk-worm, but the indispensable ma di vermi,i,-silk-worm
food,-tbe mulberry-leaf, were introduced into the C(JIItat/o of
Florence.

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__.__,J,'. . . . . .~
206 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Of course the manufacturing of silken textures was cbiefty
dependent, for many a long day, upon the import of raw silk.
However tbis may bave been there are ample records of the
flourishing state of tbe new industry in tbe first decade of the
tbirteentb century.l
Tbe brocades first woven by the immigrant silk-workers,
from Lucca and Naples, were after classical pattems, leamt in
Greece, and banded down, but varied by the inftuences of Sicilian
environment
Almost, if not quite, the earliest specimens of silk-brocade
made in Florence are especially interesting in tbat they reproduce
the designs of the magnificent tessellated pavement of San
Giovanni Battista, which was completed in 1204.
The silk trade, it may be frankly admitted, did not thrive, in
early days, as prosperously as did that of wool. There were
differences between the two. First of all the cultivation of the
silk-worm was attended with greater risks than the rearing of
sheep, and the value of raw silk in foreign markets was far in
excess of that of wool.
The manufacture of tissues of silk, and of gold and silver,
represented a far higher value of material, and required more
costly manipulation, than did woollen cloth. The capital involved,
even on a small scale, was also greater. On the other hand the
sale price of silken goods did not bear so high a ratio to the cost
of production as was the case in woollen manufactures.
The profit upon sp\ln silk was considerably less than that on
spun wool. For example :--a pound weight of raw Spanish wool,
which cost about two and a half /ire, could be manufactured
into fine cloth worth forty /ire : whilst a pound of raw silk, before
dressing, fetched not less than thirty /ire, and the simple
silken tissue, woven therefrom, realised no more than one hundred
and twenty /ire.1 The admixture of gold and silver thread, or
cord, of course, increased greatly the cost of prt>duction, whilst the
prices realised did not bear a proportionate value.
I "L'Ouervatore F"IOftlltiDO," Yol. iv. p. IOJ. 2 Paenini, voiL li. and iii.

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 207
Tbe silk industry therefore grew slowly but surely, and by the
beginning of the thirteenth century a goodly number of looms
were at work, and manufacturers began to organise themselves
into Companies and Corporations.•
The Origin of the " Guild of Silk " is coeval with that of the
"Guild of Wool" and of the "Calimala Guild." The Consuls
of the three Guilds signed the treaty of Peace with Siena in 1 204-
Again in 1224, and 1229, the signatures of the Consuls of the
"Silk Guild" are appended to the Treaties with Volterra and
Orvieto, along with those of the other Consuls. The Guild was
so far incorporated in 1224 that a moral Code was issued for the
govemment of its members.1
A Codex is preserved among the Archives of tbe City, for the
year 122 5, belonging to the "Por Santa Maria." 1 lt is entitled
"Li!Jro di Matrieulo," and is the earliest Matriculation-Roll
existing. lt records that Claro, son of Guido Arlotti, d' Oltramo ;
Simbaldo, son of Bartolo Caccialupi, son of Caccia, della Porta
Santa Maria ; Cardinale, son of Marcoaldo, di Santa Cecilia ;
Dono Spinelli ; Arrigo di Renucciai of the " Prtssa di Calimala,"
were matriculated in that year. The Roll goes on to 1 2 3 3, and
contains three hundred and sixty other names ; it is · further
referred to, under date 1308, when the Statutes for ali the Guilds
were subjected to thorough revision.'
The full title of the Guild was originally :-" Ars 11 Uni-
vtrn'tas del/a Stta Civitatis FlormtintZ," and this appears,-along
with the anns of the Guild,--still on the tower of the Residence,
wbich abuts upon the Via Capaccio. These heraldic bearings
consist of two closed and barred doors-borrowed doubtless from
tbe Porta Santa Maria, one of the Gates of the City in the first
wall of old Florence. Amo1ni and wreaths were late decorative
additions. ·
The alternative style of the Guild :-" L'Aru del/a PorlaSanta
Mana"-" thc Guild of Saint Mary's Gate,"-which has crept
1 Ammirato, Lib. i. p. 67. 1 Caotiai, "Lqisladoni," i. 176.
1 "Archirio dell' Arte della Seta," Letter G. 'Pagoioi, •oi. ii. roS.
208 THE G.UILDS OF FLORENCE
into all the manuscripts and documenta, was due to the fact that
the Residence of the Consuls was next door to the church of Santa
Maria sopra la Porta. This building was known as the Palazzo
de' Lamberti, and it was assigned to the use of the Silk Guild by the
State. Within it also were the headquarters of the Parte Gulfa,
which powerful political association extended special patronage to
the " Guild of Silk." This Residence was, perhaps, the most
splendid of ali the Guild Palaces of Florence. Established in the
old church of San Biagio,-formerly Santa Maria della Porta,-the
artists employed by the Guild covered the exterior of the building
with fine stucco, which they then lavishly decorated in fresco and,
as they then called it, sgraffiti-finely scratched designs. The
Audience Hall contained superb oriental alabaster columns,
gorgeous mosaics, beautifully tooled gilt bronze work, rich silken
hangings and embroideries, and brilliantly stained-glass windows.
Goro Dati speaks of the brave show the Consuls of the Guild
made at the annual Feast of San Giovanni :-" Ali along the Via
Porta Santa Maria were displayed, over the shops and offices of the
silk merchants, magnificent brocades of silk and gold, bearing the
emblazoned arms of ten kingdoms, whose sovereigns and courtiers
were decked with the produce of the Florentine silk-looms."

As was the case with the other Guilds very many bye-laws
and regulations had, from time to time, been adopted by silk-
manufacturers and merchants. These were of a somewhat contra-
dictory character, for, whilst the development of the silk industry
had been comparatively slow, many new ideas and methods had
been introduced into Florence. At the general revision of the
laws of the Guilds in I 30 I- I 309,-when the General Code for all
of them was drafted,-the technicalities of the commerce in silk
were examined, and a council of experts was empanelled to adopt
a full Constitution for the "Por Sa"ta Maria."
Their work had so far progressed by 1328, that a serious step
was taken towards the codification of the Statutes of the Guild.
The original number of four Consuls was restored, and was more-

1
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J<Jo:SJI)ENCE OF THF. CONSUI.S OF THE GUILil OF SILK (RIGHT) VIA CAPACCIO

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~~
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 THE GUILD OF SILK 209
over retained until the ancient merchant oligarchy made way for
the princely rule of the Medici family. 1 At the same date three
Co~/ieri,--Councillors,-were added to the Court, or Tribunal,
of the Consuls, whose powers were little inferior to those reposed
in the Chief Magistrates. One of the Councillors was a notary,
and the two others were chosen from among leadin~ manufac-
turers not hitherto officially connected with the Guild.
In I 3 3 s a complete Code of Statutes was put out. These were
written in Latin, upon parchment, in the form of a book, which was
afterwards referred to as "/I StatuUJ Vtcclliu "-" The Old Code."
The rules of procedure for the election of officers were the
same as in the case of officials of the " Calima/a " Guild ; whilst
~eir duties and functions were also similar. Ali superior offices
were required to be filled exclusively by persons of Florentine
parentage and birth, who were generally recognised as chief
among silk-manufacturers and merchants.
The Tribunal of the Guild was composed of the four Consuls,
together with two Construaton"-" Guardians "-who superintended
severally the civil and criminal affairs of the Guild. The business
of this Court was twofold :-I. The direction of all that apper-
tained to the commerce in silk ; and, 2. The administration of
justice to every person connected with the Guild.
Among higher officials was the Congregasi'tJne de' Dtputati,-
Council of Deputies,-which undertook ali questions and matters
relating to the practical development of the silk industry, and the
interests of the various groups of workpeople employed. The
Deputies,-the number of whom varied from time to time,-were
representatives of the subordinate trade associations in conneçtion
with the Guild.
The Provveditori,-two in number,-were the Administrators
of the goods and chattc;ls of the Guild ; the Ctmetllúre,-the
Chancellor, or Keeper,-had care of the registers, documents, and
charters of the Guild; the Cassüre or Camerli,go,-Treasurer of
the petty-cash,-whose duty it was to receive and book the sub-
I Cantini, "Legialuione," i. 176.

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210" THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
scriptions and donations of members o( the Guild; and the
Computisti,-Accountants,-who directed the official correspond-
ence of the Guild, were important officers of the Tribunal.
Two lnspectors were annually appointed by the Consular
Tribunal to visit regularly and rigorously the manufactories.
workshops, and dwelling-houses, of persons connected with the
Guild. They took note of the time, weight, and value, of ali
deliveries of raw silk, and of the manufactured article in its various
stages--as they passed from masters to workpeople. Not only so,
but they were instructed to have an eye to the moral conduct.
manipulative ability, and arduous application, of each operative,
and to report such to the Consuls. 1
The annual report of the lnspectors also included retums of
description and condition of machinery employed, and notes upon
all new inventions and novel methods. Under them were two
Assistant lnspectors, whose attention was mainly directed to tests
of quality, and to the correctness of weights and measures. They
were instructed to examine carefully every bale of unspun silk,
every reei of silk-thread, and every piece of silk texture, with
respect to length, breadth, weight, colour, etc.
The Tribunal possessed many valuable Archives. One of these
contains a "Memori'e anJiclu e moáen~e,"-Artcient and Modem
Review,-which fills several books.2 Two RegJsters of Matricula-
tion of the years 1247 and I 289, written upon parchment,-Similar
registers of 1368, and of 1397-1480, on paper,-Voters' lists.
I 3 7 4- I 418,-a Register o f payments to the Palazzo di San
Michele in Orto for the years 1345 and 1346,-Books of Matri-
culation oftheyears 1328-I 520,-a List ofConsuls, 1435·1 500,-
and many volumes and tracts dealing with wills, codicils, donations,
etc. etc., appertaining to members of the Guild,-legal processes,-
and endless details, conceming the work and the workers of the
Guild, with inventories of goods, etc. etc. Most of these are
preserved in one or other of the great Libraries of Florence.
Matriculation into the "Por Sa,.ta Maria" followed, generally,
1 Statuti deU' Arte della Seta, Rub. 34· 1 Pagnini, vol. ü. I 3:1.

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 211
the lines of admission to the " Calimala " and W ool Guilds, so far, at
all events, as personal qualifications, and entrance fees, were con-
cemed. Nevertheless the act of Matriculation did not necessarily
give admission to the general benefits of the Guild. Candidates
were usually enrolled members of some special branch in the
operations of, and under the control of, the Guild. Hence a man
was asked to state the exact trade he wished to follow, and also to
give an exhibition, before the Consuls, of bis skill in that calling
before he was granted the freedom of Membership. 1
The members of the Guild were divided into two classes-
Sdaitloli Grossi-master silk merchants and Setaiuoli Min•ui-silk-
makers. The first were required to be possessed of a capital of
at least twelve thousand gold florins. They were privileged to
manufacture silk-tissues at their pleasure, and to seU wholesale,
both in Florence and abroad. Ali merchandise disposed of, by
them, required the official stamp of the Guild. They were for-
bidden to seU retail, and in any way to undersell the retail silk
dealers. The Setaiuoli Grossi formed the aristocratic section of the
Guild, and many of them were among the wealthiest and most
inftuential of the citizens.
The Setaiuoli Minuti, who were also called " master silk
workers," were those who sold in retail quantities everything
appertaining to the silk industry, and most of them were also
practical silk spinners and weavers. They required also the
qualification of capital, but the amount was unfixed, although
considerably less than in the case of the Setaiuoli Grosn: Many
indeed were permitted to enter the Guild with no money
' qualification at all, skill in manufacturing ability and smartness
in business aptitude being regarded as equivalents. The Setaiuoli
Mi,~ti were not permitted to spin or weave silk without the
license of the Consuls, although they were allowed to own
machinery and implements of their craft witho~t taxation. Their
shops and warehouses also required license, and their manu- .
factures the official stamp of the Guild.
1 Pagnini, YoL ii. p. 114-

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212 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The other Guilds largely employed the services of Smsali
or agents, but the "Por Sa11ta Maria" was far too wide awake
to the interests of masters and workpeople to tolerate unneces-
sary interposition of middlemen. Consequently, in I 376, a
PrO'I.I'Visime was passed, prohibiting anybody to act as a broker
or dealer, who had not taken an oath before the Consuls, or the
Notary of the Guild, that he would do nothing contrary to
the spirit and the lctter of the Statutes. Moreover such an
one was bound over by the payment of certain money, and by
the production of two good sureties. The matter was further
dealt with in Rubric 1 8 of the Statutes, which expressly states
that it was not permitted for any person connected with the
Guild to have dealings with Smsali, whose names were posted as
defaulters upon the notice-board of the Tribunal of the
M ercatllia.
With respect to the system of payments of accounts, the
Silk Guild only allowed eight months' credit, except among
members; but in 1429 the limit was advanced to one year for
amounts exceeding twenty-five /ire.1
Merchants of the " Ca/ima/a" and "Por Santa Maria" were
forbidden to exchange shops or offices, and to share such. No
silk merchant was permitted to deal in foreign cloth within the
boundaries of the State, nor beyond the seas, unless by special
leave of the Consuls of the " Ca/imala."
The Statutes of the "Guild of Silk" were revised in I 386,
and again in 1415, when many alterations and additions were
made in accordance with the progress and prosperity of the
Guild. In 15 57 an entirely new Code was promulgated under
the rule of the Medici.

A very large number of crafts were subordinated or

affiliated to the " Guild of Silk." Pagnini gives the following
list 1 : -
l Statuti del Popolo e Comune Fiorentino, 1415, Rub. xuvü. and uxix.
I Paguini, '101. ii. P• 63.

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 'fHE GUILD OF SILK 218
I. Setaiuoli Grossi
Onfid e Banchieri Gold and Silver·workers and Store·
keepers.
Ritagliaton· e Fondacki Retail.dealers and Drapers.
Batti'lon· e Tiraton" Gold·beaters and Wire·pullers.
Ve/ettai e Linaiuoli Silk-gauze makers and Linen-
makers.
I I. Seiaiuoli Minuti
Aaavig/t:aton" Bobbin·winders.
Banderai Makers of Church Vestments.
Giuóbonai e Farsettai Vest and Doublet·makers.
Maestri di tra"e Seta Overseers of Export Goods.
Materassai Mattresg.makers.
Merciai Dealers in Raw-silk.
Orditon" Weavers.
Pettiflágnoli Silk Comb.makers.
Pettinatori di Sta&ao Carders of coarse Silk.
Rú:amatori e Stampatori Embroiderers and Printers.
Tintori di Seta e di Raso Dyers of Sitk and Satin.
Tessitori di Drappi d' Oro Weavers of Cloth of Gold.

In addition to these were Calzaiuoli-Hosiers, and Sarli-

Tailors, working specially in silk, and in gold and silver thread
and cord, under strict trade regulations, and with the license of
tbe Consuls of the Guild.
The fees on admission to any of the above subordinate trades
were nominally only three /ire 1 a head, but they were increased
for certain associations as follows :-The Master Silk Merchants,
Retail Dealers and Drapers, Gold and silver workers, and
Store-Bankers,-holders of valuable metal used in the manu·
facture of gold and sitver tissue, etc.,-paid fourteen gold florins ;
wbilst the allied trades of Hosiers, Armourers, Scales-makers,
Banner-workers and Embroiderers, and Gold and Silver Vest-
makers,-belongin~ to the "Por Santa Man"a,"-Silk.dyers, and
1 Cailtini, "Legisluioni," vol. vii. p, :117.

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214 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the " Setai'uoli Mi'11*1i','' generally paid eight gold florins. This
privilege of recognition was accompanied by actual emolument as
working members or associates of the Guild.
The following classes of workpeople were also attached to
the Guild : -
A&quajuoli Sprayers of Cocoons.
A rmai'uoli' Armourers.
• Bandúri' Banner-makers.
Di/andai Scales-makers.
Calderai' Steamers of Cocoons.
Conduttori de' Bos8oli Sorters of Cocoons.
Di'pi'ntori Painters on Silk.
Disegnatori Designers.
Di'stmdi'tori Stretchers of cloth of gold and silver.
Doratori Gilders.
Filatori e Filatore Spinners-male and female.
F orbia'ai' · Gold and Silver thread-cutters.
/ncannatori Reelers.
Lavalori deU' Opere Cleaners of gold and silver work.
M anranatori Wringers.
Pieratori Folders and platters.
Rimettitori Rovers.
Saponai Washers.
Stmditori Dyers of special textures.
Ti'ratori Minuti Wire-pullers.
Tomtori Throwsters or twisters.
Traltori' Winders.
Many of these groups of operatives worked together under
self-imposed regulations, but care was taken that rio person
laboured in more than one category. Over each set of similarly
employed workpeople were officials styled "Maeslri di far
Ma«nü "-lnspectors of · Flaws and Blemishes. These men
were master-craftsmen in their special branch of the industry, and
acted as overlookers in the finishing of work.

GJ1gítízed by Goog [e
.\ "REJ.IGIOUS ., TléACHING A WOMAN SIJ.K.Wt: .\ VER
}o'l t' l t:HXTtl C.:Y.:'\ .Il:RV

(A LESSOS FR0;\1 THE SI'IDER !)

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 'fHE GUILD OF SILK 215
Most of these workpeople Hved and -worked in the vicinity of
the little street,-the Vicolo della Seta,-which ran along the
side of the Church of Santa Maria next the Palazzo Lamberti,
and wherein, in later years, the rich family of the Acciaiuoli-
erected a splendid palace. In this crowded quarter of the city
was the meeting-place of all persons interested in the silk
industry, and outsiders were wont at times to be treated with
scant courtesy if they ventured to traverse its limits.
The Via della Colonna had a massive stone column upholding
t'be roof over a great drying terrace, where silk stuff was dyed
and stretched. Around this building were many warehouses
belonging to the Guild, and dwellings inhabited by workpeople.
lt was not within the power of any of the Sttaiuo/i Mint4ti to
fix the scale of wages, but they were obliged to apply to the
Setaiuo/i Gros.ti for the terms sanctioned by the Consuls. Once
every year, in June, the Consuls issued a " Rottura del/a Seta," a
Current Price-list, which ruled buyers and sellers alike, and by this
rneans inftated wages and speculative quotations were prevented.1
~y Rubric 84 of the Statutes no one was allowed to prose-
cute any industry in connection with the manufacture of silk, with-
out the written and endorsed license of the Consuls of the Guild
Among protective regulations, which dealt with the liberty of
the subject, Rubric 62 enacted that no silk-worker, or worker in
gold and silver, should be ejected from bis house, or bis shop,
until after a special sentence of the Consuls in Council.
Pawnbrokers, under Rubric 2 I, were forbidden to accept raw
silk and silken textures, and implements and objects required
and used in the trade.
No Guild worker, male or female, was permitted to leave
the city, or go beyond the CotJtado, unless armed with a written
permit, which was only granted upon certain strict conditions of
purpose and period : Rubric 84 indicates what penalties were
incurred by disobedience.
Many Rubrics deal with the treatment of silk worms, eggs, and
1 L Cantini, i. 178.

D1gítízed by
216 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
cocoons. For example, cocoons were not to be touched between
the sounding of the evening bell and that of matins.
In I 3 I 5 an important accession to the strength and efficiency
· of the Guild workers was effected by the arrival in Florence of a
number of silk and gold craftsmen from Lucca, after its sack by
Uguccione della Fagiola. The emigration was dueto the severe
repressive laws which were imposed by the victorious Florentines.
There was doubtless a reason for this policy-the shattering of
the local industry, and the aggrandisement of the Florentine
Guild ! The emigrants were treated, at first, with suspicion by
their rivais, and were not allowed to settle in the silk quarter of
the city.
The Setaiuoli Grossi, however, knew what they were about ;
and, whilst Rubric 84 of the Statutes contained a rider, which
forbade Florentine workers holding communications, and carrying
on transactions, with the new-comers, the Consuls gave instructions
for them to be quartered in the Prato district, and provided
dwelling-houses and workshops for them.
This set of immigrants was not the only one that helped to
swell the population, and to develop the silk industry of Florence.
Quite early in the thirteenth century a number of Dyers found
their way out o( Lombardy, and took up their residence just
beyond the Porta San Gallo in a tenement belonging to the
monastery of the Augustinian monks.1
Naturally a rivalry was set up between this party and the
Dyers already working under the Guilds of " Calimala " and
" W ool,'' and the workpeople attached to the manufacturers of
the Umiliati, in the Borgo d'Ognissanti. They received however
overtures from the " Guild of Silk " ; and attached themselves to
that corporation, on the understanding that they manipulated
solely silk and silken goods.
This Lombardian Company became very prosperous under
tlJeit· new auspices, and were known, far and wide, for their
hospitality and benevolence: They established shelters for Dyers,
1 F. L. Migliore, "Firenze citta nobilíssima," p. 3Ó4·

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 1,HE GUILD OF SILK 217
who had passed fifty .years of age, to which they gave the name
of Geroloamtio--perhaps "Home for the distressed and aged."
Here pensioners dwelt with their families, upon whose eamings
they were dependent.
Later on again another Company of Dyers found their way to
Florence. They were also from Lucca, and were tempted doubt-
less by the high wages of the workpeople employed by the
"Guild of Silk." Under their banner,--Christ upon the Cross,
clothed from head to foot in a long silken vestment,-they settled
in houses belonging to Ser Girolamo Baldesi, near the Hospital of
Santa Maria N uova.
The policy of admitting skilled workmen from outside was as
excellent as it was far sighted. Every trade is bound to profit
immensely by the infusion of new blood, and this proved conspicu-
ously to be the case of the " Guild of Silk " and its workpeople.
The importance of the mulberry in connection with the
manufacture of silk cannot, of course, be overestimated. For
nearly two centuries, however, the Florentine silk merchants made
little or. no attempt to cultivate the tree in the neighbourhood of
Florence. They were content to collect the eggs and cocoons of
the silkworm, by means of their agents in the East, and elsewhere,
who transported them, together with immense consignments of
mulberry leaves.
The success, or failure, of the silk trade depended absolutely
upon the supply of the raw material, and consequently, as the
industry became more and more prosperous, it behoved manu-
facturers to find increased sources of production. Hence, at the
end of the fourteenth century, and early in the fifteenth, many
ProvvisiotJi were passed by the Consuls and Council of the "Guild
of Silk," which were approved by the State Council, for increasing
the cultivation of the Mulberry. These are apparently the first
intimations of its introduction into Tuscany. In 1 440 it was
enacted that on every podere,-or farm,-.-there should be planted,
at least, five mulberry trees annually, until the number in vigorous
growth reached fifty.

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218 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The trees throve wonderfully, and manufacturers reftected
upon their want of presdence in the past. Two classes of
agriculturists were espedally interested in the propagation of the
silk-worm food, and they were enrolled under two designations, by
the Consuls of Guild, namely :-Padnmi & Terreni, owners of
suitable land for the growth of mulberry·trees,-and Mautri di
Mori e di Foglie,-" Mulberry growers and Purveyors of mulberry-
leaves." The Guild acquired the land of the former, by direct
purchase, or by lease, and employed the latter to carry on the
cultivation, under rules and bye-laws spedally drawn up.
The success of the new enterprise was manifest immediately.
The climate admirably suited the tree, and, in richness and
luxuriance, the yield equalled that of other lands ; whilst the
silk worms benefited immeasurably by their fresh and lusdous
pasturage. Probably the scientific methods of these sapient
cultivators had much to do With this favourable result. Moreover
other silk manufacturing dties in I taly began to send their
merchants and dealers to Florence for the purpose of buying silk
worms, cocoons, and mulberry leaves. The " Guild of Silk " met
this commerce in a spirit of protection, and in 1442 a Pt'OfJfJÍsio1l,e
was passed forbidding the export of everything connected With the
manufacture,-worms, cocoons, raw-silk, and mulberry-leaves being
distinctly named.
Sir Richard Dallington, an intelligent English traveller in
ltaly in the middle of the sixteenth century~ writes thus about
the cultivation of silk worms and mulberry trees, and the prospects
of the Silk industry generally 1 :-"I will speak of the Mulberry,
for that the mention thereof draweth consequently therewith all
the discourse of the Silke-worme, which being another of the
greatest commodities of Tuscany. In the months of May and
June this worme laboureth . . . when they are laid in the Sunne,
and so hatched, but for want of heate, and to have of them
betimes, the wormes will hatch them in their bosoms. So soon
as they be wormes they have of mulberie leaues given them,
I •• Suney of the Great Duke's Esta te of Tusca11}'', I s96.

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 'fHE GUILD OF SILK 219
wheroof they -oply feed, to which purpo5e are daily great store of
trees planted : the leaues is sold at foure quattri'ni the pound.
The rest of the year they be only kept in some warme and
dose places, where they may be neither endangered by cold
nor thunder, for either destroyeth them. When she hath
wrought herselfe into a bottome, they put it into warme water to
finde the end thereof, but if they would preserve the worme for
seed, then they finde the end without putting the bottome into
water (for this killeth the· worme). . . . And whereas heretofore
the Silke workers of Florence, besides their owne, were usually
wont to buy from N aples, Lombardie, and Greece, so much silk
as yearly amounted to three hundred thousand duckets, it is now
thought that shortly they shall have enough of their owne. . . .
I t is thought there are yearly made of Florence Raslus to the
worth of two million of duckets, and of Silkes and Cloathes of
gold and silver, to the value of three millions. . . ."
In spite of the increase of mulberry plantations and of silk-
worms in Tuscany it was necessary for the Florentine manu-
facturers to import both leaves and worms largely from abroad,
and especially from the Valley of the Rhone.
At various times, especially during epidemics, much suspicion
was directed to the pôssibility of the introduction of fever, and
other ailrnents, by means of the raw silk and cocoons imported
from the East. lt was commonly said too, in later days, that the
cultivation of the mulberry was pemicious :-" for in the most
places where it hath been planted plague and sickness hath
broken out I "
Perhaps of all the processes the most important were those
which dealt with the earliest stages of the manufacture-the
treatment of the cocoon. No cocoons containing dead worms, or
double cocoons, or any which had suffered injury, or dis-
colouration in transit, were allowed to pass the tables of the
Conti#tton', who were the first to deal with cocoons in the
rough.
Steaming in hot water-by the Calfkrai, was the next step.

Digitized byGoo~ ~
220 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
This process was needful to kill the worm swiftly, so that no
discharge of foul matter might exude, and injure the "gum,'' or
lining of the cocoon. The cocoons were placed in hot water for
a few minutes, and a little alkali was added. The temperature
was kept quite equable,-about 80° Fahrenheit,-until the silk-
case softened of itself, and the stray strands of silk ftoated. To
assist this natural unwinding, girls were employed, wbo kept

SPINNING SILK FltOM COCOONS. SIXTEKNTH CKNTUII.Y

the cocoons in gentle movernent in their bath, by means of small

brushes made of tree twigs.
Reeling, from the steamed and softened cocoons, was the
gathering into one thread, so to speak, of strands from many
submerged cocoons. This formed the raw silk of commerce.
Great care had to be exercised by the Fi/atori and Filatore,-
male and female spinners or reelers,-.-to avoid thick pieces or
lumps being drawn through the eyelet of the reeling machine.
The Torcitori,-silk-throwers or twisters,-wound together

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 221
several strands of raw silk in hanks. The raw silk singly treated
was far too delicate for manipulation. The weft-thread was
composed of two or three strands of raw silk not " thrown,'' ·and
this gave the material its silky appearance and feel.
No doubt the introduction of raw silk to Florence was due, in
the first instance, to the agents of the Merchants and Bankers,
who, traversing lands and seas, failed not to pick up novelties of
ali kinds, and especially such objects as appeared likely to be
profitable commercial assets. Thus samples of unwound cocoons,
and thrown-silk, found. their way into their consignments of
foreign produce.
The finest quality of raw silk was imported from Spain,
which, in the fourteenth century, was valued at from two /ire,
ten soldi, to eleveri soldi per pound : that of Catanzano being
the least highly esteemed, out of nineteen or twenty other
varieties.
Balducci Pegolotti, in his "Manuale de/ Mercante Fiormtino
o Divisammti," gives precepts for preserving .the silk in transit.
He speaks of " raw silk which comes in bales, and is of many
kinds and qualities, but of whatever kind it is, it must be smooth
to the touch, and according to the quality, the thread must be
fine, round, and free from fluff, dross, and knots. . . ."
" lt is also necessary to see that it is not rubbed, which
means that on the road, when it is brought by beasts of burden,
or in waggons, the bales do not come into contact with the
hedges, the waggon, or the ground, so that the canvas or outer
covering is tom, and the silk is exposed. . . ."
"To preserve silk well it must be packed tighter than any
other merchandise, and kept in a place neither too damp nor
too dry, covered with good matting. If it is so kept it will
never be spoilt."
The travellers' bales also contained consignments of silken
stuffs and velvets and gold and silver brocades produced by the
silk looms of India, Persia and China.1 Hence Florence became
1 Pagnioi, voL ii. us.

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222 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the emporium of the precious tissues of Bagdad, Damascus,
Teheran, and other manufactures of the Far East.
One other elcment contributed to the fame of Florence as
a Silk-mart. Many a courier and agent brought home with him
natives of the countries through which he travelled. These
people carried with them, to the service of their new masters,
secrets and methods known only in the East, and, by the tenns
of their purchase, they were held in a state of quasi-slavery.
and ga~e their time and abilities to the prosecution of their craft
for the benefit of their rnasters.
Thus, in a comparatively short time, beauty of design,
r.ichness of colouring, and fineness of workmanship raised the
value of Florentine silk immeasurably. Just as in the case
of foreign cloth, redressed by1 Florentine workpeople, the output
of the silk looms of Florence commanded far and away better
prices, in the European markets, than did the like produce
of any other city or country.1 Her craftsmen excelled those
of Lucca, Milan, Naples, Pisa, Genoa, Bologna, and Ferrara,
as well as those of Bergarno, Bassano, Vicenza, Verona, Padua,
and other centres of the silk industry in Lombardy.1
The two rnost important branches of the silk manufacture,-
pure and simple,-were plain silk and silk-velvet or plush. The
invention of velvet was due to the enterprise of the Velluti
family,-hence the name,-who were already doing a thriving
business in the thirteenth century. Inconvenienced by want
of room, in their original workshops, off the Vicolo della Seta,
they removed, along with other families and workrnen engaged
in the same kind of silk manufacture ; and, somewhere about
·I 28 5, crossed the river, and established themselves in more
spacious quarters in Oltrarno. The Velluti erected large ware-
houses and factories, in a new street, to which they gave the
name of Via de' V elluti. This street soon became an important
thoroughfare, and, because many other rising families built fine
1 Statuti dell' Arte della Seta, Rub. xYiii., xxv., xuiv., xliii., lxü.
' Pagnini, vol. ii. 11 S·

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o
cgN.
"'
Q_

!l
CJ
o
o
00
.....-
(V • DETAIL OF nLACK AND WHITE IIIARBLI!: P.lVEMENT IN THE BAPTISTER\'
1200 A.D.

(HARLV PATTEHNS POR Sll.l\ HROCAUB)

I Su ,6J.~t JtlÓ]
o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE GUILD OF SILK 223
edifices along it, it was re-named Via Maggiore-the Via Maggio
of to-day.
There exists a Chronicle,-the original manuscript of which
is in the possession of the present Duca di San Clemente, Simone
Velluti Zate,-which deals with the history of bis house and
its success in trade; it was begun in I 300 by Donato di Lam-
berto dei Velluti. A good many leaves are wanting in the first
part, and there is the following suggestive note by Paolo Velluti,
who continued the Chronicle :-" Whatever is obliterated in these
pages, I have done it to wipe out the memory of the enmities
and vendettas of the men of our house." 1
A light kind of silk-tissue was much made called Drappi
del/e E,.,isini,-Sarcenet,-which admitted of the admixture of
inferior and watered down materiais, a sort of " shoddy silk.''
This manufacture was discouraged, and under certain conditions,
forbidden, as detracting from the reputation of the Florentine
silk manufacturers. Silk-tissue, wbich was sold everywhere by
weight, was woven in pieces measuring ordinarily twenty ulne~
fore-arm's lengths.'
Lapo Mazzei, the Notary, makes some sententious remarks
in bis " Letters " upon the morais and aims of the Florentine
methods. He rather optimistically avers that they had in their
minds more noble things than mere money gains, and he cites a
"Treatise upon the Arte della Seta," written by an anonymous
member of the Guild. The manuscript is preserved in the
Laurentian Library at Florence; the author inculcates not only
admirable rules and recommendations for the successful carrying
on of the industry, but also the more excellent way of transacting
worldly business, by way of making accommodations with
heaven l
The work is entitled : " A Manual of Theoretical and
Practical Instruction for the use of Silk-manufacturers.'' 1 lts
value is enhanced by many miniatures,-exquisitely drawn and
1 Dooalo Velluti, "Cronica," IJ00-1370. 'Cantini, vol. vii. 176.
• Girolamo Gargiolli, "Trattato del Seeolo XV."

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224 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
coloured,-of workpeople of both sexes, wearing the work-a-day
dress of the period, and engaged in their 5everal occupations.
This "Manual" is based upon manuscripts and codices in
the Biblioteca Ricciardiana,-bearing dates in and about 145 3.-
the Biblioteca Magliabecchiana, and in the Biblioteca Laurenziana
of the approximate date of 15 17. The anonymous author makes
use of the public records of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
and quotes freely from Goro Dati and Dino Compagni. He
enters fully into ali the details conceming raw-silk, its import,
and its manipulation, together with descriptions of the machinery
used, and the method of dyeing, with current values and sale-
prices, etc. etc.
At the beginning,-after the customary invocation and dedica-
tion,-are instructions for the treatment of pe/o-raw-silk and
cuttings, orsow-sewing-silk, and lrama-silk-thread for weaving
the woof. The preparatory stages before dyeing were : sorting,
steaming, boiling, and reeling. Recipes are given for dyeing
green, brown-green, blue, vermilion, tawny, fustic-yellow, grey,
and black. The methods of dyeing crimson and black, for
example, are as follows :-Crimson :-" In dyeing crimson the
silk must be left for a day, or better for a day and a night,
in a solution of alum. In the moming wash out the alum in a
trough of clear water, and fold the stuff in clean linen cloths.
Have a cauldron of hot water ready, with a moderate amount of
lye in it, add half the crimson dye, which has been well ground
and sieved, and bring the mixture to a boil. It is very important
that there be not too much lye,-for the inexperienced dyer is
often too liberal in its use, fearing that the solution in the
cauldron is not thick enough,-or the result will be a yellowish
colour, and the process will have been useless."
" Dip the alumed silk warily in the cauldron, then take it
out, and place it in the alum bath again, for an hour or two.
Again remove it, and dip in the cauldron again, then take it out,
wash it well, and rinse it severa! times. This part of the process
should be done in Amo water, or better still in water of the

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 225·
Mugnonc, which is harder ; and the harder the water the grea.ter
its clea,nsing power."
" The remaining part of thc crimson dye is added from time
to time, during the progzess of the various dippings. So far as
the dyeing proc:ess has gonc, it has merely 6xed the &rst strain of
colour. The dyer must now consider whetber he has used coarse
or fine crimson, and a1so the quantity of each. I f he has had
the fine crimson he must dip the substance in tepid alum-solution,
then shake it five or six times in clean linen cloths, and dip, and
leave it in the cauldron until the liquid is quite cold."
" The next part of the process consists in shaking out a piece
to see if it is to thc dyer's liking ; if it is, nothing further need
be done : ü it is not red enough. make thc alum a little hotter
again, and put it in as before, and continue repeating this until it
is quite satisfactory."
" Remember that the more leisu.rely the proc:ess, and the colder,
the better, clearer, more unblemished the stufl' wi11 be. . Fine
crimson stands wringing better than thc coarse, and has more
colour, pound for pound,-for one pound of fine is equal to two
pounds of the coarse,- . besides the fine is redder, and takes the
atum better. The coarse crimson dyes very slightly, so that if
the alum-solution is too hot all will be spoiled."
" Remember that it is never a waste of time to stand and
watch patiently the steeping in the cauldron, for loss may
otherwise be incurred in the selling value of the material. lf
very deep red is required add a little Roman vitriol to the alum ;
but this forced colouring is bad, and does not last, but fades
easily." .
B/ack :-" The stufl' must be steeped in gall a whole day, or
a day and a night. The gall must boil for one hour in the
cauldron, taking care that the latter is well filled, and boiling
when the silk is put in. When it has boiled for an hour or
more, take it out, wring it, and put it to cool-repeat this
three times. lf it is pelo or orsoio do not boil it in the
cauldron,-for it has to endure hard wear, and boiling it in the
p

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226 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
black dye weakens it,-but pour the boiling 50lution over it
Take it out and put it to cool as many times as necessary, until
the sample shows that it is finished. When this has been done
three times, put the material in the cauldron, 50 that it is com-
pletely covered, and let it stand all night-then take it out and
wash it. Place a pan ready with washing-soap dissolved in it,
put the stufl' in, and soap it well,-for this soaping makes it
lustrous, bright, and 50ft,-as otherwise it would be dark and
harsh, and would split."
" Many kinds of silk require great care in dyeing them black,
such as the silk of Bruges, and others of weak fibre, which, if
boiled in black dye, become 50 fragile that nothing can be done with
them-this is not the case with Spanish and other stout qualities."
The author goes on to give severa! tables of figures which are
interesting, as illustrations of the actual conditions under which the
silk industry throve so greatly in Florence.1 The first table is : -
" Of Descriptions and Prices of Raw Silks " :-there are twenty
varieties, including Seta Spagwola--quoted at Fl. 2, I o piaio/i
per pound weight, Seta Strana-foreign-Fl. 2, 4 pü:cio/i, Seta
d' AIM~ria--Fl. 2, 5 pü:cioli, Seta da Messit~a-Fl. I, 10 piaW/i,
Seta da Modi'g'Jüma.-Fl. 2, I 3 pkcü>Ji, Seta d' A!Jnun-Fl. 2,
5 piaio/i and Seta Crupo/Üia-I 1 picao/i.
The second table deals with the "Winding of Silk." All
masters who employ silk-winders are required to pay the following
prices per pound :-For all double skeins, five pkcü>/i per pound,-
for raw silk, six piaio/1~-for the woof used in weaving, seven
piaioli,-for single white skeins, eight piaioú~-for white sewing
silk, six piaio/i,-for the woof for Tafletta, nine piaioli,-for raw
knotty silk, seven pim'oli,-for fine Raso,-lustrous silk or satin,-
ten pim'oli. The prices, in ready money, for twisting and spinning
silk were, for white sewing-thread-six piaioli, for single skeins-
four picao/i, for spinning-silk-thread--eight picao/i per pound
· When booked and paid for after the work was completed, these
prices were increased fifty per cent.
1 Pagnini, voL lli. p. 117.

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 227
Another table gives the scale of payment for weaving per
lwa«io--Bf'O«<IIo d'Oro,-gold brocade,-from eighteen to six
silver florins, according to the weight per ounce of gold ; Ve/ltno
and Da1ff4S&.iino--silk woven with floral and other pattems, like silk
from Damascus--one florin each ; Raso--sixteen piccio/i; Tajfetta
-6ve pkcioü ,· Ciam!Je//otto,-silk-camlet, roughish surface like
modem Como rugs,-twelve piccioü ,· Saia-silk-serge,-mixed
with wool-a favourite and strong material for the body-hose
and doublets wom by men-one florin eighteen piaioü.
The weight of silk warp, per !Jraaio, varied considerably : -
Tt!Ja111J Raso,-thin satin,-and Ciam!Je//otto weighed each twelve
áanari; Velúdo--fourteen danari ,· and Da1ffaS&.iÜJo--twenty-four
tlanari. The woof ~so varied in weight per !Jraaio : - Ve/l*to,
DatllaSdúno and Tajfetta--eacb one ounce, six danari,· ZelaM-Raso,
-raised satin,-one ounce, eighteen dallari ,· Ciam!Je//otto--two
ounces ; and Seta di Capitone-stout silk serge, three ounces.
Woven tissues of silk were of different weights, per !Jraaio : -
Damascltino and Raso-Colorato Sumpio--single-coloured satin,
each two ounces six dat~t~rio ; detto doppi-ditto double, two ounces
sixteen dat~t~ri ,· Taffitta co/orata-coloured taffettas, one ounce
sixteen dat~t~ri ,· Ve/l*to co/orato--coloured velvet, three ounces ;
deito ~itto black, three ounces twelve dat~t~ri ,· Ciam!Je//otto
-three ounces ; and Saia-four ounces.
The sizes too of the silk pi~ were dissimilar in breadth :
Velltno piano--plain velvet, and Raso--satin--each measured one
6raaio ,· Da1ff4Scltino--one and a quarter óracao ,· Brocatt/la a
light brocade,-Tajfetta, and Saia, each one 6raccio seven-eighths.
Another table deals with the " Prices paid for dyeing silk per
pound weight " :-Cremisi, crimson, two dips- Verde B1'*no,
olive-green,-Aiessandrino, pale blue, each two silver florins ; Pag-o-
~~t~~so-Cennisi, di Grana, and di Versino--violet crimson, violet ivy-
red, and violet Brazil-red-one florin fifteen picao/i,· Zaflerano--
saffron, Vermig-/io,-vermilion, and As..,ro--light-blue, each one
florin five piaio/i ,· Verde g1een, and Cennis:i-crimson-a single
dip, each one florin; Bigio-grey, Tane-tan-colour, Gia//o di
 228 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Sa1tao-fustic-yellow, each twelve ~: NM)-black, cost
fifteen pieeioli.
The sale-prices of silk materiais, per lwaaúl, in the Retail sbops
of the Por Santa Maria ranged as follows :-'-
BnJeaàu :-Deep crimson-Flo. 2, 6, 8 ; Violet-crimson-
Flo. 2, s, o ; Parti-coloured-Flo. 1, 13, 4 ; Black-Flo. 1, 18, o.
Sati1U:- Dcep crimson - Fio. 2, 3, o ; Violet-crim!IOil -
F1o. 2; Parti-coloured-Flo. 1, 6, 8; Black-Flo. 1, s, o.
Da11111Sks :-Deep crimson-Flo. 2 ; Violet-Crimson, Fio. 1,
17, 6 ; Parti-coloured-Flo. 1, 2, o ; Black-Flo. 1.
By weight-per pound-the prices were as follows : -
Salitu :-Deep crimson-Flo. 6; Violet-Crimson~Flo. s, 5;
Parti-coloured-Flo. 4, 1S ; Black-Flo. 3, 17, 6.
Talfetlas :-Deep- crimson-Flo. 7, 1 o; Violet- Crimson-
Flo. 6, I o ; Parti-Coloured-Flo. 3, 17 ; Black-Flo. 3, 1 5 ;
and Dull red-Flo. 4, I o.
Other quatities and descriptions of silk-tissue are also quoted
in the " Manual," but the foregoing will suffice to show the values
wbich obtained generally in the sixteenth century.
During the fourteenth century the full style o( the Guild was :
,. L' Arll diJia Sita e di Drappi d'Oro, 1 derli On~ji"-" The Guild,
o( Sük and Cloth of Gold Manufacturers and Goldsmiths..,
The addition o( " Goldsmiths " to the title o( the Guild points
to the importance of that group of artists and artificers. The
working in precious metals established a new profession for
artistically disposed Florentines : a profession which ranked on
an equality- if it did not indeed surpass them - with the
Company of Painters attached to the " Guild o( Doctors and
Apothecaries," and the Society o( Sculptors and Architects affiliated
with the lesser " Guild of Masters in Stone and Wood."
·So much the vogue did gold and silver work become tbat
a special Guild sprang into existence, early in. the fourteentb
century, which bore the title of "L'Arll der/i Onjid"-" Guild
o( Workers in Gold and Silver." Every boy who displayed art
. talent was apprenticed to a goldsmith, and thus almost every

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AR~IS OF <;UILD o~· SILK
DONATRLLO

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
- ~
o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE GUILD OF SILK 229
one of the famous painters, sculptors, potters, and decorative
workers of all kinds, were enrolled members of " The Guild of
Goldsmiths." In the middle of the century there were actually as
many as forty-four goldsmiths' shops upon the Ponte V ecchio,-a
po5ition assigned to them by the Council of State,-the united
rentals of which amounted annually to upwards of eight bundred
gold ftorins. 1
In I 322 three Examiners were appointed by the "PtW Sat~ta
Maria" to look into the Statutes and Regulations of the sub-
ordinate " Guild of Goldsmiths." Tbe result of their inquiries was
seen in the admission of the Master-craftsmen to full membership
in the Greater Guild on the same terms as tbe existent members.
Ali disputes between Masters and Apprentices were to be
decided by the Consuls of tbe Silk Guild.1
Goldsmiths were authorised to work in all metais, but every
article made bad to be submitted for approval to appointed
Inspectors, and each thing passed required tbe stamp of the
maker's name and bis trade mark. For gold work tbe metal
employed bad to be of equal value to that used for the gold
florin, but gold, worked into wreatbs and personal omaments,
required tbe admixture of sulpbur. No goldsmith was allowed
to exercise bis craft outside bis own dwelling-bouse or workshop.
Tbe Consuls of the Silk Guild had the right to visit and
inspect workers, work done, and materiais in preparation, wben-
ever they were so minded.
Severe measures were, from time to time, taken to prevent
the use of imitation, or base, gold and silver thread. For cburch
vestments, especially, care was taken tbat the gold and silver were
of the best quality, from Cyprus, Olivio, and Colonia. Ecclesiastics
and the Generais of the Monasteries were forbidden to make use
of any but the best metal for the decoration of altars, sacred
Images, etc. etc. ; and they were also forbidden to dispose of
such objects to Second-hand Dealers and Pawnshops.
1Vuui, YOL ü. 14o
'Ardtivio del Stato FiorentiDo, Stroai UguceioDi,-quoted by Daviduobn, tuL üi.
1273. p. na.

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 280 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Early in the fifteenth century the weaving of spun " cloth
o( gold n as it was called was introduced by members of the
Guild who had travelled in the East, and had leamed something
of the manufacture of this magnificent texture.1
According to Gino Capponi, the introduction of gold and
silver-tissue spmnmg and weaving took place in 1422. He
also asserts that the best gold-thread came from Sicily and
Cyprus.l
Along with its manufacture by the Florentine silk-looms
came a marked enrichment of the attire of private citizens and
of the State-robes of public dignitaries.
As early as the year 1296 two rich pieces of cloth of gald
were manufactured in honour of Cardinal Pietro di Pipemo, which
were valued at thirty-nine gold florins. The robe of Filippa di
Giotti Peruzzi,--on her marriage to Carlo degli Adimari,--of fine
silk velvet embroidered in gold, cost two hundred and sixty·n~e
gold florins, wbilst her going away dress cost twenty gold florins
more, but it comprised a rick silk grmneUa-a petticoat or shirt,
anda gwarnacca-a full embroidered moming-gown.
Notwithstanding this great prosperity of the trade, the" Guild of
Workers in Gold and Silver " 1\ad but a very ephemeral existenoe.
At the revision of the Statutes of the Silk Guild in 1 3 35 it was
suppressed, and its members were drafted, with full and equal
· rights and privileges, into the greater corporation.8
"The Guild of Goldsmiths,''-" Arte degli Oraji,"-in contra·
distinction to the "Guild of Workers in Gold and Silver,"-" Arll
degli Or~d,"--continued its operations, and became, in the six-
teenth century, one of the most important and wealthy corporations
in Florence.
Among famous goldsmiths were, Andrea Arditi, Bernardo
Cenni, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Tommaso degli Ghirlandaji, L Nero,
Antonio di Sandro, Antonio Salvi, Paolo Uccello, Benvenuto
Cellini, and Filippo Brunelleschi. The latter was enrolled in the
l Burckbardt, "Der Cultur des Renaissance in Italien," i. 77•
t Ammirato, Lib. xriii. p. 998. 1 G. Gonetta, " Bibliografia Statutaria."

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 281
"A.rle túrJi Orafi," under the great "Silk Guild " in 1398, and
he was made a freeman of the latter in 1414.
These dates point to the fact that the " Silk Guild " extended
its patronage and protection over goldsmiths in general, and not
merely over workers in gold and silver-tissue. The creations
however of the former hardly belong to the history of the " Por

JNTIERIOI. OF A GOLDIMITH'S WOI.JCSHOP. SJXTUMTH C&KTOI.Yo

Satlla Maria," but form a subject apart from the industry of silk
and precious-metal weaving.
There is no doubt that in Florence the goldsmith's art stood
very high in the times with which we are dealing. The gold-
smiths were artists, and therefore most of the workers in chiselled
gold and silver, and engravers of gold and precious stones attained
a higb reputation, and it may be truly said, the work ofthe Florentine
goldsmiths far surpassed, in exquisiteness and originality of design,
that of any other city.
The combination of silk with gold and silver led to the

DígítízedbyGoogle ..J
2St THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
introduction of a new and beautiful art-the making of laces.
Tbis specially found votaries in the Convents, where the nuns
instructed their lay sistets in the elegant manipulations of bobbin
and stiletto. Savonarola rebuked the Religious for " devoting their
time to the vain fabrication of gold laces with which to adorn
persons and houses." This exquisite work,-of which every
important collection of vestures possesses an example,-is still
called "opera tU fiUmtl&lu "-" nun's work."
Henry VII I. of England ând bis queens were very partial 1:o
Florentine lace. He granted··to two Florentine merchants the
privilege of importing for three years " ali manner of frynges and
parsements, wrought in gold and silver and otherwise."
The embroiderers and embroideriesofFlorencewere more famous
than any others. Philip, Duke of Burgundy, was a great patron and
collector of doths of gold sewn over with pearls, corais, and other
valuable materiais. Antonio Pollaiuolo, and many other painters
and goldsmiths, designed small cartoons to be worked in silk-
tissue and omaments. One, Paolo,--a Venetian artist settled in
Florence,-occupied quite twenty-six years in embroidering altar
hangings representing the life of Saint John the Baptist for the
Baptistery, which had ali the appearance of brush work.
Women specially excelled in this artistic craft, and their
energies were tumed towards making ecdesiastical vestments in
which the richest textures were covered with gold filagree-work
and gems. Pope Paul I I I. gave many commissions to the Floren-
tine embroiderers.
Another very beautiful art was the painting and gemming of
fine musüns and laces. The Florentine Vmttai-veil-makers--
were celebrated, not only for their taste, but also for their skill in
weaving mixtures of silk, wool, and cotton with the finest
strands ~f metal.
Doubtless ideas were gathered, and pattems drawn, from
Eastem fabrics imported from the Orient. For a lengthened
period such infiuences were apparent in the work tumed out, but
in the fifteenth century-if not earlier-a marked emancipation

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 THE GUILD OF SILK 288
from restraint and convention is noticeable in the output of the
Flomltine workshops and studios.
Painting on silk and satin was greatly admired in old
Florence. This fonn of decorative art developed in two direc-
tions : first, blending o( colours, purely in the style of a pig-
ment-master, and, secondly, mosaic painting, in which the colours
were not mixed together but laid side by side in patches. This
added much to richness of effect, because strips and borders of
tbe material were left showing. In ali the Sacristies of Florence,
and many more in Europe, there are preserved exquisite examples
of this method. No doubt the development of this art was due
to the fashion of painting the gonfalons of the Guilds and Com-
panies, and the shields and bucklers of cavaliers. The baldachinos
of churches, and the frontais of altars were generally treated in this
manner with adomments of gold and silver lace.
Codices written in 1487 by Balducci Pegolotti, and by
Giovanni da Uzzano, descriptive of the Catasto of 1427, preserve
many very interesting details conceming the silk trade. Several
minute instructions are given conceming the methods of manu-
facture, and lists are added with respect to quality, weight, and
value of different sorts of raw silk.1
The "Por Santa Maria" contributed greatly to the wealth
and magnificence o( Florence during the fourteenth, fift:eenth
and sixteenth centuries. " In 1472," says Benedetto Dei,1 " the
number of workshops belonging to the Guild was eighty-four,
wherein the industry o( weaving cloth of gold, silver brocade,
and silk tissue of every colour and texture, was ·carried on."
Upwards of sixteen thousand operatives and superior workmen
were employed in the manufacture of silk, and its adjuncts, within
the clty and COtlladtJ.
Silk stuffs were despatched to Lyons, Geneva, Antwerp,
Naples, Rome, Sicily, Provence, Roumania, Spain, Levant,
Morocco, Barbary, and elsewhere. No consignmentS of such goods
were made, strange to say, to England and Germany for general
l No. rrii., 1427, BtDiioteca-LaumsdaDa. I li Cronica, .. pp. 22•44-

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~•le
_...___
_
234 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
sale. Royal patronage however was not wanting, for Henry VII.
of England,-ever a patron of foreigners of ability and research,-
appointed, in I 5 16, Leonardo Frescobaldo and Antonio Cavallari,
Purveyors of gold and silver cloth to the Court, with salaries of
~20 eacb. The last-named Florentine was also employed to gild
the tomb of Henry VIII. at Windsor.
There is extant a letter of Henry VII. addressed to the
Signoria,1 recommending Antonio Corsi,-a Florentine agent, high
in the favour of the king,-whom he was sending to Florence,
" to purchase gold cloth and silks, sufficient to load three
mules."
The household book of Henry VIII. contains records of pay-
ments to the Florentine banker-merchants Fresc:obaldi, Bardi,
Corsi, Cavalcanti, and others for pieces of cloth of gold.1
These were required, doubtless, to fumish the magnificent
uniforms and decorations of the famous " Field of the Cloth o(
Gold," as well as for use by the King and the Court in England.
Ser Antonio Guidotti,-the negotiator of loans for the
King, who was knighted for bis successful financiai measures,-
was a great promoter of the silk industry. In a letter to Thomas
Cromwell, written in 1536, he offered to bring.-over to England a
party of silk-weavers from Messina. He was a Florentine, and
employed many craftsmen from bis native place.
During the fifteenth century Duke Filippo Maria Visconti of
Milan was a patron of the Florentine silk industry. He invited
silk workers to settle in that city, for the purpose of instructing
the native Milanese in the details of manufacture, and in spite of
prohibitions, some accepted the Duke's liberal terms :-"a generous
monthly stipend, full political rights, and ten years' exemption
from taxes, both for themselves, and for any agents who might co-
operate with them."
The founders of the celebrated French manufactories of silk
and velvet at Lyons, Montpellier, Avignon and other centres, were
undoubtedly Florentines. Traditions and traces of their works
l An:bi•io FiorentiDo, "Atti Pabblichi," 1498. • Brit. Mueam MSS., 2481.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE GUILD OF SILK 285
and methods still linger among the operatives there. The same
may be said of England.
A notable family held a prominent place in the Silk Guild,
tbat of the Guicciardini. The historiao, man of affairs and
courtier, Francesco Guicciardini, who ftourisbed in the middle of
tbe sixteenth century,-from whose literary works many quotations
are made in this volume,-bad a share in a silk manufactory, along
with Jacopo and Lorenzo di Bernardo Segni and their Company.
His " Rüordi Polilici e Civili de Firn~u" was written during the
siege of Florence by the Emperor and the Pope in I 529-30.
Sir Richard Dallington, in bis "Survey of the Great Duke's
Estate," makes lengthy references to the Silk Industry, and to the
cultivation of worms and mulberries. The late date,- I 596,-
of tbis characteristic record, suggests, too, the fact that the same
Grand Duke, and bis two immediate predecessors, by their un-
called for and unwise interference in the Silk-industry,-as well
as in the other trades of Florence,-practically led to tbe ruin
of the commercial life of the splendid old city and her princely
mercbants.
Signs of decadence in the trade made tbeir appearance in the
middle of the sixteenth century. Foreign competition, with a
more general spread of the industry, and the improvement of
communications, may be set down as reasons ; but, doubtless,
the principal contributory causes were the amazing prosperity o(
the City, and the self-indulgence of her citizens.
Workgirls and their companions began to sing : -
"L•nedi,--lunediai ,· " Monday,-Mondayish.
M arledi,-tWn lavorai ,· Tuesday,-nobody works.
MlraJiedi,-.persi la rocca; Wednesday,-take up tbe distaft
Giovedi,-/a retrovai .- Tbursday,-lay it down again.
V nurdi,-/a 't~eonot:eltÜJi ,· Friday,-willy-nilly.
Sa/Jato,-mi lavai la testa ; Saturd!ly,-let us wasb our
heads.
E Dommüa,--l'erafesta I" Sunday,-well, that's the festa!"l
1 Girolamo GUJiolli, " L'Arte della Seta in Firenle e Dlaloghi," p. 229-

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 CHAPTER. VIII
THE GUILD OF DOCTORS AND AP<Yl"HECARIES
C .4BTE DK JIEDIOI E DEGLI BPEZULI

I. OlttGI:N.~ElemeDtal knowleclge of Medicine and Surgery in the Middle

Ages. Salemo. Occalt scieoc:es. Eartiest Florentiae PhysiciaD, 934- Gaild
iD e:xisteoce, 1197. College of Docton, 1218. Taddeo d' Alclerotti-"li~
n-tllisltl!'
11. Co:NSTITUTION.-Strict examiD&tion of c:aDdidates for membersbip.
Matteo Palmieri. Two divisions of the Guild. Code of 1313- Apprentices.
Midwives.
111. DOCTORS.-Tbeir assumptions of superiority. Dress. Mamaers.
Etiquette. Petrardl's aquib. Strange remedies. "The sea (or river) waahes
away a11 human Hls ! " Cabbages. u Pnllk4 di Nkt:tllo tia Firn~~~e." Recipes.
Gu1lielmo di Saliceto. Anatomy. Professional fees. Quacks. Mercato
Vecchio.
IV. AI'OTHBCAlliBS.-Social inferiority. Caution-money. LiceDses. Sales
o( drup safeguarded. Famous Pharmacles. Greek scholars welcomed by
Cosimo de' Medici. A./6are/li. Funerais. Recorda of Prillriste and Zi~
Perfuaies. B~~eclllri. Haberdashery. "L'.Arte tU Mem"al~ Veletlai, Pro-
{tmúwi e Carlolai." Many affiliated trades. Ageots and salesmen. Pro-
fusional Banks.
V. PATRO:NAGE OF 1'HE GUJLD.-Literature. Famous men o( letters.
Dante. Printing. Woodcuts. Scrivt»>Í. Lilwai. Painting. Celebrated
painters. Cimabue. u L'Arle di Pillori." Florentine Lodge of Guild o( St
Luke. Tratliúo del/a Pittva. Stained.glass windows. Geographical re-
search. Toscanelli and Vespucci. "A Great Guild!"

I N the Middle Ages the science of Medicine was in a deplor-

able condition, and the knowledge of Chemistry was quite
elementary. Surgery was hardly practised at ali, and, as it
was deemed impious to dissect the dead human body, anatomy
was practically unknown.t
Herbalists and dealers in simples were held in higher esteem
than medicine-makers, apothecaries, and distillers. As a science
the cult of medicine did not go beyond the use of the horoscope,
1 Tarcioni· Touetti, " Prodromio," p. 83.
•36

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 237
the examination of urine, and a few carefully guarded secrets,
of which the Jews were the chief depositories.1
Tbe use of tbe lmife had practically died out Cautery and
the setting of bones represented the whole of experimental
surgery. The extraction of teeth, phlebotomy, and ali such
minor operations, were complacently submitted to the skill of
tbe ubiquitous barber, or dubiously committed to the tender
mercies of the casual empiric.
The influence of the occult sciences upon human destiny and
human suffering ever excited the imagination of the curious.
Tbe alchemist's robe, the astrologer's wand, and the doctor's
spectacles, betokened tbe possession of mystic powers, which were
the admiration of the credulous. Wealth seemed to be linked
to fame in the exploitation of medicine anel its sister sciences,
and that was quite a sufficient recommendation in the eyes of
shrewd business men.
Tbe lamp of science had doubtless been kept alight in tbe
Monasteries, but its glow did not illuminate the outside darkness.
Consequently, when tbe founding of Universities became a feature
of tbe times, much that was known only in secret chambers and
cells, began to be revealed to the growing intelligence of mankind
in general.
Bologna, Ravenna, Padua, and Salemo, and other centres of
light and leading, opened their doors to an expectant world.
Among the earliest faculties sought there were the sciences of
Practical Medicine and Experimental Surgery. Thither went many
a Florentine lad, tbe bearer of bis parents' hopes. In due time
these pioneer-adventurers retumed home again to preach anel to
practise what they had heard and seen in school and hospital.
The earliest mention of physicians, in the Florentine Archives.1
bears the date of 9 34 ; when it is noted that one " Amalpertius,"
a deacon of the Church, was also a M~tik4, and was styled
DomituJ Messere." In 1 070 " Britulus " is named, " who was a
l "L' Oslenatore F'IOieDtiDo," YOL 'ri. p. 147·
• Archino clel An:laeveecoYo FioresatiDo.

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288 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
well-known doctor." Piero, Abbot of the Badia, speaks, in I 090,
of" Giovanni, our most estimable doctor and friend"
Tbe names of many doctors and pbysicians are recorded in
subsequent years. Their incorporation in a Guild was accomplished
early in the twelft:h century. This was probably due to the
same considerations which led to the incorporation of the
Merchant Guilds-the benefit of mutual and united action.
That a Guild of Doctors was already an active body in I 197
is proved by tbe fact that in that year the signatures o( the
Consuls are appended, along witb those of the Consuls of other
Guilds, to the anti-imperial League of Tuscan cities,-at tbe head
of wbich was Florence,-and they signed as representing " The
Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries." Tbis fact also proves the
association in one community of two classes of men, quite distinct
in social importance, but each depending upon tbe other for
existence and opportunity.
Somewbere about the year 121 8 we first come across the
existence of a College of Doctors and Apotbecaries, established
very mucb upon the lines of the old Roman and Imperial
Colúgia. Its members included not only doctors, apothecaries,
physicians, and chemists, but also surgeons and midwives--
the two latter classes were, bowever, quite insignificant and
subordinate.
The founder of the Florentine Scbool of Medicine was Taddeo
d'Alderotti. He was bom in Florence in 1223, and was sent by
bis fatber,-a Com-cbandler,-to study at Bologna. He first of ali
gave bis attention to Greek literature and philosophy, of which
faculty be became in due time the professor. His translations of
Aristotle's " Et!Ucs," and bis commentaries of Galen and others,
gained bim much fame. Dante speaks of "Taddeo's lore." t
Hippocrates, and bis bistory of human disease, greatly attracted
bim, and he gained the name of " f /ppoçratisto "-" The Hippo-
cratean," as recorded in Dante's "Corwito."
The date of Taddeo's establishment as a professor of medicine
1 u Paradiso," Çanto :llii.

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 DOCTORS'AND APOTHECARIES 239
in Florenc:e is uncertain ; but two circumstances seem to point to
the year 1278, for there are records, whicb give the name of one
of bis earliest Florentine pupils,-Dino del Garbo, wbo after-
wards became a preacher of tbe Order of Cistercians,-and also
state that be united the teaching of medicine witb the calling of a
Com-chandler, in the public granary at Or San Micbele, in that
year.
Dino del Garbo's son, Tommaso, was also a pupil of Taddeo,
and both are referred to at length by Villani.1
Taddeo's fame was great Among bis patients was Pope
Honorius IV., a sufferer from gout, which quite incapacitated him
from saying Mass. His Holiness having been restored to bealtb,
thankfully bestowed six thousand ducats ( = l. 3,000) upon the
great doctor. Ta(ideo's reputation, and bis fees also, rose im-
mensely. From a wealthy merchant be demanded as mucb as
fifty to one bundred gold florins for a brief consultation 11
Other famous professors of the medicai and surgical faculties
in Florenc:e were Giambattista Torregiano and Micbele Vieri-
both pupils of Taddeo d' Alderotti..
What the exact relations of the Guild with the College or
School were, no records appear to state ; but that tbe latter was
subordinate to the former is certain.

A Statute of the Guild lays down that :-" no doctor may be

admitted a member of the College, nor be allowed to practise,
unless be has first been publicly examined by the Consuls of the
Guild." • This was doubtless, more or less, a perfunctory exercise,
· for the candidate bad already obtained bis degree and qualitication
at his university. I t bad reference, probably, to social standing,
and, not a little, to tbe good conceit the applicant had of
bimselfl
Another Statute names the Apothecary members of the
Guild, but imposes no examination, as in the case of tbe Doctors.
1 F. VlllaDi, "Vita di T&ddeo d'Alderotti."
• L' Oaervatore Fiorentmo, vol. i. 134, p. 301.
• Statuti, Lib. iY. Act iL Stat. 53-
240 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Tbe activities and importance of tbe Guild grew proportion-
ately. In 1282, at tbe second election of Priors, one of tbe
number chosen was a member of tbe "Guild of Doctors anel

DOCTOil VISITIMO A r&V&Il PATIIlMT. IJOO.

Apothecaries." A few years later, in I 296, the Matriculation

RoU of the Guild was adomed with its most celebrated name in
the annals of Florence,-the immortal writer of tbe " DiviM
Ctnnnudia "-Dante Alighieri.

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 2U
A very distinguished member of the Guild, who matriculated
in 1333, was Matteo Palmieri. He was also a writer of poetry,
bis " CUia di Vita" is very reminiscent of the work of Dante.
He realised the highest ambition o( ali Florentines by being
appointed ambassador ; bis mission was to tbe Court of the
King of Naples. "The ambassador," says a quaint old historian
-Giovanni Battista Gello, who was a tailor by trade but a free
student in the university also,-" behaved himself very wisely, and
the king did aske what manner of man he was in bis own
countrey, and it was told bim that he was an Apothecary. 'If
tbe apothecaries,' quoth the king, ' be so wise and leamed in
Florence, what be their physicians ? ' " 1
A Code of Statutes was issued by authority in 1 3 I 3· I ts
provisions corresponded in general terms with those of the
· " Calimala " Statutes of 1 30 I -9, and additions were made in I 3 I 6,
and again in I 349· Complete revisions of Statutes, Regulations,
Bye-laws, and of the whole Constitution of the Guild, were
eft'ected in I 4 I S and 1468, and further additions were made in
I5S8 and 1571.
In the recension of 141 5, it was enacted that no one
under the age of fifteen years should be apprenticed to a doctor
of medicine, surgeon, barber, midwife, or any one else who had
care of the sick. Ali such persons were required to establish
tbeir reputation for honesty, morality, and mental and physical
fitness before being matriculated.1
Doctors were permitted to enter into partnership with apothe-
caries, on mutual terms : the former sending patients to the latter
with their prescriptions, and the latter recommending patients to
the former.•
Under ali these laws tbe number of Consuls was always four.
Tbey had unlimited jurisdiction over ali pbysicians and apotbe-
caries, as well ts over ali surgeons, midwives, herbalists, distillers,

1 " PeDIOIO d'Altrui,,. 1537•

1 "Statuta Populi et Communil Florentiae," 1415, ttlll«llla 1775. Freiburg, Rub. lii.
I R11b. IIY.
Q

D1gítízed by
~2 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and all persons connected, directly or indirectly, with the faculties
of medicine and surgery.
In Jacopo di Cessolis' moralisation upon the " Playe of
Chesse,"-published by Antonio Miscomini, and already referred
to,-the personality of a Doctor-apothecary is exhibited by the
Queen's Pawn as follows : 1 "The pawne that is sette to fore the
Quene signefyeth the Physicyen Spiceo and Apotyquaire and is
formed in the figure of a man and he is sette in a chayer on a
maystre and holdeth in his right hand a book and an ample or a
boxe wyth oynementis in his left hand and at his gurdelle his
instruments of yron and of sylver for to make incysions and to
serche woundes and hurtes and to culte apostumes, and by these
thinges ben knowen the cyrugyens. By the book ben under-·
standen the phisicyens and ali gramaryens, logicyens, maistres of
lawe, of geometrye arismetuyque musique and of astronomye and ·
by the ampole being signefied the makers of pigmentaries spicers
and apothequayres and they that make confections and confytes
and medecynes made wyth precyous spyces and by the ferrement
and instrumentis that hangeing on the gurdell ben signefied the
cyrurgens and the maistres."
The Residence of the Consuls of the Guild was one of the
finest in the city. It was formerly the Palazzo de' Lamberti, at
the comer of the Via di Sant' Andrea, massi\?e and imposing in
appearance. The Hall of Audience was specially handsome, it was
adorned with fine marble sculptures, and a finely painted ceiling.
Each of the allied or subordinated Guilds, or divisions, contributed
some characteristic adomment :-painters, miniaturists, porcelain-
makers, haberdashers and silk agents, perfumers, etc. etc. The
ceiling is now preserved among the treasures of the Museo di San
Marco. On the façade of the Residence 'was displayed the
escutcheon of the Guild-the Madonna and Child supported by
two pots of growing Annunciation lilies. The same device was
repeated in white upon a red field in the Guild gonfalon.

I " Guioccho delle Sc:acchi," 1493·

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 243

Doctors, physicians, and surgeons, numbered no more than

sixty during the first half of the thirteenth century, out of a
total population of nearly one hundred thousand ; but their im-

DOCTOU IN CONIVLTATION.-1$00

portance, not to say arrogance, increased in an inverse ratio.

Their functions were very much more theoretical than practical,
and, for the most part, they were content to wear the habiliments
peculiar to their profession, and to pose as men of science, rather
than actually to practise the faculty to which they belonged.

Dígítízed byGoog~
244 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Doctors, who had graduated at a university, never appeared in
public except with full and long robes, omamented with scarlet
and vair-skin, after the fashion of knights, and a fur hood
depended from their shoulders, after the manner of Capuchin
monks. A velvet cap or bat, and gloves completed their pro-
fessional costume. Generally they were accompanied by a groom
leading a horse, which they usually made a show of mounting in
the Mercato V ecchio.
In common with doctors o( laws, and men of upwards of
seventy years of age, doctors of medicine were exempt from
serving with the military companies of their sestini.
I t was a cu~om, common enough in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, for doctors o( medicine to fix their pro-
fessional residence and consulting-room at an apothecary's : a
mutual agreement was come to, whereby the doctor prescribed
only drugs sold by his own apothecary. In later times, when the
dignity of the profession had suft"ered somewhat at the hands of
commercial agents, doctors set up as independent retailers of
drugs ; but such " double dealing " does not appear to bave been
very profitable either to them, or to their patients.
The diagnosis of physical ailments, no less than the casting of
psychical horoscopes, bad little to do with the actual treatment of
sickness. The Doctor seated upon his horse, or ensconced in his
easy-chair, spectacles on nose, pompously prescribed tbe remedy,
writing it out in almost illegible characters, which became a fruitful
source of maladministration of drugs.
Professional etiquette required, first of all, the feeling of the
pulse, and the exhibition of the tongue, and these amenities were
enjoyed as readily in the open market as in the consultation-room.
The next stage was the elaborate swathing of an affi.icted member
in linen cloths, dipped in water, and the commission of the patient
to the tender mercies of the Apothecary.
That profane babbler, Nello the barber, so amusingly described
in "Romola" running his rigs at the Doctors and Apothecaries,
asks :-" What sort of inspiration do you expect to get from the

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 246
scent of nauseous vegetable decoctions '1-t<;> say nothing of the
fact that you no sooner pass the threshold, than you see a ·doctor
of · physic, like a gigantic spider, disguised in fur and scarlet,
waiting for bis prey, or even see him blocking up the doorway,
seated on a bony hack inspecting saliva." 1
Petrarch had a jovial appreciation of the doctors of bis day :
-" When I see a doctor coming I know all that he is going to
say to me," he laughingly exclaimed,-" Eat a pair of young
pullets, drink much warm water, and use the remedy that the
storks teach us I " 1
A very favourite process for any malady of the head,-
whether simple headache, or more serious ailments,-was to shave
off ali the hair, and then to hold the bare pate to the scorching
heat of a blazing 6re I An excellent embrocation, for any part of
the body, was considered to be soap made of myrrh, boiled in
water impregnated with crushed ivy ftowers, and mixed with the
yoke of egg.
For stiff neck, or stiffness of the bones and limbs, a wash was
used compounded of wine and tincture of assafc:etida, which was
rubbed in with force until the skin began to bleed, or the bone of
the skull was laid bare I
"fhe favourite poultice was made of honey and assafc:etida with
betony powder, and other ingredients, and applied hot. Warm
drinks,-sweet and nauseous,-~ commonly imbibed, and men
in armour were plied with steaming potions to keep off the cold
shock of the steel they wore.
Persons suffering from fever were advised to plunge into cold
water 1 Profuse bleeding was stopped by cautery-binding the
source round with stout cord, and setting ít on 6re with a
candle 18
Obstructions in the ear were treated with hot poultices for
thirty days, if relief was not obtained, smart raps were adminis-
tered to the unoffending ear I "This practice,''-as it was quaintly
I Georce Eliot, "Romola," cbapters iü •• ni., etc.
• J. F. A. de Sade, "M~oires pour la Vle de Pétrarque," •ol. iü. 768.
• G. Boc:caccio, "Decamerone," GWnl. ÍY., Nftl. 10, •oi. li. p. :J6o.

o, 9 ítízed byGOo.
246 THE GUILDS OJ:i" FLORENCE
said,1- " is founded upon the fact that when a dagger gets jammed
in its sheath, the final resource for its releue is a sbarp blow." 1
Water-treatment, accompanJed by applications of syrups and
purgatives, was a favourite remedy for all stomacbic ailments, and
for skin diseases. For the richer citizens, a course of baths at
Siena was prescribed. This was a fine satire ; for nothing did
the ordinary Florentine love more than to score off bis worsted foe
of old, by pacing with lordly step up and down those crooked
streets, and such advice was acted upon with alacrity I
For the poorer classes, who could not afford the Sienese
vüúgiahlra, there was the bath in the /orgia of the Ponte V ecchio,
fed by the water of the Amo, the medicinal virtues of which were
always loudly extolled by the medicai and pharmaceutical faculties.
I t was specific, they averred, in all poor men's ailments, and of
it was said, in old Florence, as of the ocean deep :-" The sea
washes away ali human ills." •
The humble cabbage was greatly extolled,--as were, in tum,
all the vegetable treasures of the garden and the field,--as a
panacea for all the aches and pains of poor humanity. I t was
eaten raw, or cooked, and even the water in which it was prepared,
was deemed a health-giving beverage.'
The following is a satirical rhyme, which an old chronicler puts
into the mouth of many a despairing patient of the old Florentine
ftUdiaJs:-
" There's DeVer a herb nor a root,
Nor any remedy to boot
Which can stave death off by a foot t• •
One of the most celebrated doctor-surgeons of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries was Messer Niccolo di Francesco Falucci,
who was styled "Medzi:us tlodissimru." He wrote many tractates
-the most highly esteemed being, " Pratica dz" Niao/o áa
Firen6e "-for such was bis common name. Among medicines
1 F. Saccbetti, "Ntlfl." 37, vol. i. p. 159-
t Sacchetti, "Nw." 168, t. iii. p. 41.
1 L'OIIIervatore Fioreatino, Lib. vi. p. 35-
• C. Sprengel, " Hiat. o( Medicine," vol. i. 138.
• G. A. L. Cibrario, voL i. p. 371.

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 DOCTOBS AND ~POTHECARIES 247
which he introduced was that of "Giukppo di Niccolo,» a famous
medicament in those days. Niccolo died in I4I 2.
What has become of ali the countless scrips and scraps
whereon tbe famous doctors of old time scored their recipes-who
can say? No more than five books of prescriptions remain to us,
and the oldest of them bears the date I 498. These were doubt-
less printed from the original manuscripts, and of them a copy is
preserved in the Sacristy of the Cathedral of Florence.1
It is stated that during bis last illness Messer Piero Guicciar-
dini made use of certain pills to be taken at dinner and supper
time, which were made for him by Meo da Siena. The following
is the prescription : 1-

Magnetised storax l
Colocyntb . 4!
Rhubarb 41
Powder of fine wax I l
Tree-mallow
Fine turpeth
Rectified scammony . 4
Clove and lavender . l
Hepatic aloes 6
All steeped in white wine and made into pills.
The multiplicity of compounds very likely did little to
preserve the old man's lifo----possibly it was shortened ! Lorenzo
de' Medici's end, in I 492, was certainly hastened by his medicai
treatment The famous Milanese specialist,-Messere Lazaro da
Ficino,-was called into consultation by the " Magnifico's " resi-
dent physician,-Messere Piero Leoni da Spoleto,-but the case
was hopeless. As though to mark the high human value of the
patient's life they lavishly prescribed a potion of crushed pearls
and rubies!
One of the earliest Florentine surgeons who made a name,
was Guglielmo di Saliceto da Piacenza. He was the author of
1 Haller, "Biblioteca Meclica," Yol. i. p. 481. 1 MS. Diario di Monaldi, p. 98.

I
I

,.,.,~Go~
248 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
a Treatise on Surgery, whicÍl appeared in the second half of the
thirteenth century.
Some progress was made in the science of surgery by the
foundation in Naples, in 1249, by Frederic 11. of a Chair of

SURG&ONS OP&RATING.-1500

Anatomy, but · the Emperor's laudable example was not followed

anywhere else. Not until well on in the fifteenth century was
any serious attempt made to take up the study of surgery, and
then traces are discemible of an attempt to tackle the science at
Ferrara.1
• Cibrario, vol. i. p. 444·

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 2'9
No very celebrated Florentine surgeon made bis mark before
the sixteenth century. The greatest master was probably
Antonio Benevieni a member of an erudite family.
The disesteem with which practitioners were regarded in the
fifteenth century, at ali events, is quaintly told by the author of
"Romola" :-"ls it the Florentine fashion,'' asks Maestro Tacco
of Nello the barber, " to put the masters of the science of medicine
on a levei with men who do carpentry on broken limbs, and sew
up wounds like tailors, and carve away excrescences as a butcher
trims meat ? A manual art such as any artificer might learn,
and which has been practised by simple barbers like you--on a
levei with the noble science of Hippocrates, Galen, and A vi-
cenna. .. I" 1
Villani, in his record of the Population of Florence in 1300,
says the Doctors and Surgeons numbered sixty whose names were
entered upon the Matriculation Roll of the Guild.
The fees paid to doctors and surgeons were undetermined by
the College Rules and by the Guild Statutes. They varied con-
siderably in amount, and were, perhaps, in direct ratio with
individual purses and reputations.
The State paid its medicai assistants, for professional work
in connection with its ofticials, and with criminais, at a niggard
rate. For example, in 1292, Ser Guido di Jacopo and Ser
Orlando di Giovanni were called in to treat the feet of tive men
injured in the pillory. Their recompense was a beggarly sum of
fifty soldi each ! On the other hand, established practitioners
received from two to tive gold florins for each ordinary consulta-
tion, wbilst they, and less well known physicians, were content
also to take ·payment in kind,-merchandise, wine, and market
produce.
The high fees paid to Taddeo d'Alderotti were not excep-
tional, for, in 1336, Bonifacio Peruzzi summoned the celebrated
doctor Messere Alberto da Bologna, to cure him of a bad throat,
and paid him sixty gold florins. 2
1 George EUot, "Romola,'' chap. ui. I Peruzi MSS., iü. 33·

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~-·r~
250 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Notwithstanding the laws and limitations circumscribing the
avocations of Doctors and Apothecaries alike, very many travelling
charlatans wended their way daily through the streets of Florence.
Tbey came in mostly from Padua and the surrounding cities, bent
on picking up some of the superabundant wealth of tbe rich
Republic. Well-mounted on hardy ponies, with capacious saddle-
bags, they rode into the Markets as though ordinary merchants.
Well concealed too were their stores of secret medicines, against
the vigilance of the guardians of the gates. Wide berth they
gave to the shops of the Apothecaries, and sidled off when
Florentine medicai dignitaries approached. But bere and there
fat capons and plump pigeons found their way into hands, which
as readily reaped a harvest of small coins from the unwary, Cor
worthless salves, and pills, and powders.
Of one such George Eliot wrote : " Let any Signore," says the
M edúo, " apply bis nostrils to this box, and he will find an honest
odour of medicaments--not indeed of pounded gems or rare vege-
tables from the East, or stones found in the bodies of birds . • •
and here is a paste, which is ever of savoury odour, and is infallible
against melancholia, being concocted under the conjunction of
Jupiter and Venus, and I have seen it allay spasms." 1 Never-
theless, under certain conditions of man and nostrum, quacks were
recognised as members of the affiliated and subordinate " A rle de"
Ciurmadon" "-" Association of Registered Empirical Practitioners
of Medicine."
The Mercato V eccbio was the favourite meeting-place of
quack doctors. Their raucous voices in advocacy of one or other
of their nostrums mingled a daily note of discordance to the
terrible clatter of that busy mart ; but none gathered together so
many open-mouthed hearers and cash-in-hand customers.
A real Florentine doctor, on the other hand, beld bis bead
high; he was accorded the style of" Messere,'' and sometimes that
of "Al.fe6rista,"-algebraist,-because one of bis prerogatives was
the solution of abstruse p~blems connected with the ancient science
1 George Eliot, "Romola," chap. xvi.

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 251

of astrology. He was always a superior sort of person, and never

condescended to social intimacy with bis inferior fellow-guildsmen
-the Apothecaries.
The reason of the union, in one Corporation, of a professional
class and a commercial,-in the person of Apothecaries,-may be
seen in the dependence of the one upon the other. It was ever
so in old Florence, the aristocratic temperament of her people
ever gave hostages to thefr democratic proclivities.

If Apothecaries were regarded by their more magnificent

fellow-Guildsmen much in the light of poor relations or inferiors,
their importance in the commercial and social economy of
Florence was undoubted. They were not looked upon as men of
science, and in early times, at all events, they were not obliged
to undergo any educational test, beyond that of being able to
decipher the infamous handwriting of the Messeri Media-" Gen-
tlemen Doctors." They were regarded in the light of assistants to
the medicai faculty, and convenient agents for the sale of various
small commodities.
In tbe early days of the Commune, Apothecaries merely
bought and sold medicinal herbs, which grew within easy reach
of Florence, and which were daily brought to market by the
country people. Later on apothecaries were obliged to take out a
license before opening houses or stores for custom, and each
applicant undertook " to keep bis shop open daily, except on feast
days, and to sell only genuine articles." 1 Each was required to
lodge with the Treasurer of the Guild a sum of money,-wbich
varied in amount according to circumstances,-by way of guar-
antee and which was recoverable at death by the relatives.
The brilliant commercial enterprise of tbe " Calimala" and
Wool Guilds opened out vast new fields for research, and for the
acquirement of precious pharmaceutical treasures. The " Guild of
Doctors and Apothecaries" became a Jiving power in the Republic,
and its members entered enthusiastically into the race for com-
1 Statuta, Lib. iv. cbap. ii. Rab. 55·

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252 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
mercia1 supremacy. In ali the travelling companies of the period
Apothecaries were found who carried home in triumph their spoils.
Fine cloth finished by skilful Florentine operatives, and other
European commodities, were accepted, in the East, in exchange
for drugs and spices.
The sale of medicines and their ingredients was strictly
limited by the authority of the Guild to the shops of duly qualified
Apothecaries ; and no citizen was permitted to sell, or expose any
foreign drugs or spices, who was not at the same time a member
of the Guild.
The sale of drugs and spices was safely guarded so as to
protect the public from danger to life and from fraud. Annually
the Consuls of the Guild appointed a SifiiÚlaJ, or Inspector, to
visit all the shops of the Apothecaries, and the stores of such
Doctors as were accustomed to keep medicines and other articles
for the use of their patients. 1 They had the power to confiscate
and destroy all properties, which did not bear the official stamp
of the Guild, or wh_ich,--even bearing that seal,-in any way
contravened the bye-laws. At the same time the names of those
who were guilty in such matters were posted at the Offices of the
Guild, and were forbidden, for a time determined by the Consuls,
to practise their faculty, or to traffic in their commodities.
One of the best known Apothecaries' shops was the Far-
macia de/ Moro--" The Moor's-Head Pbarmacy." lt stood at the
comer of the Borgo di San Lorenzo, and was founded early in
the sixteenth century. Here Antonio Francesco Grazziani,-
whose nickname was "i/ Lasco,"-" ldle-dog" 1--carried on the
business of a chemist. He was nevertheless a poet and a novelist.
His family came from Staggia to Florence in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and he was registered upon the Matriculation Rolls of the
Apothecaries. He is famous as the founder of the "Aaademia
del/a Cnuca "-the polite speech of Tuscany.
Cosimo de' Medici-" Father of his Country "--greatly
encouraged medicai research and surgical manipulation. On
1 Statuta PofUI)i et Coauaauis Flormtiae, 1415. Rab. IY.

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 253

the fali of Constantinople, in I 4 S3, he welcomed a numerous band

of Greek scholars. One of the earliest evidences of their influence
was the translation into ltalian of an ancient manuscript, dealing
with tbe science of Surgery. This was followed by excerpts from
other manuscripts of ancient naturalist writers.1
Cosimo employed the new teachers also to prepare a new
Florentine Pharmacopreia, comprising the formulas in local use,
and others, gathered from various Schools of Medicine in Europe,
or extracted from the stores of ancient lore. To assist bis medicai
staff, he founded a Laboratory of botanical science, in which he
applied himself energetically to the study of herbs.•
This was the 6rst Florentine Laboratory, or School of Criticai
Research, in which Apothecaries were able to learn to amend the
simple and unscienti6c methods which they had hitherto followed
in the compounding of medicines.
Another famous Laboratory, or Phannacy, was established
under the sign of "The Lily," late in the 6fteenth century.1
There the Rosselli family,-Romolo, Stefano, and Francesco,-
carried on the business of Apothecaries, and also wrote several
learned treatises upon medicai and surgical subjects ; and, in the
person o( Cosimo, gave proof of artistic proclivities as well. A
Dominican Father, Agostino dei Riccio, who wrote a "Treatise
on Agriculture," names the Apothecary Stefano Rosselli with
particular honour, and says :-" the city of Florence owes a debt
of gratitude to this noble man, because he has cured many citizens
by the secret remedies which he compounded in bis shop."
In the cloister of the monastic church of Santa Maria Novella
a Spuieria, or Drug Store, was opened for the manufacture of
medicines, the rendering of medicinal oils, unguents and perfumes,
under the direction of a council of incorporated Apothecaries.
The Fannacia del/a PeaJra, in the Mercato Nuovo, was another
important establishment for the dispensing of medicines under the
control of " The Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries."
I In the IAUielltiao Libruy. Collated by Dr Cerc:hi.
• L'Oaervatore Fiorentino, 'foi. 'fi. p. 147·
I MS. oCGioftiiDi Battista Teobaldi, Magliabechian Library, Codex 192.

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254 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The " Pinadoro" was a well-known Apothecary's shop, and
was the training school for many a famous Florentine--Perino
del Naga among the number. Each of the Monasteries had its
Spezieria, or Dispensary as we say, where medicaments, condiments
and many necessary comforts were distributed gratis, or at a very
low figure, to sick and needy applicants. The members of the
religious orders were past-masters in the subtle arts of pharmacy,
and undoubtedly made use of their powers to advance the cause
of Religion.
With respect to the number of Apothecaries, whose names
were enrolled upon the Matriculation Registers of the Guild, G.
Villani records that, in I 300, they were wellnigh one hundred.
Benedetto Dei gives the number of registered Apothecaries in
1479 as sixty-six-the shrinkage being due, doubtless, to trade
competition, whereby the smaller and less enterprising men suffered
extinction.
The botterlu of the Apothecaries were not the least ornamental
and attractive of the many shops of Old Florence. Their internai
arrangement followed on strictly conventional lines. Two rooms
at least were required, the one giving upon the street or market
was the shop in particular, whilst the room behind served for the
mixing and preparation of the multitudinous variety of objects
offered for sale, and for the accommodation of apprentices and
assistants.
Across the centre of the sbap ran a counter with drawers and
cupboards, and upon it, together with letti-pots of ointment,
llusitu-tasting cups, and fio/e--cruets, were displayed small and
interesting artic!les, such as scents, gloves, satchets, buckles, and
nicknacks of ali kinds from beyond the seas. U pon a finn
pedestal stood the big mortar made of metal or earthenware, with
strong outside ribs like buttresses of masom;y to bear the beavy
pounding of condiments. On a side-table were sets of Va.ti di
pue11)wa/i-accouchement services, and catustralle--dessert disbes.
Behind, along the walls, were ranged shelves of wood, hold-
ing in due order earthenware a/{Ja,.elli and boccali--dry drug jars

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 255
and jugs for liquids. These a/óareOi held artists' pigments,
sweetmeats, candied apples, quince, and plum jams, with dates,
manna, and spices from Syria and Africa, perfumes, soap, and
endless luxuries and foibles of the day. They and the boccali .

THB "BOTTBGA" OF AN APOTH&CARY. FOURTitENTH CltNTUJlY

were always beautifully shaped and decorated, and bore the

names of their contents. A lower shelf contained round and
oval boxes of wood or metal, generally decorated with painting
and adomed with work in gesso, and boiled leather, for bandages,
sponees, brushes, etc. etc. The lower sbelf was reserved for

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256 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
glass flasks bound in plaited rusb and wicker-work, for infusions
and decoctions, and closed with cotton wool or straw stoppers.
All these articles bore the owner's initials, anns, or name,
with the name of the drug, etc., painted upon a ribbon decoration.
In handy little beaps wcre small ftasks, bottles for medicines, and
little boxes for pills, etc., ali bearing evidence of artistic taste.
Tbe walls of the sbops wcre adomed with painted tiles of
majolica, carved and painted wood, with tapestry or leatber
hangings. Convenient bencbes for customers were placed by tbe
counter · upon tbe clean plaited straw matting. Generally little
metal flags were bung outside the door, like Inn signs, bearing
the proprietors' names and special notices, whilst aiiHzn/ú. further
prOclaimed tbeir calling.
A brancb of the Apothecaries' business,-and by no means an
insignificant one, in view of the large population of Florence and
its CtnúlllltJ, and in relation to the many visitations of fire, ftood,
famine, and pestilence,-was tbat of undertaker. Tbe funerais,
at ali events of the wealthier citizens,-wbether noble or merchant,
-were conducted by the Apothecaries. They supplied every
requisite,--coftins, biers, bearers, palls, torches for use in the street,
candles for the ecclesiastical functions, trappings, omaments of ali
kinds, baked meats, burial d~ks, and ali accessories. Oddly
enougb the most popular refresbments at funerais were just those
wbicb still are ofl"ered at country burlais in Great Britain,---antfdti
-sugared sponge-cakes, and ~ spiced liquor 8avoured
with cinnamon and cloves.
In eacb !Jot~~grz was exhibited a tarifl" or pria>list with quota-
tions of mortuary expenses. These were arranged in classes to
suit every pocket, and tbe friends of tbe deceased were, as now,
"waited upon at their residences " for the registration of arrange--
ments.
U ndertaker-apothecaries did not bear the best of names for
honesty and moderation of charges, and when one of the &atemity
bung up a " Melon," by way of a sbop sign. it was bailed witb
derisive laugbter as an apt token of tbe unblusbing tricks of the trade!

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 257
Public records and the Prioristi and Zióaldoni-private note-
books for jotting down at the moment interesting items of news,
and carried and used by Florentines of every class, age, and sex,
-contain numberless paragrapbs relating to burlai ceremonies.
None of the latter were more scrupulously written up than those
of the Alberti, Cavalcanti, Peruzzi, Rucellai, and Valori families.
For example, among other items in the account 1 of the burlai
of Monna Piei-a de' Valori Curonni, in I 365, are biscuits and sweet-
meats, a clotb baldaccino, poles for bearing the coffin, wax-candles
for the nigbt watch, sweet herbs for perfuming the chamber, torches
for the street procession, etc. etc. The amount paid to Giovanni
di Bertoldo, tbe Apothecary, for all these reached fifty-three gold
ftorins. An additional account for tapers, candles, and torches,
nsed at tbe interment,-also supplied by the same undertaker,-
came to eleven gold ftorins. The fees paid to the good lady's
two doctors,-Messeri Niccolo da Mantova, and Piero de' Pulchi,
-for " medicai attendance and for testifying the death," amounted
to seventy gold florins.
The expense of the funeral of Niccolaio di Jacopo degli
Alberti, who died on August I 377, was enormous. "He was
buried,'' says the old chronicler, "at Santa Croce, with the greatest
honours in tallow and wax." The sum total carne out at three
thousand gold ftorins-nearly E. I 500 !
In fact the serious expenses attaching to funeral ceremonies
led to repressive legislation by the State, and the " Guild of
Doctors and Apothecaries" was called upon to investigate the
matter. Many regulations were adopted throughout the fifteenth
century, and at length some new Statutes were enacted in I 536,
which dealt with torches, candles, and various other objects
modelled in wax. These confirmed to the Guild the exclusive
right to make, keep, and seU ali such things, and further limited
the trade in illuminations and fireworks,-which at the period had
become indispensable adjuncts at all funerals,-to members of the
Guild.
I Valori MS., p. 2J.
R

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258 THE GUILDS OJ.' FLORENCE
Quite the most fashionable and lucrative department in the
Apothecaries' shops was that of Perfumery and Haberdashery.
Indeed the Perfumer's sanctum,-with its delicious odours and rich
stores of attractive triftes,-was a dangerous rival to the gossipy
saloon of the versatile barber.
When a man required a pick-me-up it was, in the ordinary
course of events, for him to drop into his chemist's. Tbere, in
addition to the usual town's topics, he was able to discuss interesting
items from foreign parts, handle samples of scents and silks from
the East, taste curious sherbets and essences, and chat to his
heart's content with the gay frequenters of the emporium. High-
bom gentlemen.and well-to-do contadine thronged these busy marts,
and lent their graces and their foibles to the animation of the
scene. Flirtations and assignations were the order of the day,
behind shady jalousies and amid cushioned divans ; whilst the
discreet and spectacled master busied himself, not with their tittle-
tattle, but with their petty cash.
The general use of perfumes was a characteristic of the
prosperity of Florence, and of the luxury of her citizens. Almost
every one became a connoisseur of delicate and pungent odours.
The fashion was introduced from Spain, whence carne the recipes,
which bore the names of the "lnfanta Isabel/a" and the "Donr~a
Fiormza de/ UOlt.oa," and which became the rage.
Count Lorenzo Magalotti teUs us that a pair of small silk
sachets, filled with these delights, sold easily in Florence for four
hundred gold ftorins. The Count also wrote a sonnet entitled :
-"To the orange ftower," 1 wherein he recites with rapture the
fascinating ingredients of his own best-loved perfume - orange
blossom, honeysuckles, roses, jessamines, lilies of the valley, elder-
ftowers, sweet mint, thyme and geranium blossorils. He gives
a recipe for the manufacture of a delicious fragrance :-" Take,"
he says, "the empty skin of an orange, with a little powdered
benzoin, two pounded cloves, and a small stick of cinnamon ;
cover them with finest rose water, and set to boi! upon a brazier."
1 '' Diterambo sul Fiare d' Arancio."

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 259
Then he gossips with a genial friend,-perhaps a worthy
Apothecary,-showing that in the matter of perfumes one must
be sparing, or generous, according to circumstances, and in pro-
portion to the appreciation of the company. Liberality at all
times was to be required in palite society. Omaments, dress,
kerchiefs, utensils, beds, hangings, rooms, and even food and
beverages, all carne under the category of objects worthy of being

FLORBNTINE GBNTLEMAN PURCHASING SCBNT AT AN APOTHBCARV'S.

LATB SIXTBBNTH CBNTURY

perfumed with musk, amber, and the extracts of sweet-smelling

ftowers, herbs, and earths.
No forms of scent or perfume were anything like so popular
with the smart folks of old Florence as the Bualuri, and none found
Apothecaries more keen in their supply. By the term was meant
odoriferous earths or paste, and also small ornamental unglazed
vessels made of sweet-smelling clay. The finest Bucclun' were
distinguished by a brilliant black colour, and carne from Portugal.
When baked into pottery the colour was rich brown and red, and

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260 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the little vessels were polished by the hand and omamented with
rich gilding. The odour of the Buccluro, when dipped in water,
was delightfully refreshing, and resembled the aroma which rises
from the parched ground, on a hot summer day, after a copious
shower.
Fashionable belles of the period were accustomed to wear on
their uncovered breasts miniature Buccluri as lockets. They were

FLORBNTINB LADY AT HBR TOILBT. LATit SIXTitltNTH CltNTURY

pierced with tiny boles, whence issued the most delicate of

ftowery fragrances. Ever and anon they would press these little
vases to their lips to gather the delightful tingling sensation which
the impact produced. In every Apothecary's shop these attractive
toys were sold, as well as the Cunziere-perfume jars filled with
fragments of bucduro earth and other odoriferants,-which were
to be found in the luxurious apartments of wealthy citizens.
The rage for this delectable compound became enonnous.
I t was made in to pastiltes for eating, and was added, as an

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 261
acceptable flavour, to the most delicate viands :-saporetti-subtle
sauces,pani /evati-dessert-wafers, cappone di g-a/era,~-flip and
whipped cream,-the forebears of our meringues.
Magalotti also descants 1 upon the charms of Bucduri, anâ
says sententiously :-" What a delight it would be to put to boil
in a Buccluro del/a Mag-a, with Cordova water, four or tive pieces
of B.ccluro di Guada/axara ! Such a confection would keep it:S
perfume for a year, if wrapped in amber-scented leather, with a
dmaro worth of /acrima di Quinquina, and would be meat and
drink combined I "
Under the general term Merciai,-Haberdashers,-which by
the way was added to the title of the Guild in the year I 282,
and which, henceforth, was known as" L'Arte de' Medici e deg-/i
Spuia/i e de' Merciai," "The Guild of Doctors, Apothecaries, and
Haberdashers,"-were included many small fancy dealers.
Merciai strictly meant traders who purchased raw silk in the
Levant and Persia and shipped it to Florence. They were also
keen in picking up endless articles which promised remunerative
sales at home. They ministered greatly to the splendour of
marriage feasts, which in the fifteenth century were celebrated
without fear of sumptuary prohibition. The weddings of Baccio
Adimari and Lisa Ricasoli in I 420, of Bernardo Rucellai and
N annina de' Medici in I 460, and of Lorenzo de' Medici and Clarice
Orsini in I 469 were remarkable for the richness and variety of the
beautiful presents of Eastem origin-embroidered cushions, belts,
purses, veils and fringes of fine silk, inlaid thimbl6S and needle-
cases, ivory combs, feathered fans, and whatnots. The wedding
trousseau of Giovanna de' Medici, in I 466, excelled all others
in the cunning beauties of its unnamed trifles of rare and
goodly workmanship, sought out of the endless stores of the
Apothecaries.
Certain Provisions were passed during the first half of the
sixteenth century in connection with the " Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries," which prescribed rules and regulations for the
1 Magalotti, "Lettere Scientifiche," No. 18, 19.

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262 'l'HE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
conduct and procedure of ali and sundry traders connected with
the Guild.
"L'Arle de' Merciai, Ve/ettai, Profumien· e Carlai"-" The
Guild of Mercers, Veil-makers, Perfumers, and Stationers," was
duly enrolled and placed under the direction of the Greater
Guild.1 Ali such merchandise had to be packed in boxes, cases,
barreis, casks, or bales, bearing the mark of the exporting house,
with the name of the agent attached, who was also directed to
stamp each consignment with the official seal of the " Guild of
Doctors and Apothecaries."
The following is a list of some of the Crafts which were sub-
ordinated to the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries" : -

Bar!Jieri Hairdressers and Barbers.

Batti/ori Gold-beaters.
Berrettai Beret or cap-makers.
Biccllierai e Fiasci Glass-blowers and Bottle-makers.
Boccalieri e Scudalien' Jug and dish-makers.
Borsai Purse-makers.
Braclli'erai Truss and Suspender-makers.
Cappe/lai di paglia e feltro Straw and Felt Hat-makers.
Cartolai Paper-makers.
Cartai Stationers.
Ceraiuo/i e Fabbricanti de/f} Wax chandlers and makers of
Imagine di Cera waxen figures.
Ciurmadori Quack-doctors.
Co/tel/inai Cutlers.
Guainai Sbeath and case-make.rs.
lm!Jiancaton' Makers of Bleaching media.
Lanci'ai e Funaiuoli Well-rope and gearing-makers.
Lanternai Lantem-makers.
Lintai Makers of small linen articles.
Li/Jrai Booksellers.
Mascllerai Mask-makers.
1 Cantini, iii. p. 343·

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 263

Merciai Dealers in raw-silk and sundries.

Jltinug-i'ai { M~kers of catgut for musical
mstruments.
Orpel/ai Makers of gilded leather articles.
Pai/ai Tennis-bat and ball makers.
Pettinagnoli Comb-makers.
Pettini stracci Makers of silk carding-combs.
Profumien' Perfumers.
Sei/ai Saddlers' fancy articles dealers.
Spadai Ornamental sword·makers.
Stagnai e Acconciastagni Pewterers and platers.
Stovig-liai Potters.
Stacciai e Vag-liai Sieve-makers.
Ve/ettai Veil-makers.
Vendi
'C
di Spago, Canapo, e} Strmg,
. R ope and Cord -mak ers.
r une
etc. etc. etc.

All through the fifteenth century as the fame of Florence was

wafted further and further afield, her Merchants and her Apothe-
caries entered more and more into friendly rivalry in exploiting
the treasures of distant lands. The " Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries" despatched travellers and agents into every known
land, who quickly sent back valuable consignments of goods.
Everything of an aromatic nature, or pleasing to the eye, no less
than every ingredient useful in the Pltarmacopt.Eia, became articles
of barter and of traffic.
Each vessel, from the East, wbich entered the barbour of
Leghom, or which sailed up to the quays of Pisa, brought
immense stores of precious oriental merchandise. These were
~nladen and promptly packed on mule backs or placed in
shallow river-boats, and despatched direct to the shops of the
A pothecaries.
The number of Sensa/i-agents-and Mezzani-Middlemen
-was very large. They were either engaged in foreign travei, or

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264 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
at depots in Italy and abroad, or in Florence itself. As early
as the middle of the thirteenth century such assistants of the
Guild were fully recognised and generally employed. Regula-
tions were put into force, from time to time, which not oqly
limited both the numbers and the activities of persons acting
as agents and salesmen, but also required that all who should
engage themselves in such occupations should obtain the sanction
of the Consuls of the Guild.
The co-operative feature, which marked ali trade undertakings
in Florence, did not fail to assert itself with respect to agents and
salesmen. Consequently it is not a matter of surprise to find that,
by the middle of the fourteenth century, a subordinate corporation
had come into existence :-"L'Arte de' Smsa/i e di Mezsani"
-" The Guild of Agents and Middlemen." This association
was without separate política! attributes, and was entirely under
the auspices of the " Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries."
Each member received, upon Matriculation or admission, a
metal token, which he was obliged to wear during the exercise of
his calling. The same badge he was also permitted to exhibit
over the door of his house or office.
Agents and Salesmen were not allowed to effect sales of any
kind except by the authority of the Greater Guild; transgression
of this rule led to fines, for each offence, of one soldo, and re-
peated infractions to expulsion.
So greatly did the commerce o( Florence increase during the
fifteenth century that the principal Apothecaries, in addition to their
staffs of travellers, established Banking Agencies in ali the prin-
cipal centres of population, and especially in those countries which
were most productive of the manifold commodities of their trade.
These "Professional Banks "-if we may cal! them such for
want of a better name-became important business-houses, and
were largely concemed in granting loans of money to members o(
the Guild in furtherance of exploring expeditions. They also
assumed the character of general money-lending offices, and;
being well managed, were very prosperous undertakings.

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ARMS OF r.Uil.D OF DOCTORS ANll APOTHF.CARIES
I.L'CA DF.I.LA MORRIA

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 j

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 DOCTQRS AND APOTHECARIES 265

With something of the catholicity of a beneficent Alma Mater

the " Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries " extended its sheltering
patronage to riumbers of objects and interests not, at first sight,
necessarily associated with medicine, surgery, and drugs.
Literature, Painting and Geographical Discovery alike bene-
fited from the fostering care of the Guild. lf a man wanted a
book, a pigment, or an adventure, he had nothing to do but to
drop in at one of the considerable pharmacies of old Florence.
There he could rub shoulders with others of his kind, and chat
affably with the dignified and bespectacled medicos ; and, after
cajoling the patient but wide awake apothecary, he rarely departed
without having got what he asked.
Dante, Cimabue, and Toscanelli may be rightly called the
fathers of these glorious families of writers, artists and explorers,
which have shed such undying lustre upon their Alma Mater, and
have illuminated all lands and all periods by the effulgence of
their genius.
The Men of Letters of the Renaissance, whose sun rose and
shone in Florence, form a paradise of celebrities which have
placed the Fair City upon the premier throne of the Valhalla of
Leaming.
'.' Boccaccio's Garden and its faierie
The love of joyaunce and the galantrie,"

Her sons wielded the pen with the same splendid spirit of
enterprise and success as did their brethren of the 1oom. Her
writers, her merchants, and her bankers, together built up her
fortune and her glory.
Dante Alighieri, (r265-1321), was the son of a notary
belonging to the sestiere of Por San Piero. He was sent to
study law at Bologna, and philosophy at Padua ; but having no
taste for either faculty he matriculated in r 296 in the "Guild of
Doctors and Apothecaries." His choice may have been dictated
by his fondness for literature, because books were among the
wares sold exclusively in the pharmacies.
266 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
H e entered public li fe soon after bis marriage in 129 5, and
took an active part in the debates of tbe magistrates. In I 300
he was elected Prior, and was instrumental in causing the exile
of tbe Nen· and Bian&hi. Tbis led to bis own exile upon a
trumped up charge of "barratry,"-the pecuniary misuse of office,
--extortion, and illicit gains. ·
lf Petrarcb, (1304-1374), and Boccaccio, (1313-1375),
were never matriculated into the Guild, tbeir sympathies were
with its beneficent cbaracteristics. Tbeir writings were nowhere
more accessible, and their dever sayings more constantly repeated,
than in tbe Apotbecaries' sbops of tbeir beloved Florence.
Matteo Palmieri, (1364-1427), Apothecary and Poet; Leo
Battista Alberti, ( 1404-147 5), Pbysician, Astronomer, Architect,
and Writer; Marsilio Ficino, (1433-1499), Surgeon, Philosopber,
Writer; Antonio Benevieni, (1453-1542), Physician and Man of
Letters ; were among tbose wbo were matriculated in the '' Guild of
Doctors and Apotbecaries." But who shall write out the names
of ali tbat mighty Florentine Pbalanx of literary men, who have
brilliantly adomed, not alone tbeir Guild, and · their city, and
tbeir time, but tbe great world at large for etemity I
No effort appears to have been made to establish a corpora-
tion for tbe enrolment exclusively of men of letters as in the case
of painters.
Printing, and making, and selling of books and other literary
matter, no less tban wood and copper block-engraving were
recognised as appertaining to tbe professional " Guild of Doctors
and Apotbecaries."
Bernardo Cennini,-Gbiberti's partner in designing and cast-
ing the famous Baptistery Gates,-was the first Florentine printer
from type. His earliest book,-" A Commentary of Virgil,"-was
published in 1471.
To Aldus Manutius, (I4SO-I5I6), is due the type called
"ltalic." lt was modelled upon the bandwriting of Petrarch.
Tbe cutting of it was done by Francesco da Bologna,-Francesco
Raibolini,-the painter-goldsmitb, wbo signed bimself, indiffer-

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 267
ently, "aurifa" and "picto,.," H e was a member of the Florentine
" Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries."
In 1472 Piero da Moguntia-another German-issued at
Ftorence the " Fiwcopo " of Giovanni Boccaccio. Five years later
Nicbolaus of Breslau printed the . "Monte Sancto di Dio" of
Bettini ; and in I 48 I ,-under bis assumed name of Niccolo di
Lorenzo di Firenze,-an edition of Dante's works. This was
quite tbe finest example of Florentine printing wbich bad yet
appeared. Tbe first notice of wood-engraving in Florence appears
in an entry for tbe Catasto,-lncome-tax,--of I 430, which relates
that an artificer, unnamed, retums as rateable property, " many
wood-blocks for the printing of playing-cards and images of saints
useful to bim in bis profession." However no print is extant of
an earlier date tban I 490, which date appears upon a bird's-eye
view of Florence now in Berlin.
Jacopone da Todi's "Laudi,"-printed by Francesco Buon-
accorso,-and similar Books of Devotion, appeared in I 490 with
wood-block illustrations. In the same year Buonaccorso,-who
was related to Savonarola througb bis motber,-published the
eloquent Frate's tract, "Libt'o del/a Vita viduata." Savonarola
himself flooded Florence with illustrated tracts and sermons. These
were done in two or three special workshops, where they were
designed, and publishers applied to the " Masters of W ood "
when they required cuts for their publications. Luigi Pulci's
"Mo,..g-anü Mag:giot'e," which contains more than two hundred
woodcuts, was published in 1500. Many old Florentine wood-
cuts between 1 5 I 6 and 1 546 are signed Giovanni Benvenuto, a
leading publisher and member of the "Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries."
Tbe earliest Florentine copper-plate engraving was probably
a " Paschal Table for finding Easter from the year 146 I," of
which there is a copy in the British Museum. The first illus-
trated · books published in Florence and containing copper-plate
engravings were the Monte Sact'o di Dio and Dante's Works.
For tbe latter, which goes under the name of Landino, Botticelli

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268 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
was responsible, anã expressions of bis skill, as an engraver, may
be seen at the Berlin Museum. Filippo Lippi, wbo filled the
office of Consul of tbe Painters' Guild more tban once, did fifteen
plates of the " Life of the Madonna," publisbed in I48 2.
Apparently tbe mecbanicál difficulties of printing letterpress
and plates, on one and tbe same page, were too great even for
ingenious Florentine workmen-artists, for, between I472 and
1490, fewer than two bundred illustrated books were published
in Florence. Anotber reason for this moderate output may pro-
bably be noted in tbe general preference for illuminated manu-
scripts, in the execution of whicb no Scn'vani excelled tbose of
Florence for exquisite and correct penmansbip. Tbe art of writing
and illuminating manuscripts required two classes of artists : I.
Miniatori-caligrafi-W riters and Capital-letter designers, and
2. Miniaton'-pitton'-Illuminators. At the early date of I 1 50
Florentine scrivam· bad made their names famous for fine clear
and correct pen work. Tbe beginning of tbe fourteenth century
saw tbe pen laid aside for the brusb.
Tbe last of the Master-Copyists was Vespasiano da Bisticci
(I42I-I498). He was matriculated into tbe "Guild of Doctors
and Apothecaries," and publisbed a book entitled-" Tbe Lives
of lllustrious Men." He is known to posterity as the first of
modem booksellers, and bis shop near the Mercato Nuovo was
the earliest emporium for the exclusive supply of printed books.
A vast number of craftsmen were engáged in tbe Book-
industry :-Typefounders, press-makers, paper and parchment
dressers, compositors, printers, illustrators, engravers, binders,
cloth-sbearers, vellum-stretcbers, boss-carvers, etc. All these
artificers were under strict rules of workmanship, and their work
was further subject to severe censorsbip before publication by
officials connected witb the Great Guild. Tbere does not appear
to bave been separate organisations for these workers, but pro-
bably they were matriculated in tbe subordinate Association of
Li'óf'ai-Book-makers and Book-sellers.
In the Early Renaissance the great Comacine Guild em-

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 269
braced workers in ali the decorative arts-architects, builders,
mosaic-workers, workers in gold and bronze, carvers in wood and
stone, painters, etc. etc. The Magistri pittori-Master-painters-
formed the fourth branch of that famous Guild, until the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, when painter communities were
founded outside the parent organisation.
Every state and every town, where the Comacine Masters
worked, had its Lodge of Painters. One spirit moved the
brethren in friendly rivalry, and produced individual styles to
each of which the name of " School " was given. Thus Cimabue,
Giotto, Lorenzetti, Memmi, Gaddi, Aretino and others worked
together, and apart, quite characteristically.
Every wall space, not allocated to the sculptor or the mosaic·
master, was smoothed and stuccoed to receive the pigments of
the painter. Scratch where you will-at Fiesole, in San Miniato
or in Santa Croce-plaster peels off and reveals a Comacine Master
of painting. The Cappella degli Spagnuoli, at Santa Maria Novella,
is an undefaced treasure-house of Comacine frescoes.
Somewhere about I 297 the J:t'lorentine painters, "being be-
holden for their supplies of pigments to the Apothecaries and their
agents in foreign lands," placed themselves under the banner
of the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries," but with no distinct
organisation.
The first incorporation of the Painters appears to date from
I 303, and was the natural reflexive action of the commercial
economies of the period. Certain rules and regulations were
compiled, but the first serious enactment of Statutes was
accomplished in November I 339, when L'Arü de' Pittori-the
" Guild of Painters," became a duly constituted corporation.
At the same time it was ruled that the new confratemity
should be dependent upon tbe Greater "Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries,'' and should possess no peculiar political or social
pre-eminence. 1
1 D. Giovanni Gaye, "Carteggio inedite d'Artisti," (xiv., zv., xvi., Secoli), vol. ii.
p. 39·

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270 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
In 1349 a further development of the Guild of Painters took
place and its members enrolled themselves as the " Compagnia e
Fraternita di San Luca " under the special protection of the
Virgin Mary, Saint John Baptist, Saint Zenobbio and Saint
Reparata. The rallying-point of the members was transferred
to the disused church of San Matteo, and they added their
altemative title,-" La Confraternita de' Pittori,"-and acknow-
ledged their dependence upon the great Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries. The Confratemity reckoned its members not
only from makers Õf pictures, frescoes, and designs, but enrolled
also decorators of stone, wood, metal, glass, stucco, leather, etc.
etc.
The Statutes of the Guild,1 which were duly registered befo~
a Notary on August 18th, 13 54, named as the Goveming Body-
four Consuls, four Councillors, two Treasurers, and two Secretaries.
These officers were generally men of the highest artistic attain-
ments, for example, Luca Della Robbia,-although not a pigment
master. in the ordinary sense of the term,-served the office of
Consul several times ; he was moreover elected thirty times a
member of Council, three times Sindic and twice Treasurer.
The marticulation-fee was only five /ire, and other payments
of members were upon the same modest scale. One Statute
provided :-" that those who inscribed themselves on the Roll of
membership,-whether men or women,-should be contrite, and
should confess their sins; and that, whilst members ofthe Guild, they
should go to confession and to the Communion at least once a year."
All members were required to recite daily five Paternosters and
five Aves,· but should memory fail, the omission had to be made
up the following day. Complaints were rife in 1 406 that members
of the Guild were remiss in their religious duties and in obedi-
ence to officers. Penalties were infticted of temporary durance
in the Guild House, with money fines - ranging from twelve
dmari-for each dereliction of duty.
Cennino Cennini, in bis quaint " Trattato del/a Pittura," put
1 Archivio di Stato Fiorentino.

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 271
forth in 1437,-when its author was in bis eightieth year,-
makes the following pathetic appeal to ali art students :-" O ye
of the gentle spirit who are lovers of the Art, and devoted to its
pursuit, adom yourselves with the garments of love, of modesty,
.of obedience, and of penance."
St Luke's Day was a famous festival in Florence, when ali the
finest pictures not actually ,;, situ w~re gathered together from the
studios and exhibited in .the cloisters of La Nunziata. In this
observance we note the origin of the Accademia di San Luca, re-
named, in 1562, by Cosimo 1.," Accademia delle Belle Arti," wherein
he united the three Fine Arts--Sculpture, Painting and Archi-
tecture,-under the splendid motto : " Levare di terra a/ cie/o nostro
inte/leto,"-" Heaven and earth are united by our genius I "
Genius indeed I What pen could name all the great lights of
that finnament, much less do justice to the magnificent pageant of
the Painters of Florence! If Benvenuto Cellini wrote :-"Leonardo
da Vinci, Raphael Santi and Michel Angelo Buonarroti are the
Book of the World," who shall add laurels to their crowns, or
who shall tell the glories of their .brethren ?
Under the patronage of the "Guild of Doctors and Apothe-
caries," many eminent artists tumed their attention to stained-
glass. Ghiberti, Ghirlandajo, Perugino, Lorenzo di Credi, Pierino
del Vaga, Vivarini were only a few of those who designed subjects
and also undertook the process of staining.
They ground their pigments very fine, mixed them with water
containing gum or some other adhesive medium, sketched in
lightly dark touches and shadows, and then bumt the glass.
When cool, colours were dabbled and stippled over the surface, and
left to dry : a soft brush was passed over the picture, high lights
were scratched out, and the sheet was re-bumt 1
The vitreous glories of the Duomo, Santa Croce, Santa Maria
Novella,San Spirito,La Nunziata,Or San Michele, and manyanother
shrine of Religion and of Art, owe their creation to these renowned
masters. Working with them were Moise--in 1350, Domenico di
IN. H. J. Westlake, "Hiatory of Design in Painted Glass."

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E
272 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Gambassi-in 143 I, Guaspare di Giovanni, a priest of Volterra,
-in 1440, and Alessandro Fiorentino--in I 491. Guaspare's
contract directed that bis work at Siena " must be as good as
that at Florence in Santa Maria del Fiore." 1
Otber Master window·painters were Fra Giovanni d' Ulma and
Giovanni da Udine, wbo did tbe stained glass at tbe Certosa di
Val d'Ema.
Tuming lastly to Discoverers and Explorers of lands and
seas, wbo were ali under tbe Aigis of the Guild, we encounter two
great Florentines-Paolo Toscanelli and Amerigo Vespucci-
among a bost of wortby compatriots in adventure.
Paolo Toscanelli, the son of a pbysician, was bom in I 397·
After reading tbe classics in tbe " Studio Fiorentino,"-where
Boccaccio used to expound Dante,-be graduated at the
University of Padua. On bis retum to Florence, in 1425, he
became a member, witbout fees,--IJeneficio patris,-in the " Guild
of Doctors and Apothecaries." He took up tbe study of Natural
Science, especially devoting himself to Astrology-" the crazy
daugbter of a wise ~otber, Astronomy." Under bis philosophy
was revived the Miletan theory as to the spherical form of the
eartb. His opinions, togetber with the ever increasing needs of
Florentine Commerce in the direction of new dyes, new drugs and
new spices, prompted the idea of reaching Prete Janni-the fabled
berbarium of tbe West
The route traced on bis map by Toscanelli enabled Cbristopher
Columbus to place bis foot upon tbe New World. Tbe many
letters wbich passed between Toscanelli, the King of Portugal,
Columbus, and many otber wortbies bave a romantic, as well as
a scientific, interest Alas, be never lived to see tbe crowning of
his life's work, but died in I 482, just ten years before the dis-
covery of Columbus. He was buried in the Cburch of San
Spirito. Tbe disc, on a marble slab, placed by Toscanelli, in
1450, in tbe Nortb Transept of tbe Duomo, and a "Treatise upon
tbe Movements of the Comets,'' are ali the relics we have of
1 C. F. L. F. Rumobr, "Italienische Forscbungen," V. ii. p. 381.

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 DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES 278
the great Florentine jisi&o, who inspired the intrepid Genoese
mariner.
The mantle of Toscanelli fell upon the shoulders of Amerigo
V espucci, wbo was bom in Florence in 14 S1. H e was the son
of a Notary, but embraced mercantile life in one of the Medici
Companies of Adventurers, and became the Cadiz agent of that
house in 1492. He was thrown into the company of Christopher
Columbus, and contracted for the provisioning of two of bis
expeditions. He was spoken of by the famous explorer as :
" imo lwm!Jre muy de !Jim," " a very tidy sort of fellow I "
In 1497 King Ferdinand of Portugal entrusted him with the
command of an exploring expedition, and he went to Florence for
information and assistance. Wbilst in bis native city he was
enrolled a full member of the " Guild of Doctors and Apothe-
caries." He afterwards sailed away to tbe New World, taking with
him Hojeda, Pinzon, and Cabral, ali famous Portuguese explorers ;
and had the satisfaction of discovering the coast of the N orthem
Continent-to which he gave bis own name, Amen"go--" America."
Tbe news of bis success excited immense excitement and enthu-
siasm in Florence. For three days and three nights the wbole
city was decorated with wreaths and banners, and illuminated with
torcbes and lamps. V espucci died at Seville in 1 5 1 2. His
portrait, painted by Ghirlandajo, has been discovered in a fresco
at the Church of Ognissanti in Florence.
From the very nature o( their enterprises explorers and
navigators were so situated that they could not form a co-
operative Society of their own. Membership in the Great Guild,
which patronised and subsidised their efforts, was sufficient for
their purpose.

And Great Guild it truly was, for though the " Guild of
Doctors and Apothecaries " held no higher place in the Guild
Hierarchy of Florence than that of sixth, it yielded to none in the
loftiness of its aims, and in the splendour of its achieve-
ments.
s

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 CHAPTER IX
THE Gun.D OF FURRIERS AND SKINNEBS
L'ABTB DB' VAIAI B PBLLICCIAI

1. ORJGIN.-Tbe wearing of skins and fun. Carlovingian kings. Early

craftsmeD. Guild added to SeveD Greater Guilds, 1197. Few early notic:es.
A. Pucci's " CI#Uilogllio."
11. CONSTJTUTION.-Avoidance of coDfusion with Tanners and other leather
workers. Fint Consuls, 1270. Guild Books. Various divisions o( Guild-
memben. Officen. Low fees for matriculation. Tbe " Ta.uo tli Ton:etti.''
" Squeeaen" or " Pepperboxers I " Street regulations with respect to trade pro-
cesses. Sumptuary laws aft'ecting fura.
111. DEVELOPMKNT.-Kinds of skins and fura. Meaning o( double title
o( Guild. Values. Processes. Treaties. ExportL An early restrictiw Jaw.
Wearinc vair and other fura marked the prosperity of Florence. Tbe "fool
in vair I " Curative properties o( fur. CindereUa.
IV. A Dissertation upon the Dress o( the Florentines during the Era of the
Ren•issance.

T HE wearing of skins and fur was doubtless the earliest

sartorial fashion indulged in by the unclothed races of
rnankind. Quite without contradiction we associate such cover-
ings with savage and semi-civilised life. What more natural, or
what more easy, when winter storms beat cold, or old age and
sickness thinned the blood, than to up and slay a beast, and with
bis pelt to protect the human frame ?
Textile garments are the garb of civilisation and of peace.
So ~hen, in . the early Middle Ages, wild war-lords from the north
overran the fair plains of Italy, no man wondered to behold their
brawny limbs arrayed in the furs of the animais they had slain
upon their way. Of Ausprando, King of the Lombards, tn 7 72,
it is recorded that he carne clothed in fine skins and rare furs.1
1 Paolo Diacono, Lib. vi. cap. 35·

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 275
The Carlovingian kings followed the same mode, and
Cbarlemagne was wont to wear thick otter-skins in winter, and,
when in summer time he went a-hunting, he sported serviceable
sheep skins. During bis progresses through I taly he wore,
generally, a Jarge robe lined with vair and fox-skin. His officers
and courtiers were arrayed in Hke fashion, and doubtless their
appearance struck the quick-witted Florentines, and gave them
ideas which they were not slow in carrying out.1
The early inhabitants of Tuscany-their erstwhile industries
dispersed-were fain to clothe themselves, for peace and war alike,
in what came handiest, and offered least temptation to their
robber enemies. Conseqúently at the period of the inception of
the Guilds many sartorial relics of a troubled past remained and
skins and furs were ali the vogue.
The first notices of Furriers and Skinners in the Archives of
Florence are the following : -
"I o5 o-Setltimus-.pellimrius."
.. I07s- Vivulo, jilius Stifani,--peOi&arii." s
Under date 1054 there is the following entry :-Crosna (?), cum
CapelúJ de Vulpe, and in 1077, "Vesta una de Vu/pe,''-perhaps
mantles or cloaks of fox-skin,----and in the former year the value
of the fur garments is set down at five hundred /ire. In 1 197
there is the record of a worthy Rector of Santa Maria Novella
who wished to pawn, "pelles suas lupi arverii "-bis robes of red-
deer skin t
The earliest distinct mention of the " Guild of Furriers and
Skinners " was in 1 197, when, together with the Guilds of
"Judges and Notaries" and "Doctors and Apothecaries," its first
incorporation took place. Already the four principal Guilds : -
" Calimala,'' " W ool," " Bankers " and " Silk " were in existence,
and were exercising potential influence in the Commune.
Why the "Arte de' Vaiai e Pellicciai" was chosen over
and above the " Guild of Linen " or that of " Masters of Stone
1 Sul Gallo, M-lttu, "CarolUI Magnus," Lib. ü. cap. 27.
s Da'ridllohn, "Geechichte von Florenz," p. 785-

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276 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and W ood," or that of " the Butchers," for example, to 611 the
seventh place in the Guild Hierarchy it is quite impossible to say.
Probably its craftsmen were of a more ancient lineage, or
represented a higher social grade in public estimation, or again
they may have formed the most considerable industrial class
outside the charmed circle of the three leading commercial
corj:x>rations.
Anyhow, in 1266, the full style of the Guild was bestowed,
together with the banner of armorial bearings,-the A.f"'" Dei,
bolding a · white red-crossed ftag, in the comer of a blue
field,-and to its Consuls and other Officers like precedence was
accorded as to the officials of the other Greater Guilds. After this
date, of course, notices of the Guild are abundant both with respect
to its standing and its activities ·in the industriallife of the city
and Ctmtado.
Ata conference of Consuls of the Guilds, held in April 1280,
there were present Salvi Aldobrandini Feo Bonci, Baldo Cald-
erusci, and Cambio Rusticucci, Consuls of the " Guild of Skinners." 1
Among those who attended and spoke at a similar conference,
in December I 29 3, was Caruccio della V erra, of the "Guild of
Furriers." He was one of the most distinguished citizens, but
about him very little is known, though he travelled far and wide.
In May I 296 the Consuls of the Guild took an active part in the
discussions atrecting the Hospital of San Gallo, and, with the
Consuls of the Guilds of " Bankers and Exchangers " and
·~ Doctors and Apothecaries," were appointed guardians and
visitors.
Antonio Pucci sings thus of the Guild in his " Songs of
the ·M er&ato Ve«hio" :-
" Florence of commerce wide the home
Counts one and twenty trades in all
Of equal rank, and the seventh
We 'Furriers and Skinners' call."'

The Residence of the Consuls was in the Via de' Lambert-

1 " Le Consulte," i. 27. A. Pucci, "Ceotiloqaio."

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 SKI="NERS IN CAliiP
I.ATE f-'Ot:RTI:.:t•::-.õTH CliSll'R\"

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 277
eschi Gherardini, at the comer of the Chiasso de' Baronelli, and,
as was the custom with all the Guilds, the escutcheon of the
Guild was carved up over the entrance.

Originally only two Consuls were elected to preside over the

affairs of the Guild, but, between 1270 and 1280, the number
was increased to three, and later on,--after the revision of
Statutes, 1301-1309,-to four. They held office for four
months, their names having been drawn, as was the general
practice, from an um containing slips of paper.
As in the constitution of the other Guilds, the Consuls took
cognisance of ali civil and criminal causes between members of
the Guild, they granted Matriculation to candidates, and superin-
tended the subscriptions of members and other corporate
property.
The COIJ.Sig-/ún,-Chancellor,-was entitled to certain fees : -
for each person matriculated-ten soldi, for written agreements
betwcen master and apprentice-ten soldi, for each license to
keep untanned skins or hides-ten soldi, for each dissolution
of matriculation and renunciation of membership-ten soldi, fo.r
the valuation of stock in any retail shop-ten soldi, for each
written agreement between slaughterer-skinners and leather-
tanners-ten soldi,--and various other smaller fees. The Chan-
cellor's office was a yearly one, and an occupant was ineligible
for re-election.l
The PrrJVVeditore,-Director,-was required to keep fully
entered up the following Guild Books :-A Joumal of debtors
and creditors,-together with the Salaries and expenses of the
Consuls and other officials ; a Matriculation Register, with the
payments and obligations of the persons matriculated in the
city; a similar Register for the ContadtJ; a Note-book containing
the registered trademarks of all tanners and dealers in leather,
etc. etc. He also received fees, smaller in amount, for the same
purposes as the Chancellor.1
1 L Cautini, si. p. 24- t L. Cautini, xi. 38.

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278 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The Cai'IUriere,-Charnberlain,-had to do with the finances
of the Guild. He kept accounts with respect to the rents of
slaughter and skinning-bouses, tanyards and pits, leather-dressers'
workshops, and the sbops and stalls of ali persons connected
with the trade. To him it also appertained to administer the
cbaritable contributions of the Guild, and to relieve distressed
craftsmen and their families. Tbe last two officers were elected
for a year, but were eligible for re-election.
Tbe Stimatori,-lnspectors,--and the Tassatori,-Taxing
masters,--of whom there were two respectively, elected bi-
annually, were enjoined to keep the two divisions of the Guild
members as distinct and separate as possible-so far at least
as concemed all the details of tbe various occupations.
In one group were the Vaiai-Miniver-dressers, the Pe/Jiciai
-Furriers in general, the Conciatori di pe/Ji co/ pe/o--Cutters of
skins with the hair on, and the lt~a~tiatori di /Jossette-Dressers
of Lamb-skins.
In the other group were the Cfllliai-Leather-dressers in
general, the Conciatori di &fiOio grosso--Cutters of beavy leathers,
the Ctmciaton· di sottili-Cutters of fine leathers, and the
(),-pe/lai-Leather-embossers and gilders.
A third division was added in later times, made up of the
Caho/ai-Sboemakers, the Piarullai-Slipper-makers, the Colúttai
-Collar and Belt-makers, Coloristi dipe/Ji-Leatber-stainers, and
various minor but artistic crafts, among them, perhaps, the Pel«mli
-Dog-clippers !
Tbere was also a fourth class containing the St//ai-Saddlers,
Bn:piai--Bridle and reins-makers, and the Ci•tiai-Makers of
sword-belts and bandoliers.
Some of these workmen however appear to have been at-
tached also to the Lesser Guild of Galigai-Tanners-and
probably the crossing of the interests of the two Guilds led to
some confusion. Tbe trade of tanning, bowever, was a distinct
industry, and no member of the "Guild of Furriers and Skinners"
was permitted to engage tberein. In the same way the

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 279
Shoemakers, employed by the Guild, were workers in fancy
goods only, which required the addition of fur to complete
them.
The Matriculation fee was very low-namely four soldi to
each Consul, and two to the Cbancellor ; but the guarantee
required, as to a candidate's qualification for enrolment, was fixed
at ten to twenty gold florins. An Annual Poll-tax was levied
by the State upon every matriculated member of the Guild, and
this by the way gained very suggestive nicknames: "Tassa de/
P6pe"-" Pepper-boxes," or" Tassa de' Torcetti"-" Squeezers" I
lt was not allowed to mix native products with skins and
furs from " beyond the mountains," or the boundaries of the
State ; nor to treat with sulphur, dye, or oil, any skin or fur.
Skins snipped, or those stretched out by means of size or
lime, or by any other media, were not to be bought or sold.
Ali breaches of these and similar regulations were visited with
fines and forfeiture, and the wrongdoers were liable to dismissal
from tbe Guild.1
Furriers and Skinners were forbidden to buy or seU wholesale
from or to the Popo!D Mi,uto, or to any unemployed person,
knives and implements of ali kinds used in the craft ; but such
persons might purchase small quantities of cat and rabbit skins
and stoat's fur for the linings of garments.

Tbe premier designation of the Guild " Vaiai" comes from

the word Vaio--speckled-as applied to the darkest grey fur
or coat of the stoat and squirrel.1 Vaiaio was a furrier who
dressed such skins. These small animais abounded in the forests,
which surrounded old Florence, and atrorded sportsmen and
craftsmen alike, attractive and lucrative occupation. The colour
of the back was darker much than that of the belly, which was,
in young creatures, of dazzling whiteness--and valued much on
that account. This variety of colour gave rise to the use of
1 Statuta Populi et CommUIIÍI Florentiae, 1415. Yol. ii. Rub. lti.
Domeoico M. Muni, " Ouenuioae e Guinte Istoriche," Yol n:v.

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280 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
three words for the fur-the back-fur, and the whole coat of older
animais, was called " Miniver," the rarer white or belly piece was
named " Ermine," as being like the real Ennine, and " Rosete//o "
was the name given to the brown and yellow fur of spring
growth.
The second part of the title of the Guild "Pelliaiai" indicates
the union of the two industries--the dressing of furs and the
treatment of skins ; althougb, for the matter of that, Pe!Ji«iaio
meant " Furrier" also. The Latin name, as written by the
Notaries of old, was Pe/Ji'pari.u, which indicated a dresser of skin
after the process of tanning had been completed.
The skins ofrered for sale in Florence, with the view of the
purchase and treatment by the operatives employed by the "Gulld
of Furriers and Skinners," were usually those of wolves, lambs,
polecats, foxes, deer, lynxes and rabbits, together with the furs
of miniver, marten, sable and ermine.
Ermine and sable were rare commodities, it is true, and
commanded high prices--indeed they were almost unknown till
late in the fifteenth century. They were used, as was marten
fur, for borders, trimmings, and decorations, and were never em-
ployed as whole garments. V ery wealthy men and ostentatious,
indeed, had their state robes lined with these costly furs, and
later in the history of the furrier industry, the same dignified
personages added skins and furs and tails of rare Eastem animais
to the splendour of their habiliments.l
Only indirectly, and quite in a subsidiary sort o( way, did
the Guild deal with heavy skins such as those of horses, cattle,
mules, asses, goats, and sheep. These formed the staple of the
industry of tanning, and provided materiais for manipulation by
members of the minor Guilds of " Saddlers,'' " Shoemakers," and
" Buckle-makers," etc. .
Pagnini has preserved records of the varieties and values of
skins and furs which ruled in the middle of the fourteenth
century : 1-
1 PACJIÍlli, ü. 1-41. t Pqnini, i•. p. 132-

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 281
V ai--Stoat ~llies, dressed per hundred- 3 florins.
Do. Backs do. do. 5 do.
Sdur~MJ/i-Squirrel, undressed do. 2 do.
Do. dressed do. 2j do.
Lattúi-Sucklings, undressed do. 4to6 do.
Do. dressed do. Sto7 do.
Faine-Polecats, undressed do. 22 do.
Do. dréssed do. 30 do.
Marlon-Martens, undressed do. 36 do.
Do. dressed do. 40 do.
etc. etc. etc. etc.
In thus reckoning by hundreds, a curious, and perhaps char-
acteristic, custom prevailed, namely that of counting upon a start
of from four to ten-probably eaeh word of the established divine
or saintly invocation reckoning at the outset of the enumeration
for one skin or fur I
In the Ga/Jella of 1402 the following rates were charged
upon skins and furs oft'ered for sale in the city-per hundred,
dressed :-Vaio and Fait~a--two pounds, Lattúi, EmuUintJ, and
Marlora-three pounds. Vair being so largely used was naturally
a prominent object for taxation, not only in the annual special
Gaóelle,-raised for extraordinary State purposes,-but also at the
gates of the city in the ordinary way of customs on imports.
In a MS., entitled: "A Summary of Commerical Dues of
the City of Florence," 1 written with the pen subsequent to the
year 14 I I under the heading " Guild of Furriers and Skinners,"
there are following entries : -
Vair Skins-belly and back--dressed per 1 oo, 2 pounds 4 dman:
Vair Skins-belly and back-undressed per 100, 1 pound
16 soldi 4 t~man·.
Vair Skins-bellies only-dressed per 100, I pound 2 dmari.
Do. backs only do. I do. 4 do.
Linings of cut V air-bellies per 160, I 8 soldi.
Do. with the hair wom off, per 16o, 8 soldi.
1 D. M. Manni, "Sigilli," etc.

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282 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Raw fur ·was made ready for use by softening the pelts,
skins, or hides, with sweet olive oil, and then trampling upon
them in tubs filled with fine hardwood sawdust at bloodheat.
The pelt was removed and drawn over sbarp knives to remove
portions of ftesb or other adhesive substances. The thickest hide
was in this way rendered as soft and pliable as the thinnest kid
used for gloves.
The Furrier then sorted the skins treated, with respect to
colour and texture of hair, and cut them to the model ~uired.
The pelt was next nailed down to a board damp and stretched
by pins. Tbe last process was trimming and softening the
edges.
The greater number of the workshops and sale emporiums
of the Guild were situated along the fine Via de' Pellicciai. No
more attractive thoroughfare could be found in old Florence,
and in none other did so many men and women of fashion
congregate daily to admire and covet the splendid furs exhibited by
tbe merchants of the Guild. Here the I..amberti, the Toschi, the
Cipriani, the Pilli and others vied with one another in the variety
of their stocks and in the perfection of their methods and styles
of dressing.
The commerce in skins became greatly extended and very
important. Treaties were entered into with Ferrara and Mantua
with respect to export and import In 1307 a convention was
signed between the Commune of Florence and the Counts of
Mugnone conceming the making and keeping of a certain
trade route between Florence and Bologna. Tbe expenses of
the enterprise were laid upon the values and weights of goods
transported there along. Among the taxes was that of one
pound upon each load of fox or cat skins.
Tbe value of the mixed furs exported by the " Guild of
Furriers and Skinners " was very great, and the transport convoys
were constantly in danger of attack and robbery. Among re-
prisals addressed by the Priors of Florence in this behalf was one
delivered to the Council of State of Siena in 1329, seeking

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 283
restitution for two bales of coverlets of miniver, consigned by
Florentine men:hants from Grosseto to Siena, or compensation in
money upon the finding of the joint Court of Arbitration.
Cibrario bas many entries of the exports and values of furs
dressed by the " Guild of Furriers and Skinners , in Florence.
For example, under the date 1367, eighty-seven marten skins,
for the lining of a cloak for Amadeo VI. of Savoy, to be delivered
in Rome--twenty-seven gold florins.
Everybody wore furs, more or less valuable, and even the
austere rules of clothing observed in the religious houses were
relaxed, until luxury and ostentation in clerical dress became a
scandal. A council held in London in 1 12 7 passed a decree
forbidding Abbesses and other holy nuns from wearing skins of
any kind except those of lambs, cats, and rabbits. 1
Again in 1 2 2 5 Cardinal Sant' Angelo regulated the habits
of monks, .so that none were allowed new fur garments oftener
tban every third year, and these were not to be lined with the
skins of fox, or leopard, or firstlings of sheep. Two sorts of capes
were allowed-one, of white fur, for the summer, and one of
darker shades of grey, in winter : the latter only were of a large
size to reach to the ground.
In the thirteenth century every one wore a petlia:ia,-short
cloak,-lined with vair, ermine, or other fur. Many better-to-do
citizens also possessed long cloaks lined with vair, and bordered
with finer furs. Caps of 1atisn~-young vair-skin,-and of vair
mixed with other furs, were in general use.
The fur-lined tunics of soldiers,-especially cavalry,-gave
fashions to civilians, who, of both sexes, understood well enough
the comfort and grace of tight-fitting but yielding clothing. The
vogue for the wearing of fur increased along with that of silken
omaments, and marked the prosperity of Florence, and the
sumptuousness of her merchants and people.
The great use made of vair or miniver by the superior clergy
is evidenced in a register of the expenses of the Papal Court at
t :a.lducci Pegolotti, voL iü. p. 163.

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284 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Avignon in January I 327. Therein is an entry, which states that
Francesco, merchant of Florence, and Giovanni Anastasio, furrier,
o( Spoleto, supplied sixty-nine heavy cloaks and hoods, made of
rniniver, for winter wear by persons attached to the Court of the
Pope. The sum paid by Ugone de' Cardaltiacci, the Papal Trea-
surer, was 763 gold florins. Another entry records the supply,

DlllltCTOil OF TOUilNAMBNT DISTiliBUTING CANDIDATBS 1 BADGBS BltPOU A GIOS'n.L

(N.U tlu Capes Dj p,.;,) .

on June 12th, 1327, by the sarne Francesco,-"merchant and

furrier,"-of one hundred and seventy-eight surnmer vestures,
edged with rniniver for surnmer use at the Papal Court, at a
total cost of I I o gold florins. 1
V air or miniver was the fur most cornmonly in use, but
certain restrictions con6ned it to the State robes of dignitaries,
and to the official dress of J udges, Doctors and Knights. The
1 Arcbivio del Vaticauo, folio 45·

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 285
fonner were called "aln"ti di riguart/()," and were also adopted by
ecclesiastics,-a use wbicb has remained to our own day in tbe
capes of canons and other dignified clergy.
Boccaccio, ever observant of customs and fashions, says :
" Esteemed are the garments lined with vair wbereon falls oft-
times the sword of knigbtbood." 1 By way of contrast, and to
show the fondness of Florentines for ridicule, and their hatred of
assumption of dignity by citizens, tbat inimitable critic, Antonio
Pucci, tells bow in bis day : " they clotbed the fool in vair." 1
This has reference to Villani's story of Giudetto della Torre,
wbo sent a buffoon to yell at the cowardly Matteo Vincenti of
Milan. Tbe fool brougbt back an answer wbicb so pleased
Giudetto that be bestowed upon bis witty messenger the furred
robe of a baron, and gave bim a good palfrey to boot 11
In a very quaint brocbure written by one Cbarrier, and pub-
lished in Paris in I 6 34, many curious customs and superstitions
connected with the wearing of fur in the sixteentb century are
recorded. He says: "Bacbelors (Knigbts ?), Doctors of Law,
Emperors and Doctors of Medicine are vested in the furs whicb
represent the mysteries of Tbeology, tbe maxims of politics, and ...
tbe secrets of medicai science I" "For tbe use of furs cures
headache and stomach-ache; rbeumatism, wbicb defeats the most
powerful remedies, is removed by the skins of cats, of lambs, and
of bares."
Charrier goes on to assert with pride that : "of all the oma-
ments whicb luxury has invented there are none 50 glorious, 50
august, and 50 precious as fur." " Tbe privileges and bonours
of Furriers and Skinners," be adds, " surpass quite rigbtly those
of ali otber Crafts I "

Tbe story of "Cinderella and tbe Glass Slipper," by the way,

has a connection with the use of this fur. lt is of Frencb origin,
but quite early the equivalent for " glass " was translated and
1 lloccaccio, " Labirinto del Amore." . 1 A. Pacci, Caoto XL., üi. 40-
• VillaDi, voL vili. cap. 61. ·

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286 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
copied erroneously-the original Ja""*Jú tú vair became JNMI-
Ú*jú de vnn. The princess cast her miniver shoe--not a
glass slipper I

DRESS OF THE FLORENTINES DURING THE

RENJfiSSJfNCE.
The question of dress was always more or less important in
the ethics of Florence, and, inasmuch as the chief industries, and
the bulk of the commerce of the city and Ctmtado, were intimately
concemed with such things as clothes are made of, it is a sub-
ject which cannot be overlooked in any true appreciation of the
life and work of the Guilds.
Florentines in the twelfth century preserved maoy of the
customs of their Roman forebears. 1 They continued to wear the
woollen shirt, or vest, with the big round doak, or toga, made of
their native wool. These garments were plain and undyed for
the use of the lower classes, and coloured and omamented for
better-to-do folks.
In bis "Paradiso" Dante speaks of primitive Florence thus : -
" Floreace, within her ancient limit-mark,
Which calls her still to matin·prayen and noon,
Was chute and sober, and abode in peace.

The sons I saw

Of N erli and of Vecchio, well content
With unrobed jerkins, and their good clames handling
The spindle and the flax ; O happy they I" 1

Ricordano Malespini records that, up to the year I 260,

Florentines did not disdain coarse stufrs, and many were satisfied
to clothe themselves in skins, and to wear fur caps and low
leather shoes. The men had a dose tight-fitting garment of
woven goats' hair dyed scarlet Ali wore girdles, generally of
fine leather, to which the better dressed added buckles. The
I Livy, :liü• .52; Virgil, ...Eneid, I. v. a86. 2 "Paradilo," Canto ltV.

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 287
women were wont to cover their heads with cloth, or linen,
mantles and veils.
The habits of the Religious Orders were adapted from the dress
of the peasantry, which consisted of a tunic or shirt of rough
frieze, reaching well below the knees, with a woollen girdle. The
legs were bare, but in winter and wet weatber leather buskins were
wom by all classes and orders.1
The · manners, and life generally, of the people of Florence,
towards the end of the thirteenth century,1 were marked by
gravity, sobriety, and frugality. Their homely fare cost them
little, they cared not for rich eating. Each household lived very
much by itself, and few and far between were public entertain-
ments. Nevertheless they were a cheerful race, and, whilst above
ali things seriously in earnest about business affairs, they were
fond of mirth, and song, and the dance, in their proper seasons.
Certainly some of their ways were somewhat rough and rude, but
in their intercourse with strangers they were given to marked
consideration and courtesy. In speech they were not ftuent, but
chatting gave them more pleasure than a polished oration or a
witty dialogue.
Both men and women were coarsely clad, mostly in leather
jerkins and skirts, with dressed skins for extra covering. The
better to do affected valuable furs, but these were wom without
ostentation. Small tight-fitting leather caps, or woven woollen
krntü, were sported by both sexes upon their heads. All wore
plain hose, and when not bare of foot, they had heavy boots and
shoes of leather. The richer married women donned tight petti-
coats, of coarse red "/pro" or" Camo,"-Camoiaráo-dotb, gathered
at the waist with a leathem belt and metal buckle. Some also put
on, in winter time, fur-lined mantles, with hoods attached,-called
lluu/H,-to cover the head. The poorer women wore gowns of
rough green CattúJiagio stuff made in the same way as the
garments of their more wealthy sisters.
llUcorduo Malespini, "L'Iatorla Antica di F'trenze," cap. xi.
1 VillaDI, Lib. vi.

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 288 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Tbe younger women exercised great continence, and rarely
accepted marriage until they were well over twenty years of age.
A hundred /ire was considered an ample dowry for a bride, whilst
two or three hundred were regarcled as a splendid fortune by the
fortunate bridegroom.
Among probibitions,--sumptuary and otherwise,--enacted from
time to time for observance by members of the Guilds, was an
Order of tbe Priors in 1 296 with respect to the emblazonment of
arms. I t runs thus :-" Let no one venture to establish a private
club, society, or company with unauthorised arms. Let no one
bear painted arms, except according to the Statutes of bis Guild,
or tbe Order of the Commune. Every Master of a Trade with bis
sons, brothers, and nephews, are permitted to wear, and to use, the
painted arms and signs of bis Cmft. Let no one presume to bear
painted arms not in use by bis house. On payment of the pre-
scribed .fee of two hundred /ire any man may assume the anns
of King Charles, in addition to those of bis house. No pojoltmo,-
t~esman,-,-may use the arms of a magnijko,-mercbant or
magistrate,--or have sucb in bis house unless he is a fatmdlu, or
a member of bis bousehold. Nevertheless painters may colour
arms, and tailors may sew them on garments, as also may
armourers and sbield-workers engrave them in metal and leather.
Ali such badges are permitted to bC exposed for sale by the
Rig'altitri,-Retail dealers,-in their sbops."
With the advance of ártistic craftsmansbip there appea.red a
more correct taste in the matter of personal attire and adomment
· Excellence of material, and its adaptability to the human figure,
introduced not only simplicity in arrangement but correctness of
cut and sbape; Exuberance of colour gave way to artistic contrast,
unity of effect, and sobriety in enrichment.
W oollen fabrics were considered correct wear for ordinary
days, whilst silken stuffs became the garments of joy and festivity.
Everyday costumes were usually unadomed, but not inartistic,
for the quality of tbe cloth, and even the make up of the raiment,
were matters of moment.

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Digitized by Google
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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 289
Older people wore the stately neck to ankle lucco of scarlet
silk, on occasions of ceremony ; but in ordinary times, of
black silk, or finest black serge. Round the neck was wrapped
the white silk, or . woollen, lm:&lutw, whilst the hoary head was
covered with the large óerretta and its hanging curtain of
red.
Young men of eighteen years or so wore surcoats of black
serge, or rascia,-rough cloth,-sometimes lined with taffetta, which
reached to their heels. In winter the lining of the surcoats of such
as were scions of rich families, were of fur, or wadded rich silk bro-
cade. ErmisituJ, a light Eastem silk, was wom by rising Doctors
of Law. The pantaloons of wool or silk, according to season,
and the wearer's circumstances, were tight fitting, and slashed
at the knee and hip. The colours were matters of taste. " La
!Jerretta a/la dviaJ "-was wom upon the head, made of black
serge, or rascia, and lined with silk-the curtain was often
green. Another form of headdress was the cappwçio,-a hood
used by older people, and also universally in winter time,-
made of cloth also, but trimmed with fur. Men upon a joumey
wore a gaóóatuJ-a felt cloak. Clothes were changed most
scrupulously every Sunday : clean things being wom first to
Mass.
The dress of the peasantry was scanty but suitable. Luca
Della Robbia, in his twelve " Rondels " of the Seasons, has shown
us the Tuscan countryman at work in the different duties of bis
calling.l A plain shirt of wool or linen, or of a mixture, tied
at the waist, covered the body, leaving the head and legs bare.
Stockings of wool were added in winter, and shoes of leather were
put on for digging and felling timber. When going to town, or
to Mass, they wore long buttoned-up gowns, or tunics, without
sleeves, the shirt sleeves coming through, and a belt of leather was
added, or not, as it pleased the wearer. Peasant women, in the
fields, were clad in dingy clothing made of rough woollen cloth, or
coarse linen canvas ; but, when going into market or to Mass, they
1 At V. and A. Museum, South Kensiagton.
T

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290 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
superimposed a skirt of black or green, and covered their heads
with white linen kerchiefs, or woollen shawls.
Operatives of the city were attired in the garments best suited
to their various industries. These were never rags, but were made
specially for their purpose, and sometimes donned over the home
dress. Men and women alike were proud to be seen in the garb
of the Guild to which they belonged. W ool, linen, canvas, and
leather, were the materiais used. The superior workmen were
careful also to sport the crest or arms of their Guild upon their
tunics : the wearing of such decorations however upon the head
covering was forbidden, as oft'ering a party or a trade badge, and
inciting to disorder.
Merchants,] udges, N otaries, Doctors, and Apothecaries, all wore
garments of distinctive and appropriate shape, colour, and rich-
ness, and such costumes were compulsory, both in their public
occupations and in their private life.
Magistrates, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries,
were known by their long grey or yellow surtouts, and scarlet
óerrette with red curtains. Adomments of gold and silver, silk and
velvet, fur and leather, carne later. The Poduta, Gonfakmieri di
Giustizia, Captains of the People, Priors or Consuls, and other
Dignitaries were habited in scarlet and gold, with fur linings and
trimmings to their cloaks. They usually wore red cappuc&i or
óerntte with deep curtains, ali tumed up with miniver and laced
with gold. Their stockings were scarlet, and their boots light tan
or black leather embroidered in gold. The Consuls' headgear
resembled cardinais' hats, and they wore uncut diamonds and
sapphires. Pearls were reserved for the use of the Potlesta and
Gonfa/oniere di Giustizia, whose State robes were spangled with
golden stars.
An excessive taste for wearing finery sprang up during the
fourteenth century, somewhere about the year 13 30, and the
attention. of sober-minded men was directed to its vagaries.
Eight citizens were appointed to make the round of the city, and
report upon the interior economy of private houses. The wearing

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS ·AND SKINNERS 291
of certain kinds of dress, regarded as superftuous, was forbidden.
The only persons who appear to have escaped condemnation
were the wives of Knights and Doctors-both of law and of
medicine.
A check was put upon the extravagance of State ceremonial,
and upon the expenses of marriage feasts. It was ordered that
bridesmaids and other guests should be simply clad, and that the
outfit of the bride should be upon a modest scale.
Sumptuary laws, which were passed from time to time, dealt
largely with ali forms of sartorial extravagance. The Catas/Q of
142 7 was especially severe against pride and ostentation of
vesture. One rubric was as follows: "No female--woman or girl
-of whatever rank or condition, married or unmarried, shall dare
or presume, in the city of Florence or in the Contatlo, to wear any
sleeve, bodice, mantle, robe, or other garment, lined with the
fur of any animal, whether domestic or wild, coarse or fine, by
whatever name it may be known. . . . "
Another rubric enacted that no person ·of whatever rank or
condition, nor any tailor, dressmaker, vair merchant or furrier, shall
dare, or presume, to cut out, make, line, or cause to be cut out,
made, or lined, any of the following garments : ciopp~-long tunics,
and cottaáiu vi//ani--blouses (?) whereof fur is a principal
part.
The wearing of gold embroidery and jewellery was strictly
regulated, the women were, nevertheless, " allowed to wear, upon the
collars of their garments,-to a depth of the third of a /mzaio,-
gold, silver, and gilt embroidery." 1
Damasks, figured silks, and brocades were forbidden for
ordinary wear, and the colours and decorations of such robes as
were permissible, were regulated by simplicity. The following
were some of these enactments :-" No one shall presume to
wear more than one pound of silver in garlands, or buttons,
or anything else, upon the head or person • • • over and
above this they may wear a silver belt, weighing, with the
1 L'Ossenatore Fiorentino, vol. 'fi. p. 86.

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292 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
clasp, fifteen ounces, and no more . . . the said silver may be
gilt"
No woman is permitted to have more than two silk dresses at
the same time. Sleeves and linings are not to be of silk or fur,
but of wool, linen, or cotton.
" They shall not dare to wear any intag-lw,--open lace-work,-
of more than a óraccio in width . . . nor any fringe of gold,
silver, or silk, on the dress, except upon the bodice. . . • The hem
of the garments may be enriched, but no skirt may be more than
ten óraccia round." Very many other details follow, prescribing,
with singular precision, every portion of the clothing-male and
female.
In the matter of jewellery--ostentation was to be avoided.
" Women shall not presume to wear . . . more than two rings,
and the rings shall not have more than one pearl and one other
precious stone."
With respect to the wedding Cassoni, or cofrers, strict in-
junctions were given, for example :-"No one shall dare to send
in the caskets of women or girls, when promised or betrothed,
jewelled necklaces, nor to give them garlands or broocbes of pearl,
precious stone, gold, and silver."
Some of the sumptuary measures passed and put into execu-
tion, have already been referred to in earlier chapters, and also the
manner in which they were met and avoided by the people. The
pressure became so excessive and irritating that a recoil was the
only possible outcome.
Gradually the prosecution of these sartorial reforms was
slackened, and, in the fifteenth century, they ceased to have any
force, not only on account of the difficulty of maintaining them,
but because of the vastly increased import and manufacture of
costly objects and fabrics.
In the frescoes at Santa Maria Novella we see the new
fashions just come in, and the mural pictures in other city
churches, and in the palaces, carry on the sartorial story.
Strangely enough men set the fashion in those days, but

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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKINNERS 298
the vagaries, or tbe reverse, of male attire were quickly adopted
by the fair sex. Cavaliers wore close-fitting tunics, with the
points of their wristbands lined with vair, reaching to the ground
Smart women took the cue, and reformed their modes in
accord.
The fasbion carne in of wearing parti-coloured hose, crossed
in three or four colours. Shoes had very long points, and the
wearers' legs were so enwrapped with ribbons and laces, that
they could hardly sit down. Y oung men went about in silken
or woollen tights, and wore silk or velvet mantles, depending
from their shoulders. Their hair hung down their backs, and
long feathers were stuck into their jaunty red caps. The fair
sex improved upon these styles, and their skirts were skin-tight
-cumbering their feet.
Sacchetti says " some women had their dresses cut so low that
tbe annpits could be seen ; they then gave a jump, and made the
collars come up to their ears I "
The trousseau and the marriage feast of Giovanna de' Medici
were remarkable for the splendour of the robes and dec:orations.1
Four chief merchant princes of the city, Messeri, Manno Temper-
ani, Carlo Pandolfini, Giovannazzo Pitti, and Tommaso Soderini
were the bride's supporters, each clad in festal attire of crimson,
silk and scarlet cloth, lined with miniver. The bride herself was
gowned in cloth of gold with an ermine mantle, whilst her dinner
dress was of wbite 8etana,-very thick satin,-powdered with
pearls, and trimmed with sable and ermine.
Rich furs were wom by ali the guests. The fifty gentle-
women and fifty gentle-youtbs, who formed tbe bodyguard of
·the fair Giovanna, vied with one another in the decoration of
their tight-fitting jackets edged with sable, and their capac\ous
sleeves, with pointed wristbands lined with miniver and ermine,
reached to the floor ; and their shoes were embroidered with gold,
and bordered with sable.
Giovanna de' Medici's marriage Cassone contained a necklace
1 Guido Bia&i1 "Private Life of the Renaissance Florentines."

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 294 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of diamonds, rubies, and pearls,-valued at x.oo,ooo gold
florins, a bood embroidered with pearls, a fringed Milanese
hat, eigbt pairs of silk stockings, four pairs of gloves, a
cape of silver and pearls, a fine lawn sbift, many robes with
trains of brocade, and velvet edged witb fur, and many more
fine things.
In the latter years of tbe Republic personal adomment and
extravagance in dress reacbed a pbenomenal height. Doctor
Biagi says : - " In 1467 Benedetto Salutati, for the State
Toumament, put upon the bamess, beadgear, and the trappings
of two borses, one hundred and seventy pounds of pure
silver, wbicb be caused to be worked by tbe bands of Antonio
Pollaiuolo ; and, around tbe robes of the heralds, he strung thirty
pounds of pearls,-tbe greater part of which were of great
value I"
Many amusing stories are told by the topical writers of the
Renaissance conceming the fasbions, and their constant changes.
" Poor Messere V alore di Buondelmonte, an old man cut on the
ancient pattem, was forced by bis relations to change his cloak
and bood. Everybody marvelled, and stopped him in the
streets, asking :-Oh what is this, Messer Valore, I do not
know yoo ? What is the matter with you ? H ave you the
mumps ? " When ruffs carne in, " Salvestro Brunelleschi, while
eating some peas with a spoon, instead of putting them
into his mouth, slipped them inside bis rufl' and scalded
himselfl n 1
Under the Medici no limits were set to the liberty of the
person, so far as clothing and omaments were concemed. Only
one law was passed,-and that under the Grand Duke Ferdi-
nand 11.,-probibiting in detail dress, fumiture, and other house-
hold and priv,ate matters, but it was rescinded after a nine months'
probation.
We must always remember, in reviewing the dress and
lashions of the Renaissance, that the pbysical culture of the
1 " Printe Life of the Renaislance Floreu.tines."

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~,...._
rv
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 GUILD OF FURRIERS AND SKlNNERS 295
Florentines, acting upon their naturally fine forms, produced
grace of deportment and elegance of bearing in every
class of life. " Fine feathers make fine birds " elsewhere, but
in Florence it was rather the fine figures that set off the fine
clothes!

"StmrfNI t/4/f Art1 d4' Vaiai 1 P1/lkeiai"

White Ar-s Dli on blue field on fim quarter of field o( Vair

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 CHAPTER X

THE GUILDS OF BUTCHERS, BLACKSMITHS, AND

SHOEMAKERS
LE .ARTI DE BEOO.Al, DE F.ABBRI, E DJJ! O.ALZOUI

I. BUTCHERs.-War-lords, gnuiers and slaughterers. Scant pasturage

of Tuscany. Custom dues and evasions. Clever salesmen. Mercato Vecchio.
Ponte Veccbio. Heads must be attached to carcases. Florentine delicate
palettes. Fisbmongers and 6sh. Fines and litigation. "Cbeats I " and
" W ooden-shoes ! "
I I. SWITHS.-Tuscany rich in minerais. St Eloy. Scions of nobility.
Primitive forges and smelting yards. " Old iron and brass to selll" Re·
naissance wrought iron-work. A money-grabber. Renowned workers in
metais. Tbe Acciaiuoli family. .
I I I. SHOEMAKERS.-" N otbing like leather ! " Many associated trades.
Dependent upon the Guild of Tanners. Sboemakers warned not to barbour
wandering fellows. Lining of armour. Buskins wom by ali classes.
Flirtations.

I. L' ARTE DE' BECCAI

I N every list of the Florentine Guilds the "A rlt át' Beccai" heads
the Second Division, or Lesser Guilds, and occupies the first
place among the Five Intermediate Guilds.
The term Beccai was originally applied to the highest families
in ltaly. The war-lords, who set out from Germany in the
Middle Ages, possessed themselves of the fat of the lands they
traversed-seizing cattle and stock of ali kinds, and robbing castles
and villages with impunity. The use of the word in this sense by
Dante, it is said, greatly offended Francis I.
Something of the same feeling seems to have been shared by
the Renaissance Florentines, who strove to differentiate between
Beccm:__graziers-and MaceUai-slaughterers. Anyhow the Guild
was, at its first inception in the thirteenth century, composed of
296

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 GUILD OF BUTCHERS 297
wholesale dealers : the corporation of retail butchers being a later
arrangement.
The earliest mention of a " butcher " · in the Archives of
Florence is of one " M arlinus-óeccadore " in 1 I I o, but whether
he was a member of such a Guild as that in Paris, to which King
Philip, in I I 62, granted a charter, nobody can say.1
It is true that in every country in Europe in the Middle Ages
"butchers " played a leading rôle, not alone in the arena of com-
rnercial enterprise but in that too of political activity. This pre-
erninence was in part due to hereditary antecedents and traits,
and in part to effective physical culture. Bodily strength and
force of character were ever potential attributes of success in
life generally, and these were rnarks of the Beccai of Florence in
particular.
There can be no doubt that two motives largely influenced
the incorporation of the Beccai. First, the breeders and graziers
of cattle and sheep needed to protect tbemselves, their lands, and
their stock, from the attacks of robber captains and cattle raiders :
and secondly, they wished to control the supply of meat, and to
keep the retail-butchers and slaughterers out of the wholesale
market. .
The latter precaution was soon seen to be unwise, for, with
the rapid growth of the population, retail-butchers becarne a
necessity, and arnicable terms between the two sections of meat-
merchants proved to be the best policy.
The first distinct mention of the "A rlt de' Beccai" was in I 2 36,
·wben the Buonuomini, who took in hand the refonnation and
classification of the trades of Florence, placed it eighth in the
order of the Guilds, and named it first arnong the Fourteen Lesser
Guilds. This priority of }losition was due to the influential
character of the first members of the Corporation. They were not
only simple country breeders and peasant traders, but many
among them were prosperous city rnanufacturers and merchants.
These rich men found, in the possession of poderi, farm lands
1 Davidssobn, " Geschicbte .'IOD Florenz."

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298 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and stock, safe and profitable investments for their capitaL This
economical condition affords an interesting parallel to the much
earlier absorption of the landed Grandi by the city Popola,ri--a
reftexive movement of high political importance.
Tbe " Guild of Butchers " retained its premier rank at the
revision and enlargement of the Guilds in 1 266, by which date
probably, the two sections,-Beccai and MaaUai,-bad discovered
the advantages of co-operation and mutual respect.
In the list of Guilds, revised in 1280 and I 282, a further
distinction was awarded the "Guild of Butchers." It was placed
first of the "Five Intermediate Guilds,'' which were for many
years classed among the " Twelve Greater Guilds."
This arrangement proved the importance and inftuence of the
butchering confratemity in the Commonwealth, and it also led
to the addition of a powerful company to the trained ba.nds of the
city. No Guild company carried its gonfalon with a higher hand,
or was capable of giving a better account of itself in times of
stress, than the slaughterers who were bom fighting men.
By the end of the thirteenth century the position and
character of the Guild were fully recognised. No Confratemity
possessed a finer or more sumptuously fumished Residence than
that which housed its Consuls by the side of Or San Michele, and
no banner flaunted more proudly than that of the black goat
upon its yellow field-the armorial bearings of the Guild.
The Beccai were, from the first, faced by a great natural
difficulty which needed brains and means to overcome. The V ale
of Amo was a fruitful garden and land could hardly be spared
for gtass. The uplands and the Tuscan hills afforded only poor
pasture, quite sufficient perhaps for the growth of wool, but un-
suitable for fattening purposes. Consequently flocks and herds
had to be driven to distant localities where richer eatage could
be found
Joumeys to and fro, in and out of Tuscany, called for
heavy outlay in shepherding, and involved duties at the frontiers
of foreign States. The risks of travei and the losses by the way

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ARMS OF THE GUILI> OF HUTCHERS

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 GUILD OF BUTCHERS 299
were great, and everything conspired to harden the selling price
of live stock and dead meat. At the same time an embargo was
placed upon, and maintained against, the export of live stock
beyond the Contado. The first restriction of this character of
which there is a record was in 1285.1
With such a considerable importation of live stock and of
dead meat it is conceivable that many tales were rife, in the
Markets, of clever ruses adopted to escape payment of the Gate dues.
It was not an uncommon practice to place two carcases upon the
back of a mule or donkey, and to cover them well with green stuff,
so that only one was exposed and paid for I The risk however of
discovery was serious, for on detection, by an over conscientious
ofticial, the beast of burden, as well as bis load, was confiscated :
whilst, it was within common knowledge that, the distrained car-
cases were shared by the staft' of the Dogana I A PrtJ'lJ'IIirione was
passed in the thirteenth century which directed the arrest of the
dishonest dealer, but he usually squared the authorities by paying
a fine!
The Gate customs against commodities of all kinds aft'ected
largely the interest of the stock-dealers and of the retail-butchers.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century, whilst the selling price
of a fat ox ranged from twelve to sixteen /ire, the tax upon the
animal amounted to ten per cent In 1 3 I 9 the Ga!Je//a, or tax
on live-stock at the gates, levied upon the breeders and butchers,
realised the high total of 1.185 gold ftorins,-nearly ~6oo.1
Indeed it was, as a rule, more remunerative to kill the beasts
outside the city, and to carry through, separately, the carcases and
the hides or fteeces.
This question of customs was, ever and again, cropping up ;
and the need of organised eft'orts to counteract illiberal lcigislation
rendered the services of the Consuls of the Guild of the utmost
importance, not only · to the members of the Guild, but to the
whole community of the city.
1 "Le COIIIUlte," i. uS, July 30, 1285.
1 Cibnrio (1253-1278), 16. 5; 16. 9, 10. Pron. ui. 116 vo.

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300 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Florence early became a profitable centre of the meat trade
of Tuscany, which assumed very considerable proportions in tbe
early years of the fourteenth century. The annual average of fat
stock which entered the city was as follows :-Four thousand
bulls and cows, sixty thousand sheep and lambs, twenty thousand
goats and bucks.1
A decree of Duke Charles of Calabria, issued on May 16th,
I 3 2 7, ordered the " merchants of the Guild of Butchers , to drive
more oxen and cows out of Apulia for the provisioning of the city.
Raisers of stock were obliged to go themselves to market and
to drive only their own beasts. Agents or brokers were not
allowed to come between them and the retail butchers. Tbis
injunction held for a good hundred years or more-1346-1477·'
The driving of cattle,-whether to the shambles or not,-was
subject to strict regulations, and each animal was taxed,-the
bigger cattle at eight to twelve, and small animais at four
dmari per head. Each beast had a label or ticket attached to
his hom or throat with the owner's name written upon it1 Foreign
cattle driven by strangers, and sold in the Market, or at the Gates,
had to be killed and the meat exposed the same evening. On no
condition were whole5ale butchers allowed to sell to hawkers until
the amount of fresh meat usually required, day by day, by the
citizens had been provided and disposed of to the ordinary retail
dealers.
Clever salesmen were in the habit of underselling, by four
tknari in the pound, the daily market official prices ; and this
evasion of the regulations was not only condoned but encouraged
by the authorities. What the intention of this irregularity was it
is difficult to understand, only it might have been due to a
paternal wish that ali citizens,--even the very poorest,-might
enjoy, at least during public festivals,-a better diet than was
possible in ordinary days.'
The Mercato V ecchio was for a long period the principal centre
1 Villani, xi. 93- t Statuti de' Bec:c:ai, Cod. L, Rub. 10.
'Statuta, 1415, Rub. cc:lxxiii. • Pron. 1465; Reg. 157, 216.

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 GUILD OF BUTCHERS 801
of the Butchers. Around its four sides open stalls were placed,
whereon meat for retail sale was exposed. lt was strongly for~
bidden to keep meat for sale inside a house or store within the
city, and not until well on in the fourteenth century were covered
shops allowed.l •
The new Ponte Vecchio, built by the State in I 345, a.t a cost
of sixty thousand gold ftorins, had a double row of shops. Forty~
four of these were claimed by, and granted to, the "Guild of
Butchers," and remained in the occupation of members until 1490,
wben the Goldsmitbs obtained them from Cosimo I.
Retail-butcbers of the Market were not suffered to enter into
partnership witb cattle~ealers. Tbey could not keep more than
one assistant Tbey were required to live within five bundred
yards of the Piazza Santa Croce,-in the vicinity of whicb were the
shambles.1 Every butcber before he was licensed, either to kill,
or expose meat, was compelled to be'enrolled or matriculated in
tbe " Guild of Butchers."
During the Patronal Festival of San Giovanni in }une there
was always a great increase in the supply of butcher's meat, and
this called into work many extra hands. At all sucb festivais the
prices to be cbarged by the M acellai were fixed by the Consuls of
the Guild, and a tariff was ordered to be exposed at every stall.
The licence also of the Guild was required by all temporary assis-
tants, and the amount of their wages was arranged by the Consuls.'
The Macei/ai could only buy fat cattle at tbe weekly public
sales, and they were, by a Provvisione of I 41 S, obliged to
slaughter the animais within eight days of purcbase. The
slaugbtering and dressing of meat were subject to strict regula-
tions, and only in certain localities, outside the city, and at fixed
hours, was it permissible to carry out these processes. The tax
demanded by the State for the slaughtering of beasts was the
same as that fixed for killing bears and wild boars, but it varied
in amount considerably from time to time.
1 Sa.cchetti, "Nov:" J6o, p. 372. 1 Provv. 1504, Reg. ao.
• Provv. 1413, Reg. 164, 202.

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302 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The sale of pigs was wholly prohibited in the Old and N ew
Markets, and in front of the Podesta's Palace. Fat pigs were not
allowed to be kept in any dwelling-house in Borgo d'Ognissanti,
or any locality bordering upon the river.1
Butchers were forbidden to carry. beef bellies, bullocks' and
rams' heads, and the skins of recently killed animais through the
Mercato Vecchio.1
Butchers, Slaughterers, and Innkeepers, selling recently killed
meat and cooked joints, were required to appear before the
authorities ·of the Market in the month of January each year. They
had to deposit a security of fifty /ire, and to swear that they
would exercise their calling honestly and loyally.
Tripe-sellers,-whether menor women,-sausage-makers, and
cooks of "snacks " at the smaller inns, were also ordered to appear in
the month of January each year before the Notary of the Captains
of Or San Michele to swear obedience to the Statutes.1
In some way, as showing an early refinement in the gustatory
tastes of the people, their fondness for delicate meat became more
and more marked as the era of the Renaissance advanced. Beef
and mutton for example, although excellent in quality and cheaper,
were held in less estimation than were veal and lamb. This
preference has been remarked by many writers both serious
and hypercritical. lt held out a temptation to the butcher con-
fratemity to substitute coarser joints for the finer "tit-bits," to which
very many of them yielded ; but such tradesmen gave a bad name
to the trade, and added force to the popular opinion conceming
unfair dealing.
To prevent fraud and substitutions it was required by the
Consuls of the Guild that the carcases of lambs and calves should
always be exposed for sale at the butchers' stalls with the heads
attached.'
Associated with the butchers were the Pescivendo/i-Fish-
mongers-who were regularly organised and under strict byelaws.
1 Rub. cclix., 141 5· 1 Rub. cclx., 1415.
'Rub. ccxvii., 1415. 'L'OuerYatore Fiorentino, iv. 9·U.

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 GUILD OF BUTCHERS 803
Fresh fish could only be sold in the loggia by the Ponte
Vecchio, and at certain butchers' shops, which were specially
licensed by the Market authorities. These were fumished with
tanks wherein the fish had to be deposited, because wholesale
display upon the stalls was absolutely forbidden. To poison fish
in the river, or marshes, was a criminal offence, and was dealt with
severely.1
Tinclu-tench-from the lake in the Val Chiana, was sold as
follows :-Big fish,-weighing one pound or more,-two so/di per
pound; small fish,-under a pound,--one soldo eight dmari. T ench
from Pado, and out of Lombardy, followed the same quotations.
Tench from Brentina, Gusciana, and other places,-not being so
highly esteemed,-was cbarged lower rates. Eels from V a1
Chiana, and other localities, varied in price from tbree soldi to one
soldo, four dmari. Lampreys, sardinés, and other small fry, were
sold in the gross. Upon ali fish, dues were levied, at the Gates
and Quays, at so much per cent. upon the wholesale market price.
Innkeepers, Butchers, and Fishmongers, wêre not allowed to
enter into partnership with people living in the country for the
supply of fish, but they had to go to the Markets,. or sbops, like
other people.2 Cooks were restrained from purcbasing fresh fisb
and then selling it again uncooked. They were also forbidden, as
were all citizens, to keep fisb in aquaria, water-baskets, or other
enclosures, for indefinite periods.1
By injunction of the Captains of Or San Michele and other
Market Magistrates, fresh meat, fresh and salt fish, and all
comestibles whicb were perishable, were not allowed to be
exposed for sale more than for one day.'
The Councils of the Podesta and of the Captain of the People,
and later on the State Council of the Signoria, were almost daily
besieged by persons who had complaints to make of the bad
quality of the meat and fisb offered for sale in the Market, and of
the fraudulent practices of the butchers. Under date May 10,
1 Rub. cxxii., 141 5· 1 Rub. cxnii. 0 1415,
a Rub. cxxviii., cxxxi., 1415. • Rub. ccxx., ccxxi., 141 S.

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304 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1281, a case was dealt with wherein Brunetto Latini-Dante's
Master-proposed that the" Quatkwdü:i"-The Fourteen--should
appoint expert Inspectors, who should, without being known,
make purchases of meat and fish indiscriminately, and thus
detect any possible fraud or irregularity on the part of the retail-
dealers.1
Heavy fines were imposed upon all unskilful and untidy
workmen, and especially for carelessness in the disposal of off'al,
fish-bones, etc. The bundling of hides and fleeces, and their
prompt .removal from the. shambles were insisted upon. No class
of tradesmen revelled so thoroughly and constantly in legal
processes as did the Beccai, the M acellai and the Pesa"vmdoli: ,
and somehow or other they generally gained the day I
At the enactment of the General Code of Statutes for ali ,
the Guilds in 130I-1309, and again in I346, and I4IS, the
" Guild of Butchers " retained its position in the hierarchy of the
Guilds. Under the Medici the importance of the Guild was
constantly affirmed and duly acknowledged : for example, in the
Parliament held on August I 8th, I 343, in the Church of Santa
Maria del Fiore, Francesco di Giov.anni, a member of the " Guild
of Butchers,'' was nominated, as representing the Pqpolo Min,.to ;
together with Filippo de' Bardi, and Tegghia de' Bonacotti,-re-
presentatives respectiv~ly of the Granái and the Pqpolo Grasso,-
to consult for the public security. At this conference, by the way,
the final step was taken by the Signoria to expel the Duke of
Athens.
Under the Medici the Guild throve amazingly. The prosperity
of ali the citizens led to the increased enjoyment of all pleasures
-those of the table always being foremost. During the cele-
bration of Giostre, and other festivais, hospitality was general and
profuse : everybody feasted himself and bis neighbour, greatly to
the profit pecuniarily of the Beccai.
On the enrolment of the Fourteen Lesser Guilds in four
Universities in I 5 34, the Arle de' Beccai was placed first in
1 "Le:Consulte," t. i. 9 and 13, pp. 15, 16.

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 GUILD OF BUTCHERS 305
order in the prernier University, along with the 0/iant/Qli, and
Fornai-the other two food-supplying Guilds of the city. The
style " Uniflwsi'ta di Por San Piwo, "-" The University of Saint
Peter's Gate,"-was given to this Union, a title derived from
the proximity of the activities of the Guilds to the Gate of that
name.
By the members of the Greater Guilds at large the Arte de'
Becad was looked upon with disdain. No citizens were considered
of less estimation than the indispensable breeders and slaughterers
of cattle. In fact the proud manufacturers of the " Guild of
W ool " rid.iculed the Butchers on the score o f dishonesty and
dubbed them /adrqnçeJü-Cheats I
On their part, the Butchers were wont to re~m the compli-
ment : " Y ou, Cümtpi care only for the wool of which you fleece
your customers, whilst we, honest men, sell good sound meat
to feed you, and fit you for your work I " 1
Anyhow the Butchers of Florence did not bear a good reputa-
tion for straight dealing, but in this opinion they had for comrades
the Vinattieri-wine-merchants and the A/berpori-lnnkeepers.
The Florentines of old time were for the most part abstemious
in their consumption of animal food. Sir Richard Dallington,
writing at the close of the sixteenth century, says: "The working
people average not more than a stone weight of fresh meat per
man per annum.'' 1 This is probably under the actual mark con-
siderably, for other travellers noted with astonishment and admira-
tion the good eating and drinking of all classes of the community.
lndeed it is not untrue to say that much of the thew ·and
sinew of the citizens,-whether rich or poor,-was, in a great
measure, duo to generous and nourishing diet. This opinion is
. confirmed when it is remembered that flesh-eating peoples have
ever been the rulers of cities and of empires-Romans, Floren-
tines, and Britons to wit I
1 Sacc:hetti, "Novelle," 16o, t. ii. P• 377• 1 .. Survey," p. 35-

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306 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE

11. L'ARTE DE' FABBRI

The fact that Tuscany is particularly rich in minerais, and
especially so in lead, tin, copper, lignite, and iron-oxides, must
be bome in mind when attention is directed to ber workers
in metais. The Etruscans were. among the forbears of the
Florentines, and their skill in the manipulation of iron and gold,
in particular, has placed them in the foremost ranks of smithery.
Doubtless they leamed their art from Greek colonists, and in tum
they became teachers of the Romans.
Tbe island of Elba was an important source of mineral wealtb
away back in ancient days, and the prosperity of the city of
Popolonia was in a great measure dueto the mechanical arts of
her citizens. At Monte Amiata was mercury, and other deposits
included boracic crystals, siena earths, and salt.
Wbilst marble in endless variety and richness abounded
all over the country,--epecially at Carrara and Massa,-there
do not appear to have been any coai deposits in Tuscany.
The earliest form of an iron forge was merely an ·excavation
in the windward side of a bill or crest. The date of cast iron is
uncertain , but it was produced in the fourteenth century. Tbe
discovery of the process was due to the adoption of larger fumaces
and bigber pressure bellows.
Steel was evolved in the middle of the sixteenth century.
lt was noted by Biringuccio in I 540, and described by Agrícola
in " De Re Metal/ica," I 56 I -that a bar of wrought iron, kept
immersed long in molten cast iron, became acierated by taking
up the carbon of the cast iron,
St Eligius was regarded as the Patron of Blacksmiths. He
worked as a joumeyman in a smithy, but, coming under tbe notice
of King Dagobert, was made Court-treasurer and Mint-master.
In 640 he was advanced to the Bisbopric of Noyon. Among bis
good works was the founding at Soligniac, near Limoges, of a
monastery of smiths, in connection with whicb he further estab-
lished a scbool for artificers in metal.

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF BLACKSMITHS 307
Many extraordinary stories are told of the saintly Blacksmith
and bis spiritual powers. On one occasion, at all events, he is
reported to have worked an astonishing miracle. A horse brought
to his smithy to be sbod became possessed of the devil, who
caused him to plunge and kick so violently that no one could
shoe him. St Eligius determined to accomplisb the job, and at
once chopped off one of the horse's legs, and having witbout
difficulty nailed a shoe to the hoof, he immediately restored tbe
separated member, and tbus defeated the Evil One I
After the death of the Countess Matilda the industries of
Florence and of all Tuscany prospered exceedingly. Her
artizans no less than her merchants displayed admirable enter-
prise and resourcefulness. Many of the scions of ancient noble
houses, who had happened on evil days under the competition of
the Popolani and tbe Popolo Minuto, threw in their lot with the
citizens. The crafts which most attracted them were such as
appealed to their warlike instincts, and they enrolled themselves
as apprentices in the trade associations which dealt in metal, and
stone, and wood.
Quite the most popular handicraft was that of smithing, as
one may easily understand by noting the great number of
noble names which figured early on the Matriculation Rolls of
the " Blacksmiths," the " Locksmiths,'' " the Armourers," and the
"Masters of Stone and Wood." These young fellows brought to
their adopted work the thew and sinew begotten of an active
life in the open air.
The Archives of Florence contain tbe following records in tbe
eleventh and twelfth centuries : -
" 1 o 38,Oli1111s, fa!Jer.-Blacksmith."
" 1 141, Bernenus, fi/. Barlittano-Bellfounder.''
"1146, Ugwa'One, Calderarius-Coppersmith."
In the year 1038 as many as six Blacksmiths are named, in
1065 two more, and in 1080 six otbers, ali exercising their craft
witbin the bounds of the Contado. In 1174 a piece of land in

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308 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Oltramo, ·near the Ponte V ecchio, was sold for the purpose of a
Bell-foundry.
The .Arle & Faólwi carne tenth in the List of the Guilds in
1236, and it retained that position in the Revisions of 1266,
128o-2, and 1301-9. In 14IS, however, the "Guild of
Blacksmiths " ranked ninth, displacing th~ " Guild of Shoe-
makers."

Little or no trace remains of the early Statutes of the Guild.

What has been preserved,-as was the case with the other Lesser
Guilds,-is written in a mixed jargon of low Latin and
abbreviated vemacular-very difficult to decipher. A document
of the year 1 2 74 states that the Smitbs had then twelve Rectors,
who, according to the regulations of the Guild received salaries
ranging from eighteen to six dmari for their terms of office.1
This number being found too large, only six Rectors were
elected in the following year. The number of Consuls varied
from three to five in later times. The larger number indicated
prosperous times and vice versd.
At a council of Consuls and Capitw/ini of Guilds, held in
1 2 86, a petition was presenteei to the Priors of the Guilds, on
behalf of the Rectors of the " Guilds of Blacksmiths " and
" Locksmiths," praying first that no one should be permitted,
within the confines of the city and CtmUulo, to set up a Smith's-
forge, a Smelting-fumace, or a Puddling-yard, for the manu-
facture of metal wire, thin plates, and objects in metal, except
members of the two Guilds, under pain of a fine of one thousand
/ire.
The Second Article in the Petition prayed that no ·one, ex-
cept members of the said Guilds, should be allowed to run metal
wire in sheets, or do metal-work of any kind, within the same
limits, save under a fine of one hundred /ire. The Third Article
required that all such manufactures should be confiscated and
destroyed, whether found in the smithies and shops, or loaded
1 Archivio del Stato Fiorentino, Sept. 14, 1274·

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 GUILD OF BLACKSMITHS 309
upon draught animais for sale beyond the boundaries of the
Com mune.
The style "Fa!JIJri" covered a number of workers in metais,

-~~~ -~~~
!=4~~~~~
METHOD OF FUSING MBTALS. SIXT&&NTH C&NTUilY.

METKOD OI' BBATING-GUT M&TAL PI.ATBS. SIXTUNTK C&NTUilY.

for example, the following ali carne under the category of

Blacksmiths : Ca/derai- Copper-smiths, Ferrai.a/i-Edged-tool
makers, Ferravecclli- Scrap-iron dealers, Fornadai- Fumace-
men, .Manescaklli-Farriers, Otttmai-Workers in brass and
Stagnaiuo/i-Pewter-smiths.

Dígítízed by Goog [e
-
310 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Fornaciai and Calderai were subject to strict rules with
respect to the situation, build, and contents, of their fires and
cauldrons. Inspectors, from time to time, visited ali foundries
and iron workshops to see that the quality of the metais, and the
values of the mixtures, were exactly maintained. Fines were
imposed for inferior materiais and bad workmanship, and the
confiscation of the blend, whether in fire or bath, was effected.1
M anescalcki were forbidden to charge ordinary citizens more
than three to four soldi for a shoe for a horse, a mule, or a pony.
The price of a shoe for a young mule, or an ass~ was two soldi
six denari. V ery big shoes were charged as muc'h as six soldi.
The removal of a shoe or the part, cost a third of each of these
amounts. Smithies for shoeing purposes were required to be
open from dawn to dusk every day, except Sundays and Festivais,
when it was forbidden to do any farriers' work. 2
Ferraveccki were restrained in the prosecution of their calling.
On no account were they suffered to go through the streets
crying out : "Ferro vecckio, vet rame vecckio a vendere I" "Old
iron and brass to selll " Offenders were visited with fin~ of fifty
/ire, and they were required to fumish a surety for good behaviour
to the tune of fifty silver florins. Smiths worked only for
ready money, and allowed no credit.a
An idea of the financiai position of the Guild may be
obtained from the fact that in the general taxation of the
Guilds, which took place in I 3 2 I, the Arte de' Fa!Jbn' was
mulcted in a sum of four hundred tire, a comparatively insigni6-
cant amount, whilst the Fornaciai were charged a separate assess-
ment of ninety-two tire.
The Statutes of the Guild were revised and enlarged in I 344,
s,
14I I472, I 525, and I 541. The last date records a proposal
of union between the Fabbn' of Florence and Pisa. ·
When Cosimo, the first Grand Duke, established four
Universities to include the Fourteen Lesser Guilds, the third was
styled " Universita de' Fa!Jbricanti "-" The University of Iron-
1 Cantlni, vi. p. 357· 2 Rub. xcviii., 141 5· • Rub. xCYii., 1415.

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 GUILD OF BLACKSMITHS 311
workers." lt included 1. Fabóri-Smiths, 2. Ckiavaiuoli-Lock-
smiths, 3~ Maestri di Pietra e di Legname-Masters of Stone and
Wood, 4· Corazzai e Spadai-Cuirass and Sword-makers, or
Armourers, and S· Legnaiuoli-Carpenters.
Tbe Residence of the Consuls of tbe Guild was behind the
Zecca-Mint, just out of the Via de' Lamberteschi. On its
front were some finely moulded and hammered iron torch-sconces
and banner-holders. In the latter were placed the Gonfalon o{
the Guild, charged with the armorial bearings, assigned to the
Blacksmiths by Count Guido Novelli in 1266,-a pair of fumace
tongs upon a white field.

The wrought-iron work of the Italian Renaissance was

essentially sui gmeris. Gothic models were not known, and the
inftuence of Byzantine artificers, and of the masters of antiquity,
was of the faintest. Apparently the ordinary manner of working
was to beat out a thin ftat surface of metal, and punch boles
through it, or stamp designs upon it. No finer example of this
flat-work exists than the Screen at Santa Maria Novella which
is dated I 366.1
At the beginning of the fourteenth century the casting of
metais' had become a staple industry in Florence. Among early
workers,-artists and artificers combined,-were Cione, Ugolino,
Giglio, Piero, Leonardo, and Nofai. The Duke of Athens, fearing
personal violence, introduced, in I 343, a novel window protection
-iron gratings or bars, and caused the " Guild of Blacksmiths "
to erect such defences at bis Palace. The fashion grew, and
window-gratings were among the finest examples of the Black-
smith's skill. This vogue was further developed in I so6 and the
following years, by Michael Angelo, who introduced what was
called "kneeling-gratings," that is to say bowed protections to
windows.
The " Masters of Stone and W ood " impressed their style of
workmanship upon their "iron " brethren, and many wrought
1 Meyer, " llandbook of the Art of Smithery," 1876, p. 63o

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312 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
iron lantems, and numberless other objects, are manipulated
as tbougb tbe material was stone or wood. Tbis manner was
exbibited in its ultimate perfection by a famous membcr of the
Guild, Niccolo Grosso-1455-1 509. Vasari calls bim "// Caparra••
-" Money Grabber " from bis babit of demanding payment for
bis work in advance I His speciality wasfana/i,-ftare-baskets or
lantems,-sucb as still exist on the walls of tbe Strozzi, Guardagni.
Pazzi, Borgberino, Riccardi and Quaratesi Palaces.
Tbe Grille-work of Florence bas no superior outside Tuscany.
Fineness ·of the iron wire and • bars, perfection of hammering.
beauty of scrolls and curves, naturalness of floral omament, high
finish o f bosses anq masks, neatness of joints and .knobs, and
grace of moulded volutes-with their curling tendrils--are the
cbief features of Florentine workmanship.
· The exquisite grilles, in the Campo Santo, at Santa Croce.
wbich were put up in 13 71, are of punched iron-work, with
cbiselled caps, bases, and mouldings, and are finished by patient file
and pincer-work. It is interesting to notice again the influence
of tbe " Masters of Stone and W ood " in iron joinery and iron
carving, whicb are like fine wood-work ratber than smithery.
In contradistinction to the ftorid work of Flemisb and
~rman craftsmen, Florentine smiths preserved ali thc while
a reticence, and a dignity, quite in accord with their natural
temperamenl
The fifteenth century saw the art of working in metais
brougbt to its bigbest pitch. The great sculptors were wont to
employ the services of smitbs in forging and casting their splendid
works in bronze. Quit~ an army of intelligent artificers were busy
at metal doors and gates for the Baptistery and the Duomo-
tbe . precious creations for ali time of the Pisani, L. Ghiberti, and
Luca Della Robbia.
Other skilled members of the Guild assisted Donatcllo.
Verroccbio, Giovanni da Bologna, and Benvenuto Cellini, to
produce the clufs d'auvre wbicb bear their names. Men of the
forge and of the bellows, men of the anvil and the hammer, men

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 GUILD OF BLACKSMITBS 318
of the soldering-iron and smoothing-file, ali worked as Florentines
always worked, diligently and .with intelligence.
Combinations of wrought-iron work, with brass and bronze,
were Tuscan in origin. Endless objects come under this category : -
Sockets, Shields of Guild Arms, Tavem-signs, Font-covers, Read-
ing-desks, Candelabra, Knockers for doors, Gargoyles, Weather-
vanes, Architectural omaments, and articles for domestic use,
together with workmen's tools--which were never wholly free
from decorative attributes.
The iron fixtures-brackets and rings--attached to the walls
of Palaces and elsewbere, were designed to hold torcbes. They
were provided with iron rings for athletic torcb-bearers to cling to
as they fixed their flaming trophies in the sockets. They were
also used to support banner-poles at festivais. They evidence art
adaptability to common objects.
Fan-lights, balcony rails, fire-backs and dogs, frame-work of all
kinds, and many other objects, which required strength, as well as
elegance, formed another category. Once more the smiths went
to the " Masters of Stone and W ood," and sought their models and
pattems in floors, wall panels, and ceiling groinings, in intarsia-
tura or mosaic.
Among curiosities of the Blacksmith's Craft were the iron tongs
used for stamping the Festival cakes of the Guilds, consumed upon
St John Baptist's Day and upon the anniversaries of the Guilds.
The impressions produced were effigies of Saints or Guild emblems:
for example, the Blacksmith's cakes showed a hammer embossed
in the centre, the Butchers had a cow, ora ram, and so on.
In their work Smiths wore thick and heavy leather aprons, which
they could tie tightly round their legs, by strands of leather cut
from the same piece. The whole outfit of a blacksmith, in the
way of tools, cost about a gold florin, or about twelve shillings of
our money.
The sixteenth century presents the Smiths of Florence revelling
in the excellences and refinements of their Craft. Each workman
was an artist, able to work from any design submitted to hitl.l, or to

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:E:
314 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
create original and beautiful objects on the spur of the moment.
Two especial tines of superior manipulation in metal were portrait
medallions, and historical plaqucs and bronzes. Those whose
fame among workers in metal is most widely diffused were : -
Niccolo Fiorentino, Giamgallo Poggini, Bertoldo, ·Petrellino,
Niccolo Domenico, Antonio dei Pollaiuólo, Andrea Guazzoloti of
Prato, Domenico Poggini, Antonio A verlino, Michelozzo Michel-
ozzi, and, last but not least, Donatello, whose dates range from
1460 to 1 557·
Nothing can exceed, in any school or nation, the delicacy,
naturalness, brilliancy of composition, and high finish of the works
of these " Masters of metal." Examples of their skill may be seen
in every Archzological and Art Museum, but none is so rich as
the Bargello in Florence.
Many names of scions of famous noble families were enrolled
upon the annals of the "Guild of Blacksmiths." To mention one
among the many, the Acciaiuoli, manufacturers of steel,--as their
name implies,-who carne from Brescia in the year 1 1 6o, and
rose to high estate. After the bankirtg disasters in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries Niccolo raised once more the honour of
bis house, whilst he ruled the kingdom of Naples. He married
the widowed Empress of Constantinople, built the Certosa near
the Porta Romana, and founded a School of Liberal Arts for
studious apprentices.

111. L'ARTE DE' CALOZLAI

In every land foot-wear, both useful and ornamental, plays an
important rôle. Protection during working hours, and decoration
in times of leisure, are alike necessary and attractive.
As to who first wore coverings on the feet nobody knows, and
probably nobody cares ; but no age, and no nation, bas ever been
without them. Every conceivable material,-natural and manu-
factured,-has been laid under contribution, and man's skill has
been called forth throughout all time in adaptive measures.

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A STUD\' IN BOOTS AND ~HOES. TIIE HARI;ELLO
[fHE FtGL'RE l'Et.nw Tlll:: STEP kl::I ' NE~E:'\TS (1:\1.-\tH 'Ej

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 •

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 GUILD OF SHOEMAKERS 315
Leather has always been the ideal material for boots and shoes
of ali kinds: strong, impervious, yielding to pressure, and cleanly,
it has outrun ali other competitors. The making of foot-wear has
also enriched countless artists of the last, whilst the vagaries of
Dame Fashion have called forth artistic workmanship, and added to
the joys and sorrows of human life.
Early in the Middle Ages Tuscan leather was famous, and before
the Renaissance, Florentine shoemakers had made themselves · a
name, and had acquired riches. A document exists in the
Archives of the City, which records that, in the year I I 39, one
"Johannes filius Petn" qui vocalur Calzolarius, bestowed a bene-
faction upon the Speáale de' Calzolai, in the V al di Pesa, near
Florence."
V ery little can be gathered from the Archives of the City of
the inception and progress of the Shoemakers' Guild. The earlier
codes of Statutes have perished and the later records are either
very fragmentary, or written in an abbreviated and illegible
manner, and in a tongue not understood of ordinary readers and
students,-partly Latin, partly vemacular.
At first sight the "Guild of Tanners" should have occupied the
place in the Hierarchy of the Guilds which is filled by the Shoe-
makers, both on account of the more general character of its
interests, and of the social importance of its members.
The earliest notices in the Archives of persons working in the
trade of shoemaking are as follows : -
" Io87. R~ticus-Calzolarius-Sboemaker!'
"I I I3. Jolt.annes-Zocolarius-Wooden-clog maker."
In the first List of the Guilds-that of 1236, the "Arte di
Caizolai" is placed ninth in order. This position was maintained
at the revision· of the Statues of ali the Guilds in I 266, I 282, and
1301-1 309, but in 14 I 5 the " Guild of Blacksmiths" was raised
over the head of the Shoemakers, then relegated to the tenth step
in the Guild ladder. This was the final position of the Guild.
When Cosimo de' Medici, in I 534, grouped the Fourteen
Lesser Guilds in four •• U niversities," the Second was styled

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316 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
"Unifltrsila til Mtustri ái Cuoiame," and included the three Guilds
of Shoemakers, Tanners and Saddlers in due order.
The number of Consuls varied between three and six. This
was a common feature in relation to the Chief Officers of tbe
Guilds generally, and probably was due to the nature of the
business wbich from time to time engaged tbe attention of the
Consuls in General Council. Their Residence was in the Chiasso
de' Baronelli, nearly next door to that of the Consuls of the
" Guild of Skin-
ners and Furriers."
The Arms of the
Guild were dis-
played there, as
well as · on the
Gonfalon, and con-
sisted of altemate
stripes of red and
white.
Tbe Matricula-
tion-fee was very
low, almost the
SHOBMAKB&'S SHOP. FIFTBKNTH CKNTURY.
lowest of any sucb
payments made for
Guild-membership. Under the year 1290 the Arcbives of Florence
record that one "Ricchus Borredicti, a shoemaker of the Popoli
di San Giorgio, Syndic of the Guild, received forty solái a head
for the entrance of new members.
There appear to have been severa} divisions of craftsmen
under the Guild rules :-1. Caúo/ai-Sboemakers, 2. Zoccalai-
Wooden shoe-makers, 3· Zoccno/i-Sandal-makers, and 4· Cia!Jath"ni
-Cobblers, an inferior class. The first three had shops and stores
in or near the Mercato Vecchio, whilst tbe last were allowed work-
ing room, either in tbe open market, or in some of the basements
of the houses.1 In the time of G. Villani tbe number of craftsmen
1 Provv. x. 7·

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 GUlLD OF SHOEMAKERS 317
was considerable : he has placed on record that, in 1299, there
were as many as three hundred shoemakers' shops and cobblers'
stalls in Florence. "-
The Statutes of 141 5 contain the following rubrics :-" Sh~
makers, slipper-makers, and any other persons selling fine skins
or cuttings or any kind of leather, are wamed not to oft'er common
dressed goatskins for Spanish morocco, and not to pass oft'·
inferior leathers for better qualities. Eighty soltü were cxacted,
by way of fine, in each case of substitution." 1
" Shoemakers are forbidden to open their shops, and to kecp
·their assistants at work, on Sundays and Festivais. The Consuls
of the Guild are required to make ali Masters of the craft swear
to observe this regulation, subject to a penalty of one hundred
/ire for each oft'ence.1 To avoid unfair rivalry and trade disputes
with the " Guild of Tanners," Shoemakers, and ali members of
their Guild, are strictly ordered not to dress, or cause to be dressed,
upon their premises horse skins and cattle hides." 1
" Sandal and clog-makers seem to have been rather a vagabond
set of fellows. for, in one of the Rubrics, there is an amusing
caution to Shoemakers and other respectable members of the
Guild not to harbour any such wandering personages. No chests,
coff'ers, boxes, and trunks, were to be left unlocked and open least
any poor fellow should hide therein. The object no doubt was to
prevent Masters profiting by thc illicit work of unrecognised
workmen. Perhaps, even with all the elaborate rules and regula-
tions which favoured honourable trading, inferior operatives were
subject to " sweating." '
" Leather shoes are not to be sold if made of hone and goat
skin mixed, and advertised as of horse only. Thigh pieces of
annour may be lined with goat-skin, and kid is permissible as
a decorative addition to shoes and footwear generally~
The importance of the Guild was recognised in 1282 by
Cardinal Latino, who called into consultation about the peace
1 Rub. lxxiü., 1415. 1 Rub. lxu., 141.5- • Rub. lxxxL, 1415.
• Rub. lxxxii., 141 S. • Rub. lxxxiii., 1415.

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Sl8 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
between the Gbibellines and Guelpbs, its Capitt#hm or Consuls,
along witb the beads of tbe Twelve Greater Guilds.
In December I 292, the Heads or Consuls of the Arte di
Caúo/ai took part in the deliberations of the Consuls of the
Sevm Greater Guilds, and again in December I 293 with the
Consuls of the Twe/ve Greater Guilds.l
That the dignity of the Guild and its Consuls was on a par
with that of the other Trade Corporations, is proved by the appoint-
ment in I 30 I, of Benedetto da Carlona, a Sandal-maker, as one of
tbe Priors of the Sutiere of San Spirito.
On the other band the financiai position of the Guild was
inferior, and in I 3 2 I, wben a pro rata tax was levied upon the
Guilds, the sum required from tbe " Shoemakers " was only one
bundred /ire, as against two thousand gold florins contributed by
the " Guild of W ool," and fifty gold florins by the " Guild of
Carpenters."
The Z i!Jaláoni, and otber private records, are singularly
deficient in notices of the "Guild of Shoemakers." lt is bow-
ever narrated that one of its members made bis name famous at
the siege of Capraia in I 249, when the Guelphs were besieged '
by the Emperor Frederic 11. Going to the gates of the town
Giovanni dei Tosco, wbo bad been one of the ancients and was a
man of wealth and influence, shouted that the place could only
hold out for one day. This disheartened the besieged so greatly
that they surrendered at discretion. Two years after dei Tosco
paid for his treachery. He entered Florence among other retum-
ing exiles, but being recognised he was stoned to death by the
people, and bis body was cast into the moat I
The kinds of footwear most in vogue would appear to bave
been bigh boots or leggings,-used by the market people and
working men generally, Ga/osce,-a kind of pattem,-made of
stout leather witb wooden soles,-Charlemagne is said to have
wom such shoes when he visited Florence,-and BorsaecAini-
buskins, so-called from the particular kind of leather used-soft,
1 "Le Conaulte," ü. 228, 396·

Digitized byGoogle
 GUILD OF SHOEMAKERS 319
thin, and pliable, and wom generally by Judges and the Clergy.
Military boots and strong riding gauntlets were also in the
province of the Shoemakers.
I t does not appear that the Guild undertook other objects,
useful or ornamental, in leather, but confined the attentions of
its members to · the supply of all kinds of stout and elegant
•• understandings."

r. "SU... dlll' Art1 lU' Fflll6ri."

Black toap iD a white field, a ROJ.d B.orin iD comer
2. " SltmWIII tÜif Art1tU' C.IIKIIt#."
Two red atripeaupon a white field

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 CHAPTER XI
THE GUILDS OF MASTEBS OF STONE AND WOOD,
AND OF RETAIL CLOTH-DEALEBS AND
LINEN MANUFACTUREBS.
LE .ABTI DI!/ JI.AESTBI DI PIBTJU E DI LBGN.AJIE, E D.B' BIG.ATTIEBI

I. MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD

I. ORIGIN.-The great Comacine Guild. Freemasons. Ambulatory
lodges. Grandi and artisans. Early workers in stone and wood. The
Florentine Lodge. Sdwk, JAIIorerum, and Opera Fa/J6rica. Guild Style first
uaed.
11. CONSTITUTION.-Architects, Scaffold-builders, Masons, Bricklayers.
Bricks and Kilns. Workers in Wood. Wages. Good Native Stone. Fine
Native Timber.
III. D&VELOPMENT.-The Duomo. Francesco Talenti. Amolfo di Cambio.
Giotto. Orcagna. Brunellesco. "An Idle Fellow I" Disputes. "Rustic"
Style. True Version of Columbus and the Egg. Immense Building Operatious.
Street Laying. Cerailloli. Gem-engraving. Fine Ceilinga. Leon Battista
Alberti. Lorenzo Ghiberti. Luca Della Robbia. Donatello. Florentine
influence in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci. Michael Angelo Buonarroti.
Torrigiano. " Those beasts the English I " Siege of Florence. A note on
Pottery.
11. RETAIL CLOTH-DEALERS AND LINEN MANUFACTURERS
(Two Branches of Guild-R,grdlúri and Liítlliwl•:)
I. RIGATTIERI.-Early Tailors, Linen-makers, and Hawkers. An Associa-
tion of retail tradesmen. A " Sandwich" Guild. Codex Membranaeeo
Consuls unable to sign their names I What might, and might not, be sold in
sbops of tbe Guild. Fraudulent tradesmen. Fines. Taxes. Prices, etc.
11. LINAIUOLI.-Early use of Linen. Monasteries. Methods of Cultivation
o( Flax. Processes. Regulations. Fees. Vedilon" t/41/e Coltrid. Surveyors.
Valuers. Agents. Official stamps. Localities of manufacture. Sales. Church
vestments. Women-workers. Sco/jli-I..ace. Prosperous Guildsmen. Uni-
versita tfr Linaiuoli.

I. L' ARTE DE' MAESTRI DI PIETRA E DI LEGNAME

I N impossible
any book dealing with the subject of Guilds it is quite
to overlook that great organisation of the Early
Middle Ages-" The Guild of Comacine Masters." The origin
3.0

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 321
of this Confraternity is lost in antiquity : probably it was
a survival of ancient Jewish and Egyptian times.1 Fugitive
craftsmen from ali parts of Italy, driven from their homes and
craft by the invading barbarians, sought refuge upon the
little islet of Comacina in the lake of Come::>, and the Lombard
chieftains extended to them protection and patronage. The
settlement became known as the Casari or Casan"i-house-builders.
Muratori first discovered traces of its existence in an edict of
November 22, 643, signed by King Rotharis the Lombard, which
makes mention of " M agistri Ctmzadni" as being designers and
superintendents of buildings and builders, and whom we may class
together under the term jl.rclritects.
These Master-builders, evidences of whose creative skill are
scattered all over ltaly, had in 590 formed themselves, for mutual
protection and advancement, into a vast University but with no
Central · College or Residence. According to their motto, their
"Temple was made without hands."
"The old Records," writes a quaint and sententious writer,2
"of Masons afford large hints of their Lodges from the beginning
of the world in polite nations.... Masons were ever the favourites
of the Eminent, and became necessary for their grand under-
takings in any sort of materiais, not only in stone, brick, timber,
plaister, but even in cloth or skins, or whatever was used for tents,
and for all sorts of Architecture. . . • Painters also and Statuaries
were always reckoned good Masons as much as Builders, Stone-
cutters, Bricklayers, Carpenters, Joiners, Upholsterers, or Tent-
makers."
Two early patrons of the Comacine builders were Queen
Theodolinda, who in 7 37 instructed them to draw plans for, and
proceed with, the erection of the Cathedral of Monza, and
Saint Calixtus, to whom the Cathedral of Friuli is due.
Lodges of this Order were ambulatory. Wherever fine buildings
were required,-and all that were erected between the years 8oo
1 Leader Scott, "Tbe Cathedral Builden," p. 10.
'Daagulier, " Coostitutions of the Free Muoos."
X

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822 THE GUILDS OF I'LORENCE
and 1 ooo A.D. were the handiwork of the Comacine Masters,-
there were established : I. Se.útt.--Schools for novices ; 2. a
ÚIIJtWn'JIM-Shop for workmen ; and 3· an Opera fa!Jiwi&a-
Office for architects.1
The operatives employed by the Guild were of two classes-
muran'i--builders, and operarii-labourers.
The Senior Master-builder was styled Capo Maestro, and be
had for assistants two or more Soprastanti, who were charged with
the drafting .of specifications, etc., and with the monetary affairs
of the members respectively. Thus ali the machinery required for
a regularly constituted guild of craftsmen was ready to band, and
at an early date the Comacine Masters were recognised as
members of a worldwide Order of Freemasons.1
Members of these Lodges, of every degree, were treated as
belonging to a privileged class, and were excused local military
service : they enjoyed too, liberty of travei and freedom of
employment.
The term " Freemason," as applied to Master-builders, ap-
pears first in manuscripts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
wherein " Seulp~res /apiti#M lihr0r11M " and "Latonii 'lJO&ati
frnnaceoni," are used indiscriminatingly for workers in freestone.
Master workers in stone and wood, originally, carne under the
designation of Freemasons, and were regarded as a class apart
from ordinary stone masons and working carpenters.
Matriculation made ali the ditrerence in the world between
master and man. Hence in Florence· the Intermediate " Guild of
Masters in Stone and Wood" was named with absolute fitness to
fact and custom.
The actual work of a " Maestro di Pietra " was in virgin stone,
-freestone,-not in marble. There was a clear distinction be-
tween a worker in "lapis /ióer," and a worker in "SIUJIM viviiM "
-the former was a simple stone-ma.son, the latter a skilled
sculptor, or "Maestro."
1 Oaia Libri Muratori, " Gli Inatituzi.oni, Rlti e Ceremonie dell' Ordine de' FraDes
Maçona." 2 C. G11a1ti " Santa Maria del Fiore."

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 MASTERS .OF STONE AND WOOD 323
With respect to workers in wood, "Maestro di Legname"
was one who could construct scaff'olds and build roofs, whilst
..Mautro d' lntaglio," was a carver or inlayer of wood. This
division into four classes of craftsmen was complemented by a
nfth, entitled "Maestri de/ Disegno "-" Masters of Design,'' or
.. Architects."
Every ambulatory "Lodge" or stationary "Temple" of the
Guild or Order was manned by representatives of each of. these
sorts of workmen, and the longer the works lasted so much more
permanent did the terms and conditions become which controlled
and directed building operations. One such permanent centre
was established in the thirteenth century in Florence, where
stupendous undertakings were in hand. .
Probably the Craft of stone-cutting and wood-working was the
earliest trade corporation in Florence in the Middle Ages. U nder
Charlemagne, who rq>eatedly visited Florence, the industry
developed steadily, and, in the reign of Lothair it became pros-
perous throughout Tuscany.l
During the period, when was gradually built up the Primo
Popo!D, or middle class-wherein were united nobles and mer-
chants,-another alliance was cemented, that of outcast sons of
ruined Grandi and working artisans. Descended from a race of
robber captains, many a lad bad to put his family pride in bis
pocket and to throw in his lot with honest craftsmen rather than
beg bis bread. Trained to follow in the ranks of the Condottúri,-
leaders o( mercenary troops,-implements of toil carne as handy
as instruments of warfare.
The two callings which appealed most to these men were
those of stone-mason and wood-worker ; and this is evident on
glancing over the Matriculation Registers of the Guild, wherein
names of ancient noble families appear over and over again.
lt is almost impossible to give the exact date when the
Florentine Lodge of Freemasons, or Master Builders of the grêat
Comacine Guild, was merged in the "Arte de' Maestri di Pietra
1 Muratori, "Anrichite ltaliane," Dis. 75, tom. vi. Col. 45.5-

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324 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
e di Legname." The use of the word " Lodge " comes from the
custom of holding meetings of brethren in the " Loggie " or porticoes
of houses. The first mention in the Archives of Florence of
Master-builders,-masons or wood-workers,-is under the year
1038, when "]oltannis qui tornario voeatus est"-a wood-tumer-
is named. In 1094 appears the first record of a stone-mason as
follows :-" Ba/dus (?) curtis de Marmorio." Doubtless they had
many fellow-craftsmen. Ali through the eleventb and twelfth
centuries the Seno/te, the Laborerum, and the Opera Fabbrica,
were administered under constantly improving auspices and
equipment.
The Seno/te, whilst giving primary attention to the great elements
of construction, gradually placed their pupils in possession of the
technicalities of architecture, sculpture, and even painting. Sons
and nephews of Masters were entitled to enrolment without any
novitiate as by hereditary right, but outsiders were subjected to a
severe preparatory course. Certain Masters were appointed to
teach pupils and apprentices privately in their own studios as well
as in the public work of the Seno/te. These teachers were chosen
from among the most distinguished of those who had passed
through the Laboren~m.
The Laborerum, or shop for workmen, afforded opportunities
for employment to every matriculated and approved member who
was not yet advanced to the dignity of Master. Such men were
. called "fratres " in the old rnanuscripts, and were, so to speak,
the graduates of the University. A successful course in the
Laborerum opened out the way to cornrnissions and renown. Here
it was that genius had full play, and brotherly rivalry led to
glorious results.
The Opera Fabbriea, Office of Works, was the headquarters
of the Master-builders. There ali plans, specifications, estirnates,
etc. etc., were prepared and exhibited. Contracts were signed
between patron and builder. Eamest rnoney was paid over.
Registration of workpeople and their allocation to the various
operations were undertaken. Comrnunicatiorís between the Opera

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JIIASTERS Ot' STONE ANil WOOD C : IYI~G EVIDENCE OF SKILL IN THEIR CRAFTS
HEFORE THE CONSUL Of' THF. GUILD
fOURT~ESTK CBSTI:H.V

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 ---

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 325

and the La!Jorerum were carried on by a Provveditore specially

appointed, and contracts were signed in presence of a Notary.
In the early years of the thirteenth century separate
associations appear, from time to time, in the public records,
for example :-" M tUStri de/! Ascia "-" Master W ood-cutters,"
"Maestn' di Muratori "-" Master-bricklayers," and "Maestn' d'
Arclzitetti "-" Architects."
In the classification of the Guilds in I 2 36 and I 266, " Mura-
tori e ScarpeOini "-" Bricklayers and Stone-masons," come tenth
on the list, and this was the earliest designation of the Guild
of Master-builders in Florence.
The style "Maestri di Pietra e di Legname" was first used in
I 282, but the origin of it must be sought in the year I 260.
Jacopino Rangoni da Modena was then Podesta of Florence, and
he undertook energetic measures in preparation for the war with
Siena.
Twelve Captains of War were chosen-two for each sestiere,
or quarter of the city-to raise companies of cavalry and infantry,
Of these companies two were made up of men accustomed to the
use of picks, axes, saws, planes, and other similar tools ; and
to them was assigned the name of " M aestri di Pietra e di
Legname." They formed the van of the city companies-the
place of conftict and honour.
At the revision of the ·Statutes and Bye-laws, of all the Guilds,
in 1282, and 130I-1309, these companies retained their military
organisation, and united to it the system of industrial incorpora-
tion. They thus became a powerful and enterprising order in the
Hierarchy of the Guilds. .
A further honour was bestowed upon the Guild in I 293 by
Giano della Bella. Just before vacating the office of Prior, he
<:arried through the State Council a Provvisione augmenting the
personal guard of the Chief Magistrate to the number of one
thousand. He called upon the Consuls of the " Guild of Stone-
masons and Wood-workers" "to provide the first, or leading,
company of two hundred men, fifty of whom were to be armed

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 -.

826 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE

with heavy picks." Of course ali these military levies were made
up of operative stone-masons and wood-workers--not of Master-
builders. Of the latter, Villani records, there were, at the begin-
ning of the year I 299, not less than one hundred and forty-six
holding the license of the Guild, and directing the labours of
upwards of two thousand working stone-masons and wood-workers.
Certain of them, moreover, were put over the foreign workmen who
thronged the city and besieged the officials of the Guild for work.
Renaissance Masters,-whe~her designers or architects, scaffold
or roof projectors, stone-masons or bricklayers, sculptors or carvers,
-were the lineal descendants of time-old hewers of wood
and cutters of stone. Hence a natural and hereditary trait
became apparent in the plays and pastimes of their children.
Quite little mites set about the building of palaces and churches
in miniature, with all the zest of their parents and big brothers.
Every C"iasso and Corlile became, for the nonce, a brickfield and
a masons' yard ; whilst many an embryo " master" displayed bis
dexterity and constructiveness in mud, sand, and shavings I

The Consuls of the Guild are named as taking part in the

negotiations instituted, in I 2 8o, by Cardinal Latino dei Frangi-
pani, acting as Papal Legate, for the purpose of reconciling the
Guelphs and the Ghibellines. They, together with the Consuls of
the Guilds of " Ca/ima/a," " W ool," " Bankers " and " Money-
changers," •• Skinners and Furriers," and " Retail Cloth Dealers,"
were not favourable to the negotiations, and nothing was done.
except to augment still more the power of the Parte Gue!fa.
The number of Consuls, in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies, seems to have been three ; at ali events that number is
named, as in attendance, at thc combined conferences of the
Twelve Greater Guilds. Undoubtedly they exercised the same
functions as the Comacine Capo Maestro,· and, for assistants.
they also had two Sopras/anti, who bore the titles of •• CatiUI/ün "
and " Canurlingp "-like their brother officials in the other Guilds.
1t would fill a biggish volume to reproduce ali the regulations,

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 827

cautions, and notices which were, from time to time, issued for the
better ordering and discipline of the craftsmen. One example
will suffice. On June of 1456, the PrOVlleditore put out the
following notice :-" I t is desired that on no account shall any
Master go to work outside the Opera, without the deliberation
and consent of ali four Opera1: If any absent himself without
this permission, he shall be considered as discharged." 1
The office of Provvediton was no sinecure, by reason of the
constant differences between masters and men ; but he bad by
way of assessors two Buonuomini, who acted as arbitrators in
trade disputes, and also as auditors of the accounts of the Guild.
Wben " Masters " were dissatisfied with their salaries,-for all
commissions were undertaken in the name of the Guild and were
not matters of personal or direct payment by patrons to the actual
worker,---()r when workmen refused to work, it was the custom to
call in the assistance of independent people. For example, in the
Opera de/ Duomo--tbe cathedral building, ali disagreements carne
before the Consuls and Council of the " Guild o f W ool," wbich was
charged with the various undertakings. They called for the
estimates, and for reports of progress, and, after prolonged dis-
cussion, the matter was usually settled by compromise, fixing
averages of price and time.
In questions which affected the internai working of the Guild
the members of the Opera Fa!Jbrica and the instructors of the
La!Jorerum formed a deliberative Council. All Masters were
bound by contract to the La!Jorerum. Sometimes payment was
by the day ; at other times piece work was agreed for.
Very many men,-skilled and unskilled,-were, of course,
employed from time to time in the vast building contracts under-
taken by the Guild. These men were not enrolled on the Craft-
major, but were incorporated in trade-unions or associations
during the continuance of the works, eacb under its own special
officers and regulations ; but ali subordinated to tbe Guild proper.
What working members of the Guild looked like in the
J Ard1Wi~ de/f o,_ áll Dw111~, Cesare Guasto's abstraets.

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828 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
fifteenth century may be seen in the woodcut of tbe Knyg!Jfs
Paune in Jacopo de Cessoli's Gui'occlw del/e Scacc!Ji. He says : -
•• Tbe seconde paune y' standeth to fore the Knygbt on the rigbt
side of tbe Kynge batb tbe forme and figure of a man as a Smyth.
And tbat is reson For it apperteyneth to ye knygbtes to have
bridellys, sadellys, spores and many other tbynges made by the

:WASTitRS IN STONB, WOOD, AND :WitTAL- "DE F ABRI E DB MAESTRJ. "

FIFTitBNTH CltNTURY

handes of smytbes and ougbt to bold a bamer witb bis rigbt

hand and in bis lyfte bande a dolabre and be ougbt to have in
bis gyrdell a trowell for by this is sygnefied all manner of worke-
men as goldsmitbs, marcballis, smitbes of all forges, forgers and
makers of monoye. . . . The carpenters ben signefyed by the
dolabre or squyer and by tbe trowell we understand ali masons and
kervars of stones and all tbem that make bowses, castels and tours."
The Council of tbe Guild also held periodical discussions upon
designs, metbods, materiais, etc. etc. for public works; and ex-

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 829
perts were employed to examine every branch of the various
undertakings.
When Francesco Talenti was Capo Maestro many meetings
were held to settle matters of detail In June 1 5 53 one such
meeting ordered the removal of the scaffolding from the new
Baptistery. In August of the same year scale models in wood of
tbe Campanile were ordered to be made, to judge of dimensions
and decorative features. The following month found the
" Masters " anxious about the financiai position of the Guild. A
Notary was appointed to press the Signoria for. the payment of
one hundred and fifty /ire due to the Guild ; and further to
consult with the cc Regolatori "-perhaps cc auditors," and the
captains of the Miseriawdia with respect to the settlement of
certain legacies under the wills of deceased members of the
Guild1
At another meeting in the following year, the free supply of
wine to master-builders, architects when engaged in operations,
was docked off owing to the lowness of the Guild funds I
At the recension of the Constitutions of the various Guilds in
1415 the "Guild of Masters of Stone and Wood" carne in for its
share of amendment. Many Rubrics were passed affecting opera-
tives, etc.
Paviors, brick-kiln men, masters of stone and wood, and
labourers were bound to make and keep strictly accurate measure-
ments of quantity, and to maintain an even quality in their work.
Surveyors were appointed to examine and test ali deliveries of
stone and brick, and to inspect thoroughly each stage of building
operations. Inferiority of material, and inefficiency of workman-
sbip, were visited with prompt punishment. The surveyors were
themselves visited with pains and penalties if they performed their
duties merely in a perfunctory manner ; indeed they were liable
to expulsion from membership in the Guild.1
Paviors and workers in stone and wood were forbidden to
1 C. Guasto, " Opere dei Duomo in Firenze."
1 Statuti Pop. et Com Florentiae, 1415: Rub. lvii.

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830 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
have direct dealings with dealers in paving stones. They were
constrained to work for their masters alone, and with materiais
provided by their masters.1
Kiln-men and brickmakers generally were admonished to pack
their kilns with lime of the best quality only, and to see to it that
the bricks they bumt were free from blemishes, and well and truly
shaped, according to the customary standards. Each brick had
to be stamped on all four sides with the arms of Florence, and the
sides had to measure exactly four times the size of the ends. The
ends were required to be evenly finished so that joinings could be
made as neatly and closely as possible. Tiles, troughs, and edging
squares followed in the same category.
W ali measurements were taken with an iron yard-measure, tbe
exact length of the " Ca/ima/a " canna. Clay-fields and lime works
were under direct State supervision. Rents and percentages were
paid for the right of working, and State imposts were made at the
Gates upon loads of bricks and tiles, which went under the names
of mattoni, 1M11ane, tegole, pianelú, quadn~«,i, according to shape
and purpose.1
Strict regulations were in force with respect to the situation
and dimensions of the brick-kilns. Ali such erections were
required to be beyond the three-mile radius of the old Contado,
and were not to exceed a height of nine 6ra«ÜJ--arm's-length.1
The price of bricks per thousand, and the scale of wages per
week, were settled from time to time by the Consuls of the " Guild
of Masters in Stone and Wood"; and the values were exposed in
ali brickfields and workshops of the city.'
By the Statutes of 1415, precise regulations were laid down
with respect to timber. Stocks of wood were not allowed to be
kept merely for sale through brokers. The quantity permitted
in the workshops was in strict proportion to the work in hand.
Masters in wood, and their apprentfces, were required to work
only in timber wbich bore the stamp of the Guild. Much greater
1 Rub. lviü., 141S. 1 Rub. lix., 1415.
' Rub. lx., 1415- • Rub. lxv.,lXYi., 141

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o, 9 ;tízed by Goog [e
ROAD-MAKING AND QUARRYING
PIFTEHNTH CENTCRV

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 MASTERS OF. STONE AND WOOD 38~

liberty was extended to foreign workers, although they were

required to be affiliated to the Guild, and to submit to the ruling
of the Consuls. Inducements were held out especially to Lom-
bardian workmen, who were boused free of rent for a time, and
were permitted to bring in their tools and implements free of
custom dues.1
The wages of an ordinaiy stone-mason or bricklayer were one
lira a day, witb balf a lira for his labourer. A carpenter's mean
wage was tbe same. These amounts compared favourably with
the wages of agricultural labourers, who could rarely eam more
than ten soldi a day.
The Residence of the Consuls was in the Chiasso di Baronelli,
not far from the Loggia de' Lanzi. Over its portais were sculptured
the arms of tbe Guild, which of course were also blazoned upon its
banner-a white axe upon a red field.

In the neighbourhood of Florence two or three kinds of stone

were easily accessible.
1. Pietra forte- a durable sandstone with calcareous in.
grediertts-excellent for building purposes and for paving, but
found generally in small pieces only. The most used quarry
was at Camfora outside the Porta Romana.
2. Pietra serma-or Macignq,-a siliceous sandstone of a dark
grey or bluish-black colour, with singular black patches, which
assumes, in course of time, a bronzy hue. Benvenuto Cellini
says this stone is found in the hilly country round Florence--
especially at Settignano, Signa, Montelupo and Fiesole. " It is,"
he adds, " marked by beauty and fineness of texture, and is easily
worked ; but, as it does not resist water nor stand open - air
exposure, it is best suited for inside work and statuary under
cover."
3· Pietra morla is also mentioned by Cellini, who praises its
rich tan colour, and its softness and ease in chisellíng. lt with-
1 Rub. lxvii., lxrili., 141 S·

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332 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
stands winds and rains and every action of time, and is excellent
for ornamental work and for the frames of windows and doors.
" There is," says Sir Richard Dallington, " digged out of the
Tuscan hills a kinde of freestone, passing hard, of colour-accord-
ing to the nature of its place wherein it is taken-white, red and
black, of ali of which there are in Florence many very gallante
and stately palaces. They have also in many places pits of
marbl~white, blue and parti-coloured excellently good." The
old chronicler speaks too of the well paved streets, " long and
straighte and wide and fair laid with lzastia,"-broad setts-" so
as no weather fouls them." 1
Statuary marble carne chiefty from Massa and Carrara, but
Michael Angelo, at the instance of Pope Julius I 1., worked also
in marble from Seravezza. The prospecting, quarrying, and trans-
porting of the huge blocks which were required by the Masters of
Stone in Florence, called forth big inventive faculties and great
engineering abilities on the part of the members of the Guild.
Rare marbles too for the enrichment of monuments, and for
use in mosaic work, were imported from far and wide. V ery
many costly examples carne directly from Rom~the ancient
" Marmorata " being the marble emporium of the world.
With respect to the timber needed for scaffolding and build-
ing generally, and the finer woods used in decorative work, there
was no difficulty about supply. The Vale of Amo was an
arbOt'etum of trees of ali kinds. Pines, oaks, elms, and planes
fumished the builders, and walnuts, ashes, briars, and many an-
other, the carvers with ali that they required. Plantations too
of useful trees were constantly made by the sapient rulers of the
city to replenish gamered plots. In 1 5 34, for example, Duke
Alexander converted river-mud and sandbanks into the um-
brageous Cascine, and he and his successors planted many a
podere,-farm lands-with trees and shrubs.
Amolfo di Cambio, bom in 1232, was a native of Colle di
Vai d'Elsa and was the first great Master-builder of the Floren-
1 " Survey o( the Great Duke's Esta te."

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 MASTERS OF S'fONE AND WOOD 338
tine Guild. He must not be confused with Arnolfo di Lapo or
with Arnolfo Fiorentino--both of whom were sculptors of the
Scbool of the Pisani.1
Di Cambio's training, of which we have few records, was pro-
bably carried out at Siena, with, perhaps, a chance visit to Pisa,
and to Niccola Pisano there. His father,-Jacopo Tedesco da
Campione or di Cambio,-had, in a sense, exercised the office of
Capo Maestro of .the Florentine Guild, and had, in I 2 58, built the
Bargello. Thirty years later Arnolfo became the architect of the
Church of Santa Croce.1
Amolfo's fame, however, rests mainly upon bis work at Santa
Maria del Fiore, where he acted as cbief architect and builder from
I 294 up to the day of bis death in I 3 I 0.1 The Palazzo Vecchio
also looks to him as its creator. I t was indeed a tour de force
which incorporated the old tower of the Foraboschi, called later
the Torre della Vacca, and crowned it with its crenelated mural
cap!
An entry in the "Archives" records the grant by the State,
in I 3oo, of certain privileges,-freedom from taxation and a seat
in the Signoria,-" for bis industry, bis experience, and bis talent."
He is styled :-" Caput Magister laóorerii et operis ecclesite óeate
Reparate."' A special feature of bis manner was the use of
panels or slabs of variously coloured marble, an example followed
by all bis successors.
From I 340 to I 348 Giotto was Capo Maestro and Consul of
the Guild. For bis glorious Campanile four Master-masons were
sent in I 3 5o to Carrara to buy marble.
Other famous Master-builders and Consuls were Taddeo Gaddi,
who rebuilt the Ponte alla Carraia in I 3 3 7, and prepared plans
for the new Ponte V ecchio and Ponte alla Santa Trinita ; and
Andrea Orcagna, who built the shrine of Or San Michele and the
pillars of Santa Maria del Fiore.
I Crowe and Cavalcaselle, "History of Painting in Italy," vol. i. p. 127.
1 Gaye "Carteggio inedite," vol. i. p. 445·
a" ArcltitM d~IDiu~M-Anlica Nem~. di StJII/a Reparata," Carla 12.
• ProVY., No. X., p. 235·

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334 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The Registers of the Guild contain the names and commissions
of many Master-builders right down to the year I 4 I 8. Among
them, Simone Giovanni dei Pino who in I 36 3 carved the twisted
columns of red marble in the windows of the Duomo; Taddeo
Ristori,--one ofthe Cione family,-the architect, in I 3 36, of Or San
Michele and of the Loggia de' Lanzi; and Giovanni Stefani, in
I 3 8 I, a noted builder of scaffolding and a specialist in foundation
work.
In I 349 the Ri"l"húra--Speaker's Tribune-was erected
outside the Palazzo Vecchio by Brother Lorenzo, at a cost of
one thousand gold ftorins. Ten years later the plans for the
façade of the Duomo were made public. They were the joint
production of the following members of the Guild :-Neri di
Fioravante, Benci di Cione, Francesco Salvetti, Niccolo Tommasi,
who, with Taddeo Gaddi and Andrea Orcagna, formed a Special
Commission for the purpose. Ali these we may suppose were
serious and able Architects and Master-builders, but in I 41 8 we
have a record of one Piero d' Antonio, who, although elected a
Consul and Capo M autro, was nicknamed " Fatm#lbme "-Brag-
gart, or idle fellow I
Six Master-builders competed in I 4 I 8 for the erection of the
dome of the Cathedral ; among them were Nanni di Banco,
Lorenzo Ghiberti and Donatello. None of them were, bowever,
successful, and the commission was given to Filippo Brunellesco,
who, by the way, was not a member of the Guild He had been
matriculated in the "Arle tú/la Seta" in I 398, and later, in I 404,
had enrolled himself a member of the new "Arle túgli Orafi " -
" Guild of Goldsmiths,''-whicb was a subordinate corporation of
the Greater Guild of Silk.
The selection of Brunellesco to build the cupola, and also, in
I 434, to complete the Jantem; gave great offence to the " Masters
of Stone and Wood." They insisted upon bis matriculation in
their Guild, but, to show that a man need not bc a Freemason
to build a church, Brunellesco ignored their protests, and never
paid bis fees I This led to an amusing, but irritating, process at

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOP 335
law-the Masters of the La!Jore,., sued him for debt and the
successful architect was imprisoned I The offender's cause was
nevertheless championed not only by the cc Por Sa•ta Maria," but
also by the cc Guild of Wool,"-the former doubtless on account
of bis membership therein, and the latter probably from its steward-
ship of the Cathedral works,--and he was released, wbilst a scape-
goat was found in an unfortunate, but nameless, member of the
" Guild of Masters of Stone and W ood," who was pitched without
trial into Brunellesco's cell upon a trumped-up charge of being an
idle fellow I
The story of Columbus and the egg may be, with far more
probability, ascribed to Brunellesco in relation to the famous
dome of the Duomo. Tbe art of building a cupola like that
of the Roman Pantheon had been lost, and Brunellesco re-
created it. None of the scientists consulted by the authorities
could do it, but he proposed that the man who could make an
egg stand upright upon a flat base should be chosen as architect.
With a gentle tap he broke in one end and thus easily set it up
upon the slab I
Of Brunellesco's achievement the familiar Tuscan proverb is
applicable :-" Piu rondo clu di I' O Giotto "-" Rounder than the
O of Giotto "--anything more perfect is impossible. Indeed the
reverberation of sounds is extraordinary. No echo is discemible,
but words and music appear to be carried up through the lantem
and never retum again I
Tbe erection of the cupola put the builders of scaffolding
upon their mettle. The whole city seems to have taken the
matter in hand, for public meetings were held whereat ali were
asked to give expression to their opinions. Models in brick,
plaster and wood were projected to scale with and without
scaffolding. V ery ingenious plans were devised for the hoisting
up of heavy material, among others by Antonio da V ercelli--a
leading Maestro di le,po. The workmen were kept at their giddy
posts all day to avoid tbe loss of time in descending and ascend-
ing for their mid-day meal. For their accommodation, moreover,

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336 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
a kitchen and a dining-room were provided at the top of tbe
scaffolding 11
One of the most striking evidences of the immense prosperity
of Florence was the erection of magnificent edifices of ali kind;
-public and private.

OOTLIN& VIEW OF FLOilBNCL 15TH AND 16TH C&NTUIU&S

In harmony with the devotional spirit of the period, tbe

thirteenth-century buildings were principally ecdesiastical :-Tbe
Baptistery of San Giovanni,-founded in the seventh century,-
was rebuilt 1202- I 294 ; Santa Reparata,-founded in the eigbth
century,-was rebuilt as Santa Maria del Fiore-IIOI-1298 : I
1 C. Guasti, "La Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore," p. 61.

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 837
Ognissanti dates from 1256, La Nunziata- 1258, Or San
Michele--1285, Santa Maria Novella-1279, Santa Croce and
San Spirito-1295 and San Marco-1299. San Miniato a1
Monte,-first built under Cbarlemagne in 774.-was rebuilt in
109 3 ; and was mucb added to in the thirteenth century by
tbe munificence of tbe " Calimala " Guild.
Civil architecture also engaged tbe attention of master-
builders in tbe tbirteenth century. Designs for ali tbese under-
takings were prepared, and estimates made out, by the first
descendants of tbe old Comacine Masters ; and the work was
taken in hand by their sons and grandsons in travail. Of Palaces
were erected :-Bargello-1258, Badia-990-1285, and Vecchio
-1294; Bridges :-Alta Carraia-1218, Santa Trinita-1252,
Alle Grazie, or Rubaconte--1237, and Veccbio-Io8o-1333;
Gates :-AI Prato, San Gallo, and San Ambrogio in 1284, and
Ghibellina in 1290 ; Hospitais :-San Gallo-1 218, Santa Maria
Nuova-1267 and San Bartolommeo-1295· The City Walls
were rebuilt and extended 1285-1299, and the Stinche--Prison-
was erected in 1260.
The fourteenth century, so far as arcbitecture was concerned,
was notable for the completion and decoration of many noble
edifices. Sculptors in stone, wood, and metal, mosaic-masters,
workers in terra-cotta, and fresco painters were all hard at work
under the auspices of tbe Guild. I t was the epocb of the
greatest workers of the Fine Arts. Even tbe humblest labourer
felt the influence of tbeir personalities, and tbe meanest
work was marked by boldness and elegance combined. The
very tools they used were omamented witb decorative
features.
Tbe Foundation-masters too had tbeir work cut out in the
laying out of the city in fine squares, and well paved streets,
and tbe removal of unsightly and incommodious premises. The
Púuu :--di' San Giovanni-1300, della Santa Maria Novella-
1302, della Signoria-1307 ; and the Lorgie :--dei Bigallo-
1330, de' Lanzi-1334. della Zecca-Mint-1361, and Mercato
y

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SS8 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Nuovo--1 362, were some of the principal undertakings of the
" Mastcrs in Stone and W ood."
Other Operai-Mastcrs of Works-took in hand the interior
decoration of Churches, Palaces, Guild-Residences and tbe private
homes of wealthy citizens. Splendidly designed and decorated
wooden ceilings were a marked feature. That in the Biblioteca
Laurenziana, by Tasso and Carola--sbows what manner of arti-
ficers the Mastcrs of wood-carving were. Tbe favourite style
was what we call " King Post," concealed by panelling. Rood-
screens and Shrines, the work of Donatello and Brunellesco, are
to be seen in Santa Croce.
The fifteenth century was famous for the construction of
superb Palaces, which wealthy families erected in noble rivalry.
Never were the Master-builders and their workmen busier.
Florence resounded with the significant music of the trowel, the
chisel, the hammer, and the plane. Bulky scafl'oldings trans-
formed the whole city into a huge woodyard, but there arose
edifices artistic and grandiose, which will for all time command
admiration and emulation.
The Palazzi Antinori, Borgherini, Guadagni, Guicciardini. Nic-
colini, Panciatichi, Pandolfini, Pitti, Pecori-Geraldi, Rucellai, Serris-
tori, Torrigiani, Uguccione, and many another followed in quick
succession. In 1430 the Palazzo Riccardi was completed for the
Medici. The old Palazzi Strozzi, Albizzi, Pazzi and Buondel-
monti had been bumt to the ground by the Ciompi in I 378,
and now-phcenix-liko--new structures took their place. The
protection of the city edifices, the erection of lordly villas in the
Contado, and the dedication of country shrines, all called for the
skilful labours of architect and sculptors.
An examination of these masterpieces of a century's domestic
arcbitecture reveals at once the striking fact, that every character-
istic of the Florentine race has been preserved and perpetuated
in stone and wood and metal Solidity, boldness, and dignity,
are joined to elegance, simplicity, and reserve, and the product
is a special style, somewhat inappropriately called " Rustic."

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 339
Tbe sixteenth century has been called the period of the
•• Late Renaissance," ratber sbould we designate , it as the
•• Finished Renaissance." Florence was built up, her architecture
was complete. She was adomed by statues and carvings in
stone, wood, and metal, and little more required to be done in
tbe decoration of the· fair city.
There remained only the placing of the cap-stone of her
arcbitecture, the finishing touch of her sculpture, the removal of
her scaffolds, and the unveiling of her latest art treasures. These
duties were undertaken by the most commanding personality of
tbe century-Michael Angelo Buonarroti. The son of a city
magnate, bom amid tbe attributes of wealth and culture, he, a
motberless child, was brougbt up by a simple mason's wife at
Settignano. He was thus in bimself the representative of all
the noblest traits of citizensbip.
The models of Buonarroti's life's work were tbe well pro-
portioned virile figures of bis daily companions, hence bis ideals
realised in architecture, sculpture, and painting the highest aspira-
tions of the Masters of ali times.
During the siege of Florence by Clement VII., in 1529,
Buonarroti was appointed Commissary-General of the Forces of
the Republic. He gathered round him the •• Masters of Wood and
Stone," and with their assistance threw up earthworks and walls of
defence which were quite remarkable for their correct and scientific
form.
The century was marked by a rage for wax-modelling.
Every man with artistic tastes set up to be a CeraiiiO~Wax­
worker. No class took to the art with more earnestness than the
" Masters of Stone and W ood." Apprentices were instructed
and encouraged in its pursuit, and in a very short time quite a
school of artists had arisen, who displayed their skill in por-
traiture -and other fine work. One of the most famous modeller-
portraitists was Orsino, who made many wax casts of the features
of Lorenzo de' Medici-i/ Magnifoo.
The cutting of gems and cameos became a specialty of the

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 840 THE GUILDS OF Ic,LORENCE
Florentine sculptors in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteentb
centuries. Among the better-known engravers of gems may be
placed Giovanni and Bernardino Peruzzi-130o-1379. Giovanni
delle Comiole, with bis portrait of Savonarola- I 494. Pietro
da Pescia, the friend of Michael Angelo--I S r 3, and Domenico
da Pola-r 527. These were all matriculated members of the
"Guild of Masters of Stone and Wood."
Florentines set themselves the agreeable tasks of entering into
the labours of their ancestors, and of taking full enjoyment out of
the glories of their environment. The Medici were past masters
in the art of entertaining, and open square and narrow street
revelled in the daily p\geants. The magnificent buildings and the
noble bridges were the boast of the citizens, for had not their
fathers made them, and were they not their custodians I
To give a mere list of the members of the "Guild of Masters of
Stone and W ood," who have made their names, their Guild, and
theit' City famous, and to compile a bare catalogue of their
achievements, would be a work of supererogation, seeing that for
their memorial, one has only,-as in St Paul's Cathedral, with
respect to Si r Christopher W ren,-" to look around I "
Nevertheless, the following Masters, along with those already
named, gave character and life to their centuries : Jacopo della
Quercia, Benedetto da Maiano, Mino da Fiesole, Desiderio da
Settignano, I1 Cronaca, Baccio d'Agnolo, Baccio Bandinelli witb
the Della Robbia, the Rossellini, the Sansovini, the Pollaiuoli, the
Ammannati, and the San Gallo or Giamberti.
Leon Battista Alberti, 1405-1472, stands out as a great
figure--architect, sculptor, painter, mechanician, etc. His "De Re
Aidijicatoria " was the first systematic treatise on Art since tbe
days of Vitruvius ; and bis ten books on Architecture, Sculpture.
and Painting, rank as classiés.
Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia, and Donatello, were
" the three brightest stars of the Renaissance," and Leonardo da
Vinci, Raphael Santi, and Michael Angelo Buonarroti were ,. tbe
Scbooi of the World I"

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 MASTERS OF STONE AND WOOD 341
All Europe felt the force of these vigorous craftsmen.
The Emperor's Court attracted numbers of Florentine Masters ;
whilst, in Paris, Francis I. welcomed with royal honours
Leonardo da Vinci, Benvenuto Cellini, Primaticcio and other
members of the Guild1
Artistic settlements of I talians, chiefty from Florence, were
scattered ali over England, especially about Winchester and
Southampton. Their members did work of all kinds in stone,
bronze, wood, leather, etc., in many public buildings and private
dwellings. The exhibition of their skill was a tremendous
revelation and a migbty incentive to native craftsmen.
Piero Torrigiano carne in 1513, and, with tbe belp of bis
ScluJ/a at W estminster, be erected tbe glorious sbrine of Henry VI I.
and Queen Eleanor--a perfect example of tbe art of the
Florentine Renaissance. It is said the Master paid bis assistants
in tbe Abbey at the rate of three gold florins a month each for the ·
first year, and forty ducats with bed and board and horse-hire
a.cb foUowing year.
Antonio di Lorenzo, Toto della Nunziata, Benedetto da
Rovezzano, Giovanni da Maiano, Pietro Baldi, Giovanni Utricci,
with " the famous engravers Ruccieri and Ambrogio" were all
greatly encouraged by Henry VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey, and
employed at Windsor, Oxford and Hampton Court.1
The wooden screens and stalls in King's College Chapel,
Cambridge, were sculptured by Florentine Masters of Wood Tbe
Tuscan " Rustic " style became the foster-motber of a native scbool
<>f architects and carvers ; and very many country mansions still
exist to indicate how those skilful guildsmen prepared the way
for what we call tbe " Elizabethan style."
"Those beasts the Englisb,"-as Torrigiano called our
ancestors of bis day,-were, in spite of his spleen, among the
most appreciative patrons of tbe Florentine Arts and Crafts. Wben
Elizabetb visited Greenwich in 1583, Roger Manners writing to
1 M. Vuari, iv. 262, note.
t J.A. Gotch, " Arcbitecture o( tbe Renaiuanee," vol. I. xxü.

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342 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the Earl of Rutland, says :-" She was never in any place better
pleased, and sure the bouse, garden, and walks may compare with
any delicate place in Italy." t

The decline in the fortunes and enterprise of the Guild may

be traced to the appointment, in I 434, of Brunellesco, after bis
deliverance from prison, as cbief arcbitect to all the public bufid-
ings in Florence. This action proved to be something of a death-
blow to the great Masonic Guild. I ts influence remained, but its
organisation was broken up into separate corporations. The great
Lalxwtn~m was sbut up, and the Sclwlte dwindled to very moderate
dimensions.
Lorenzo de' Medici tried hard to revive the work of the Guild
by opening and endowing munificently a School of Sculpture in
bis garden at Villa Larga, and it certainly had a measure of
success. Anyhow to this Sdwla is due the collection of, and pre-
servation of, all the finest models and examples of wellnigh three
centuries of splendid achievements of "Masters of Stone and W ood.,.

It appears to be necessary to say a few words upon the

subject of Pottery and to account for the silence of authorities
upon the existence of a Corporation or Guild of Potters.s
Tbe Potter's art was of course as familiar to Florentines as
any other. I t was the custam on many poáeri in the C(JJIÜU/Q.
early and late, not only to make utensils for ordinary domestic
and business purpose, but also to fashion figures out of the
tenacious subsoil of the Amo valley. Some of the latter were
of ambitious, dimensions and were finished in colours in the city
workshops. Among modellers in terra-cotta were Bicci di
Lorenzo (I 37 3-I452) and the Della Robbia (1430-1 529).
Ali these men were artists and were members of the " Guild
of Workers of Stone imd W ood." Hence the higher styles of
Pottery were regarded as the province of sculptors, whilst the
1 Hiatorical MSS., Report 12, app. lv. p. 150.
t See p. 12, note 2, and pp. 254. 255·

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AlUIS OF THE GUII.D OF .\1:\STERS IN STO:-iE A!IID WOOII
Ll:CA UEl.I.A fWIIUJA

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 RETAIL-CLOTH AND LINEN 84.3
more homely output of the Potters'-wbeel was classed among
articles for consignment to the apothecaries' and com-cbandlers•
sbops.
There was, perbaps, no scope for a separate Corporation
solely composed of workers in clay and glaze. Besides tbis
the best descriptions of earthenware were of foreign origin, for
example, the finest pottery was made from tbe opaque white
clay of Siena commonly called "St Jobn's Earth."
On tbe otber band tbe first artificial porcelain known to have
been made in Europe was produced in Florence about the year
I 58o under the patronage of Francesco de' Medici, the second
Grand Duke of Tuscany, who died in I 587. lt was composed
of soft: or hybrid paste unlike that required for hard crockery.
The manufactory was in the Boboli Gardens, but only continued
for a few years. The usual trade-mark, stamped in blue, was
the Dotne of the Duomo, with the letter " F " below.

11. L' ARTE DE' RIGATTIERI

A. Retail Cloth-dealers.
B. Linen-Manufacturers.

The históry of the two branches of this Guild, the twelfth

in order in the Hierarchy of the Guilds, is not a little difficulf
to disentangle from confusion and disparity of notice in tbe
Archives of Florence.
The earliest notices of tbe various trades and callings in-
cluded within the operations of the Guild are apparently as
follows:-
" 1032. Casa Florentii Sarli-Shop of a Tailor."
"I084- Bonus,jü.Jollannis, óaro--Hawker."
"II9I. Ma,.tinus, pignolajno--Maker of fine linen."
"1211. Risto,-o, fi/. Pi'tri--/Julwsaj'o--Pouch-maker."
" " Alói8a' di Ffen-art, pusmo di Lung' Anw--Ragseller."
Indeed the " Guild of Retail Dealers " seems to have grown

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344 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
out of the fact that very many minor Crafts, somewbat similar
in character, gradually formed themselves into a union, upon
the usual Florentine co-operative principie, for mutual bene6t
and defence.
The cc Guild of Linen Manufacturers '' one would bave thought
would have had precedence alongside the Guilds of the kindred
industries of wool and silk, but, for some reason or other, quite
impossible of solution, the growers of flax and tbe makers of
linen had to put up with an inferior rôle.

A-L'Arle tU Rigattüri
This Guild had a most comprebensive cbaracter, and included
in its membership retail-traders of almost every kind. In old
Florence thcre was always a goodly number of men who were
not exactly cc ldlers " but who, having matriculated probably into
their father's Guild, had not entered heartily into its · industries.
Some of them were doubtless men of want of application; but
many felt that they could do better than by remaining in the
orthodox ranks of their family avocation.
The constant increase of commerce, with the inflow of attractive
objects and the creation of fresh wants, introduced new interests
and opened out new pursuits. The Snuali, or agents of the
Greater Guilds, in their travels, took note of novelties, and
leamed foreign customs, which their keen eye to business taught
them might be profitably transported to Florence.
Then again, it was seen tbat the activities of the Grea.ter
Guilds were of a wholesale character, and that the employers of
labour had neither place nor opportunity for tbe sale of small
quantities. Gradually, therefore, shops were opened, whereat
citizens and passing visitors might purchase articles, useful and
ornamental, in retail The buyers of remnants of silk tissue and
of woollen and linen cloth, at tbe workshops, saw a margin of
profit on sales of such tbings in the open market The doffings,
cuttings, and waste of materiais had tbeir values, and old clothes
and rags, with cuttings of fur and hide became negotiable assets.

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 RETAIL CLOTH-DEALEBS 345

Buyers too went about purcbasing the woven and knitted work
of industrious housewives.
Very many objects exposed for sale by the Apothecaries
appeared to fali under the category of " Odds and Ends," hence,
a certain number of traders came into market daily as pedlars or
barterers.
In some of these avocations,-for example, silk and cloth
remnants, articles of clothing, strips of leather, etc. etc.-a goodly
fortune might be amassed. Sons of merchants and merchants
too themselves entered largely into these new lines of trade, and
the estimation in whicb such dealers were held grew, until the
necessity of union for the mutual defence of common interests was
obvious.
Conditions of life and occupation in old Florence were
surprisingly like those which rule our time. Men made fortunes
"round the comer," and in ali sorts of unwonted ways, and out of
ali kinds of unexpected sources. The knowing bow and what to
buy was an initial desideratum for every salesman, whether he
were an opulent " Calimala " merchant, or an indigent hawker
of haberdashery.
The "Am de' Rigattieri "-the Guild of Retail-Dealers-was
first incorporated in I 266, and received its banner-charged half
red, half white. With it was incorporated the "A,.te de' Litlaiuoli"
-" the Guild of Linen Drapers."
At the same date the place of the Guild in the order of
precedence, was fixed-immediately after the " Masters of Stone
and Wood," or twelfth in rank; and consequently, when the Five
lntermediate Guilds were called into conference with the Greater
Guilds, the "Arle de' Ri'gattieri" was always included. This dis-
tinction of position however was rather depreciated by the fact
that the Retail-Dealers were regarded as a " Sandwich " Guild,
and a link with the Nine Lesser Guilds.
The Consuls of the Guild are named as voting in I 29 3
among the Consuls of tbe twelve Greater Guilds. Statutes of
"L'Arle de' Rigattieri del/a Magnifica Citta di Fi,.enze,"-to give

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346 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the Guild its full ofiicial and courtly title,-were drafted in I 29 5,
and were amended and adopted in the foHowing year.1
The Coáa Memlwanaceo,• under date Marcb 1295, has two
manuscripts, numbered respectively "No. 1" and "No. 19.• The
former contains the Statutes, etc., of the Rigatlieri, LitraÜIIJii.
Sarti, and Vendilon' di panne, and begins with the dedication : -
" In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost This
is made and composed in honour of Almighty God, of the Virgin
and St. John the Baptist, by the men who are Consuls and
Rectors of the ' Arle de! Emmtium ' (Remnant-dealers ?), vendors
of clotb, and vendors of fur linings."
The manuscript is well written, as are most of the records of
the period, but the language employed-that also common to all
-is a mixture of base Latin with many abbreviations and local
colloquialities, almost, if not quite, undecipherable.
The earlier sections of the manuscript deal, as usual, with the
Statutes and rules for the election of Consuls and other Guild
officers. One rubric deals with apprentices convicted of theft.
who were visited by a fine of twenty-five gold florins and the
cancelling of their Ílldentures.
Severa! rubrics prescribe observances at the burial of
members-such as the buming of ceremonial candles in the
chamber of death, the display of banners, with arms of the Guild
and of the family,-at the doors of the deceased's house, etc.
etc.
Sarli-tailors-are specially named in the manuscript They
are not to make or use stuff mixed with Stnlppa (stoppa}-fine
hemp or tow,-and Bam!Jix (óambagia)-coarse cotton, such as was
used for lamp wicks. In short, "Sarlia mista,"-mixtures,--of
every sort were forbidden.
The second manuscript is the document dealing with, and
settling, the purchase of a house-it is entitled " Compra de rui-
denza de Rigattieri," etc.; but it goes on to name the Li'naifiO!i,
the flax weavers,-as the actual owners of the property on behalf of
1 " Le Consulte," üi. 396· • Arcbivio di F'uenze.

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 RETAIL CLOTH-DEALERS 847
the united trades of " Rigattieri, VenditQn· di panj-linj, Linaiuo!j e
Sarl.J:"
The signatures at the end of the Code of Statutes are crosses,
more or less ornamental, with the names of the Consuls written
undemeath in a different hand-quite suggestive of the inability
of these MagmJicos to append their own signatures I

BGO JACOBUS1 INDU APPilOBATO&O CONSULONI ]ACOBI DI

BT OPPICIATO& PLOil CJONIS
"Mari" ~a CPtmJ ~" TA1 Gflild 11{ "Mari '' ~a Ctnm~l ~" 1M Gllild t1j
Retaü w 5«111111-Htmd ~~" R1tail w 5«111111-Hallll DM/ws"

These Statutes of the Guild were revised in 1 3 I 7 and further

additions were made in 1 3 2 3 and in 1 3 26. At the revision o f
the Statutes in 1415, the following rubrics, among many others,
were enacted with respect to the Guild.
Any one selling woollen cloth or Sargia d'lrlanda,-lrish
frieze,-was required to use not only the Canna measure of the
" Calimala," but also the Passetto,-yard measure of the Market.
This regulation was rendered necessary by reason of the custom

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8'8 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of selling fine cloth when fully stretched. Breaches of this rule
laid the ofl'enders under a penalty of one hundred lire.1
The Retail-dealers were not allowed to sell Zmdado-:-the
richest silk tafl'eta, or /m6aaiaa'nato--highly-raised brocade, to
any of the Popolo Mitudo. The fine for infraction was fifty /ire,
which was accompanied by the witbdrawal of the selling license of
the dealer, and the confiscation of the illicit merchandise.1
Retail-dealers,--called frequently members of the "Arte de'
Boldagion· ,-were allowed to sell woollen cloths of the following
description&-Roma,piawlo--Roman wove, Bigello--frieze, Br~relto
....:...Coarse cloth, Crnnonm.re--Cremona wove, Pignqlali-fine linen,
and all other kinds except redressed foreign cloths, whether manipu-
lated in Florence, Milan or elsewhere. They were
forbidden to sell
pouches stamped or decorated, caps, belts, fine silk scarves, veils
and any sort of stufl' of greater weight than one pound. Small
metal basins, mortars, pieces of ivory and other small articles were
to be sold at so much the pound weight.•
With the Retail-dealers and Linen - dra~rs were generally
classed Pmnai#oli - stationers, Copertolari- coverlet-sellers,
Farsetton._doublet-makers, and ColteUinai--cutlers, togetber with
Dealers in raw ftax, hemp, canvas, and string nets. Their shops
were riót to be opened before the ringing of the bell for matins,
and had to be shut before the stroke of four in the aftemoon.'
All tailors were directly under tbe jurisdiction of the Uffit:iali
del/a Grascia,-the Surveyors of Markets and Trades,-who care-
fully inspected and noted tbe quantities and qualities of cloth-
woollen and linen-which they had in their shops. Not only so
but the price which they were permitted to charge for each
garment they made was fixed, and upon each value a certain tax
was levied by the State. For example a Ro!Ja,-robe of red fine
cloth,-paid five tire; a Cottardita,-tunic ofblue cloth,-three /ire;
a gammurra,-petticoat with stitching in front and buttonholes
behind,-two /ire, five soldi ; a G~~arnello,-a fustian gown for a
1 Statuti C. e P. Florentüe, 1415, Rub. xliü. 1 Rub. xliv. 1 1415-
a Rub. xlv., 1415- ' Rub. xc:ix., 141 S.

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 RETAIL CLOTH-DEALERS 349
woman open at the front,--one lira, fifteen so/di; a Giii!Jóa,-jerkin
with folds or tucks,-four tire, tive soldi ; a Villano,-cloth cloak
with a tum-down collar or hoodr-ane lira; a Tagliatura,-a pair
of trÕusers made of cloth,-seven soldi; a Gonnella,-a pair of
trousers made of thin linen and lined,--one lira, fifteen soldi, and
so on.1
No tailor was allowed to put in pawn woollen or linen cloth,
or cloth of mixed wool and ftax,-whether cut or uncut,--or any
garment,-finished or unfinished,--or anything pertaining to the
Craft. Fines of twenty-five tire, and above, were infticted,
not only upon the spendthrift tailor, but upon any person who
accepted the pledge.'
Fraudulent and fugitive tradesmen were of course found in
connection with ali the Guilds, but possibly the "Arl6 di
Rigattúri" fumished the largest proportion o f such unfortunate
persons. When such a man fell on evil days, he not only suffered
himself, but the partners in bis business and bis family also were
declared delinquent, and mulcted in penalties. A case in point is
recorded in the Archives under date January 17, 1330, when the
partners of a merchant and artificer in the trade of the " Guild of
Second-hand Dealers,'' for the sale of old remnants of woollen
cloth and of linen cloth, belonging to the popoli of Santa Cecilia,
who had become bankrupt, are declared outlaws.1
The Retail-dealers were allowed to keep in stock, and sell the
following descriptions of goods :-'
Panni Milanue 6 Bresci'ano Milanese and Brescia cloths.
Bi'gelli Rtmtagniwli Roman friezes, plain and
coloured.
Giu!J!Jom e Farsetti Doublets and under vests.
Coltre e Co/tr()lli Coverlets and quilts.
Panni lini-tinti Cloths with coloured threads.
Berretú e CappeUt' Caps and hats.
Calze, Cakt'nt' e Ca/zQ11e Stockings, socks, and drawers.
1 Rab. lxxü., 1415. 1 Rab. lxxii., 1415.
• Ardüvio dei Stato Fiorentino, "della Riforma." • Cantini x., p. 66.

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850 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Fdtri e Baraazni Felt cloaks and capes.
TaJieti e Ce/om' Table cloths and striped tester-
stuffs
Sargü Coarse serges for men's gar-
ments.
Spalliere • Tapestry hangings, and chair
backs.
Ciatn/Je//Qtti e M oeaiardi Camlets and hair-cloths.
Do!Jóletti • Stuffs with cotton and ftax
mixtures.
Sai'e e Rmse Light serges and cambrics.
and many other kinds of woollen materiais.
It was permitted also to deal in all kinds of silken goods and
in sewing silks. Ivy-berries- for the red dye called gra11a,
dried kermes,-wbence the crimson dye cllermisi was derived, gold
and silver-in cakes, powder, ftake, and lea( Pearls and jewellery of
all kinds, veils, thin capes, and ficbus, every sort of gilt leather and
tinsel work, were also exposed for sale. Many other objects, far
too numerous to mention, but still each with the special pennission
of the Council of State, and under the direction of the Consuls
and officials of tbe Guild, were allowed to be sold by the Rigattieri.

B. L'Arte de' Linaiuoli

Linen is probably the oldest manufactured material for
domestic use in existence. Thousands of years ago the art of
weaving linen cloth was known and practised in lndia, Egypt and
Greece. Linen was known too to the peoples of the Stone age
and to the Lake dwellers. The Romans held ftax in high esteem
for personal clothing.
Apuleius, the wise old monk of the fifth century, says
sententiously :-" W ool, the excretion of a sluggish body taken from
a sheep, was deemed a profane attire even in the times of Orpheus
and Pythagoras ; but flax-that cleanest production of the field,
is rightly used for the inmost clothing of man."

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 LINEN-MANUFACTURERS 351
Every monastery on the plains of ltaly had its flax patch, and
the monks encouraged the peasants around them to cultivate the
useful little plant, with its thin verdant blade and delicate blue
ftower. The Rellgious, further, engaged themselves everywhere in
the manufacture of linen-thread and cloth, and gave instruction to
their neighbours in the mysteries of the craft.
Sacristies of churches became treasuries of fine linen, for, by
Canon Law, this material was exclusively prescribed in the ritual
of the Mass and for other functions.
From the point, too, of domestic economy, linen was known
to be practically indestructible, consequently noble and peasant
alike had in it the most durable material for ordinary uses.
The cultivation of fiax was very general in the Vale of Amo
ali through the period of the Renaissance. In extent it vied with
that of the vine and the olive, but it far exceeded both in the
intelligence and labour demanded by its cultivators. Spccial
methods of tillage, manuring, sowing, and harvesting, were in
operation which have remained until to-day.l
The four processes of harvest were as follows : I. Pu//ing.-
The plant being in boll and browned was pulled up by the roots--
never cut ; 2. Rippling.-the bolls were removed on the field by
a combing-frame with iron teeth. Two men were engaged
together--one gathered up the seeds, the other the stalks ;
3· Reltini--two kinds, water and dew. In the first, pure water
from the Amo was used, without any addition of lime or iron.
The stalks of the ftax were laid ftat in bundles, in hollowed out
dams or pits, four feet in depth. On the top of the last layer a
cover of fresh cut rushes was laid, over which were placed heavy
stones. Fermentation quickly set in when the fibre and the stalk
became separated-the sheath falling away. The dew Retting
required that the bundles of ftax should be opened and spread
upon dose growing grass, without any protection from sun, wind,
and rain, and in full contact with air and dew. This was, of course,
a tedious process, and only resorted to by the less enterprising
1 EDcyclopedia Britumica, '' Flax, .. 1900-

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352 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
harvesters ; 4- Sadt"Ai"K-the fibre of the flax was separated by
hand from the wood or stalk, and then passed betwcen grooved
wooden or iron rollers, which required very careful adjustment to
avoid, on the one hand, matted skeins, or lumps, and on the other,
the too complete crushing of the flax, which resulted in a breakage
of fibre and the production of lint Flax thus treated was ready to
be placed upon the market In the fourteenth century the average
price for one hundred pounds weight of raw flax was five gold florins.l
The first mention of the "Guild of Linen-Manufacturers" seems
to be in 12 36, when the "A rle fÚ' Linaúloli" was placed sixtcenth
in the Hierarchy of the Guilds. Probably it was the off'spring
of a humble association of ftax growers and linen-thread spinners.
An early notice of the linen industry is found in the Florentine
Archives of the same year-1236--when Guido, Abbot of
Coltibuono, received from lacopo son of Bellioto dei Albertischi a
loan of one hundred and fifty /in, for the payment of a debt due
to Buonosegno Malcristiano, who had sold the crops, which fed
the Abbot's household, and which fumished flax for their clothing.
At the reformation of the Guild Statutes in I 266, the name
of the Guild does not appear : but the " A rle de' Rigattün·" is
scheduled. Again in the revision of 1280-1282 the "Arte H
ReraJIUri" figures but no "Arte tú' Lillai~NJii."
There is a record in the Florentine State Archives of the year
1294 of a Company offour merchants trading in liM---tlax, au:ia-
hemp, stoppa-oakum, capea.V--flocks, and every sort of material
for the manufacture of linen, and in ali things pertaining to the trade.
This firm had one ,rarehouse in the house of the Cipriani family
of the popolo of .San Pietro Bonconsiglio, another in the house of
Petracchio de' Cipriani and bis partners of the popolo of Sant'
Andrea, and a third in the house of thc Admidei of the popolo of
San Stefani. Each partner in the business contnbuted one
hundred and fifty tire to the capital-the senior member of the
firm bore the name of Matteo di Beliotto.1
1 Peruui, Alberti Accounts, p. 367.
' DaYidaolm, "Gelc:bicbte 9011 Floreu," p. 49-

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 LINEN MANUFACTURERS 858
At the General Revision of the Statutes of ali the Guilds-
I 30 I- I 30~there was still no mention of the old "Arte &
Linaiuoli"; but in I 340 there appeared a body of regulations and
laws for the "Guild of Linen-Manufacturers." These, which were
based upon the common model of the Statutes of the " Calima/a
Guild," were accepted unanimously by the workers in flax.
Between I 340 and I 3 so, the Guild was exceedingly flourishing,
and the manufacturers of linen shared in the general prosperity of
the city to such an extent, that negotiations were set on foot for
inclusion amongst the Greater Guilds.
The Consuls and the Council of the Guild undertook a search-
ing revision of the Statutes of the Guild. The result of their
labours was a disappointment for the ambitious aims of the
members, for they were denied admittance among the Seven Great
Guilds, and had to be content with union with the twelfth guild
in order, that of the "Arte di Ri'gattieri."
Ali the same the Linai110/i retained the right to elect their
own officers, without restriction of any kind, and to put forth
bye-laws for the observance of the members, irrespective of their
articles of association with the " Guild of Retaii-Dealers."
Matriculation into the Guild was conducted upon the same
terms as in the Greater Guilds-so far as mm were concerned ;
but, unlike them, womm were admitted to full privileges and duties.
The fees upon matriculation were, for candidates residing in the
city, twenty-eight /ire : for those living in the Contado, fourteen
/ire.
The officers, in 1342 and onwards, included two Consuls, one
Chancellor and two Pf'()f)f)editon·-Managers. Two leading agri-
culturist members were appointed Veditori delk ColtnCi--Inspectors
of the flax-beds. They not only inspected the seed, the soil, and
the labour, but also made agreements with the Custom- H ouse
officials with respect to the Dogana duties payable by growers.
They delivered written agreements to the landed proprietors and
to the peasants which were endorsed by the custodians of the Gates
of the city. These documents dealt with the weights and condition
z

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354 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
o( the bundles of cut flax. In busy years wben the area under
cultivation was extended, assistant Veditori were elected.1
Tbe Staff of tbe Guild was furtber augmented by the appoint-
ment of six Misuratori,-Surveyors o( Weights and Measures,-
at the flax-grounds, at the Gates, and in tbe Market : they were
generally chosen from the smaller manufacturers of linen. Stima-
tori,-Valuers,-generally two in number, were elected to examine
the peasants' pledges, as the rightful growers of the flax cut for
sale, to appraise the value of tbe beaten flax, and, in disputes
about the quality of the linen-cloth, to decide its value. The
officials of tbe Guild also included four DOtUe//i-Porters, wbo were
specially employed at the Residence and Office of the Consuls.
As in the case of tbe sister industries tbe growers of flax and
tbe manufacturers of linen suffered from the existence and intrusion
of Smsali or Middle-men. Tbese agents, as we might call them,
or brokers received the reports of tbe Stimatori, and fixed the
actual sale-prices of raw beaten flax and of spun tbread and
woven linen-whether of native or of foreign origin. They were
bound by the articles o( their admission, as Smsali, to render copies
of such values eacb month to the Consuls for their official approval.
No ftax-worker was pennitted to purchase the raw produce
direct from the grower, but only througb six senior Smsali
appointed by the Consuls-sales of linen carne under a similar
regulation. Breaches of these bye-laws were visited severely-
fines were enforced of from one /ire twenty-five piccioli for a first
offence, to one hundred /ire in an aggravated case.
The Smsali appear to have been unusually tenacious of their
rights and of their fees ; and Provvisioni, and Bandi-provisions
and cautions- were constantly enacted for or against tbeir
interests. Every piece of linen-cloth woven in Florence required
the official stamp of the Guild, and a óullettino or label had to be
attached, marked with the length, width, quality, and any special
points. lmported pieces required also the seal of the Custom-
House authorities, and only cloth 5o marked was permitted to be
1 Cantioi, viii. :z86, etc.

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 LINEN MANUFACTURERS 355
sold. Any Retail-dealer, or salesman, offering other cloth pieces or
linen-thread, became liable to fines ranging from five lif'e upwards
according to the gravity or craftiness of his offence.
Localities where the manufacture might be carried on, and
where stalls or shops for the sale of linen-cloth and tbread migbt
be opened, were fixed by the Consuls. Tbe neighbourhood of the
cburcb of San Lorenzo and the Via dei Servi were particularly
set apart for the prosecution of the linen industry. Public sales
were held, in the Market, each Wednesday and Saturday.
In the fifteenth century fustian cotton-cloth was used for
churcb chasubles. The Cistercian Order of Monks were forbidden
to wear any other kind. Fustian was also generally in vogue for
doublets and jackets for laymen. ·
In tbe process of manufacture in Florence, the spindle, upon
which the thread spun from the dista«, or rack, was run, was
usually about twelve inches in lengtb. After the application of
tbe bobbin, a wborl of stone, or glazed terra-cotta, was fixed upon
the top of the spindle to give steadiness in the rotatory movement.
These wborls were often enough the handiwork of artistic
persons, indeed such great masters as tbe Della Robbia did not
disdain to mould, paint and glaze tbem beautifully for sucb of their
lady friends as desired to make their spinning-wheels ornamental
Very many such objects are to be found in ali art collections, but
unknowingly they have been labelled " T erra-Cotta Blads" f
Graceful kindred industries .also sprang up, and women of
leisure, as well as ordinary workers in linen-thread, took up tbe art
of Lace-making. In tbis very soon the nuns were acknowledged
as proficient teacbers. Their work was known in the Market as
"punto tag/iato "-" cut point," because bits of the linen base were
cut out, and tbe boles worked with needle and thread. Flax-
thread and silk-tissue were generally used for ordinary laces, but a
very delicate fibre,-that of the aloe,-and withal strong, was pre-
ferred for the finest work. This aloe thread is used to-day for
sewing the well-known Florentine straw plaits together.
Agnolo Firenzuola in bis "Elegia sopa uno Co//at'elto" in 1 5 20

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356 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
speaks much of " sco~ »-<arved in relief.-really highly raised
point-lace, which was not only woven, or handmade upon cusbions,
but was further subjected to the points of fine scissors, and cut to
add to its sculpturesque appearance.
Catherine de' Medici, when sbe entered Paris as a bride, intro-
duced Florentine point, which became a perfect rage at the French
court. A sister of Francis 1., in I S4S. purchased "soixante atlitUS
firu áantelú de Flormu,» and Madame Elizabeth de France, upon
her marriage with Philip 11., in I 559, added to her trousseau.
"paisements et de óisette en ftl ólanc de Florence."
At the great upheaval of society in I 378 caused by the
Rising. of the Ciompi, very many groups of aspiring craft:smen carne
to the front In the Second Operative Guild, established under
Michael Lando's auspices, an Arle, or Assodtuione & Linaziloli-
"Association of Flax Weavers "-took an active part under the
common banner of " Gi.utisia." These people doubtless were only
workers in ftax . and linen, not merchants or manufacturers. This
organisation was a further proof of the importance of the industry,
and of the prosperity of the "Guild of Linen-Manufacturers."
The Residence of the Consuls and the General Offices of the
two United Guilds was in the large Casa d' Anzio in the Piazza de
Sant' Andrea at the comer of the Mercato Vecchio. In 1387
the foundation s.tone of a fine new building was laid, and the
edifice, when completed, became the headquarters of the "Ar«
e Universita de Rigattúri, e LiNZiuoli, e Sarti"-as was then
the title,-with ann'orial escutcheons above the principal door.
The anns were very simple, just a shield divided longitudinally
into two halves, red and wbi'te. The Audience Hall was one of
the most noble in the city, and was full of marble statuary, wood-
carvings, and polychromatic decorative painting by rising artists.
A Guild record of I 466 is preserved which says the · Residence
" is splendidly adomed with every artistic treasure."
The shops of Guild members, and their private rooms also,
were remarkable for their elegance and rich decoration. Tbe
wealth of the Guild was furth~r attested by the coinmission

•
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DOORWAY OF THE RESIDENCE OF TH·E CONSULS OF THE GUILD
OF RETAIL·DEALERS AND LINEN·MANUFACTURERS
THII: SHIII:LDS BKAR THII: ARMS (t) THK PKOPL&, (2) THK POPK, (3) THE CITV,
(4) THK "PARTE G\IKLFA"

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o,gítízed by Goog [e
 LINEN MANUFACTURERS 357
confided to Donatello in 14 I I, and to Fra Giovanni Angelico in
I433, for the enrichrnent of Or San Michele.
At the last general reforrn of the Guilds, in I 4 I S, the union
of the two Guilds was still effective although the narne of the
Linaiuo/i did not appear. This arrangernent and nornenclature
-"Arte & R•gattitri"-continued until the year I 534·
During all these strenuous years the ftax industry of Florence
had rnade rernarkable progress, keeping well abreast of the general
developrnent and prosperity. Quite late however in the industrial
history of the City of Merchants, the Linen-Manufacturers carne,
in a sense, to their own. At the end of the last-narned year, under
the rule of the Medici, there blossorned forth the" Universita de'
Linaiuo/i"-" the University of Linen-drapers," and the Guild,
which had for three hundred years hidden its narne, now carne
to the front and dorninated a union of Lesser Guilds : the
Vinatti'en'-Wine-rnerchants, A/óergatori-Innkeepers, the Sarli
- Tailors, and its senior in ·the long partnership--the Rigatti'en·.
The Guild continued to ftourish until I S3 7, when the new
order of things, introduced by the Medici, greatly altered and
rnodified the character of the industry of Florence. Facilities and
rnonopolies were created and abolished, at alrnost one and the sarne
time. The rnarch of new ideas, and the introduction of new
rnethods, sounded the death-knell of the old shopkeepers. One
by one their shutters went up, and Guild-life was extinct.

" Stem11~atúlf A rú de' Ri,gattieri "

llalf wbite, ha1f rc:d

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 CHAPTER XII
THE GUILDS OF WINE-MERCHANTS, AND INN-
KEEPERS, AND TANNERS
LE .4.RTI DC YlN.4.TTIERI, E DEGLI .4.LBERG.4.TORI, E DE' GALIG.AI

I. WINE-MERCHANTS.-The famous reei wine of Tuscany. Cultivation

of the vine. Early barterings. Pergolas. Fint wine-seller, IfY/0. Growers
and consumers. First tavern-keeper, 1189- Rectors in 1291. Two casks of
wine only : Red-White. Measures. Drinking·shops limited. Wioe-presses.
Utensils duly stamped. Wine-merchants not to se1l food. Time limits.
Wooden casks. Famous members of the Guild. Sir Ricbard Dallington's
observations. Sorts of Grapes. Processes. The Vintage. Favourite wines.
Festivais.
11. INN-KEitPitRs.-Hostels and lnns indispensable. Reception of em-
bassies. Commercial travellers, etc. AI!Jergalori Maggiori. First lnnkeeper,
1211. Distinction between taverns and inns. Early Roll of Matriculation.
Camen Loca111ie taxed. Dogana. Triennial tenure of premises. Mcmopoly
o( foreign wines. The Canlo dtg/i Spezia/i. Sign-a bottle of wine. Rules
affecting lodgers. Supply of food. Pack-mules. Games. Ancient inns and
hostelries. Cooks and cooking. Supper clubs. Sandro Botticelli, Andrea
del Sarto, and Giovanni Boccaccio- good fellows. La Cma FiormtilfiL
Costly Banquets. Boiled peacocks and roasted cranes. Cook's fees.
111. TANNERS.-Natural elements :-Animais, oaks, marsh-mallows. The
father of Florentine tanners. Filii Galigai. Guild expenses. Precedence.
Various allied Crafts. Relations with other leather Guilds :-Shoemakers,
Skinners, etc. Capilrtdo. Agents and their duties. Rules and regulations.
No secret work allowed. No tanning within tbe city bounds. A tanners out·
fit. Methods of the trade. Arno douches. Test of dryness. Parchment-
making. Carlolari. Bookbinding. Tomasso Maioli. Boiled leatber worlt-
Cuoio /esso-for armour. Bloclt-stamping.

I. L' ARTE DE' VIliATTIERI

" TUSCANY is pre-eminently fitted for agriculture" was an
old and trite saying ; so, also in a special sense, were ber
soil and cl imate suited for the cultivation of the Vine. The
undulating character of the ground, with its rolling uplands,
»'

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 GUILD OF WINE-MERCHANTS 359
averaging four hundred feet or so above the sea, is that most
desirable for the perfection of the grape.
The red wine of Tuscany is the most generous and the most
famous of all the vine products of the world, and, when it is
added that the neighbourhood of Florence yields more than one-
half of ali this rich vintage, the importance to her of the vine will
be at once apparent.
The cultivation of this invaluable plant in primitive times was
very uncertain. Whilst cereal crops may be raised with little
difficulty amid scenes of political unrest and combats of con-
tending forces of armed men, fruits of all sorts require periods of
tranquillity and fixture of tenure to come to maturity.
Such was the condition of affairs in Tuscany all through the
Middle Ages. The vine however was indigenous in the Vale of
Amo and grew wild up the hill sides. Men, as they trudged
along upon warlike expeditions, or on peaceful errands, plucked
the luscious bunches to quench their thirst. If only a short re-
spite was afforded, during the ripening of the fruit, its expression
filled the ample skins and bulky gourds of the wayfarers with
crude but refresbing wine.
When times became more settled, and the peasantry were left
witb some measure of freedom, one bere and another tbere tumed
bis attention to tbe wild vine, whicb threw its trailing branches
across bis land and over bis babitation. Tbe labourer wbo
digged and dunged, pruned and watered, tasted witb zest the
rich fruit of bis toil.
Owners and landlords were quick to see tbe possibilities of this
harvest, and encouraged their farm servants in its development ;
indeed, some of these worthies, with instincts keen for commercial
enterprises, took in hand a thorough system of cultivation with
tbe view to profitable sales. Tbe law of Meuan"a,-" going
halves,"-was observed in tbe matter of grape-culture-the first
half going to the land·owner, the second to the labourer-farmer.
The year's produce in early days, doubtless rejoiced the
hearts of the owners and producers, first of all, and what was

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360 ·rHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
to spare, they bartered or sold immediately to their neighbours
or their friends in the city or elsewhere. A commerce so
primitive in its inception speedily developed as harvest followed
harvest, and vine growers' gains bulked larger in their year's
accounts as they added to their vineyard occupations the business
of wine-merchants in the city.
The methods adopted in the thirteenth century or even
earlier, were almost exactly those which prevail to-day generally.
Wbere tbe vine grew there it remained. Witb tbe least amount
of labour the plants were trained up growing tree stems, and
where these were absent Testuccni,-testers or wooden supports,
-were fixed under the weighty brancbes. These were of two
kinds--espaliers or lengths of trellis work, and single posts stuck
up at certain distances apart.
. In the vineyards of the richer proprietors the Testut:eni gave
way to substantial stone or brick pillars, to which the name
of Pergo/e was given. In either case the plant was allowed to
grow as it willed, forming a distinctive and characteristic note
o f beauty in the landscape. 1t was encouraged too to yield
as many bunches of grapes as possible ; the art of lopping or
close pruning being unknown to the Tuscan vinegrowers.
The situation and the aspect of the vineyard excited a
mighty inftuence upon the yield both in quality and quantity~
On the hill terraces, wbich were made with infinite care and
patience, the grapes produced a drier and more alcoholic wine
than on the lowlands. A Southem aspect made for. a sweeter
and richer vintage.
At first probably the people in the Mercato V ecchio brought
in and sold their vintages along with their other country pro-
duce. There sprang up gradually the custom of separating wine
from the market commodities, and the opening of shops speci-
ally concemed in its sale. Each important landowner found
this a convenient way of dealing with his proportion of the
year's yield, and either he occupied a wine-shop himself, or
appointed some friend or other to open one. In this way no

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 GUILD OF WINE-MERCHANTS 861
doubt the business of wine-merchant came into existence. The
first record of such an individual in the Archives of the city is as
follows :-" I 07o--Pagrznus, qui vocatur vinadro "-Wine-seller.
Whether this good man had what we call a license, who
can say, but apparently he sold only beverages in his little wine·
shop : and we must regard him-for want of earlier records-
as the father of Florentine Wine-merchants. Paganus had
many followers, whose names figure in the Archives, but at
tbe end of the twelftb century there is a novel entry :-" I I 89
- MarceUus- taóeman'us"- Tavern-keeper. This worthy
citizen, unlike bis neighbour of the wine-shop, sold both food
and drink. He was an important personage in the estimation
of bis fellows, and for want of a scion of earlier pedigrec
must be held as the first eating-house keeper in Florentine
history.
Thus by the end of the twelfth century there'were two distinct
classes of sellers of wine alike dependent upon the produce of the
vintage. The year I 2 I I however reveals a third class by an
entry in the Archives :-" Servodeo--osste "-Host or landlord-
the first recorded parent of the Innkeeper proper.
Not mucb can be gathered from the Statutes, which have
been spared destruction, of the exact Constitution of the Guild.
Tbe first mention of Officers is in a petition whicb the Rettori
presented on April 3rd, I29I, at the Council of State, seeking
the refunding of a sum of money due to the Guild as a rebate
of a tax lately paid.l
Certainly tbe Guild followed the example of the other
Guilds and adopted, early in the fourteenth century, many of
the Statutes enacted for the "Ca/ima/a" Guild, at the same time
adding such rubrics of a special character, as were necessary
for the efficiency of the Guild, and for the well-being of its
members. In the years I 339 and I 341 alterations and additions
were made in the Statutes, and a Register of Matriculation,
down to the year I 3 3 5, has been preserved.
1 " Le Couulte," ii. 177.

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862 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
One of the eal'lier enactments was to the effect that Wine-
merchants were forbidden to bave broached at the same time
more than two casks of wine in their vaults or cellars for retall
use. The casks had a fixed capacity, and were ordered to hold,
one red, and the other, white wine. Wine in quantities was
usually sold by the barrei or cask. Two casks made up the
burden of a pack-horse or mule. The highest liquid measure
in Florence was called Cogno--and was equal to ten casks.
The general revision of Guild Statutes in 14 I S contained
rubrics enacted for the benefit of "the Guild of Wine-Mer-
dlants,'' and many of these are interesting.
The porch of San Giovanni Battista was a favourite lounging-
place for the poorer sort of people and for beggars. Wine-
merchants were strictly forbidden to sell wine and other beverages
therein or within a distance of fifty yards.1
Wine-merchants were not allowed to- have vine-pits or presses
within the city bounds nor vats for unfermented grape juice.
They were not permitted to treat grapes or wine-mash with water
or other liquids, anywhere where smell or waste · would cause a
nuisance.1
Every utensil, jug, and measure, required to be stamped with
the arms of the city, and to bear upon it the quantity it held,
whether Tenen10/a--quart, Metreta-pint or Meuetta-gill
Failure to observe this rubric led to a fine of one hundred
sold•:
Wine-shops were forbidden to take in travellers, and to seU
beverages to be drunk on the premises. They were not to
supply bread, wine, meat, cooked fish. or any other comestible.
Sellers of wine were not allowed to stand opposite the Palace of
the Priors, and the House of the Captain of the People, nor
within a distance of two hundred arm's-lengths. No wine-shop
was permitted in the neighbourhood of the Monastery of San
Giovanni Evangelista.a
No private person who sold wine to the poorer people was
I Rub. lxxn., 1415. 1 Rub. lxu:Yi., 1415. 1 Rub. xc., 1415.

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 AT AN JNN
FOL'RTEESTII CENTl:RV
N'VI'E. : - rHR -"f"()HT6' L/,'I -WITII GL,.\S:-;ES kEAilV, ASO Til E ~EGL'LATIP!'ol TWU UAIHH~ J..S UF \\'1!'-i!!!-
RED ASD WHITI:;

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L o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF WINE-MERCHANTS 363
allowed to provide food also,-whether in the city or in the Con-
tado,--either in a retail wine-shop or in bis own house. Any one
selling wine to citizens after the final stroke of the Compline
bell incurred a penalty of one hundred /ire. The sale of pro-
visions was forbidden also within fifty arm's -lengths of any
wine-shop or wine-cellar.1
Wine-merchants and tavem-keepers were not allowed to have
on the front of their premises bushes or signs, either of laurel,
olive, or of any other tree.1 Wines both new and old were
ordered to be transported in wooden barreis. Each barrei required
the official seal of the Podesta.8
No victualler was permitted to make or to buy unfermented
wine or crude wines fortified with spirit during the time of vintage
and up to the feast of Ali Saints, under a penalty of ten /ire ;
and no wine merchant or innkeeper. could sell such beverages to
the public before that festival.'
From the Registers of Matriculation of 1335 and 141 S may
be leamt how that the following families of Wine-merchants,
among many others, gave their sons to the membership of the
guild :-Albizzi, Ricasoli, Strozzi, and Guicciardini, of Florence
proper,-Niccolini, of Carmignano,-Pucci, of Siena and also of
Vai d'Elsa,-Salviati, of Pisa,-Toscanelli, of Pontedera,--Cocconi,
of Montepulciano,-and Caspelli, of Pontascieve. These names
are interesting, not only in themselves, but as indicative of the
wide diffusion of the members of the Guild. They were in truth
landed gentry, who owned many acres of vineyards and olive
orchards, and who engaged in the profitable and agreeable trade
of Wine-merchants at the same time.

In the first List of Guilds, in I z36, we find vinadro, taóer-

narius, osste, ali merged in the " A rle de' Vinattieri "-" The
Guild of Wine-Merchants." This association continued for fifty
years,-for the nomenclature of the Guild remained the same in
1 Rub. xci., 141 5· 1 Rub. cclxiv., 1415.
• Rub. cclui., 1415. ' Rub. cb:xxiii., 1415·

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36• THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
that important year of reform, 1266,-and the Guilc;l was
reckoned the thirteenth in order in both lists.
Under the year 1267 there is a curious entry in the Archives,
which indicates a sort of fusion of the Guilds of Bakers, Winc-
Merchants, and Innkeepers. For some purpose, not distinctly
stated, " Ciprianus Pane, son of Vincente, a Tavem-:keeper of
the sutúre of St Pancrazio, late Rector of the said Guilds, was
appointed Syndic by the votes of twenty-three members of the
Guilds, and in the name of the absent members, to negotiate a
loan of forty-two pounds from Giovanni Alboni Bilicozi of thc
seshe,e of Oltramo.t
The first cleavage in the constitution of the "Guild of Wine-
Merchants" took place in the year 1282, when the Order of the
twenty-one Guilds was re-arranged. In the List of Guilds
the thirteenth place was still occupied by the "Arte de' Vinattieri,"
but the fourteenth was occupied by a perfectly new Corporation with
the title " A rle deg-li Albe,g-atori M aggion""-" Guild of the
Greater Innkeepers." Probably the sale of victuals was proved to
be inconvenient in the wine-shops, or possibly the inftux of strangers
required to be dealt with on a larger and more enterprising scale.
The order of 1282 was maintained. at all the subsequent
revisions of the Statutes until 1 53 9, when in the fourth U niversity
established by the Grand Duke Cosimo I. were included the
" Guilds of Retail-Drapers and Linen-Manufacturers," " Wine-
Merchants," and "Innkeepers," under the style of "Ut~ivn-sita
e A,te de' Litlaiuolt:"
The Residence of the Consuls of the Guild was next the
side-door of the Church of San Stefano, in Via de' Lamberteschi.
Over the entrance was, as usual, stuck up a shield with the Guild
arms :- a blue cup in a white field ; and the same badge
figured upon the Gonfalon confided to the Guild Standard-
bearer in 1266.
Sir Richard Dallington,-that most worthy traveller and most
interesting historian,-records many matters dealing with the
1 Arebivio Fiorentino, SS. Annunziata.

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 GUILD OF WINE·MERCHANTS 865
cultivation of the vine. He says that " Grapes were, in the
sixteenth century, a very important item in the dietary of the
Tuscan country people. In August and September they eat
their grapes, with the leaves they feed their oxen and dung the
land, upon the pips their pigeons feed, and even the strippings of
the plant they riddle out and sell at twenty soldi the staio. The
Vine-dressers used to hang up the bunches of grapes in the Pako,
or roof, of their dwellings, and keep them to eat in Lent."
" There are divers sorts of grapes, the names of such as I
remember are these :-Uva Canaiuola, good either to eate or for
wine ; Passerina, a small grape, whereof sparrows feed, good
only for wine ; Tre!Jóiana, the best sort of white grapes for wine,
whereof they make them Vit10 Tre!J!Jiat10; Zi!JüJ!Jo; dryed for
Lent ; Moscatella, with a taste like muske, not for wine but to
eate; Uva Grossa, not to eate nor for wlne, but a few of these
put among a great vessell of wine, giveth it a colour, for which .
it only serveth ; San Co!Mmbana and Rimaldesca, a very delicate
grape, either for wine or to eate ; Lugliola, which hath his name
of the month of July, wherein it is ripe, better to eate than for
wine ; lastly, Cerisi'ana, named for the taste it hath like a cherry,
better for wine than to eate." 1
So far as may be gathered from scattered notices in many
authorities the gathering of the vintage was very much the same in
Tuscany, in the Renaissance, as it is to.day. On the first day the
peasants of the estate, and hired labourers from the city, accompanied
the Vine-growers, with shears and baskets, into the vineyards.
White grapes were picked first, and left to dry in the sun
for some weeks, until the· joice began to drop from them. This
was the Vi'no Santo-the favourite white wine of honour, and that
prescribed for use in the Mass.
The best black grapes were cut and left to ferment by
themselves, whilst those of inferior quality were cast into big
wooden vats. When full the vats were drawn by white oxen
to the vat-house, where, twice a day, for a week, bare-legged
I Slr R. Dallington, "Su"ey," p. 32.

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366 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
lads and lassies stamped and danced, upon the fruit, to their
hearts' content. The first draughts of this expressed juice, which
had of course been fermenting ali the time, were poured over the
richer black clusters placed carefully in the winepress, whilst the
rest of the mixture, called " i/ Pn"mo Vino," was the beverage of
the well-to-do citizens. Second and third qualities were also
produced-the latter by the addition of water whence its name
" z1 Me8so Vino " the drink of the common people. The wine-
press was of wood strongly though clumsily constructed, with a
big wooden screw and flat wooden slabs.
The Florentines of old were a pleasure-loving race despite the
many serious traits in their character. Nothing pleased them
more than to sit in the wine-shops after their meals, and there to
sing and dance, to wager and to drink, to their hearts' content ;
but, like sensible men, they knew when they had had enough !
The wines most in demand at these jovial scenes were Ver-
naccia, Leati&o, Tre!J/Jiano, and Vino Satllo. They were all sweet
and aromatic, and of a rich and flashing golden colour, yet not
too potent to interfere with the full enjoyment and exhilaration
of their votaries.
To this list must be added the sweet wines of Montecalcino,
Pesdanko, and Verdea, named by many writers. CarmignaluJ,
Pomino, and C/Uanti were alike celebrated,-the latter grown on
the sides of the rocky hills around Siena, both red and astringent,
and white and luscious. The wine of Artimino had the character
of the claret of to-day, whilst Montepukiano,-by far the most
famous,--combined luscious flavour, with aromatic sharpness and
a remarkably brilliant purple colour. The finest blend of Tuscan
wine was that which has been held in the highest estimation for
more than four hundred years, namely :-7/ I o Sangiog-ltdo grapes,
2j1o Canaiuolo and I/IO Malvasia or Tn!J/Jiano.
The amount average of wine consumed per annum in Florence
in the middle of the fourteenth century was upwards of fifty-five
thousand cogni-measures containing each ten barreis. In years
of public rejoicings the total attained to sixty-five thousand cog71i.

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 WINE-MERCHANTS AND INN-KEEPERS 367
And wine was cheap in those days. .Mazzei 1 says that he
had "heard of an entire vineyard offered for sale at sixty gold
ftorins I " The wine served to the Priors during their tenure of
offi.ce cost only thirty gold ftorins (.:6 1 5), a sum marking the
moderation of their .Magnificences I
The extraordinary love of the Florentines for fixing and re-
gulating quantities, qualities, weights, bulks, prices, etc., descended
to the merest triftes. Nothing which could in any way be called
a marketable commodity was forgotten. The common cheap
drink of the peasantry,--clover juice,-was free in the Contado
but taxed in the city.1
The value of the Vine industry and the wealth of the Wine-
merchants were attested in a curious way in the year I 43 S·
During the Patronal Festival of San Giovanni Battista of the
previous year, the immense canvas and silk awnings, which had
been from early days provided by the " Guild of Calima/a " to cover
over the Piazza di' San Giovanni, were almost completely de-
stroyed by fire. To assist the "Catima/a" merchants to bear the
heavy expense of restoration, a decree of the Council of State
was passed on April 14th, 1435, placing, for a space of three
years, a tax on all wines sold in barreis in the Piazza del Vino.
From each year's gross yield fifty-two gold ftorins were to be
deducted by way of compliment to Messere Bino de' Pecori, Prior
of the Monastery of San Piero Scheraggio, and twenty-nine gold
florins in payment to the collector of the tax.

11. L'ARTE DEGLI ALBERGATORI

No symptom of the fame and prosperity of Florence as the

Mother of Commerce was more pronounced and characteristic than
the inauguration and incorporation of a Guild of " Innkeepers."
The mere hamlet needs no guest house, and the village is
satisfied with a modest house of call, but the rising town requires
1 Muzei, i. 1sS, 395· s Perrena' " Hiatoire de Florence," .L 492.

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368 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
to lodge tbe visitors wbo wisb to spend sOme time within her
walls. Tbis was the condition of aft'airs created in Florence in con-
sequence of tbe enterprise of her travelling agents and merchants.
Wberever tbey went trade routes opened, and along tbeir oourse,
bostelries sprang up to meet the needs of passers-by.
Reftexive action was imperative in Florence herself for the
reception and entertainment of man and beast-in the form of
foreign traders and their equipages. Embassies from other States
and cities began to visit the home of industry, intent quite as
much upon commercial aims as upon political achievements.
Tbe origin of the " Guild of Innkeepers " is not difficult to
trace ; its actual incorporation, and its inclusion in the Hierarchy
of the Guilds of Florence, took place in the year 1282. Its style
was "Arte túg-li Alllerg-atori Magriori"-" Tbe Guild of Greater
Innkeepers," and tbis is significant.
The first record, of an Innkeeper, in the Arcbives of Florence,
wbich has been preserved, appears under the date I 2 1 1, when one
Swvotúo--osste,-Host, or Innkeeper,-is named. He was prob-
ably a superior and prosperous sort of taóernaniu,-tavern-keeper,
-who opened bis bouse specially to sucb visitors as camé t?
reside for some days at least in the city, and as we say, " catered
for a better class of custom."
u p to the year 12 8 2,-as bas been related in the history of
the " Guild of Wine Merchants,"-Wine Sbops for the sale of
beverages only, and Tavems for the supply of food and drink
sufficed for the needs of the city. They continued to minister to
tbe wants of ordinary strangers, and of citizens of the lower and
lower middle classes, whilst the landlords of tbe more pretentious
and roomy Inns set up for a class apart from their former fellow
Guildsmen. •
Antonio Miscomini in tbe "GiwaluJ túlle Scaalli" has given a
woodcut of the Quene's Alpbyns' or Judge's Paune in the person of
an Innkeeper of the fifteenth century. "For it is a man," as
William Caxton printed in bis translation of I 48 I, " that hatb
tbe rigbt bande strached oute as for to calle men, and boldeth in

•
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 GUILD OF INN-KEEPERS 369
bis lyfte hande a loof of brede and a cuppe of wyn, and on Qis
gurdelle hangythe a bondell of keyes and this resembleth the-
Taverners, Hostelers and sellars of vitaylle ... and it apperteyneth
to them for to seke and enquyre for good wyns and good vitaylle
for to gyve and selle to the byers. lt appertyneth to them to
kepe their herberowes and innes and ali the thynges that they

INN·KJI:BPitll-" DBLLAUJ:JlNIER.Jt. " FIFTI.I.N1'H CI.NTUilY

brynge in to theyr loggyuge and ·for to putte hyt in seure and

sa~f warde and kepynge, ben represented by the keyes hangynge
on ye gurdell. . . .''

Little can be gathered from the Statutes of the Guild of any

special features in the constitution. The Statutes of I 266,-so
far as they related to the section of the "Guild of Wine-Merchants,''
to which Innkeepers belonged,-were approved in I 2 8 2. The
general revision of the Statutes of · the Guilds in I 30 I- I 309, and
the additions of I 324 and I 327, made little alteration in the
2A

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S70 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
status or economy of the Guild. Revisions were also undertaken
in 1334, 1338, 1357, 1415, 1440, and 1529. There is a1so in
existence a Roll of .Matriculations of the year 1353, but most of
the documents relating to the origin, and containing the constitu-
tions, were destroyed during the Rising of the Ciompi· in I 3 7 8.
From the sources at command we are able to gather some
interesting facts, and to obtain some definite knowledge of the
working of the Guild.
It appears that Innkeepers were rather hardly dealt with in
the matter of taking out what we call licenses. The tax levied
by the State upon the Cam.ere LocaiJtie--lodgings for strange~
as the Inns were sometimes called, was pretty heavy. As many
as forty, fifty, and even eighty gold ftorins were extracted every
third year, at which period ali Innkeepers were compelled to appear
before the offi.cials of the Doga1111 to render up their accounts. 1
Triennial tenure seems to have been the usual custom, and
any man might bid for any particular I nn, and might even outbid
the occupier, who, in such àn event, was compelled to vacate his
house. This auction, for such it was, was marked by a quaint
custom,-the. lighting of a candle, and, only whilst it lasted, was
it lawful to bid.
Whereas the sale of native wines was restricted to the shops
of the Wine-merchants, and to the houses of the Tavem-keepers,
Innkeepers were allowed a monoply in the import of foreign
wines, both for immediate consumption and for storage.
Strangers visiting Florence, and seeking accommodation, were
instructed, by the officials at the gates, to apply at the Offices
of the Guild, at the Ca,to, or comer of the Via de' Speziali
Certain Inns were set apart for the reception of foreigners, and
others, for natives of Tuscany, living outside the city boundaries.
Ali these hostelries were directed to advertise their willingness to
take in visitors by exposing, in some doorway or window, a bottle
of wine.
By one of the 1 3 57 Statutes no Innkeeper was allowed to
1 " Sir R. Dalliogton," "A Sarvey, etc.," p. 50.

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Digitized by Google
 THE RESII>ESCE OF THE CONSULS OF THE <;UJJ.D OF !NSKF.EPERS
(3) THF. h I'ARTR G\;J·';Lf•'A
Til!! SHIHI.IJS lltL\R TJit-: ARMS OF (1) Ft.OUESCK, (2) THE l't.:OJ•J.E, '•
(4) TIIE Gl:ll.O

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 GUILD OF INN-KEEPERS 371
exhibit, inside or out, any other public sign than that of the
Guild anns ; and none were permitted this privilege who had not
paid all Guild dues, State taxes, and any fines, which had been,
from time to time, incurred.
Innkeepers were expressly wamed not to admit on any
pretext men and women of evil fame. There were also strict roles
atrecting the food and drink supplied by landlords to their guests,
for example: No host, innkeeper, cook or any one else was allowed
to cook in bis house, hostelry, or kitchen, liver, sausages, kidneys,
and sweet-breads, nor to otrer such for sale.1
Innkeepers were strictly wamed not to sell wine or potables
of any kind to. the poorer people. They were in no way to do a
rival trade to that of Wine-merchants. They might sell beverages
to guests and persons in their houses, but not to outsiders. All
wines required the stamp of the Custom-house.1
With respect to the housing of pack mules and horses, no
stables were permitted immediately under the windows of rooms
occupied by visitors. Certain streets and localities were set apart
for the purpose, for example, the Via Lontanmorte had ranges of
stables for baggage animais, and sheds for the deposit of loads.
The affiuence of visitors became so great that in 1 290, only eight
years after the incorporation of the Guild, there were as many as
eighty-six Innkeepers and retail Wine-merchants in Florence and
the Contado.
Games of chance were forbidden in Inns, Tavems and
Hostelries within the city and the Contado, as they were in all
places, within three hundred óracda of any public thoroughfare.
The Residence of the Consuls of the "Arte der/i Alóerra~on·
Maggiori," was situated in the Palazzo Lamberti Simonetti, in
Via de' Cavalieri, and opposite the Palazzo de' Pilli. Tbe front
was finely carved in hard stone. The architrave had four shields
with arms, among them the escutcheon of the Guild,-a red star on
a silver field Within, in the Council-chamber, was a finely
painted ceiling of the fifteenth century, bome upon marble
I R.ub. ccuiL, 1415- 1 R.ub. xcii.,· 1415.

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872 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
pilasters inlaid with mosaic. Very many rclics of this fine
building are preserved in the National Museum in Florenc:e.

Among the ancient lnns which were destroyed in 1878 in the

clearing away of the Mercato Vecchio and its neighbourhood. were
the following : -
" del Cammello," near Porta Rosa, fonnerly the Palazzo
Soldanieri.
" della Corona," Via del Proconsolo, in the house of the
Buonafi family. In 1427 it was beld by Ambrogio di
Giovanni, called " Romanello " from bis affectation of
Roman manners and dishes.
" del Guanto," Via di San Romeo. This lnn was a fore·
gathering place for the workers in kid and fine leathers.
"della Marciana,'' at the comer of Via deU' Arciveccordo, in
a bouse belonging to the Pecori family.
" del Moro," Via Vacchereccia, the property of the Fantoni
family, and a famous lounge for the superior silk-
workers--the Setaiuoli Grosn:
"dell' Ossa," Via del Piazza, belonging to the Bizzini famiJy.
" del Re," Piazza de' Macei, the property of the Macei, and
later, of the Garliani families.
"di San Luigi," comer of Via alla Paglia, appertaining to
the Marignolli family.
The families named here were all members of the " Guild of
Innkeepers," t~eir houses were registered in the Guild books. and
they received periodical visits of inspection from the Guild officiak
In Via de' Speziali were four much frequented hostelries : -
" dei Giglio," " del Cervo," " della Rondina," and " del Falcone."
Near San Martino stood the popular bostelry of " delle Bertuccbe;
-the Baboons, so called from the fancy of its worthy hosts for
the rare and curious animais brought to Florence by her merchants
and their agents in foreign parts. It was too a favourite centre for
the CerTetani,--conjurers,-whose command of racy dialect and
tasty expletive was unlimited.

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 GUILD OF INN-KEEPERS 378
A peep into any of these Inns, and into the Eating-houses,
which abounded in and near the Old Market, revealed not only a
curious array of cleanest dishes and plates and brightest pots and
pans, but discovered a great wooden and iron wheel revolving
over a steady tire. . Upon its spokes and tyre hissed fowls and
dueles, pheasants and partridges, thrushes and larks, wild duck
and pigeons, and many another feathered favourite. Stuffed well

KITCHEN OF AN INN. 1500 A.D.

witb soft bread-crumbs, bits of fat pork and sage leaves, they gave
forth, as tbey went round, the most grateful of odours, and caused
many a watering moutb to anticipate the pleasures of the feast.
In frying-pans Polmta,-is frying in oil, JJ.figiüzcaO,~hestnut
and millet pudding,-is tuming a rich golden brown, and Fn'"tto
misto,-that mystic agglomeration of tasty' bits and toothsome
scraps,-is scenting the air.
Risoto con regrúia--perhaps Englished by " Hash "-using up
<>dds and ends of chickens' Iivers, cocks' combs, oyster bones and

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374 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the like delicious triftes, ever a favourite with ali classes, offers
irresistible attractions I
Yes, there was good eating to be had for the paying, almost
anywhere in the Mercato V eccbio, although the grimy-looking
basements and dark cavernous chambers were not quite inviting.
lf you would, you might sniff the grateful incense of stuffed
boar's-head, and . well-larded venison as you passed the open
doorways.
Supper clubs were always the rage in old Florence and none
maintained their popularity with greater brilliancy than the
" Sodeta del/e Cnu poth"clu "-" the Poetical Supper Society."
Associates of the Club observed two primary rules :-1. The Bill
of Fare was a nightly competition in smart poetic quips ; 2. Each
member, in tum, was responsible for .the ordering of the supper.
The convivia} meetings of this club were held at Fico's Osteria
or Tavem in the Mercato Vecchio. The ground landlord was of
the family of Adimari, who · also owned another well-known
lnn in the Old Market, which went by the name of "dei
Porco "-perhaps " Wild-boar "-and which was worthy of its
designation by reason of the excellence of its Risoto and the
cunning delicacy of its Sa/ante. No Osteria had anything like so
numerous a cliente/e of artists and young bloods. And no
habitué was more jovial and more brilliant than Sandro Botticelli,
the leader of a merry crew of artists and good fellows.
The window-sills of Fico's, and the doorway used to be
decorated with dishes of Fn'th",-fried meats,--and small birds on
spits. Inside were large open fires for grilling and frizzling.
Sa/ame and figs usually did duty as hof's-d'tnVn. The favourite
fish was Tindte, from the marshes, fried in oil with rosemary
leaves, but A nuJtti,-a river fish,-served in vinegar, ran it very
close for first honours.
Thrushes, when in season, stuffed with sage and bread, were
always very acceptable; but Becca.ficlzi,-fig-pickers,-stuffed witb
mushrooms and toast, was quite the most popular " bird."
The wine most in dema.nd at Fico's was Ma/vasia, hence the

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----
 GUILD OF INN-KEEPERS 375
Tavem was also known as "Osteria della Malvasia." A great
specialty was Maaiana or Macclurtmi--crisp macaroons, which
went very well with the favourite beverage.
Andrea del Sarto, "Atrdrta smsa errore," as bis title runs,
had another side· to his cbaracter. He belonged to the cele-
brated artists' club called, " Soaeta áel Caláerai,''-" Society
of the Cauldrons,''-whose members excelled in modelling in wax
and chiselling in stone, comestibles of every sort and kind after
the rnanner of a modem Italian cluf's highly decorative sugar con-
fectionery I
" La Cma Fiormtina," " The Florence Supper," becarne a
proverb, so vastly grew the fame of her cooks and the joviality
of her guests. In 1388 no cuisine in ali Italy was anything like
so farnous, for not only did her dinners and her suppers surpass
all others, but her delicious confitures and her tasty snacks
between meals, washed down with delicate and luscious wine, both
red and white, recalled the historie days of the Greek epicures.
Nothing pleased the successful rnernbers of the Guilds more
than to sit in their Loggie giving on the Market, or on the
streets, and invite their friends to join them in discussing light
refreshrnents for the admiration of the passers-by. For more
substantial repasts the custom was to adjoum to some well-
known Inn, and then to feast upon the good things scrved up
by tbe worthy Íandlord.
By 1472 a rage for costly banquets had set in, both public
and private. These functions were marked by extravagance and
luxury before which the notable entertainments of the noble and
wealthy Romans almost paled. Arrayed in ricbest garments,
and adomed with precious stones and gold, the magnates of
the city reclined upon softest silk and fur. Waited upon by
small armies of gaily liveried attendants, both white and coloured,
each great man vied with bis neighbour in the magnificence of
bis bospitalities, and the literary and poetic culture of bis guests.
Such festivities culminated in the public Festivais of Christ-
mas, Easter, Pentecost, and the Patronal Feast of San Giovanni

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376 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Battista. Eacb Guild bad its Commemoration with its pro-
cession, its games, its music, and its banquets. Ricb men too
were wont to sbow off their wealth by ostentatious entertainment
of tbeir poorer brethren. These celebrations were usually held
in connection with Marriage-feasts, and the like, and were
undertaken by some well-known Innkeeper, wbose cook was
famed for bis culinary skill.
A goose baked in the oven, and stuffed witb garlic and
quince, was an exquisite disb in the days of Francesco Sacchetti.1
Tbe same racy author relates that, at a supper given by the G011r
falot~iere, in .bis Palace, to a celebrated pbysician, the first dish
brought to table was a calf's belly, followed by boiled partridges
and stewed sardines. Chichibio, cook to the Gianfigliazzi family,
according to Boccaccio, served bis master with a roasted crane.s
Leeks were ordered as a special dish by the Constitutions of the
Chapter of San Lorenzo, when the Canons were in residence.
Sweet tarts were served with the roast and counted as a single
disb. Saffron was an ordinary condiment botb in soup and
other dishes. As an appetiser Liverwort was eaten first.1 Soup
was ftavoured witb marjoram and other herbs. Kid was served
boiled in white wine. On great occasions boiled peacock, witb
the feathers on, was displayed but not eaten, and wine and fruit
jellies coloured and moulded into shapes was a dish of honour.4
The salaries, or fees, payable to cooks varied with the occa-
sion wbich .demanded their services. For a banquet at the
Investiture of Knighthood-two gold florins; for a Wedding-
breakfast--one gold ftorin ; for a repast of twelve covers-twenty
to thirty soldi, and so on.6

I I I. L'ARTE DE' GALIGAI

Tbe history and practice of Tanning and Cunying leather
marches band in hand with the records of the " Skinners and
1 F. Sacchetti, "Nov." rBs. s Boccaccio, "Nov." 8.
3 L'Osservatore Fiorentino, vol. vi. p. toS. ' Firennola, "Nov." 8.
• Rab. ccxvi., 1415-

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 GUlLD OF TANNERS 377
Furriers." The medizval wearing of skins and furs, both by
warring robbers from the north, and by peaceful inhabitants of
Tuscan lands, called forth early enterprise to render such primitive
coverings strong and durable.
Together with prolific animal life--wild and tame--there
flourished on the hillsides great groves of lordly oaks, whilst in
the marshy lands, and by the river sedges, grew patches of the
humble mallow. Oak-bark and the ruddy ro!J!Jia fumished, ready
to hand, the basis of tanning and of dyeing. I t needed but the
awakening intelligences of the dwellers by the banks of Amo,
and on the Fiesolan hills, to co-apply these natural riches in . the
production of the very useful and the very profitable leather
industry.
Jn the absence of earlier records, we must hail one, Paganfl&do,
who under date 1 098, is caUed in the Archives of the State,
-" Ga/ligan"o "-" Tanner," as the father of the Leather workers
of Florence, and this appears to be the first mention of the
industry.
In the Roll of the Guilds of the year 1 2 36, the " A rle dei
Cuoiai e Caligai,''-" Leather-dressers and Tanners,''-is placed
eleventh, and consequently fourth in the order of the Lesser
Guilds. In a Latin document, dated August gth, 1245, mention
is made of a Society of Tanners under the designation of "Filii
Galigai."
The Archives of Florence recor4 a meeting beld on December
I Ith, 1276, in the church of SS. Apostoli, at which forty-two
tanners were present-all inhabitants of the popa/i of SS. ApostoU.
The busincss transacted was the nomination, by the Retton·,-
Rectors,--of a Syndic, " who shall take up a loan on behalf of
the Guild, in order to pay the tax levied that year upon the
mêmbers of the Guild, and also to meet the gener;ü expenses of
the Guild." The latter included salaries of officials, hire of pre-
mises for Guild purposes, river freight-dues, and various other
items. Provision was also made, at the same meeting, for the
" rent of thc Residence of the Rectors, or Consuls, and of certain

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
378 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
workshops and a leather warebouse." At the same time agree-
ments were come to, whereby members of the Guild might purchase
materiais required in the exercise of their industry, at two per
cent. discount off retail prices.
The revision of tbe Title and Statutes of the Guilds in 12 8 2
considerably altered the former, and confirmed the latter. The
style "Cuoiai 1 Caligai" disappears, and instead we have "L'Arü
eki Galigai Grossa·"-" The Guild of Master-Tanners." The
Guild mo.-eover is now placed sixtcenth in the order of pre-
cedence. Why this degradation was accomplished no one can
say, possibly the increasing prosperity of the city affected more
favourably the " Masters of Stone and W ood," " the Retail Cloth-
Drapers and Haberdasbers," "the Wine-Merchants," "the lnn-
keepers" and "the Salt-Merchants--or General Provision Dealers,"
-ali five Guilds being scbeduled before the Tanners.
In the fourteenth century no alteration in the position of the
Guild was effected. A minor Corporation, probably affiliated to
the " A rlt de' Gatigru:" came in to existence in I 3 2 7, called
"C~a de' Vaginari"-Company of Scabbard-makers. Of
·the three operative Guilds, formed at the Rising of the Ciomjn~ in
1378, the third was made up of "Sheep-sbearers," "Patchers of
Skins and H ides," and " Sandal-makers," in addition to otber minor
Crafts, all of which bad relations with the " Guild of Tanners."
The Order of tbe Guilds in I 41 S raised tbe " A rle di Galig'"ai •
one step in precedence ovp tbe "Salt-Merchants,, wbo hencefortb
were styled tbe "Arte degli 0/i'aru/o/i"-" Oil-merchants." At
the final grouping of the Lesser Guilds, in the year 1 S34, when
four "Universities" were created, the second of tbem included
" Ca/8olai," " Ga/igai," and " CoreKJrl'ai," and bore the title of
" Universita de' Maestn' di CuoiatiU"- tbe "University of
Masters of Leather."
The "Tanners" doubtless had all along dealings witb
" Skinners and Furriers," " Shoemakers," and " Saddlers," but
apparently no details have been preserved of such intercoune.

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 GUILD OF TANNERS 379
From the scrappy references to the "Guild of Tanners,'' in the
Archives of Florence, and in consequence of the wholesale destruc-
tion of documents during the CÜJmpi' riots, and other city tumults,
very little information can be gathered of the Constitution of the
Guild. Among the Archives, however, is a Roll of Matriculation for
the year I 3 20, which gives little information beyond a record of
names. That there were earlier codes and rolls than the above
is obvious, but probably no complete set of Statutes was put out
until after tbe General Revision of I 30 I- 1 309.
Tbe title of Consul was not bestowed upon the cbief officer of
the Guild until the fourteenth century, before which period he was
merely called "Capitut/Q" or "Head." His Residence was in the
Via delle Torre, near the Buondelmonti tower, where the armorial
bearings of the Guild were carved,-a white field divided by a
broad red stripe,-the same device appearing on the Guild gonfalon.
The Sensa/i,-agents,-numbered four, and were practical and
experienced workers in leather of every description. They were
appointed by the Consuls and held office for a year. Tbey fixed
the price of skins, hides, leather in the rough, and also the rates
for tanning, dressing, etc., and kept registers of ali workpeople
employed by tbe Guild. Tbey received a percentage upon ali
imports of skins and bides,-for each hundred pairs of skins and
hides from lndia, Greece, England and Norway, seven lire,-for
eacb roll of leather dressed abroad one /ire, and so on. Tbe
consignments were made to the Sensali, and by them distributed
to tbe various tanners and dressers.1
No tanner, currier, or scrap-leather dealer, was allowed to offer
for sale hides of oxen, cows, and other large animais, within the
city and Contado unless they bad been soaked in brine and cold
water for eight montbs, or for at least tbree months in hot water.
The fine for infraction was two hundred /ire."
Ali such persons were wamed against currying bides with
cinders or ash, or treating leatber to any tanning mixture whicb
would become a nuisance to the neighbourhood. Leatber could
1 Rab. lxu., 1415- ' Rub. lxni., 1415-

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e0 f"""""r

880 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
not be sold in the market, or at the tanyards, wbich was not per-
fectly dry, and well cured, and free from putrefaction, under risk
of fines of not less than one hundred /ire. 1
Tanners and scrap-leather dealers were forbidden to bum the
hoofs and homs of cattle, and the bard coros upon horse skins
and cow hides for use in the process of currying. 2
Ali workers in leather were forbidden to work in secret.
Every tanyard and dresser's shop was inspected from time to time.
Stringent regulations were in force dealing with offal and other
unsavoury and insanitary matters. Cuttings and ntbbish were
ordered to be bumt or removed. The skinning of dead carcasses
was not permitted within the city, and the limits were constantly
enlarged wherein such prohibition held good, until, in the six-
teenth century, no Beccai,-slaughterer-skinner,-was allowed to
exercise bis calling within a radius of ten miles from the Palazzo
Vecchio. 8
The ordinary outfit of a " Tanner" and "Currier" cost tbe
rather considerable sum of eighteen gold ftorins ; probably this
sum included expenses incurred through the distance of the scene
of operations.
The methods of the Florentine Tanners would seem to bave
been much as follows : The raw hides were first salted to check
putrefaction, and limed in weak lime liquor and brought to a
suitable condition for disbairing and fteshing, within somewhere
about three months. Then they were placed between layers of
coarsely ground oak bark in pits until full, when a thick topping
of bark was put over them. No water or any other kind of liquid
•
was allowed to get into the pits. These packs were taken up
and reversed severa} times, fresh oak bark being introduced.
This kind of tanning occupied somewhere about eighteen
months.
Oak-bark was the only tanning medium used in early days,
and of it there was no limit in the supply. Ali around Florence
were thick forests of oak trees, whicb not only provided the
1 Rub. ccxmi., 1415. 'Rub. lxXYiiL, 1415- 1 Cantiai, xi. pp. ro6, 107.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF TANNERS 881
" Galigai" with their material, but also fed the fires and furnaces
of ali the houses and workshops in the city and Contado.
Quick-witted Tanners however disregarded the rule about
the introduction of water, and, knowing the virtues of the Amo,
they freely used douches, and were able to secure rapid absorption
of tannin by the skins.
The next process was " handling," in which the hides were
transferred to larger pits, and then turned over every day in a
liquid or ooze made of oak-bark. This process lasted five or six
weeks. In later times roó!Jia and other dyes in liquid fonn were
introduced in the Tanning process, so as thoroughly to saturate
the skins which it was wished to finish coloured or dyed. For the
last manipulation the skins were hung over big wooden bars im:..
mersed in the tanning-dyeing medium.
The drying process was the most difficult and uncertain, so
far as the looked-for result was concemed. Too rapid action led
to discoloration and cracking, whilst a slow method made for
moulding and unevenness. The drying shed was a wooden
building, provided with many openings at the sides, to admit of
currents of air, but excluding the direct rays of the sun.
The usual test of dryness was the holding of a mirror, or some
other highly polished object, dose to the hanging skin-if moisture
was condensed upon the bright surface the Tanner knew the piece
was not ready, and vice versd.
Foreign tanned and curried skins and hides were imported to
make shoe-soles and sandals, but were treated, by the Florentine
Tanners, with baths of brine and oak. Sometimes to get a
quicker market they limited the period of re-soaking but thereby
incurred fines and penalties.
An important and profitable branch of the currying industry
was the preparation-· of · parchment. Up · to 1209 its use for
writing was confined to the Monàsteries and to Notaries, but
thenceforward the sale was thrown open to thê public. Good
sheets were usually rare and costly, but in Florence the same
address which characterised her sons' skill in other industries was

o, 9ítízed byGoog~
382 THE GUILDS OF FLOB.ENCE
not wanting in the production of superior quality and in a
sufficiency of supply.
White parchment, smooth and nearly transparent, was best
suited for fine penmanship, and it took the overlay of gold and
silver better than skins which had been stained yellow or purple.
Only the very finest quality of kid skin was used for this purpose,
whilst other descriptions were rendered for more general and
rougher purposes-for example, the binding of books.
The market prices were moderate, hence the number of
Zi/Jaldotu' and other private diaries, as well as public records and
business joumals. The " Carlolai,'' or Stationers-were a trade
corporation affiliated to the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries u;
they retailed the produce of the parchment-makers, and always
appear to have had a large stock on hand, from which they
exported prepared skins to every European country.
Bookbinding was an important section of the leather industry,
but whether it was undertaken by the "Guild of Tanners" or by
that of" Saddlers "or by an association of leather workers emplo}'-ed
by the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries,'' or by ali three
separately, no one can say. Anyhow the skill possessed by the
Florentine workers and stampers of leather could not have been
turned to better account, and, from the first, Florentine books were
turned out in peculiarly attractive forms.
The most common bindings were of white smoothly dressed
sheepskin and polished vellum, either perfectly plain or with orna-
mental markings in black ink and gold. Tooling leather covers
for books,-that is to say the art of impressing small dies in
a running or connecting pattern,-undoubtedly originated in
Florence. Rich skins,--often enough with the fur retained and
closely clipped,-were used and associated with clamps of silver
and copper. About the middle of the sixteenth century books
were--as an old rhymer has it : -
" Full goodly bound in leather coverture,
Or of satin damask, or else of velvet pure."
Tommaso Maioli, of Florence, was a famous book-collector,

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF TANNERS 383
who stamped his treasures "11 Maio/i et Amicorum." His style
of binding set the fashion of the day for delicacy and richness of
material and workmanship. His favourite material was the finest
white kid, with gold enrichments. His cbaste manner however
soon gave way to an almost embarrassing richness of decorative
detail, so that Florentine books of the sixteenth century are
remarkable for the variety and elaboration of their bindings.
Wood, silver, ivory, parchment, enamelled plaques, papier-mãché,
embroidered textures, and every possible material, was put under
contribution, and enrichments of pearls, precious stones, and gold-
work were added.
It would of course be quite impossible to describe at length
the various uses to which the skilful Florentine Tanners put the
leather they manipulated. Tbey produced in short the whole of
the base-material which formed the industries of such indispensable
craftsmen as Shoemakers, Saddlers, Bookbinders, Shieldmakers,
Wall-hangers, Chair-upholsterers, etc. etc. Painters, Modellers,
Bas-relief workers, and many other artistic artificers" looked to the
Tanners for the substance upon which to place their beautiful
workmanship.
Quite a speciality of the leather-workers' trade was the ren-
dering of the hides of various animais, by repeated soakings and
boilings in the tan pits, soft and maileable for mouldings. CIIOI'o-
Juso,-boiled leather,-as it is called, was shaped by pressure,
when damp, and then upon, and in, its surface were stamped and
cut ornaments of all kinds, both in high and low relief, after the
manner of wood-carving. This decorative process was called.
" block stamping."
Articles in leather so treated were usually stained black or
rich dark madder-brown, and examples are to be found in every
collection of Art Treasures, in the various shapes of :-Bellows,
book-backs, chair-backs and seats, writing-cases, picture-fra.mes,
door-panels, wall-friezes and hangings, pouches and bags, boxes of
all kinds, etc. etc. CWJi'o-lesso was employed in the thirteentb
and fourteenth centuries by the fitters of suits of armour, as elbow,

Digitized by GoogLL ~
384 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
knee, and loin guards. Thanks to this fashion very many most
valuable documents have been preserved in their ornamental
leather cylindrical cases.
The Guild continued its successful career far on into tbe
sixteenth century; but, inasmuch as Francis I. of France and
other royal patrons encouraged workmen to settle in their
dominions, Florentine Tanners and Leather-dressers were amongst
those wbo found homes in foreign lands, and, thus, uniting with
native workers, carried on their industry, whilst in consequence
Florence wa5 the poorer.

• 3

r. "Stemma tle/1 'Arte 2. "StnnnuJ tlelf Arll tlegli J. Sle~~~m•

tkU Am
.ü' Viretúti#ri .. A IIJergalori" de' Gtúilfll ..
Bl~e cup in a white Gold atar upon a ailver A reei stripe npoo a
field field white field

/.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 CHAPTER. XIII
'l'HE GUILDS OF OIL- MERCHANTS AND GENERAL
PROVISION DEALEBS, OF SADDLEBS, AND OF
LOCKSMITHS
U .ARTI DEGLI OLI.ANDOLI B PIZZIO.AGNOLI, E Dif OOBEGGI.Al
E Dif OHI.A V.AIUOLI
I. OJL M&RCHANTS.- Tuscany an agricultura! country. Land-tenure.
Mn1en"a. "Share-and-share alike." The M116aáro and bis PtHinY. Sir
Richard Dallincton's commeots upoo the soil, etc. Farm labeurers. Catde.
Crops. Sheep. Poultry. Silk-cocoons. Fruit. Vegetables. Fine physique
of peasantry. Leonardo da Vinci's modela. " David.• Contadí'tu. Luca
della Robbia's models. Happy people. Canlastorie. Cultivation of the olive.
La Mosca oúaria. Fatton". Sales of land. Tbe Guild of Oil-merchants
essentially the Guild of the country people. Many small dealers. Early sales-
men. lmportance of pork and salt. Biadat"uoli join the Guild. Sbops in the
Mercato Vecchio. Standard weights and measures. Limitations of sales.
Unlicensed persons fined and imprisoned. Women beaten I Sunday closing.
No loiterers allowed. Perfect wholesomeness of comestibles. Fines. Risks
from tire. Straw and fire-woocl. Bargemen of tbe Amo. List of saleable
articles at the shops. Cheese of Lucardo. Custom dues on importa. No
goose! Monopoly of salt. ltalian warehousemen ofto-day.
Il. SADDLERS.-Horsemanship. Agnolo Pandolfini. Duke Federigo's
broken nose I // Corh"giaiUJ. Giostre-Games. "To win one's spurs." Saddles,
Hamess, Stirrups, Scabbarda, Shields, etc. Brunetto Latini •• On Horses."
Jobbers and Horse-dealers. Pack·animals. Many Crafts affiliated to the
Guild. Six classes of members. lmitation pig-skin. Kinds of shields.
S&arse//e,-Pouches. The "Guild of Painters" and goocl workmanship.
111. LocJtSMJTHS.- An ancient Craft. Diversan"11"' arli11"' S&Mdtl/4.
Early Florentine craftsmen. Affiliated trades. Scrap-iron. Engravers in copper.
111-written and iU-spelled documenta. Tests of slciU required before admission
to tbe Guild. Early prosperity. Fashionable triftes. Cardinal Wolsey>s horse-
bamess. Sunny skies aft"ect workmanship. Wax models. Fine bi'OIUe·work.
Famous "Masters of metal." Damascening. R.ich cabinets. Benvenuto
Cellini. Embossing. Francesco dei Prato. Artistic tools. Sa/w/
I. L' ARTE DEGLI ÜLIANDOLI E PIZZICAGNOLI
CC L A Toscana e ,.egi'one nninmtemmto agn"cola "-" Tuscany is
pre-eminently an agricultura! country,"-was a well-wom
axiom erstwhile the civilisation of the Renaissance dawned upon
the fruitful Vale of Amo.
28

D1gítízed byG~o-
386 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The form of land tenure in Tuscany during the period of the
Renaissance, and that still largely in vogue, was the M eueria-
•• share and share alike." lt was the outcome of the Feudal
system, and preserved many of ib features. Each estate was
divided into so many poderi, or fields, averaging between thirty and
forty acres. Half the produce went to the landlord and half
was retained by the MusadrtJ-peasant-farmer. Tbere was
bowever a tacit understanding that the year's barvest was split
into three portions, one of wbicb was always kept out of the
reckoning i
The Messadn held bis land by a contract with the landlord,
whicb, although nominally only binding for a year, or from year
to year, was treated practically as a life-interest, and commonly
passed on from father to son.
Sir Ricbard Dallington speaking of the sterility of the soil
of Tuscany, and of the extraordinary patience and diligence
of the peasantry in cultivating " fruites, herbages, and graine,"
says 1 : - " Tbe nature of the soile is generally ligbt and sandy.
But by reason of the cities and great towns neare, and the
number of the people it is mucb forced, and made more fruitful
For there are those wbo all . their life-time doe nothing but
with their asse go up and downe the cities, gathering up the
dung in the streets, and carrying it to the land of those with
wbom they have bargained." He also refers to the system of the
divisions of the poderi, and says :-" The country man will stirre
of tbem eigbteen with bis two yoke of oxen,-the one yoke
feeding while the other laboureth,-in one day. He bath for bis
labour foure crui'e apiece, wbicb is three balfpence sterling, so
that he and ·bis beasts earne som foure sbillings, sixpence sterling
the day. • . ."
Tbe same old chronicler goes on to say :-" On the hill sides
they grow acoms, olives and cbestnuts, for acoms," be continues,
•• they eat, and so do their pigs. Olives they eat not, but crush
them to export the oil, chestnuts are the countryman's bread as
1 "Survey of tbe Estale of tbe Great Duke," pp. ,30-36.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 387
water is bis drink." He remarks also tbat Florentines appeared
to be excessively fond of green-stuff, and says :-" Herbage is the
most generall food of the Tuscans, at wbose tables a sallet is as
ordinary as salt is at ours." Figs too formed, in tbe fifteentb
and sixteenth centuries, a profitable source of revenue to the culti-
vator ; tbe best kinds were called " Brugaotti."
Expenses necessary for the upkeep of tbe farm-buildings, and
for the plantation of trees, were met by the landlord, wbo also was
part owner of the spans of oxén used on tbe podere, and in
addition paid the taxes upon the land On the other band,
labour, wbicb was beyond the strength of the mezzadro, was paid
for by bim, sucb payment generally consisting simply of board
and lodging. Tbe mezzadro's usual belpers were bis younger
brothers and bis sons, wbo lived somewbat bugger-mugger in the
farmbouse. Hired labourers were at a discount, as they were
usually townsmen out of work, or spare bands wbo bore doubtful
reputations. 1
Upon eacb p()(/we were a roomy labourer farmer's cottage, a
stable and yard for cattle, a sbed for fodder, a vat-house for
grapes, and an oil-press, all of wbicb were the property of tbe
landlord.
The mezzadro knew exactly the capabilities of eacb portion of
his holding, and understood all about the proper rotation of crops.
His principal objects of cultivation were vines, olives, wbeat, beans,
and millet for forage, wbich kept bim pretty busy the year
tbrougb. Mulberry-trees, cbestnuts, and oaks, with flax, bemp,
fruit, and vegetables claimed also bis care and labour.
Whilst be looked after bis pigs ·bis spouse minded the poultry,
and sbe too made the butter and the cheese, and grew her flowers
and sweet herbs, and pther items, for the market To ber was
.assigoed the care of the bees and the rendering of the boney.
Many a goodwife bad, besides, ber trays and drawers of silkworms
.and silk-cocoons, under the patronage of the " Guild of Silk," and
.she also spent much of ber time in spinning flax, plaiting straw,
.and in assisting ber busband to make wicker baskets.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
388 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The breeding of cattle and of sheep, only indirectly, formed
part of the peasant-fanner's occupation, for, generally speaking.
in the neighbourhood of Florence, the herds and flocks, were the
property and business of the Beaai,-wbolesale breeders and
butcbers,-and cbiefty ranged almost wild througb the Maremm~
tbe low lands by the seaside. Horses, bowever, and mules and
goats, claimed the attention of the nuslltldro, along with his oxen
and bis dogs-the latter he used to watch bis crops and bis stock_
and to give notice of intruders.
The Tuscan peasants were a fine well-developed race with
handsome brown faces and intelligent expressions. Tbe vigour
begotten of healthy open-air life and constant toil and exercise
conduced to sobriety, and simplicity, wbich made for natural
courtesy of manner.
The " David " of Donatello,-the first nude bronze of the
Renaissance,-represents truthfully the peasant-boy of Tuscany
just budding into manhood. lt was characterised by Leonardo
da Vinci as a " perfect figure." Michael Angelo's " David " was
modelled from just such a youth, alert and conscious of strength
and fine condition. Many handsome fann lads like the sbepberd
boy of Israel found their way daily into Florence witb market
produce. The two statues are quite typical of the race to whicb
the young peasants belonged.
Leonardo, bimself a son of the soil, was possessed of immense
physical strength and high spirits. He used to go out into the
poderi and chat with the fann-la~urers. Nothing pleased him
more than to make well formed youths jump, wrestle, and climb
trees, that he might behold their muscular channs, and transfer
their bodily perfection to his pictures. In I so6 he painted a
comely young man, seated upon a grassy mound, bis head crowned
with vine leaves. The fonn is purely Florentine, and the physical
beauty of every part indicates the fine qualities of the Tuscan
peasant. The picture is entitled "Saint John Baptist," but it is
more truly a representation of a trimmer of vines and a presser of
olives-a Renaissance " Bacchus " I

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 389
Tbe great Florentine was also in bis element wben telling
groups of lounging peasants ridiculous stories, wbicb convulsed
tbem with laugbter, for then be swiftly sketcbed their attitudes
.and expressions.
And if these great artists bave preserved to us tbe traits of
manly cbaracter and vigour, the Della Robbia, Rapbael, and
Andrea dei Sarto, and many more beside, have given us tbe
no less striking cbarms of tbe contadine, old and young. Tbe
terra-cottas of Luca Della Robbia, in particular, reproduce faitb-
fully the two types of the women of tbe Renaissance. Stateliness
of carriage and solemnity of manner are characteristic of the silent
<:ountry-life of the bills, wbere the drama of nature is ever being
enacted. In the other type, the abandon of town life in the valley
wbere all is gay and busy lends assurance to the bearing. Tbe
... Madonna and Child " of tbe Via dell' Agnolo is at once tbe
true representation of a bealtby, radiant peasant woman and ber
babe, and ~be symbol of tbe intelligence of the Renaissance.
Tbe peasants of the Contado and beyond were happy people,
and beguiled the monotony of their daily toil witb jests and songs.1
As soon as one ended what be knew, another burst fortb with the
melody, eacb vieing witb bi& neigbbour in friendly rivalry. Who-
ever could sing tbe most songs was acclaimed the leader. Parties
of songsters were wont to frequent the fairs and public games, an'"d
exbibit their vocal powers, getting for their recompense many a
ftowing bowl of good red wine, and a supper fit for a king, at one
or other of the bospitable bostelries I Tbese popular ditties were
known by the name of " Cantastwü," and none went with a better
swing than those wbich they sang on May momings.
Something of wbat a country-man looked like in the fifteentb
century may be seen in a woodcut of the Rooke's Paune in Jacopo
de Cessolis' " GifiO«IuJ delk Scaa'":" " Tbis manner of people," be
says, " is figured . in the sbape of a man boldynge in bis
right hand a spade or sbovell, and a rodde in tbe left band. Tbe
spade or shovell is for to delve and labour tberewitb tbe eartb, and
J "Italian Folk· Lore Songs."

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
890 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the rodde is for to dryve or conduycte with all the bestes into the
pastures. Also he ought to have in bis gyrdell a crokyd hachet
for to cutte of the superftuytees of the vignes and trees. ••
The cultivation of ~e olive-tree was a very important branch
of country life. Planting, irrigating, pruning, and shaking, called
for constant attentions, for no tree is more fickle in the matter of

"D&Ll.A\' ORATOR.It "-FAJUC LABOOR.ER. FIF1'1UtNTH C&NTOR.Y

bearing. The oliveyards of Tuscany vied with the vineyards

in area under cultivation. W ealthy citizens owned scores and
hundreds of trees, whilst the humblest contadino had bis two or
three.
Agricultural ways are slow to change, for, in the present day,
the methods of shaking and collecting the dark purple-green
fruit are exactly those of five hundred years ago. Big canvas
sheets are spread upon the ground under each tree, into which
nimble youths climb armed with long thin sticks to shake gently
each branch and cluster, so that the berries shall not be injured

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 391
by their fall The value in ordinary yea~ of the yield of each
tree-beating averaged ten to twelve gold florins, equal to ~ 5 or
~6 of our money.
Tuscan oliveyards were always more or less troubled by
visitations of the dreaded Mosca o/eana, the olive pest Expedients
of many kinds were employed year after year to check its ravages,
which sometimes caused th~ entire failure of the crop, and more-
over weakened the tree for future bearings.
The methods employed for the extraction of the oil weré
pretty much those now in use ali over Italy. Each podere had
its olive-press and dearing-mill,--generally lumbering construc-
tions of wood and iron,-which were worked both by hand and
by ox-power. The price of good average olive-oil in the fifteenth
century was six /ire ten so/di a barrel-equal to one-half a pack-
mule or ass burden. The best oil was produced at Lucca, Calei
and Buti to the north of Florence.
That there was an ample and constant supply of fruit of all
kinds for consumption in Florence, is borne out by the character-
istic summary which Buonaccorso Pitti gives in his " Chronicle " of
the fruit trees in his garden. He says : " On the twenty-fourth
of April in the year I 4 I 9, bein~ my natal day, I counted all the
fruit trees in my garden and vineyard, and found that, exclusive of
hazel-nuts, they amounted to five hundred and sixty-one, of fig
trees-sixty four, of peaches--one hundred and six, of plums-
eighty, of cherry trees-fifty-eight, of almond-trees-twenty-four,
of apples--twenty five, and of ~ixteen. There are besides
six orange trees, seven pomegranates, two quinces, four walnuts,
and nine Amarini-bitter cherry. In addition to sixty olive trees
in full bearing there are a great many more fruit trees of all kinds,
which have not yet borne any crop, but maybe they will if the
drought does not trouble them." 1
The Fat.twe--bailiff.-was the owner's agent, and superintended
the working of the different poderi, and rendered hi~ master a
bi-annual account These men were sometimes cruel to the
1 "Cronica," p. u:a.

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392 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
,ezzadn", and not always too honest in their relations with the
landlord ; but, generally speaking, they were conspicuous for
faimess and discrimination in their dealings. Many of them,
after serving a lengthy stewardship on the land and having
acquired some considerable property, settled in the city, and
became Wine-merchants, General provision dealers and Jnnkeepers.

OLIV& PR&SS-KND OF SJXT&&NTH CltNTURY

Indeed it was no uncommon .custom for a Fattore to be matri-

culated in one of the A rli, " dé Vinattilri," " degli 0/iandoú:"
or " degli A/6ergatori" ; and this spread to the better-to-do
muzadri, who thus were able to carry on the combined trade
of growers and salesmen.
Some idea of the conditions of property, and of the relations
between landlord and tenant, may be gained from the example
of Guido dei Antella, who has been already named in this book.
That he was a man of means is shown by the fact of bis letting
certain premises for shops. One of these had a rental of fifteen

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 393
gold florins a year, with "a fat goose at the Feast of Ali
Saints each year according," as he is careful to add, " to the
feudal custom." In 1379 he let a piece of land,-or ptxúre,--on
condition that the tenant sbould yield him at Christmas, one
hundred and fifty pounds weight of pork, with a couple of capons,
and tive dozen eggs ; and at Easter, a couple of capons and five
dozen eggs. In addition the farmer was bound to detiver by bis
waggon the portions of wheat, oats, and oil, and half the portion of
wine which were bis due as proprietor. The farmer too bad to
tend certain vines belonging to bis landlord, and had to break in
each year two span of oxen which he had to part·purchase.
Sales of land were generally effected at Or San Michele
where a number of AgremetUori-Surveyors--were in daily attend-
ance. Their fee was one gold florin for each sale effected, with
what we now call a stamp-duty of nine soldi.

This Guild,-the eighth in the order of Precedence among the

fourteen Lesser Guilds,-was essentially the Guild of the Market
people. Under its white banner, charged with the singularly
appropriate arms of the Guild,--a red lion gardant under a green
tree,-were ranged not only lordly growers of olive trees, owners
of fruitful orchards, makers of country cheese, and sportsinen
keen after game, but every sort and kind of great and sl'nall
dealers in the numberless necessaries of daily life.
The Guild provided a common union of persons occupied in
avocations of an agricultural character, just in the same way as the
•• Arle de' Rigattieri •• furnished a comprehensive Corporation for
citizens engaged in small industrial pursuits.
The precise date of the first enrolment of the "Arte der/i
01ia111ÚJ/i e PissicagPwli" is, as with most of the other Guilds,
absolutely uncertain. Early records have disappeared, and tbe
first historical notices of the existence of some of the trades,
united in the Guild, appear to be as follows : -
" I 021. Flormtitu--palian"us-Straw-seller!'
"1084- Bontuf.foleantUS--óaro (for banú/o)--Hawker.'•

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--
394 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
" I I 04- Bmúo--okarius-Oil-merchant."
" I I39· Lfi/Jaaia-lo triao--Fruit and Vegetable-dealer."
" I 188. Aris#o---piuicario-Victualler."
" 1 19 I. Ugo/in.u-granario--Com-chandler."
" I 2 1 1. lspmallo-kasdajllto--Cheese-monger."
In the first list of the Guilds, that of the year 1236, the
"Arte deg/i 0/iando/i e Pissicagnoli" is placed fifteenth. The
revision of I 266 preserved the same order, but gave to the
"Guild of Oil-Merchants and General Provision Dealers" suitable
armorial bearings.
The list of Guilds, made in I 282, makes no mention o( the
" A rle deg/i 0/iando/i e Pissicagnoli," but instead we see, in the
fifteenth position, the "Arte dei Vmdi~ri de/ Sak"-"the Guild
of Salt-merchants." This was still the designatioll' of the Guild in
1 29 5, in which year the " Guild o f Salt " is named in the Archives.
The reason may be found in the fact, that as the city grew in
population, so grew in estimation the merchants and dealers whose
business relations were of the greatest value to the citizens.
At the reformation and rearrangement of the Guilds in 141 5
the fifteenth place was taken by the "Arte de' Galigai," "the
"Guild of Tanners" and the "Guild of Oil-Merchants and General
Provision Dealers " was put ·sixteenth. Why this loss of pre-
cedence was effected it is impossible to say, anyhow the Tanners
maintained their superiority till the very• break-up of the Guilds in
the sixteenth century.
There is an entry in the Archives of the Menansia dated
1328, of judgment delivered against a certain GranaiMO/o--grain-
merchant of the " Guild of Bakers," and in favour of the Consuls of
the " Guild of Oil-merchants." The title of the Guild is given
in full, and it includes a variety of curiously linked industrles :
Biadaiuo/i-Com-chandlers, Casdaiuoú:____cheese-factors, Biallierai
- Glass-blowers, F11nai- Twine-pullers, and Saponai- Soap-
boilers. In I 380 the Biadaiuoli threw in their lot with the
0/iando/i and. ceased to be a separate association.
Although no special proofs are at hand to show, there can be

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CORN-CHANDLER ANO I.IAKF.R
NOTE :-THK CIRCULAR FESTIVAL CAKK"i.

Digitized byGoogle
 I

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 895

no doubt that the " Guild of Oil-Merchants and General Provision

Dealers " followed the example of the Crafts in the adoption of
the Statutes of the "Calimala" of I 30I-1309, with certain adjust-
ments to circumstances, as a code of moral and commercial
procedure.
Early memoriais and acts of Consuls or. Councils have
perished, consequently we cannot discover the exact number, or
the duties, of the various officers, nor indeed can we obtain a
complete list of ali the trades and callings which were allied under
the banner of the Guild.
That the chief offi.cials had the rank at ali events ultimately
of Consul is perhaps shown by the fact of their Residence being
situated in the basement of the Palazzo de' Lamberti, the upper
part of which edifice was occupied by the Consuls and Courts of
the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries." lt is however of
special interest to record that Savonarola established bis famous
"Monte di Pieta " in the same basement which also bore the
name of " La Casa di Pigli "-as a set-off to the exactions and
rapacity of the Jewish money-lenders.
Happily the Statutes of I 4 1 5 have been preserved, and in
them we see ample evidence of the importance, prosperity, and
admirable government of the members of the Guild.1 The fol-
lowing are some of the interesting items which may be gathered
from a perusal of the three portly volumes.
AU Provision dealers, whether members of the " Guild of Oil-
Merchants and General Provision Dealers " or not, were required
to provide themselves with weights and measures strictly in
accordance with the established standards, and were further
obliged to exhibit them to the State official inspectors. Ali
utensils of capacity were to be approved by the Consuls of the
Guild, and patterns of those articles approved were kept at the
Residence for imitation.1
On no account were such dealers to sell fresh fish but only
such descriptions as had been salted or dried. Eggs, cheese,
1 Statata P. et C. Ftorentiae, 1415, YOI. ü. 111. ' Rubi. xciii. anel xciY., 1415.

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i

396 1'HE GUILDS OF FLORENCE

chickens, mushrooms, small birds, venison, and game of all kinds,
were all marketable commodities on their stalls.1
The export of foodstuffs from Florence,--city and Colllado,-
was very strictly prohibited. Included in the prohibition were :-
Grain of all kinds, ears of com, vegetables, oUves and olive oil,
fat beasts, oxen, pigs, wine, fresh meat, fish, undressed hides, fruits,
cheese, and victuals of every kind.2
It was strictly forbidden to offer grain for sale mixed with
chaff, seeds, or any other matter. Blades of wheat were not to be
steeped in water to swell them before being exposed in the Market,
Gra*'liuo/i,--Com-chandlers,-guilty of such conduct were mulcted
in heavy penalties. They were moreover required to state the
place of origin of their merchandise, and on no account to sub-
stitute the crop coming from one locality for one issuing from
another.8
V egetable-dealers, whether men or women, were not allowed
to offer for sale any sort of grain in quantities exceeding t\\'0
staioi-bushels--unless with the special license of the Officials of
Or San Michele. No dealers in vegetables were permitted to
purchase fruit or vegetables before the hour of "Nones," nor to
frequent public places where wholesale salesmen were before that
hour. Women were forbidden to hawk green produce about the
streets. Green nuts were also forbidden to be sold. I t was strictly
prohibited to carry through the streets, or to offer for sale, more
than three bunches of unripe grapes. Ripe wine grapes were also
forbidden as marketable commodities.'
On Sundays, and ali through Holy Week, the sale of green-stuff
in the Mercato V ecchio was absolutely prohibited. All fruiterers
and dealers in vegetables were required to .appear in the month
of }anuary each year, before the Market Officials, and swear to
carry on their business honestly, peacefully, and diligently.s
The sale of certain articles was absolutely forbidden in the
squares, bridges, and certain õther localities :-Olives, fruit, vege-
1 Rubs. xcv., xc•i., 1415- 1 Rab. clmi., 1415.
3 Rub. clix., 1415. 4 Rub. clxi., 1415.
1 Rubs. ccxxiii., ccxxiY., ccxxv., ccxxvi., ccnvii., ccxniii., 1415.

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 397
tables, grass, straw, cheese, eggs, fish, geese, small birds, chickens,
foxes, bares, and venison. Hawkers of such were not allowed to
stand in front of the Market-stalls or street shops of established
tradesmen.
Poultry, vegetables, fruit, eggs, game, venison, and other like
produce could not be offered for sale in the Markets or shops if
the place of origin was outside a nine-mile radius. Thrushes and
bJackbirds were on no account allowed to be offered for sale in
Florence. Quails might be sold only in August, September and · ·
October. 1
No lnnkeeper, Vegetable-dealer, or anybody who traded in
such things, was allowed to buy in the streets, bridges, or squares
the following coinestibles :-pigs, kids, calves, chickens, pigeons,
eggs, cheese, and joints of fresh meat, or sows with litters. The
last prohibition held good also in the case of butchers. Pork·
butchers were not allowed to use the same slaughter-houses as
those occupied by the Be«at: Pigs indeed could only be killed
between September and March. In the shops of the Guild every
kind of salt meat was on sale, and also fish salted and dried.•
lf any fruiterer or poulterer of whatever condition ventured to
buy mushrooms, cheese, eggs, chickens, or poultry of any kind
and venison, or to loiter about where such things were offered for
sale before the hour of " nones "-with or without license-or
to wait within two hundred yards, he or she was liable to a. fine
of ten /ire, which if he or she could not, or would not pay, then the
man was put in prison for a month, and the woman was beaten
through the streets with a stick I a
Ali Provision dealers were obliged to appear in the month of
january each year before the Market authorities and their notary,
and to pay over a sum of fifty silver florins by way of security
for their honest. dealings with the poorer people. They were
under the same schedule of Statutes as were the millers and
bakers with respect to the sale of grain and baked meats.•
1 Rab. ccsxix., 1415. 1 Rab. ccsu., 1415-
'Rab. c:esuü., 1415. • Rabs. ccsl., ccsli., 1415.
398 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
The olive-oil thcy offcred for sale had to be pure and clear
and sweet-smelling, and meat stuffs of whatever kind required
correct marking-substitution of inferior for superioc qualities were
closely watched. I f any comestible was found to be bad or
mouldy, the dealer was visited with a fine of twenty lire.1
The measures for oil were the same as for wine, and each
cask, jar, bowl, ewer, bottle, or other utensil, had to bear in clear
figures the quantity which it was reputed to hold No oil-
merchant could have in his shop at the same time more than four
jars of olive oil, which were labelled with the name of the olive
yard and thc olive-grower. Dcaling in oil between private persons
was forbidden, as also was its hawking about the city.1
Provision dealers who supplied candles were enjoined · to see
that they were made of good tallow, and had serviceable cotton
wicks. Ali inferior descriptions were seized and destroyed by the
Market officials. The boiling and melting of tallow for making
candles was forbidden within sixty yards of any principal street.1
Sellers of straw, fire-wood, and other buming materiais, \vere
required to appear each January before the Market officials, and
to promise solemnly to observe all thc regulations and bye-laws
affecting their calling : failure to appear incurred a fine of fifty
/ire. At the same time no combustible matter was allowed to be
stored for sale within the city walls.'
Cautions were further addressed to the packers of loads of
straw and in6ammable materiais. The burden for each donkey
was not to exceed two hundred pounds in weight, and to be com-
pactly and evenly ordered. V egetable-dealers, and othcrs of like
calling, were also cautioned about the bulk of fire-wood they led
into the city.. No timber of more than two yards in length and
two hundred pounds in weight was permitted for each animal'
Restrictive laws were in force also witb respect to the amount
of firing which a citizen might purchase. In the case of private
houses no more than two ass loads were allowed, at factories and
l kub. cc:dii., 1415. 1 Rubi. cc:diii., c:cxliv., c:cxlv., 1415-
a N.ub'l. ccxl•i., ccxlvii., 1415. • Rubi. cccxlviii., CCClllix., 1415-
1 Rubi. ccL, ccli., 1415-

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 399
shambles larger quantities were permissible. No one was per-
mitted to hawk about, in carts or on pack animais, coais, pitwood,
straw, or any other such matters.1
The barge and boat men of the Arno were under strict regu-
lations and bye-laws. Once a year in the month of January they
were required to give security to the amount of one hundred /ire,
that they would neither lade, carry, nor land, any contraband or
merchandise which was contrary to the laws of the State. They
were forbidden to load for export grain, vegetables_ olive-oil, fruit,
bulls, oxen, pigs, wine, cheese,-beyond an hundred pounds in
weight,-salt-meat, fish, lake-tench, baked-bread above a bushel,
mushrooms, and all other comestibles, scheduled for home con..
sumption by the officials of Or San Michele.1
In spite of ali these careful, not to say restrictive, measures,
the operative classes, and many even among the better to do
dtizens, were remarkable for their disregard of the ordinary roles
of eating. Improper food, ill-fed meat, and bad qualities, were as
little considered as were, in badly managed homes, the simple and
deanly laws of cooking. Many P1't1VVisioni were passed against
purveyors supplying inferior descriptions of food to the poor, and
against uncleanliness in the preparation of the people's table.
The Statutes of the Guild were revised and added to in 1345,
1415, and 1529. At the final grouping of the Lesser Guilds
in 1534, the "Arle túrli 0/imu/o/i e Ptlsicagnoli" was included in
the first University of the four along with the Beccai, and the
Fornai, and the Association was styled "U11iversita di Por San
Piero "-" University of Saint Peter's Gate." .

Whilst a complete list of all the articles sold by the Oil-

merchants anel General Provision Dealers would be a very lengthy
document, it will suffice to schedule the following, as being the
principal items :-Olives--fresh and bottled, olive-oil----of various
qualities, olive-wood ashes-for religious and domestic purposes,
crushed olive beans, cedar fruit, dried cedar-wood-for fumigations,
1 R.ub. ccUi., 141.5- • Rub. ccliv., 141.5-

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 400 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
pine-cones--for buming, mulberry leaves--for silk-wonns, chest-
nuts--whole and powdered, sweet oranges, cueumbers-fresh and
pickled, beans--whole, crushed, and salted, herbs--fresh and dried.
cereais. and com stufrs, all sorts of fruit and vegetables, cheese,
butter, eggs, salt, pork-fresh and salted, beans, sausages, lard,
dried fish of all kinds, dried meat-whole or in powder, and every
other sort of foodstuff.
In another category were :-Straw-in bundles, or made into
bands and mats, rope and string, sieves, hoops for tubs, tubs,
casks, barreis baskets, nets, wicker-cases for oil-jars and wine-
ftasks, willow-withs, bottles and glass articles of ali kinds,
pitchers and pots--in stone, earthenware, and metal, ftails--for
thrashing com, canvas--of ali lengths and strengths, soap, tallow,
grease, candles--wax and tallow, pitch, tar, and what not
In Franco Sacchetti, Simone della Tosa, the Peruzzi Codex,
the " Li/Jro di M ontaperti," -the accounts of the Alberti, the PrtiV-
vüion•~ and other sources, we find a great number of interesting
details about the values and prices of commodities of all kinds
in Florence during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteentb
centuries.1
The best cheese came from Lucardo, in the V al d'Elsa,
" where they make good cheese," as the common report had it.
Much also was imported from Sicily and Sardinia, as well as from
Apulia, but upon ali such foreign supplies a tax of ten soldi was
charged, for each thirty pounds of weight.
On October 13th, 1 330, notice was given to the Officials of
the " M ercauia," of tbe arrival at Leghom, of a ship laden, among
other things, with three hundred and fifteen jars or casks of
clear olive-oil, eighty-five of unrefined oil, and forty thousand
pounds of Apulian cheese.1
The Customs officials at the Gates were a very acute sort of
men, and in truth they had need to be, for in a trice they could
detect the massive gold chain of a Siena M agniji&o underneath bis
l See Perreus, voL iíi., Appendix.
1 Meramzia, 1415, f. 127.

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 GENERAL PROVISION DEALERS 401

silken jerkin, and punish him by annexing not only it, but the
good cob he was riding also ! The Market people suffered greatly
at the hands of these nimble gentry. Sir Richard Dallington
says : " I saw a poore country-woman, who coming to the
gate to pay her tolle for a basket of Lettice she brought in :
one of the foxes, who I thinke could smell a goose, for he could
not possibly see any, searched under the hearbes, and finding one
dead without feathers, sent the poore woman away halfe dead for
sorrow, without her goose I" 1
Whilst Florentines were moderate in the consumption of
butchers' meat, they were very partial to a preparation called
"Mi.rchiasto,"--desiccated beef,-an import from Barbary. This
meat powder was on sale at ali the shops of the Guild.
The worldly wisdom of the Florentines in their aptitude for
striking good bargains is amusingly illustrated by a wise saw of
the period with respect to the purchase of grain :-" When you buy
oats look out that the measure is not filled too quickly, for it will
always sink two or three per cent. ; but when you se/1, fill quickly
and your oats will grow ! " 2
The monopoly of salt was in the hands of the State, which
owned the ancient pits at Volterra, Portoferraio, and Castiglione ;
but upon the "Guild of Oil-Merchants and General Provision
Dealers " devolved the retail-sale of this indispensable commodity.
So important to the community at large was its supply that in
I 266 the Guild became popularly known as the "Arte dei Venditon·
dei Sale"-" The Guild of Salt-Merchants."
The price charged at the shops of the Guild for salt varied with
the circumstances of the time, for upon no other article did the
legislators of the Republic fasten new taxes so readily and stif:Ry.
The treatment of Salt was on a par with the exercise of the
other industries of the city, and Florentine Salt-Merchants became
famous. A document, dated November 16th, 1564, is in the
possession of the Paganelli family, by which Queen Elizabeth of
• "Survey of the Great Duke'a Estate," p. 67.
t G. Biagi, "The Prin.te Lüe of the Renaisaance Florentine," p. 24-
2C

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402 THE GUILDS o~· FLORENCE
England grants to Tommaso Baroncelli of Florence, the priYilege
of introducing into England the art of refining and bleaching saJt,
as practised in Florence, and the monopoly of manufacturing white
salt, for a period of twenty years.
The cc Arte der/i 0/iando/i" was after all not wholly confined to
Florence, but sent out branches far and wide. U nder the style of
cc Italian Warehousemen" General Provision Dealers have long
been known in England. In the shop of any such a tradesman may
be seen to,.day most, if not all, the heterogeneous articles which
úsed to make the salesmen of old Florence busy in supplying
daily wants.

11. L' ARTE DE' COREGGIAI

Few things were regarded with more pride among Florentines
of the Renaissance tban the art of Horsemanship. To begin with
the ownership of a riding-horse was esteemed as a passport to
good society, although with respect to the use of mounts by the
Messeri of the cc Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries " very little
attempt was made by sucb worthies to ride a horse for riding's
sake I
The curriculum of all the physical-culture schools of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries included skill in horse exercise.
Agnolo Pandolfini,-" The Peaceful Citizen" ( 136o- I 446), as be
was acclaimed by bis fellow citizens,-had at bis villa at Segni
twenty highly bred and trained borses. He was an adept at
every sort of physical exercise, and in tbe pursuit of every fashion-
able sport ; and be trained bis sons, bis apprentices, and bis
servants, to follow in his footsteps.
Vittorino da Feltre also (1397-1446), the founder of the
celebrated Pbysical-Culture Scbool at Mantua, placed borseman-
sbip and bunting in bis list of obligatory exercises for the noble
youths wbo were committed to bis charge.
Tbe great Duke Federigo d'Urbino,-bimself a pupil of
Vittorino,-was a proficient in all manly sports. He adopted the
profession of arms, and joined tbe troop of the Condottiere Niccolo

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 GUILD OF SADDLERS 403
Peccinino. He bore in bis body bonourable marks of bis prowess,
inasmucb as at a Jousting, outside the town gate, be bad the
misfortune to lose an eye and to break bis nose I
Among the exercises necessary for a gentleman, laid down by
Conte Baltazzare di Castiglione, in his world-famous book, "li
Cortigia110,"-" Tbe Courtiea',"-publisbed in I S3 I, was horse-
manship. " I would bave," he says, " tbat a gentleman sbould be
a perfect borseman in every respect-skilled in riding, running at
tbe ring and tilting, . . • hunting tbe wild-boar and bull. • . ."
In the days of the " olde cbivalrie," wben not engaged in
active bostilities witb foreign foes, young warriors found outlets for
their exuberant vigour in tbe toumaments. Tbese were at first
bloody combats wherein one, sometimes both, of the combatants
were slain. Sucb sanguinary encounters were suppressed by
Sacred Canon from Rome, and instead were instituted less
sanguinary pastimes. To these Florentines applied the title
" Giostre."
The great Giostre were beld at tbe principal Cburcb Festivais.
Tbe Tilting-ground was of considerable extent to allow of a free
gallop for the borses. Eacb knigbt bad to ride three courses.
Tilting at " 11 Sarad110 "-the Moor--our " Turk's Head I " -
offered opportunities for fearless borsemansbip.
To "win bis spurs" was the ambition of every esquire, and
indeed tbe dream of every youthful page. The esquire could
wear only sbort and plain silver spurs, wbilst tbe knigbt was
spurred in gold. Tbe use of spurs was a mark of independence
and autbority.
Such being the fasbion of the times tbere was an immense
scope for the employment of manipulative skill in the making of
saddles, bridles, stirrups, and ali the adjuncts of the stable an~
tbe course. Saddlers, Hamess-makers, Shield-makers, Scabbard-
makers, and the like bad their bands full of commissions, wbicb of
course called for greater skill, and provided greater gain, than tbe
world-old manufacture of ordinary cart and carriage bamess and
accoutrements.

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404 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
"There are," says Brunetto Latini, "horses of ali kinds--
chargers, or tall horses, for the combat, others for gentle exercises
use palfreys--which are also called amblers and hackneys, others
again employ pack-horses to carry loads.1 Mares were never used
for saddle purposes--indeed to offer a mare to a knight was
considered an insult : they were reserved for traction and pack-
horse purposes.
Horse-dealers and Horse-Jobbers formed a not inconsiderable
portion of . the Guild : at least Guildsmen were the acknowledged
agents between the raisers of stock in the Contado and beyond,
and the horse-buyers of the city. Doubtless, in this trade, they
were in a sense partners with the A/IJergaton", -Innkeepers,-
many of whom owned, or rented, stables for the baiting of travellers'
horses and mules.
The numbers of pack-animals and draught-horses were of
course considerable on the trade routes between the sea and
Florence, and upon the more distant lines of communication witb
France and Germany. Merchants and commercial travellers
looked to the dealers and jobbers of Florence, and the neigh-
bouring cities and townships, for their relays of convoy animais.
The Archives of Florence contain severa} records of Saddlers
and allied craftsmen, for example : -
" I o 3 I. M artinus-Cabellarius "-Horse-jobber.
" I 07 3· Aezo--SeUarius "-Saddler.
" I 076. Barone-Scutarius "-Shield-maker.
" I 1 o 1. Sicke/mus-Stafan"us "-Stirrup-maker.
" I 2 I I . Ristoro fi/. Pien"-Buorsajo "-Pouch-maker.
These various branches of the leather industry and others like
Bookbinding, Gauntlet-making and many fancy trades having a
common material and ministering to the wants of the fashionable
and the literary classes of Society, were quite naturally drawn
together, to the mutual advantage of ali.
The "A rle d~ Coreggiai" first appears in the list of Guilds in
1236, when it was placed twelfth in the order of the Fourteen
1 "11 Tesoro," 13th century.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF SADDLERS 405

Lesser Guilds. The same position was retained in the revisions

of 1266 and I 28o-82. In the latter year the style of the Guild
was added to and became' 'L'Arle de' Sano/acdai e Coreggiai e
Scwiai "-" The Guild of Hamess-makers, Saddlers, and Shield-
makers." Incorporated as a branch of the Guild an Association
of Bridle and Reins-makers is recorded in i 28 S under the style
of "L'Arte de' Frmai."
Among minor Associations affiliated to the Guild was that of
"Prestaton· di Ronsoni"-" Horse-dealerS and Jobbers," which is
frequently named in the years 1309-13I6. In I321 another
Company is mentioned-the " Vagr,·nari "-" Scabbard-makers."
The Guild must have prospered, for in I 4 I S it no longer
occupied its very lowly position in the Hierarchy of the Guilds,
but had advanced to the tenth place among the Lesser Guilds.

The first regular Statutes of the Guild were put forth in

130 I- I 309, as was the case with all the Guilds, Greater and
Lesser. They were revised and added to in 1342, I4I s, and
1 SOl. Under Consuls, whose numbers as usual vai'ied as circum-
stances required, but were always in excess of some other Lesser
Guilds, as representing the various associated trades-were the.
usual Guild officials.
The Saddlers were arranged in six classes :--(I) Makers of
saddles and hamess--for heavy haulage, and stirrups, (2) Car-
riage-reins and Bridle-makers, (3) Gold and silver Spurriers and
Horse-Armourers, (4) Makers of saddle-bows and pack-frames--
all of wood, ( S) Curriers, · who covered the wood-work with
leather, and (6) Saddle-Painters and Decorators.
The Shield-makers also were sub-divided :--( 1) Workers in
metal-frames, (2) Tumers of the wooden foundations, (3) Stretchers
and liners in leather, (4) Embossers and Painters. The other
constituents of the Guild were similarly sub-divided :-Hamess-
makers, Scabbard-makers, Gauntlet~makers, Bookbinders, etc. etc.
Under Cosimo I. in ·1 S30 the "Guild of Saddlers and Shield-
makers " was amalgamated with the " Shoemakers " and " Tanners "

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
406 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
in the third University of Le5ser Guilds, under the style of
"L' Universita de' Maestri di Cuoiame "-" the University of
Master Leather-Workers."
The Arms of the Guild were two red stripes upon a white
field. They were emblazoned upon the Banner, first given to the
Guild in I 266, and also appeared upon the Consuls' Residence.
With respect to saddles, their use for military purposes,

STIRRUP·MAKJtll'S SHOP. ltND OF SIXT&ItNTH CltNTURY

carne in with steel and iron armour. Men in armour could not
keep their balance without support, consequently for combats not
only were leather seats provided, but the flaps of the saddle were
made to enwrap the thighs of the horseman, and so give him a
steadier perch.
Saddles were by degrees provided with :--(I) the Tree or
Stretcher upon which to fix the leather-this was made of wood,
(2) the Seat proper, (3) the Skirt, and (4) the Flaps. The
"Tree" was usually made of beechwood upon an iron framework.

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF SADDLERS
Pig-skin was the customary leather used, but tricky saddlers were
not beneath using imitation skins, as many a borseman found to
bis cost!
Pillions and litters for ladies .attd for the sick, witb saddle-
cloths and borse-caparisons, were made by saddJers, wbo bad
recoui'Se to embroiderers and to stampers of Jeather for enrich-
ments.
Saddlers were also engaged in ·cutting ànd sewing bridles,
reins, and stinilp-straps for riding borses, and the beavier harness
for draught-teams and pack-animals. For tbese articles, which
were required · to be at once ligbt and strong, they made use of
uncoloured strips of bardened well seasoned ·teather. wbicb had
also undergone the process of pressing.
Stirrups were first made in France, and were of various shapes
and sizes to suit military and civil equestrians. Tbe toumament
stirrups were bulky and beavy, but richly adomed and strengthened
with iron bearings. Tbey were essential in conibat, wbether
in the fieJd of battle or in tbe lists of cbivalry, but ordinary
borse-exercise was taken without them.
A list of Saddlers' ironmongery is quite a long one :-Buckles
bits, snaffie-cbains, bead-pieces, collar-steels, saddle-bearirtgs, gear
ing-cbains and bolts, spurs for civilian use, straps of ali .sorts arid
kinds, wbips and whip-bands, etc.
With respect to Shields,-tbe making of wbkh. appertained
to tbe Craft of Saddlery,-in tbe tweJfth century, tbey were
kite-shaped or triangular. Smaller shields of much the same
shapes were introduced in tbe thirteenth century, with ·boles
cut on the rigbt hand upper comer to serve as a rest for
the spear or lance. Round bucklers were wom upon the hand
in the fourteentb century, and pear-sbaped sbields upon the ·arm.
In the fifteenth century knigbts' sbields bad a bulge, and were
about two feet and a half long.
Various names were given by the Florentine Sbield-makers
to tbe different kinds of bucklers for example :-Rou//a-rounci,
St'Udo-oblong, Brocc!Uere-a small shield wom upon the arm

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
408 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and bulging, Targa-a large square or round sbield, and Pavese
-a sbield wbicb covered tbe wbole body.
The materiais used were iron, copper, wood, and leather, but
generally in combination. Wben two materiais were used the
sbield was bound witb an iron rim. Toumament sbields were a
speciality of the Florentine "Scudai," and were made rather for
sbow tban for use. Tbey were elaborately adomed with paint-
ings, or embossed with mouldings of gesso, or inlaid by pattems in
wood and metal, and were decorated, often enougb by artists of
tbe first ·rank.
Poucbes, Purses, and Gauntlets all carne under the category
of Saddlery. Tbeir manufacture and adomment formed an at-
tractive trade and one of no little profit to the skilful craftsman.
Eacb class of citizens bad a distinctive sbape of poucb or purse,
and it was possible to distinguisb the wearers' Guild by the shape
eacb afl'ected. Civilians were accustomed to display their arms,
or tbose of tbeir Guild, upon their Poucbes,-" Scarse/le,'' as they
were called.
Very mucb rivalry and considerable variety were excited by
tbis custom. Tbe smarter a man was in bis dress and in the
style of bis belt and poucb and bis gauntlets tbe more considera-
tion did be receive in public.
Dante refers to tbis fashion in tbe "Inferno":-
" • • . pendant from bis neck each wore a Pouch
With colours and with emblems various mark'd
On wbich it seemed as if tbeir eyes did feed." 1
" Scarsel/e " and gauntlets of leather were sold by tbe
" Ri'gattieri," as well as by tbe Saddlers, wbo were also the
makers of gloves of ali kind.
The Scarse/le were often works of art, wberein the finest efl'ort
of tbe dresser of leather, or tbe stitcber of clotb, was coloured
with tbe pigments of acknowledged artists, and decorated with
the embroideries of skilful silk-workers and goldsmiths. They
were suspended from the belt, on tbe rigbt side, or from the
1 " Inferno," Canto x'fii.

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 GUILD OF LOCKSMITHS 409
neck, -and contained the wearer's petty-cash, daily tablets, and
other fashionable nicknacks.
As time went on more and more care was expended on the
finishing and adoming of leather work. As a case in point, it
is on record that in the middle of the fifteenth century the
Saddlers of Florence had introduced a debased style of work-
manship. Fashion demanded pictorial embellishment on saddles,
shields, book-backs, and other objects in leather; and the " Guild
of Painters " stepped in, and passed a rubric which forbade their
members to paint or decorate any kind of leather but the very
best ox-hide or pig-skin-and on no account were they allowed
to use inferior colours.1

111. L'ARTE DE' CHIAVAIUOLI

The Renaissance made demands upon all sorts and conditions
of artizans for finer and more artistic workmanship than had been
sufficient in medizval times. No industry felt this influence more
keenly than that of metal-workers. The " Guild of Blacksmiths,''
by reason of the bulk and character of their materiais, no less
than by the solid requirements of their trade, were entirely un-
equal to cope with the thousand and one tasteful objects which
skilled hands could fashion out of base metal.
As early as the fifth century Ampuleius, the monkish historiao,
in bis " Legends of the Saints," speaks of a " Corporation of Lock-
smiths," and instances the intricacies of their craft. Another
monkish historiao, Theophilus, in bis "Diversarium Arti'um
Scludu/a," put out in the early part of the twelfth century, gives
descriptions of methods of embossing, and damascening, and
other work, in iron, steel, copper, and bronze. · He further adds
a list of locksmiths' tools, including hammers, chisels, screw-jacks,
saws, scalpers, burins, scratching-needles, bumishers, etc. etc.
In the Archives of Florence of the twelfth century there are
the following records of locksmiths : -
" 1 1 oS. Flormtius-Ciavty'ulus "-Locksmith.
I Rub. lxxix., 1415-

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410 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
" 1 146. joltantUs (fa/Jer) f. Bric/4nis "-Knife-maker.
" 1 147. Uguccione-Caltúrarius "-Copper-smith.
In the first List of the Guilds--1236--the "Arú tU
C/Uavaiuoli" is reckoned tenth in the Fourteen Lesser Guilds.
This position was maintained in I 266, but in 128o-8:~ the Guild
was promoted to the sixth place, and received an extension of
its title, namely :-" L'Arle tU Cltiavaiuoli e Ferraiuoli- Vedi e
Nuovi "-" The Guild of Locksmiths and Workers in old and
new Metal."
In 1 301-9, when the Statutes underwent a strict revision in
consonance to the general adoption, by all the Guilds, of the
model code prepared for the " Calimala " merchants, an alteration
was made in the designation of the Guild as follows :-" L'Am tU
Clliavaiuoli, Ferraiuoli, e Caltúrai "-" The Guild of Locksmiths,
Iron-Workers and Braziers." In 1415 the original style of 1236
was restored and the Guild was classed eleventh in the Fourteen
Lesser Guilds.
V ery many trade Associations were affiliated to the Guild,
for no industry presented fuller opportunities for varied workman-
ship, both useful and ornamental. These Associations ranged
from groups of most skilful artists in metal,-both precious and
common,-to the very dregs of the population, for example, in
13 I I the " Ferravecclli,''-" Scrap-iron Dealers,'' a recognised
trade apart, were incorporated, and in 132 7 the "lncisori ;,
Rame "-" Engravers in copper,'' were includ~ in the Guild-
membership.
lf the custom which Ampuleius the Monk cites in the fifth
century, of electing two Consuls, and which he calls, "the good
old Republican title," was continued in the twelfth and thirteenth
century, by the Locksmiths of Florence, then the Guild was quite
in line with the other trade corporations with respect to its chief
officers.
Who and what the remaining officials were can only be traced
after a laborious search through ill-written, ill-spelt, and much
abbreviated vemacular documents. We may however take it

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
A LOCKSMITH ANO HIS APPRENTICI!:
I'IFTERNTH CESTUHV

o;9 ,tized byGoogle

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF LOCKSM.ITHS 411
for granted that much of, if not all, the system carried out in the
"La!Jorerum" o( the "Guild of Masters of Stone and Wood" was
adopted by the Masters of iron and copper.
Tests of skill in workmanship were required before admission
to the Guild, and not only had the candidate to produce samples
of bis work, but he was further called upon to give evidence before
the Consuls of his dexterity in the use of tools of all kinds, by then
and there manipulating metais of various sorts.
The Residence of the Consuls of the Guild was a small house
opposite Or San Michele and contiguous to the Offices of the
"Guild of Wool." On the wall were carved as usual the Arms of
the Guild,-a big black key,-which appeared also upon the red
field of the Guild gonfalon.

Some idea of the progress and prosperity of the Guild may

be gained by comparing the amount contributed, at the tax-
ing of the Guilds in I 3 2 5, to pay the ex penses of the warlike
enterprises of the Republic, with that fumished by the " Guild
o( Masters of Stone and W ood "-the amounts were exactly
alike, namely, eighty gold florins. This sum was in excess
of that raised by the "Guild of Tanners and Skinners." This
test of development holds true with respect to the number of
members of the Guild, their financiai capacities, and their ability
and fame. ·
Workshops abounded in old Florence for the artistic working
of metais, sometimes two or three trades shared the same
premises, and carried on their work side by side. In Fico's
basement, in the Mercato Vecchio, was a fumace for Glass-blow-
ing, and a shop for Locksmiths and Gimlet-grinders, where one
could purchase a flattering hand-mirror, or a tasteful flower-vase,
and inspect the latest fashions in metal belt-clasps, dress buttons,
cinctures, the fittings for purses, and other personal omaments.
Florence very soon became the rival of lordly Milan in the
art and craft of Locksmithery. Indeed, on one occasion at least
she bore off the palm-when Cardinal Wolsey ordered in Florence

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412 THE GUILDS OJ.' J..'LORENCE
two thousand sets of horse-hamess, with embossed and damas-
cened metal work. The price was sixteen shillings per set-a
large sum in those days.
Much of the fineness and delicacy of Florentine Locksmithery
was undoubtedly dueto the sunny, tonic climate of Tuscany. In
the very characteristic workmanship there is an entire absence of
deep furrows and profound shadows, whilst low relief and light-
ness of touch are evident in every object The designs are
instinct with Hfe and cheerfulness. If the mask of tragedy scowls
menacingly, there is something about its expression which sug-
gests merely a passing mood. The features of comedy never
relax their merry laughter: every smile, every dimple, and every
blush, are exactly marked with sympathetic touch.
In nothing so much as in the making of locks and keys, and
the hinges of doors and cupboards, etc., did the nimble-fingered art-
workers in metal exhibit this influence of atmosphere, in tbe
perfection of skill and adaptability.
These articles were almost always constructed in connection
with wood and leather, hence locksmithery, joinery, and curriery,
marched hand-in-hand, absorbing and assimilating like ideas and
methods. For an example of this statement it is only needful to
compare the tongued and grooved work of the Middle Ages with
the framed and morticed treatment of the Renaissance. The
long, over-strapped, hinge of a door, or chest, was changed into
the dove-tailed " bull-hinge," as it is called.
The making of locks attained such a degree of excellence,
that they were accounted rare objects of art, and taken, with the
utmost care, from place to place. The designs most commonly
carried out in Florence were armorial bearings, letterings, and
grotesques, with conventional foliage and ribbon work--all in
sympathetic relief. Keys followed suit : they were first dis-
tinguished in Florence as "male" and "female,"-the former had
solid shanks, the latter were barrelled.
The models of these objects, and others similar in character,
were ·invariably made in wax. The wax-modellers of Florence

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF LOCKSMITHS 413
excelled those of ali other art cities. lt is curious, perhaps, that
they never associated themselves as a Guild or Corporation. Their
finest workmanship resulted in glorious bronze medallions, which
are the pride and the joy of artist, artificer, and collector alike.
They are remarkable for the lowness of their relief, nothing more
delicate was ever achieved by the hand of man working in metal
The following are some of the more prominent Masters
in bronze, who worked in the shops of the Locksmiths : -
Antonio Avertino, Giovanni Petrecini, Michelozzo Michelozzi,
Andrea Guazzalotti, Niccolo Fiorentino, in the fifteenth cen-
tury ; and in the sixteenth, Benvenuto Cellini, Giovanni da
Bologna, Francesco di Sangallo, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Domenico
Poggini and the irothers Gianpaolo--who were all of them matricu-
lated members of the Guild.
The damascening of metal-a beautiful Art~onsists of the
incrustations of gold and silver upon steel and bronze. The
method pursued in Florence was that introduced from the East,
namely the spreading of the stamped-out design laid flat and
close upon the surface of the metal. Pressure and blows were
applied both under heat and cold. Artificers called it "A/f
Azzimina "-like a "coat of maiJ," and "Alia Gemina "-" after
the original."
The finest work of this description was exhibited in the
magnificently wrought iron cabinets, inlaid with gold and silver,
which became the craze of wealthy citizens in the sixteenth
century.
Benvenuto Cellini is very warm in bis praise of the damascening
of steel by Florentine craftsmen. He says :-" With their needle-
like chisels they tum up every twist and curve of the most
intricately overlapping acanthus leaf, and their introduction of
little singing birds and playful animais seems to make the bare
metal a living entity.''
The embossing of metal was by no means the least admirable
of the output of the Florentine Locksmiths. In this art-craft
they emulated the workers in leather and the carvers of wood.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
414 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
lndeed so skilful did ali three classes of workmen become that,
given a subject to be done in each of the three materiais, it was
their aim to produce a common result, wherein nobody could say
at sight which was metal, wood, or leather I
Few artificers were greater in this beautiful craft than Fran-
cesco dal Prato di Girolamo : he worked on the lines of Michele
Agnolo, who perhaps introduced it into Florence from Germany.
The greatest artists were not above making the most simple
things, for instance, Benvenuto Cellini made salt-cellars, Jacopo
Sansovino--inkstands, Donatello--mirror-frames, the Pollaiuoli-
candlesticks, and so on. That these objects were strong as well
as beautiful one has but to recall the feat of Leonardo da Vinci
in wrenching off door-knockers with one hand ;lone in response
to a wager. A favourite style of door-knocker was a chiselled
figure of a naked child, much after the lovely óamói"i of the
Delta Robbia, holding a scroll inscribed " Salve."
Endless are the objects which the clever members of the
" Guild of Locksmiths " have left to posterity to admire and to
imitate. Among the most striking, as evidences of thoroughly
artistic proclivities and practical convenience combined, were the
everyday working tools. These were not, as now, mainly, and
often obtrusively, utilitarian, but they were designed and made by
men who have taught the etem~ lesson that the useful and the
ornamental need never be parted.
Many humble but indispensable implements of daily life have
beautiful enrichments, for instance, cloth smoothing-irons with
coiled snakes for handles, carpenters' compasses with floral designs
impressed and chiselled, nut-crackers, trays, scent-caskets with
delicately fine pierced work, farriers' tools have richly embossed
work, surgical saws, of the sixteenth century, have handles of ivory
inlaid with silver and amber, other instruments have ebony
handles, with incrustations and small plaques of bronze. Snuffers
were embellished with pattems in stamped diaper. Braces for
drilling, pincers, fire-irons, knives, forks, spoons, skewers, thimbles,
candle-prickets, hand-planes, and the tools and instruments used

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF LOCKSMITHS 415
in ali the trades of Florence, were ali of them made for work but
adorned by art.
In a word the Locksmiths' Art was an absolute affirmation of
ali the mighty powers of the Renaissance. Without the clever
artificers of metal much of the charming revelation of that precious
awakening would have been non-existent. The "Guild of Lock-
smiths" supplied the instruments with which the secrets of orna-
mental craft and useful art have been revealed to a delighted
world. They gave spatulas to sculptors, paint-boxes to painters,
compasses to architects, sextants to explorers of nature, pestles
and mortars to doctors and apothecaries, combs to silk-carders,
fine frame wires to silk weavers, smoothing-irons to "Calimala"
cloth finishers, needles to lace-workers and embroiderers, sensitive
scales to coiners at the Mint-and many more indispensable
implements and apparatus.
When Cosimo, the first Grand Duke, in I 534 established bis
four U niversities of the Crafts, the " Guild of Locksmiths " was
incorporated as the Third in order along with the " Blacksmiths,"
the " Masters of Stone and W ood," the " Armourers and Sword-
makers," and the " Carpenters." The style of the " Combination "
was "L' Universita de' Faó!Jricanti"-" University of Artificers."

2 3

I."SlntJmtJ deU Arte :z. "SkmmtJ de/f Arte tú' 3· "Slmmua de/f Arte
dlrfi Oli4Núli" Cwegiai" H Ct.ÚifXIÍ11111i"
Green tree, red lion, in a Two red bars upon a A black key in a
wbite field, witb arJrlw wbite field wbite field

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 CHAPTER XIV
THE GUILDS OF ARMOURERS, CARPENTERS, AND
BAKERS
LE ARTI DF! CORAZZAI E SPADAI, E DF! LEGNAIUOLI,
E DK FORN.4.1

I. ARMOURERS. -ltaly the battlefield of Europe. Medizval armour.

Renaissance armourer-smiths. Early Florentine craftsmen. Cuirass aud
sword-makers united. Tbirteenth-century Guild Officers. Dispute about a
banner. Many linked industries. Tent-making. Tbe CONiollieri. Toarna-
ments. A lmight's kit. Price of a Ron11one-a charger. Duels. Feats of
strengtb. "Treatise on Military Arts.• The artiUery of 1530.
11. CARPENTERS.-At first subordinate to" Masters of Stone and Wood.~
Fa!Jri·tignarii of Charle~Jla~De. Many kinds of workers in wood. Price o(
tools. Rules about obstructions. Fines. No litter. Furniture. Tbe "festive
board." Cassoni. ltdarsialura- Mosaic. Walnut and pear wood abundant
Carvings. Gesso. Cwtosalt~ra. Families of skilled craftsmen. "11 Gnus~
Legnaiuo/o I " Giovanni Rucellai's dressing-table.
111. BAKERS.- Co111ado produced little com. Tbe "A1111011a,n or Magis-
tracy of Abundance. Foreign supplies. Gate-dues and ruses. An ancient
custom. Qualitiesof wheat. The Vacca. Or San Michele-Shrineaod Market.
Affidavits. Chopping-off fingers I Ill fame of bakers. Sweating. Distinction
in the Guild between Mugnai-millers, and Fonuu'-bakers. Storage of com
and fiour. Boccaccio's satires. Byelaws. Pastry-cooks. Carnival soug.
Yearly inspections. Fuel. Bakers prosperous and ostentatious.

I. L'ARTE DE' CORAZZAI E SPADAI

A LTHOUGH the primitive arms of the Etruscans carne

originally from Greece, and were famed for the excellence
of pattem and manufacture, and although the legions of the
conquering Roman armies crossed and recrossed Tuscany, and
impressed the solidity and workmanship of their weapons and
armour upon the subjected rac~s; it is. a matter of certainty
that Florentine arms and armour carne directly from Gennany.
In Italy the business of making armour and weapons-
especially swords-was a specialty of Milan and other towns in
416

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF ARMOUBERS 417
Lombardy. The pattems and workmanship exhibited in these
workshops were undoubtedly Teutonic, but, in the skilful hands
of Italian workmen, the plain and practical instruments of attack
and defence received the addition of artistic decoration.
One of the earliest annourers of fame in Milan was Galvano
Fiamino, who, in 1288, had established a great renown for making
helmets, breastplates, shields, and other portions of body-armour,
in bumished metal. The Giulino family too was famous for
malc:ing steel-armour, but excelled especially in defensive armour
for horses.
From the eleventh to the fourteenth century armourcd men
wore iron shirts only. In the thirteenth century cross-bows were
generally used, with a variety of arrows, for example :-Verretümi
-sharp, short darts, Mosdtetu-ball-pointed medium length, and
Quadrelli-long four-feathered shafts.
~ore the invention of gunpowder,-in the middle of the
thirteenth century,-the instruments used for artillery were as
numerous in variety as they were extraordinary in foi1n. Their
manufacture required the services, not only of annourers and
workers in metal, but the assistance of carpenters, rope-makers
and other artificers. After the application, in 1 2 8o, of gunpowder
to artillery, this class of offensive weapons became a distinct and
largely employed industry. With the introduction of fire-arms
there came into activity a rival class of workman--gunsmiths,
who, as the science of warfare developcd, ousted by degrees
armourers from their place and employment
Throughout the whole of the fourteenth century knights con-
tinued the practice of wielding lance, sword, and battle-axe.
Foot-soldiers were anned with short swords, bows and arrows,
darts, short axes, slings, knives, daggers, and javelins. Scale
armour was rarely, if ever, used after the fourteenth century.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Tuscan infantry were
anned with steel or iron breastplates, but were unarmed on their
backs. They carried pikes of iron, set upon stout wooden poles,
seventeen feet long, with swords, rounded at the point Head
8D

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418 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
armour was not wom. Arquebuses made their appearance only
at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
The work of Armourer-smiths seems to have reached its highest
point of excellenc:e in the second ha1f of the fifteenth century.
The inftuenc:e of the Renaissance made itself felt in the richness
o( decorative attributes rather than in the quality of the metal
used.
. Very evident too was the advanc:e made,-intelligent as weU
as artistic,-in· the output o( the armourers' shops. 111-fitting
pieces yielded to well moulded articles, much in the same way
that badly-made cloth garments never leave the table of an
observant and diligent tailor.
Bronze annour came in during the sixteenth century and was
wom until the year I SS8. I ts adoption was mainly due to the fact
that it was far easier to keep clean than was steel. Black armour
followed on the heels of bronze annour, and its sombreness
brought into vogue the splendid decorative qualities of gold and
silver damascening. Embossed and ftuted armour was quite the
latest adaptation of defensive dress, and became fashionable at
the end of the sixteenth century, rather for State functions and
parades, than for use in field or at joust.

As early as the end of the eleventh century Armourers were

in existence in Floren~if not much before that period. The
Archives have the following entries : -
" I ogo. Jolla,nes, jü. Rodolfo--pugwiiiJr~ "-Dagger-malrer.
" I 1 2 8. Flormtiiu-Spaliarius "-Armourer.
Workmen who had been trained in the Milan workshops found
their way to Florence, along with very many other artificers, when
her sun began to rise so gloriously in the early Renaissance.
Florentine armourers, along with those of Pisa and Pistoja.
very soon attained to fame as proficient in ih~ .a rt of making anns
and armour. To the latter city is due the distinction of having
manufactured the first " Pistol,"-a lethal weapon with a wheel
lock and a barrei a foot long. The increase of the industry led

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 -.1
I

I
GUILD OF ARMOURERS 419
naturally to an incorporation of the artizans, and so it is not to
be wondered at that in the first list of the Guilds,-that of 1236,
-the "Arle de' Ctwusai 1 Spadai" finds a place.
Certainly the rank of the " Guild of Annourers and Sword-
makers" was very humbl~leventh among the Fourteen Lesser
Guilds. This position was maintained in 1266, but in the Ust
of 128o-82 the Guild displaced that of the " Locksmiths," and
retained the step in 1301-1309, and right on till 1415. In the
latter year the " }\nnourers and Sword-makers " gave way to their
rivais in the industry of artistic metal-work, and even lost one
place more, coming out as last but two of all the Twenty-one
Guilds.
Upon the last re-arrangement of the Lesser Guilds in I 534,
the " Armourers and Sword-makers " were scheduled with the other
workers in metal, stone, and wood,-the " Blacksmiths," " Lock-
smiths," " Masters of Stone and W ood," and " Carpenters," under
the comprehensive title of the "L'Univtrsita de' Fa!J6ricanti"-the
third of the four Universities incorporated under the Grand Duke
Cosimo.
In a document of the thirteenth century, to which no dateis
attached, it is stated that " those who hammer their metal plates
and make steel cuirasses are a Guild a~ and exercise their
craft under Consuls, or Rectors, like the other Guilds of Florence."
Another entry, dated 1303, names nineteen individuais" who
are declared to be more than two-thirds of the members of the
Guild, and who in full meeting elected two Consuls or Rectors."
Among other matters which çame before these officials was a
dispute between the " Annourers' Guild " and that of the .
" Escutcheon and Shield-makers' Guild." They appointed two
members of the Guild to act as arbitrators. The disputants, who,
it is stated, had, or ought to have had, a common Banner, were of
different opinions as to who should pay for a new one, and who
should have the care of it. The decision arrived at charged the
" Armourers " with two-thirds, and the " Escutcheon and Shield-
makers " with the remaining one-third of the cost. Further,

o,gítízed byGooà .
 420 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
because the latter had held possession of the Banner for one whole
year, to the fonner was allocated its custody for two years in
succession.
Another matter in dispute,-the share of grain which the two
Guilds were called upon to conbibute to the Florentine army in
the field,-was arranged in the same way.
Hardly anything can be gathered out of the Archives and
Records of Florence which relates to the Constitution of the
Guild.
Statutes were first put out in I 300, up to which date custom
and convenience appear to have been considered sufficient for the
purposes of govemment and development These were revised in
1305 upon the model of the "Calima/a" Code. Additions and
alterations were made in 1314~1316, 1321, 1342, and 1463,
in the same way as in the case of the " Guild of Carpenters." 1
Among the Statutes of I 31 S was one which required every horse-
man, serving in a campaign, to provide himself with a helmet,
breastplate, gauntlets, cuishes, and leg~pieces,--all of iron,-made
by acknowledged armourers of Florence.
That there were many linked industries included in the
membership of the Guild goes without saying, but what were
their relations one with another it is not easy to say. One such
association is recorded in I 309~ I 3 16 :-the " Cotnjag'llia tkrli
Ansriai," the "Company of Makers of Bows and Arrows."
Armourers were looked to to supply camp equipage generally
as well as the arms and armour of the soldiers. Tra!Jaaj,
bell tents, and Paáipotli-pavilions, were made of stout canvas,
and were, in early days, provided by the soldiery themselves.
The latter were often of immense size, very handsomely adomed
with painting and embroidery, and were much beftagged.
Doubtless the progress of the Guild was much assisted by the
ample native supply of metais for which Tuscany was ever famous.
As significant of the expansion there is a record in the Arcbives
which states that :-In September 1294 an Assisi merchant pro-
1 G. Gondta, " BibliOCfda Statutaria delle CorponDiie d' Arti e llatieri d'ltalia.,.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF. ARMOURERS. 421
mised to pay Nato Melliorati and Pela Lapi,-pattners in business
and çitizens and merchants of Florence,-a sum of seventy /ire,
payable within a month, for a certain consignment of merchandise
-belts, hats, breeches, bucklers, helmets, and swords. In the
following year also there is a record of a credit sale by three
Florentine armourers and merchants to a tfa!iesman from Assisi,
of a number of breastplates, breeches, helmets, caps, and sbort
swords, etc.1 ·

In the Taxing List of 1321, when the Guilds were mulcted in

proportionate charges for tbe benefit of the State, the · "A rle tU
Coru1ai e Spadai" is put down for one bundred "and fifty /ire-a
very small sum indeed as compareci with the contribution of two
thousand gold florins by the "Arte del/a Lana." In the same
List the " Compagnia der/i A rcariai.'' is cbarged sepárately tbe
very modest sum of eigbt /ire-tbe least amount of all
In the days of the Condottieri, when tbe spirit of warfare
and the scourge of brigandage were joined hand in hand, lethal
weapons and body armour were greatly in demand. Florentines
however were an industrial race, not a warlike folk, and managed
their battles by proxy.
V ast sums of money were paid for the arming, mounting, and
provisionin~ of the trained bartds of mercenary troops, wbo, led
by Florentine commanders or alien captains, vindicated the
honour of tbe " City of tbe Lily " and proclaimed ber ~wer over
rash opponents. Sucb leaders were Uguccione della Faggiola,
Castruccio Castracane, Bartolommeo Colleoni; Giovanni de' Medici
(delle Bande Nere), Guarnieri, and Hawkwood.
Each Condottiere regarded bis troop,--and some of tbem num-
bered thousands of soldiers,--as the arbiter of peace and war, and
took the utmost pains to keep bis armaments abreast of bis times.
Every young Florentine of birtb was trained in some such
school as tbat of U rbino, and quickly assimilated tbe teacbing of
Castiglione's " Courtier." " I would bave," wrote the Count, " a
complete gentleman to be of good shape, and well proportioned in
1" Archi"tio della Cltta di Firenze," i. f. 26.

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_..._dlll
422 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
bis limbs, yet light and easy, and to be well acquainted with all
exercises becoming men of anns. To handle, besides, well all
kinds of weapons, and to wrestle well, which generally accompany
all exercises of arms on foot" 1

TYPU OV ADULT :rLOUNTINIIS-SIXTJ:ItNTH CJ:NTUJ.Y-KtCH.UL ANGJ:LO

The kit of a Florentine warrior was by no means a small one,

nor one cheaply to be obtained. In October 1365 an armourer,
Bama da Valorino by name, presented bis bill for goods supplied
to a knight, one Paolo Sassetti,-which bill by the way was made
out by the hands of Ser Lorenzo di Ser Lando, a notary : -
One Cuirass--with screw and lace boles.
1 "11 Cortigiano," 1531.

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF ARMOUREBS 428
One Helmet-with an iron band or chin-cbain.
One pair Gauntlets of fine chain-work.
One armoured Neck-piece.
One pair of Armlets, and Cuffs of leather.
One pair of Tbigb-pieces of thin metal.
One pair Leather Greaves.
One Tilting-Helmet or Casque.
One Pennon with its stafl'.
One cavalry Lance.
Two Saddle-bags.
Two Knigbts' coffers.l
Althougb the prices of these articles are not appended, we
gather, from a Price List of the year I 372, tbat it was no incon-
siderable undertaking to fumisb a knigbt with bis body armour,
weapons, borse, and banners. A nm.I'OM,--<:barger,-cost forty to
fifty gold florins, and bis daily keep at a public-stable came to the
fifth part of a gold florin, or more. A pair of spurs cost balf a gold
florin, a bridle three-fourths, and a cbased cbafing-bit nearly one
gold florin. For tbe Page, a mule cost twenty gold florins, a pair
of stirrups balf a gold florin, and the bridle tbree quarters.
A sumpter-borse for a servant cost at least twenty-five gold
florins. 1
If Milan was tbe acknowledged mart for warlike armour,
Florence was no less renowned as tbe source of weapons ·o f
display. Her " Armourers and Sword-makers " were cbiefty em-
ployed in making outfits for knigbts for the Giostre or Touma-
ments-tbings of beauty and of price ratber tban of strengtb and
of use.
As early as the year 1260 young Florentines of ali clasSes
were accustomed to go out to Peretola,-a famous jousting-field,-
tbree miles away, and practise witb lance and sword in friendly
rivalry. Tbe ancient rule bad been tbat only young men of
noble birth, and soldiers of fame, were eligible to take part in
these contests ; indeed tbe rigbt to wear weapons was denied
1 See Perrens, " Hlstoire de Florence," Appendlx.

o, 9 ítízed by Gooo [e
<)
~. . .,.
424: THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the lower classes. U nder the rule of the Medici however the
Giostre were thrown open to ali classes.
These tests of skill, strength, and agility, were always carried
out at the chief Church festivais. Tilting-grounds were formed in
the larger squares of the city and in ali the more important
villages.
One of the most famous duels, fought to the death, was during
the siege of Florence in 1 530, when the gigantic Dante da Cas-
tiglione encountered Bertino Aldobrandi, a renowned Florentine
champion. With one crushing blow the latter,-although bis
right arm was crippled,--clove bis adversary's helmet and skull
right down to the shoulder l
Another celebrated Florentine renowned for all time as pro-
ficient in many arts and sciences-Leon Battista Alberti-was
a1so a great athlete. He thought nothing of leaping in full
armour upon the back of a galloping horse l
Much encouragement was thus given to the craft of the
armourer, and the members of the "Arte & Corusai e Spatlai"
became extremely skilful and a1so extremely wealthy.
The Residence of the Consuls of the Guild was in the Piazza
del Duomo-in the same building as that occupied by the oftioes
of the "Mi.tericordia." One of the most important workshops of
the " Armourers " was situated in the Via de' Spadai, by the side
of the Church of Sant' Andrea of the Mercato V ecchio, and con-
tiguous to the famous Market-shrine of the Madonna. The Arms
of the Guild were put up over both buildings : a red sword and
a blue cuirass in a white field.
In the year 1472 appeared a " Treatise on Military Arts" by
a Florentine called Giovanni V alturio : in it is the first mention
of guns, and the like engines of war, as being wrought by the
"Guild of Armourers and Sword-makers." Up to 1474 Floren-
tines had only iron guns drawn by bullocks--more or less for
show-for after each discharge these primitive weapons required
severa! hours to cool before they were again available I The
standing army of the Republic was small. lt had no artillery

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 A TYPICAL YOU:-IG FI.OR~:NTINE SOLDIF.R
ST. (oFORGH 1 "TROS h F Titio: ftl.'IJ.IJ C)f
... AH!'tiOl ' REt.~ l1t1!'\A1"EI .I O
I { u /•'4.'' j~11l

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 I

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF CARPENTERS 425
until 1530, except a few clumsy pieces called "Mosclutli," which
were limbered about on mule-back.

I I. L'ARTE DE' LEGNAIUOLI

The Guild of Carpenters was one of the least esteemed in the
Hierarchy of the Guilds, arid occupied in every List the penulti-
mate position, taking precedence only of the "Arte de' Fo1"'1UUi."
The why and wherefore of this inferiority it is quite impossible
to state. Possibly the mutual relations between the Guild and
the "Masters of Wood,"-incorporated with the "Arte de' Maestri
di Pi'etra e Legname,"-were such as to associate in the latter ali
the more skilful and artistic, no less than the richer and more
inftuential, workers in wood.
I t is quite probable that the rougher wood-craftsmen were
originally peasants of the Contado accustomed to felling trees
and preparing them for the Master-builders in the city. Some
too were doubtless gatherers of fuel and loose timber, and such
men would be quite able to put together, more or less crudely,
the huts and cottages in which they dwelt, and the sheds and
barns wherein they sheltered their cattle and stored their harvests.
What the " Guild of Carpenters " failed to attain of high
place in the Guild economy they undoubtedly possessed in the
question of origin. Priority of existence of the trade is without
contradiction.
In the days of Charlernagne there are records of a "Society
of Carpenters" in Tuscany, under the designation of "Fa/Jri-
tignarii"-" Workers in wood." The Robber-captains in the war-
like times before Countess Matilda, like her ancestor Boniface,
created first Marquis of Torscia or Toscana in 828, found plenty
of occupation in clearing forests and planting stockades, and in
manufacturing pike sticks and bows and arrows. Many sons of
such wild sires, in later days, apt in their manipulation of timber,
became members of the first Carpenter Associations in Florence.t
1 Perrens, " Histoire de Florence,' YOI. i. p. 190-

o, 9ítízed byGoog~
426 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
In the An::hives of the State the earliest preserved entries oC
handicrafts in wood are as follows : -
" 1038. Jollat~fUS, pi IIJrnario vocatur"-Tumer.
" I 13 2. Beng,.allo, fiJ. óarlittano "-Cooper.
" 1136. Sa~rlOtU-.pettinario "--Comb-maker.
"1199. Reituúdus-.pati&OIU"--Carpenter's-benchandLoom-maker.
In 1209-1213 mention is made of certain workmen under the
designations of "Bottaniu' "-Coopers, and "Madie/lariai.,-
Trough-makers. Reference is made in 1327 to two other allied
trades :-" Cut~aton""--Chest and cradle-makers, and "Venrida-
ton· "-Vamishers.
In the List of Guilds at the various revisions of the Statutes
in 1236, 1266, 1280-82, 1301-1309, and 1415, the "Arú
de'Legnaiuoli " is placed twentieth : in the latter year it is
entitled " Arte & Ltg'flai'uo/i Grossi" - " Guild of Master
Carpenters."
A set of carpenters' tools in early days cost a man a very
small amount, for example : a broad-axe-- s soldi, a plain saw-
3 soldi, a plane--4 soldi, an adze--2 soldi, a square, a spoke-
shave, and a chisel-1 so/tk each !

The Statutes of the Guild, first put out in 1 300,---as was the
case in the similarly situated Guilds of " Armourers," " Lock-
smiths,'• and " Saddlers,''-were written in characters so difficult
to decipher that no one has yet succeeded in making lmown
fully the details of its Constitution. The General Code, drawn up
for use by ali the Guilds, with adaptations to their peculiar re-
quirements, in the years I 30 1-1 309, was adopted in I 30 S by the
Carpenters.
As to the peculiar Officials, elected to adminster the affairs of
the Guild, we seem to have no information. That there were
Consuls, as in the other Guilds, goes without saying, and is proved
by the fact that their Residence was situated in the Via de'
Lamberteschi, next door to the Zecca-Mint ; over which their

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF CARPENTERS 427
coat-of-arms was emblazoned :-a g~ tn:e and a red house in
a white field.
No carpenter or dealer in wood in the Mercato Vecchio was
allowed to move timber by night under thc penalty of ten /ire.
They were forbidden to place their benches outside their bouses
and to make litter in the public thoroughfares. Articles in course
of making, such as bencbes, chairs, chests, etc., were not permitted
to encumber the footpaths.
Projections of any kind into the street or Market-place were
subject to measurement, and anything which exceeded the canna
of the " Calima/a " had to be removed, and the owncr incurred a
fine of ten /ire. In the Mercato Nuovo wooden framês with
hooks for stretching and drying woollen ·cloth ; and along the
Ponte Vecchio tubs, boxes, blocks, and other articles or encum-
brances of wood, were prohibited, and the offenders were fined ten
Jin for each offence.
Carpenters were forbidden to work in the two Markets, and
also in front of Or San Michelc. Any work absolutely necessary
thcre had to be completed within three days, and evcry care
exercised to remove shavings, sawdust, and litter, without delay.
No carpenter was allowed to leave timber beyond three days
lying in front of bis workshop, but he had the right to a foot's
width beyond bis walJ, where to store wood hc was actualJy
using.1
Whether an arbitrary line can be drawn between the avoca-
tions of the " Masters of Wood " and thosc of the " Carpenters " is
a matter of opinion. Apparently scaffoldings, roofings, and panel-
lings, and all such important mattcrs, which required strict archi-
tcctural knowledge, were undertaken by the former GuiJd, together
with the designing of artistic decorations and, possibly, thcir
manipulation. The "Carpenters" were doubtless more especially
concemed with frame-work, flooring, and fitting, and repairing
jobs, whilst much of their time was absorbed in cabinet-work.
The fumiture of the Renaissance was by no means the least
1 " Trac:tatus Extra·ordiDatus," Lib. IV., Rub. xlü., etc.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
428 THE GUILDS OI«~ FLORENCE
considerable object of artistic workmanship. In the varied forms
of bedsteads, cupboards, cbests,-for marriage outfits, and otber
purposes, - coucbes, chain, tables, picture-frames, etc. etc.,
Florentine workmen gained a bigh reputation for sknt and
thoroughness.
Up to the fifteen~ century, with few exceptions, the table for
meals was nothing but a loose board, or boards, laid upon trestles
--hence the tenn " festive board I " With respect to chairs, untl1
the end of the first decade of the sixteenth century, the only cbair
set by the board was that occupied by the Master of the house,
the Bishop or General of a Monastery, or the Head of a business
house. "Taking the chair" is an expression direc:tly traceable to
this custom, meaning thereby the place of honour. Only gradu-
ally did the long hard benches disappear, and chairs,-seated, first
in plain wood, and then with leather, and lastly, upholstered,-
take their places.
And who is not familiar with the splendid Ca.rsom,--marriage
coft'ers,-belonging chiefty to the sixteenth century,-with their
grandeur of outline, and substantiality of workmanship, wbich
the whole School of Florentine painters, man by man in tum,
adomed with superb paintings, forming, in a way, a running
history of the men and the women, the manners and the fashions
of the Renaissance.
Cabinetmakers were not satisfied with crude eft'ects or simple
treatment, but added enrichments of ali kinds. V eneering was
the mother of mosaic-work, and it was an early accomplishment
in Florence. At first it was confined exclusively to the addition
of various sorts of cane and foreign wood. Gradually a more
solid surface became the fashion, and almost imperceptibly
Florentine mosaic became the characteristic of her Carpenters and
workers in wood.
The surface of the wood,-in this art,-is no longer visible,
or only visible in part, for upon the plain timber foundation is
laid a solid mass of stone and metal,-Lapis-lazuli, malachite,
and jasper columns, with gilt capitais and enwreathments, and

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF CARPEN'l'EBS 429

pedestais of g~1t bronze, are associated with medalHons of agate,

camelian, bloodstone, and onyx. By an easy transition this
inlay, or encrusting work was applied to stone foundations, and
here was obtained that class of artistic work which commonly
goes by the name of cc Mosaic." Tbe Grand Duke Ferdinand I.
introduced the style from Milan, in the year 1 s80, for tbe adom-
ment of the Medici tombs at San Lorenzo.
Another form of artistic carpentry was an especial favourite
in tbe sixteentb century-the overlaying of ivories upon ebony
groundwork. Tbis was called cc Scag'li~UJ/a," and in it was pro-
duced the latest expression of the artistic taste of the
Renaissance.
W alnut and pear were the favourite woods in the hands of
the carvers of wood, wbo probably belonged to the " Masters of
W ood " ; whilst tbe workmen of the " Carpenters' Guild " did the
roughing out of panels, borders, balustrades, etc. etc.
The secrets of the manufacture of Florentine picture-frames
bave never left the fair city on thc Amo. W ood gilding was a
fine art as mucb as was the carving of the wood. The mouldings
werc covered with red lcad and then with coatings of thinnest
wbite glue,-thicker in tbe bumisbed parts,-and sometimes as
many as ten coats werc applied.
Polishing too of wood-work, whcther on the ftat or carved,
was a serious art. A mixture of turpentine and beeswax was
brushed carefully and repeatedly over tbe surface, and tben
rubbed down with bard brusbes. Olive-oil was poured unstint-
ingly over tbe parts, and then beavy beated irons were applied,
and the wbole 6nished witb the swift .manipulation of soft leather
and silk waste.
GesS(),-which was a very ancient process,-was revived in
Florence in tbe fifteenth and sixteentb centuries. Cennino
Cennini, in bis cc Treatise upon Painting," throws much light
upon the different mcthods of working in this material.
The material was calcined cbalk, or whiting, mixed with
viscid liquid such as glue or size. This formed an admirablc

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 430 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
medium for low-relief, and was much used by carpenters and
cabinet-makcrs in thc decoration of ceilings, marriage-coffers, wall-
panels, toumament-shields, and ve:ry many kinds of fumiture.
" Pastig-Jia " was the term applied, in the workshops, to this fictile
substance, which was laid on almost like pigment, with hog's-hair-
brushes and metal spatulas. Indeed this form of decorative art
was actually relief painting, and engaged the attention and energies
of many a craftsman who had a feeling for beauty.
Intarsiatura,-called also briefly" Tarsia,"-was employed for
. the floors and walls of rooms, and consisted of a simple inlay of
various sorts of wood. The term " Cerlosia/Mra " was applied to the
finest descriptions especially the inlaid work put down in Churches
and religious houses, hence the name--" worR of the ' Cerlosa.' "
This fumishes an interesting proof that the monasteries bore their
part in the advancement of the arts and crafts.
A common practice was to glue together long rods of various
kinds of wood, and, when dry, to saw through the block, whereby
a chequered pattem was disclosed. The favourite blend was
black or very dark wood, and . the palest strain o f white, which
produced the effect of a draughtboard, and was mucb in vogue in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
That the Guild was prosperous, and its members profitably
engaged in their calling, is evidenced by the position occupied
by the Guild with respect to the raising of taxes. In 1 3 21, for
example, the Carpentcrs are mulcted in the proportionate amount
of fifty gold florins, the Guild counting tenth in order of affiuence
among the whole Twenty-one !
Some of the names of worthy craftsmen and their special
branches of carpentry have been preserved, for example :-Antonio
Leopardi was a well-known maker and inlayer of tables, I 4 So-
I S2 S ; the family of d' Agnolo, Bernardo the father, and Domenico
and Giovanni, bis sons, were celebrated as designers of inlay-
work and as carvers of wood in the churches of Florence, 146o-
1563; and the brothers Tasso,-Domenico and Giovanni,-who
worked with Michael Angelo, were renowned wood-carvers.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF CARPENTERS 431
An amusing tale is told in one of thc Novel/e, "/1 Grasso
Legnaiuolo " or " The Fat Ebony-Carver " :-A good-natured
fellow of thirty-five, by name Manetti Ammanotini, in 1409,
opened a shop in the Popolo San Giovanni. Hc was an agreeable
and amusing butt for the wags of thc quarter, vcry fat and good
looking, and quite bail-fcllow-well-met with evcrybody. A party

11 TH& FAT CAilPBNT&L" &AJLLY SIXT&Bln'B CBNT'I71t.Y

of young bloods, seeing him very busy in bis new holding, got
round him, and talked and talked, until they fairly persuaded him
that he was another man. Supping with him later OJ? the same
Sunday evening, at Tommaso de' Pecori's, they tricked him, and
made the poor fellow so thoroughly miserable, that he waddled
home, and made up bis mind to commit suicide. Thc jest became
so serious that the larrikins had the greatest difficulty in unravelling
the muddle they bad caused. However Manetti recovered bis
senses and bis own personality once more. He was ali the same

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 482 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
a very skilful workman, and was overdone with commissions from
rich merchants. One of bis creations was a remarkable inlaid
dressing-table for Giovanni Rucellai.1
Almost the last movement in connection with the Guild was
that of 1 534. wben, under Grand Duke Cosimo 1., the Lesser
Guilds were divided into Four Universities. The third in number
was styled L' Universi'ta & Fa6óricanti, and included "Smiths,"
"Lock-smiths," "Masters of Stone and Wood," "Armowers and
Sword-ruakers," and, last 'but not least,-" Carpenters."
. •
Note :-Much of tbc information conceming the Guilds of
" Armourers " and " Carpenters " has been derived from ..·cuttings "
collected by the late Rev. S. T. Baxter and most kindly placed
.at thc Author's service.

111. L'ARTE DE' FORNAI

In spite of the natural pre-cminence of Tuscany as an agri-
cultura! country, her inhabitants wcre singularly unappreciative o(
their advantages with respect to the growing of cereais.
Vines, olives, mulberries, and ftax, secm to have claimed the
attention of tbe old-timc agriculturists, to the exclusion, relatively
spcaking, of grain crops. This is the more remarkablc because tbe
Florentinc instinctive far-sigbtedness in the making of money in
tbis matter, at ali events, was actually at fault. Possibly industrial
pursuits engrossed tbcm, as offering better prospects of financiai
success.
Tbe Contado produced little com, certainly · not more than
three or four months' consumption. Montepulciano, Arezzo, the
higher parts of tbe Va1 d' Amo, and around Pisa, wcre the most
favourable home granaries. The provisioning of a city of the size
of Florence, with her rapidly growing population was a very
serious business.
A Magistracy of Abundance, or "An~~~H~~~,'' as it was called,
· existed from very early times, but no recorcls of its institution
1 Roecoe's "Famou ltaliaD NoveHsts," voL iY.

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 GUILD OF BAKERS 433
have been preserved. Originally this Magistracy was composed
of eight Capitlltiini,-Heads of Families,-but in I 352 their duties
were assumed by the Council of State.
The ofticials of the "Annona" were chiefly occupied in buying
and importing foreign grain. In ordinary times their operations
were carried on in Romagna, the country north of Siena, and in
Sicily, whilst in years of scarcity recourse was had to the more
remote supplies of Egypt, Barbary, and the East
This system bowever set up a monopoly, and the working of
the Government contracts became a matter of oppression and of
scandal. No regular reports were issued of the supply and
demand. Prices were not fixed, and losses were not examined
into. As long as the daily supply of foreign com in the public
market of Or San Michele amounted to fifty or sixty loads, at
ordinary price, no questions were asked.
On the other hand ali the roads leading into Florence from
the country districts were placed under the surveillance of six
officers, whose duty it was to see that no hindrance was placed in
the way of the easy access of grain.
Nevertheless taxes were imposed at the Gates upon all loads
of com from districts not directly under the rule of Florence.
Many were the ruses adopted to evade this impost Messengers,
spies, and agents in disguise, intercepted convoys, and either
purchased the loads on the spot, or relabelled the consignments
before they reached the city. The successful running in of grain
packs entitled thé bold driver and the skilful agent to security
from arrest for debt and to other privileges.
Many Statutes, Rubrics, and PrtnnJisi'oni were put forth by
the Government during the years 1296- I 299 to regulate this
contraband commerce. 1
The prices current for grain of course varied with circum-
stances; for example, between the years 1224 and 1232, the
limits were from fifteen to two soldi per staio or bushel.
The annual fixing of tbe price of corn, flour, and bread, was
I Pron. vi. 126; viii. 98; x. 39-

2E

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434 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the subject of a very quaint and primitive ceremony. " The
Officers of Abundance," as they were called, mounted to the top
of the ancient Granary of Or San Michele, just before the barvest.
and settled the years quotations by the impressions they got on
viewing the country from that coign of vantage-the greener the
crops the higher were the rat.es 11
Com in the market at Or San Michele was sorted into four
descriptions :-I. Calve/Jo.-big barley which would not pass
through the standard sieve,-the highest priced ; 2. Sicilian wheat,
second in value; 3· Grano Comunale,-the last Florentine harvest,
-sometimes mixed with barley ; and 4· Grano Grosso,--coarse
varieties of corn.
Ali grain for human use was exposed for sale in Bigrmcie.
baskets or trays, made of rushes or wood, each generally holding
seven or eight staiz: As many as three hundred of these recep-
tacles were to be seen in the Corn-market in times of plenty.
Another duty of the Officials was to go about amongst the
sacks, bags, and baskets of grain, brought into the market for sale.
and make personal examination of quantities and qualities. The
amount of wheat required for daily consumption in 142 7 was
one hundred moggi-about a bushel. Daily when the great
" Vacca" struck the hour of nine the "Officers of Abundance ..
seated themselves on a platform, within the Loggia of Or San
Michele, and from thence watched the orderly distribution of the
certified stocks.
In front of the Shrine of the Madonna dei' Or San Michele was
placed an office,-a desk and a bench,-where sat daily at certain
hours one or more Notaries. These legal officials were appointed
for the purpose of receiving the aflidavi'ts of Corn-chandlers and
writing out contracts. These were couched in stringent terms, so
as to bind buyer and seller alike to act honourably, and to
prevent the imposition of inferior qualities, and the inftation of
prices. Appeals in disputes on the spot were referred to the
N otary, who, not uncommonly, was accompanied by a Dominican
1 Cantini, iii. 6o.

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 GUILD OF BAKERS 435
or other reUgious personage, the duty of the latter being to set up
buming candles before the Shrine as witnesses of straight dealing
before God and man.

TB& SHI.IN& OI' OI. SAN MICHEL&, WJTH TK& COI.N MAIUC&T AICD TH&
NOTAI.Y FOI. AFFIDAVITS

In times of dearth or distress well-disposed merchants, and

others, were accustomed to send in waggons laden with com, to
be sold as the " Officers of Abundance" directed to the poorer
citizens. Very often too, wealthy and ambitious men, in order to

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
-'36 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
curry favour with the populace, placed supplies of grain at the
disposal of the Officers for gratuitous apportionment
Sometimes, when the pinch of want became severe, people
damoured and fought around the Granary-shrine for daily doles
of wheat Among relics of the " good old times " preserved for
years, in the Sacristy, was a fearsome instrument in the shape of
an axe, and a wooden block. The latter used to stand by the
platform whereon the " Officers of Abundance " presided under
the Loggia, and was used in connection with the very summary
method to which these worthies resorted, when they quietly chopped
off a finger or two from the hands of the more unruly claimants !
The effect of the intervention of the "U.ffiziali del/a Grascia"
and "deO' AblJondanza,"-the Market authorities,-was not wholly
conducive to the cheapening of comestibles. The constant suc-
cession of new men and new laws made for confusion and
difficulty, and hence the sales of com in the Markets and the
shops of the Granaiuo/i,-Com-chandlers,-no less than the prices
of ftour and bread at the bakehouses of the members of the
•• Guild of Bakers " varied considerably and perpetually.
The preponderating inftuence of the "Annona" had a grea.t deal
to do with the subordination of the "Arte de' Fornai." Members
of the Guild were wholly dependent upon their good offices---or
bad-in the prosecution of their trade.
Whilst at Pisa the " Guild of Bakers " ranked amongst the
Seven Greater Guilds, in the Florentine hierarchy it carne last of
ali the Twenty-one Corporations I This inferiority of precedence
lends colour to the story of the ill-fame of the trade in general in
the capital city.
Certainly 'in reading through the acts of the Council of State
of Florence one is struck with the frequency with which the
•• Guild of Bakers" and its members appear as delinquents. It
was constantly necessary to take measures against them, in
common with " the Guild of Butchers," in consequence of " the
dishonour they do the Commune, and the Podesta, by the bad
quality of the ftour and of the mutton they offer for sale."

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 GUILD OF BAKERS
A Jight is thrown upon tbe reason of the disesteem in which
the Guild was held in a speech made in the Council of the
Captain ofthe People on January 30, 1282, by Bernardo Rossi-
a baker. He maintained that " there were many wealthy citizens,
who had money interests in the trades of milling and baking ;
but who took no part in the business themselves. By the high
prices they charged for ftour they encouraged working bakers to
mix inferior qualities, and by the high rents they demanded for
the hire of bakehouses they compelled the tenants to make
excessive charges for inferior bread. The latter indictment had
its complement in the use ·· of unjust weights. This state of
things,'' he went on to say, "affected the poorer classes more than
the better-to-do citizens, and consequently excited popular
prejudices against the ill-used bakers, rather than against the
grasping capitalists I " 1

Of the actual date of the establishment of the Guild there are

no records ; indeed the early Archives of Florence,-such at
least as have been preserved,-contain only very scanty notices of
milling and baking, and hardly any of a Corporation of Craftsmen.
That avocations so essential for the public weal were actively
and largely in operation goes without saying from the earliest
period. Doubtless a goodly number of customs and methods had
grown with the lapse of time, and out of these quite naturally
more or less regular codes of proc,edure and conduct had been
elaborated.
In the Archives there are early notices as follows : -
" 1028. Urnu ... pistor--a Baker."
"1147. Btmanúu-Mugnaniu-a Miller."
In the year 1236 the "Arle de' Fomai" was duly scheduled
with the rest of the Twenty-one Guilds, and placed seventh in
the order of the Fourteen Lesser Guilds. · This pride of place was
retained only for a few years, for in 1282 the "Guild of Bakers"
appears last of ali the Guilds, and so it continued to the end.
l " Le Coasulte," tont• i. Quad C. p. 48.

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438 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Certainly in 1 5 34 the Guild received something like promotion
for it was included with the Guilds of " Butchers " and " Oil-
Merchants and General Dealers" in the Univwsita di Por S1111
Ptiro--the first of the four U nions of Lesser Guilds established by
the Grand Duke Cosimo I.
Whatever special features or peculiar Officers the Guild may
have had in earlier days, seem to have disappeared by the end of
the thirteenth century, and the Guild fell into line with the rest,

A FLOUJt MILL ON THlt AllNO. SIXTUNTH CltNTUllY

and accepted as a model for its new constitution the refonned

Statutes of the " Calimala " Guild of 1 30 1-1 309.
Probably at first the chief officers were styled " Capitud;,.; "-
•• Heads" rather than "Consuls," although their Residence was
called consular, and was a fine house situated in the Chiasso del
Buco by the Mercato V ecchio. U pon its front was emblazoned
a white star in a red field-the armorial bearings of the Guilâ',
which were assigned to the " A rle de' Fo1'114i" by the Priors in
1266.
From the first a distinction was drawn between the two
different classes of citizens who formed the membership of the
Guild :-the Mugnai-Millers and Fontai-bakers. The former

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 GUILD OF BAKERS 439
were engaged in grinding flour at their mills in the Contado, or
along the river side, and in carrying their full sacks to the Com-
market at Or San Michele. The latter were employed in knead-
ing and baking bread and in selling it retail.
Millcrs were forbidden to retail flour in F'lorcnce on their own
account. Three pounds of grain went to thc bushel. Millers
were cxpccted to dclivcr the ground flour within three days of the
receipt of the grain.l
The wholesale storagc of com and ftour, which would have
a tendency to harden the markct, and which could be sold at
bighcr rates in times of scarcity, was absolutcly forbidden,
Persons evading the prohibition were liable to have the whole of
their stock confiscated and to see their names exposed to public
'infamy.1
Probably much of the obloquy which attached to the bakers
must be laid at the door of the millers. Boccaccio throws out
many a hint that, in spite of their well-lined doublets and fair
white aprons, the latter class passed in general for sharp fellows,
not to say cheats. lt was said that they invariably kept back
~ne-half the flour which every grinding produced I 1
In 1296 full powers were granted to the Priors to draw up a
Statute against this dishonest way of dealing, and a1so a P1YIVVisÜJne
to determine the retail-price of bread.' This was ali the more
needful seeing the great variations which existed in the valuc of
com, flour, and bread, at dift'crent pcriods. In 1224, for example,
a staio,-bushel,-of wheat cost fifteen solda'; whilst, during the
great famine, in 1328 the price rose to one gold ftorin-ten
shillings.6
A Statute was passed fixing four tiellari for a staio,-one
third of a sack of com,-of bread ; but inasmuch as fuel,-
always more or less a scarce commodity,--cost more in winter
than in summer, it was impossible to sell at one price the
year round Naturally people wished to buy at the lowest
1 Rub. cc:viL, 1415. a Boccacc:io, "Giom." •i. "NOY." 2, tom. Ui. p. :16.
1 Rub. c:cix., 1415. 4 Pron. vi. 25, Y, I ''Le Consulte," i. 114-

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440 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
summer prices, and consequently any rise on the part of
the baker led to disputes and sometimes to the raiding of
their shops. They complained tbat they were the wronged
persons, and made appeals to the State for protection. At
last it was agreed that the bakers should charge four detrari
in the summer and five in the winter, for the sarne quantity
of bread.
Villani says tbe bakers were the gainers by the new arrange-
ment, and daily made in to bread as mucb as one hundred ·and
fifty loads <>f grain. Each loaf bad to bear the mark of the baker
stamped upon it. Any bread offered for sale unstamped was at
once confiscated by the " Officers of Abundance," and the oft"end-
ing baker was mulcted in heavy damages.•
Bakers, however, felt the strain of taxation, because tbey baci
to pay a tax, not only on the flour they baked, but also for the
privilege of keeping their shops open and their ovens heated.s
The constant alterations in bye-laws pressed arduously upon the
bakers. One day, for instance, a man might bake and seU bread
of a certain quality and weight, which the next were deemed
illega}.S
Kneaders of dough, and bread-bakers, were not allowed to
work on Sundays and other days of solemnity. Any one so
doing was fined forty soldi. The " SporlllltJ " however migbt be
open on such days after Mass for the sale of bread.
Makers of maccaroni and vermicelli were required to take out
their licences in the month of January, and all unlicensed bakings
were fined ten /ire for each sale effected.'
Citizens were warned not to purchase nor to keep large
quantities of bread, unless they were Innkeepers. Bread for
the family had to be purchased fresh daily, and no private indi-
vidual, or person unconnected with the Guild, might seU bread
under any conditions.6 Foreigners visiting Florence and residing

1 Villani, xi. 9 J. 1 M. Villani, i. 57·

1 Villani, 1347, xii. 72, xiii. 9s6· 4 Rab. cc., r4rs.
1 Rab. ccxh·. , 1415. , Rabs. clxxxix., cxli., r4 r S.

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 GUILD OF BAKERS
for a period were permitted to bake, cook, and sell, as they
liked, regardless of the embarrassing regulations which hampered
the Florentine bakers.
Bakers never gave credit beyond the value of ten /ire, and
they were obliged to fumish the Consuls of the Guild, at stated
periods, with lists of their customers and the amount owed by
each.
Bread was not by any means the only commodity which
bakers might seU, but flour of all kinds, as well, and bran and
sifted grain of every description. There was consequently a sort
of rivalry set up between them and the Granaiuo/z~-Com-chandlers,
-who were associated with the "Arle túg/i 0/iando/i."
A very important, and withal popular, branch of the Bakery
business was that of the Panattieri-Pastry-cooks-but this was
a later development of the art of baking. Pastry made with eggs,
butter, sugar, milk, and flour, however, is never named in Records
before the end of the sixteenth century, when a company of pastry-
cooks migrated from Milan to Florence, and introduced their
special delicacies.
In the Canti Canuuda/escki-Camival Songs--where all the
Guilds and Crafts are celebrated, or caricatured, there is no mention
of Pastry-cooks. First sung by Bemi in bis "Orlando /nnamorato,"
pastry supplied the epicure with delights he had never even
dreamed of : -
"To live delicately in every way
Needs the aid of foreign culinary.
Pastry goes well with your savories and with your
Poultry, boiled and roast, and with baked meats." •

The Pastry-cooks' shops, it need hardly be added, were, in later

times, irresistible attractions to the merry Florentines. Many a
pretty young ctmtadina, tripping along with her lover, picked up
some toothsome trifle or other. Just off the hot iron plates of the
oven, and temptingly set out in dainty wicker-baskets, were such
delicacies as /Jer/ingozzi-putf-pastry, cia/doni-thin spiced wafers,
l Lib. iii. cbap. vii. sect. sr.

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4'2 THE GUILDS OF J.'LORENCE
&ia"'!JI/Je-jam rolls, 6~/i-ginger-bread calces, lwaa:iaU/Ii
--crisp sweet biscuits, /asagru-maccaroons, and many other
delights, alongwith whole cakes and confectionery of all descriptions.
All bakers and pastry-cooks-wbether men or women-were
required to exhibit a sign over their bakeries and shops emblazoned
with the Lily of Florence in blue. 1 Once a year, in the month of
December, they were required to appear before the Officials of Or
San Michele, and to swear solemnly that they would well, truly,
and honestly, prosecute their calling, and commit no fraud against
the State and the public, but observe, strictly and intelligently, ali
the regulations of their Guild, and the laws of the State.1
The weights and measures used by members of the Guild
were under the inspection and correction of the officials appointed
by the " Captains of Or San Michele " ; who also had power to
examine and test the weight and quality of ali bread baked in
Florence.
Within the first month of their assumption of office Podestas
and Captains of the People caused a careful inquiry to be made
into the position, construction, and inotrensiveness, of ali public and
private bakeries and ovens. All nuisances or dilapidations were
pointed out, and time given for their amendment. Failure to
comply with the directions of the officials led to fines of one
hundred /ire, or more.a
Attention was also paid to the amount of fuel,-wood or other
inflammable matter,-stored by each baker, and strict rules were
enjoined as to its storage and protection from fire.•
The Guild,-in spite of let and hindrance,-flourished exceed-
ingly. The members built fine bakehouses and shops, and palatial
residences, which they furnished handsomely, encouraging thereby
many a rising artist and craftsman. In their Sunday and gala
dress they were not a whit behind their more aristocratic fellow-
Guildsmen, whilst in their hospitality, and the upkeep of their
tables, they yielded to none.
1 R.ub. ccxxniii., 1415. 1 Rub. cxc:v., 141,5.
I Jtub, ccii., f 41 !• • Rub. c:ciii., 1415.

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 GUILD OF BAKERS 448
They apparently cared little enough for their arbitrary position
of inferiority in the Guild Hierarchy and each individual did bis
best to show that he was as good a citizen, if not better, than
bis neighbour the Butcher and the Provision-Dealer I

• 3

1. "SI.,,. de/f Arte 2. " SlemnUJ tklf A rle J. "Sle1Httzc tlelf Arú
de' Cwtluai e SjJtldtli" de' úgtUiitl#ii .. de' Ftw114i"
Red eword, blae c:uii'IUIS, Red house, green tree, White star in
in white field in white field red field

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 CHAPTER XV

LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS

JIEBOÃTO VBOCHIO-JIERC.ATO NUOVO

MttRCATO VKCCHIO.- Tbe lungs of commerce. Tradition. Dante's

testimony. Conrad 11. Palaces. Origin of tbe Loggia. A ghost story.
Oraltlt'Ú del/a Trom/Ja. The Market language. "The Echo of the Market.''
Antonio Pucci. "LA PnJPrlela di Mer&aú Ve&&lrio.'' Market churches. Doaa-
tello's DOflilna. Market beUs. A clay in tbe Market. Sileoce unknown.
Market games. ".A&&orr 'Uomo 1"-Help! The Stocb fOr knaves. Chaas
anel dirt. Strict Market bye-laws. Market porters. Story-tellers. A mermaid.
Sllirn: Good food and drink:. Cattle. Fish. Poultry. The "Giglio." Fruit.
Thirsty souls. "Salaú !" Barbers. BurchieUo. Vou Tos&ana. Legend of
the White Hen.
MKRCATO Nuovo.-Rise of silk industry required a new Market·place.
The Loggia for Bankers. Tables of Money-changers. No comestibles iD
Mercato Nuovo. The "Carroçcio.'' Whipping bankrupts. Debtors privileged.
Beariog of arms in tbe Market forbidden. Goldsmiths' shops. Beovenuto
CeUioi. Hat-raisiog. Le gmli til' Finllle. " Making the fig I " Saà clays.
Party strife. Great prosperity. Junkettings. A terrible storm. ".li C~
di Firmu."

T HE lungs of the Commerce of Florence were the two Markets

--the Mercato Vecchio and the Mercato N uovo. The
home-trade of ali the Guilds and Crafts, for more than five
hundred years, was transacted within their precincts. Here went
up for ever and a day the hue and the cry after gain. Men, and
women too, toiled, as only those busy Florentines of old knew
how, both for individual success, and for the prosperity of their
beloved city. The keenness of her barterers and hucksters, no
1ess than the alertness of her manufacturers and her merchants,
have their cue in the words of Boccaccio : -
" Those who have no possessions are little better than dumb
cattle ; he who has most is reputed thc most worthy." 1
l Boc:c:accio, "Ceati Novelle." Giomo vüi. "Nov.'' 10, foi. 195·
444

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 445

The Mercato V ecchio was the most venerable site in Florence.

The first portion of the city to be built, it was geographically the
centre of the municipal area, and became, judicially, the seat of
the most ancient legal tribunal, socially, the residence of the old
aristocracy, and, commercially, the emporium of the known world.1
An old tradition marks out the Old Market as the exact spot
where the fierce Fiesoleans of old,. coming down armed from their
stronghold oni the .hills, barte~ with the peaceful dwellers by the
river banks.
Dante says, that before 1150 Etruscans, Romans, and Lom-
bards had all spoken of the Mercato V ecchio : at which date one
<>f the earliest important buildings was erected-the tower of the
Caponsacchi family.
Among traditions of the Old Market, perhaps, the earliest
relates that Conrad li. yisited Florence in 1037, and took up bis
.abode in the Market-place. Already there were well-known
residents of the Market : a wealthy noble--Conte di Martino, a
rich dealer-Rufo, and certain well-to-do . ~sans--Olivo and
Giovanni. At least, it is said, that Conrad seizéd the dwellings
<>f the three l.a tter and bestowed them upon the canons of San
Giovanni, who had championed bis cause.
The earliest historical record gives the year 1079 as the date
when the Mercato V ecchio received its name. Markets seem to
have been held in various parts of the old-world city, and old
woodcuts represent trafficking as going on just outside the doors
.of San Giovanni Battista ; but such " pitches " were of uncertain
.and inexact prescription.1
Around the Old Market were the houses, or palaces, of many
.of the principal inhabitants :-the Adimari, Amieri, Agolanti,
Alamanni, Alfieri, Altieri, Caponsacchi, Cacciaguide, Macei,
Manfredi, Medici, Nerli, Pegolotti, Sizi, Soldanieri, Tosinghi,
Tomaquinci, V ecchietti, and others.
The Palazzo Tosinghi,-called also "11 Palazzo," because it
1 F. L del MigUore, p. 572. 1 FolliJal, iY. 188.

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446 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
surpassed the rest in size and dignity,-was an excellent
specimen of the city palaces, which were
ma rks of the liberty of the Commune. · Across
...
the whole of the front ran open galleries
cal led Laubie,-from the German, the origin I!]
of the English word " lobby,"- supported upon
v.
pillars o r arcades. They were used, by the
~L
inm ates, for taking the ai r, enjoying their
meals, viewing the movement of the Market and rmr.

.• ~

PALAZZO DE' TOSINGHI, "IL PALAZZO," MIUt.CATO VBCCHIO

addressing erowds. Later on Lauóie gave place to I.Aggi'e.

The Amieri Palaces formed a range of fine buildings in the

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 441
~ Old Market. Their Ghibelline towers looked down upon many a
.. strange sccne, but on none so weird as the shrouded figure of
~ Ginevra di Niccolo degli Amieri knocking helplessly at the big
n door of her father's house. Married to Francesco Agolanti, she
~~ sickened of the plague in I 400, and was laid out for dead.
~~ Funeral rites were duly performed, and the poor young wife was
~ left in her grave ; but she had only swooned, and, awaking in
~ alarm, she cast off her grave clothes, and, wrapping the burlai
~1 shroud around her, she hurried to her husband's house. Terrified
~ at what he was convinced was a ghost, he rushed away from her.
k Ali her friends, affrighted, refused her assistance, and the poor
~ girl was like to perish really from exposure and hunger, when
:1 a boy-lover appeared. upon the scene. Ginevra retumed bis im-
l passioned embrace, and Antonio Rondinelli led her to her second
brida!, and, as the story books say, "they lived happy ever
after!" Via della Morta was named from Ginevra's Wake.
A t the comer of the Market, where enters the Via degli Speziali,
was a tabemacle with an altar, to which the name was given of
"Oratorio di Santa Maria della Tromba." It was built in com-
memoration of the ministrations of Saint Peter Martyr, and more
especially as a thank-offering for bis miracle in exorcising the
Evil One, who, in the shape of a black horse, terrified the neigh-
bours. In I 36 I the care of the Shrine was entrusted to the
"Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries." It was adomed with a
painting of the Madonna and Saints by Jacopo dei Casentino.
Mass was said daily, and devotions were addressed to the Mother
of God and the Saints, by devout passers-by. Moreover every
poor criminal condemned to death was dragged past this Madonna
and compelled to bend the knee on bis way to execution.
The Mercato Vecchio was distinguished for its possession of a
language of its own-a conglomeration, in truth, of ali the dialects
of the Contado, intermixed with popular renderings of classical
Latin.
Whilst Dante fixed the Tuscan language of the Early Renais-
sance, and laid the foundation of "del/a Crusca"-the polite speech

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
448 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of the Florentines,-Boccaccio,l Sacchetti and Pucci harked back
upon ancient usage, and have preserved for us the vemacular-
" La Lingua Fiorentina di M wcato Veccllio "-used alike by rich
and poor. Francesco Sacchetti has been justly called "The Echo
of the Old Market"; bom in 1 3 3 s, of the family of Benci
d'Uguccione, he died in 141 o. His " Novel/e" are precious
repositories of the topical slang of the Market
Frate Passavanti, of the "Order of Preachers," and chaplain to
Archbishop Acciajuoli, in bis" Speccllio del/a vwa Penitmsa,"-
written in the support of the Accadmiia túlla Cnuca,-reproaches
Tuscans, and especially Florentines, for their indiscriminate use of
vulgarisms, for clipping their words, and for the aft'ected pitch of
their voices : " the idiotic style of the Mercato Vecchio,"-as
he calls it,-" which has sacrificed both grace and vivacity, but
which, nevertheless has preserved honourable traits."
Antonio Pucci, the inimitable poetaster of the Markets, who
rejoiced in the style of poetry called " Satirico-gio&oso,"-perhaps
" satirical banter,"-has given us a living picture of the life and
work of the Mercato Vecchio.1 His "La Propn"eta di MwcaiiJ
Vecclli'o," written very early in the fourteenth century,-long
before " The Chronicle of Villani " saw pen and parchment,-is
composed of many stanzas, some of which, freely translated, are as
follows : -
" Our old Market, for ali the world, finds ample food,
And beats ali other marts in produce rich and good,
Vou could not match it, out of Florence, an' you would I
It is bighly bless'd for busy occupation,
At eacb comer, a church for godly contemplation ;
Whilst streets brancb out in every direction.
Physicians are at hand for every buman woe,
Flax-merchants display yams and linen-clotbs also,
About are pork butcbers-apothecaries too.
Here they seU fine glasses, and plates, and pitchers stout,
Tavems, too, with food and drink temptingly laid out,
And pretty serving maids, witb whom to ftirt no doubt !
1 Boc:caccio, " Giom." i., " Nov." 9-
t Delitie degli Eruditl Toteani, tom. vi. p. 267, etc.

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SA:XTA ~1.\IH.\ IN CA~ll'lllOl;I.JO IN TH[,; OLIJ MARKF.T, AS IT .-\f'I'F.AREIJ
1:-1 TH~: :-11:-I~:TEE:-iTH C~:NTt:R\'

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 449
Good woolleD clotlas and silks attract, the world well dress'd,
And look where e'er you will, in spite of jeer and jest,
A:re open butcher's stalls with joints quite of the best.

On one side poulterers with many luring words

Sell bares, and boars, and kids,-prey of sportive shepherds,
And pheasants, starlings, pigeons and all kinds of birds,

And here and there and everywhere are keen bargainers,

With seats and desks for ready-money changers
N eedful in the push of commercial undertakers.

Pawnbrokers also-and dealers in quaint old guise

Are ready with their loans; whilst others cast the dice,
So that none need be hindered be he fool or wise.

And where else can a man so Cair a garden view-

As that presented in the Markets-old and new,-
Which daily feasts the eyes of Florentines so true ?"

-and so he runs on.

Well may he speak, as he does, in the last verse; for the
Mercato Veccbio was called " Giardino di Firenze "-" the Garden
of Florence "-just because it was always fun of abundance and
delights, and because it was the fruitful source of the life and
enterprise of the wbole community.
Pucci places first-as ali devout Florentines would-the
temples of religion. Santa Maria in Campidoglio-just behind
tbe old Fish-market-adjoined a popular tavem, the Osteria deUa
Croce di Malta, the social meeting-place of the members of the
various Associations of commercial travellers. · I ts site was that
of the ancient Roman Capitol. San Piero Buonconsiglio,-
abbreviated to San Pierino,--at the soutb-west comer,-was
founded in tbe eighth century, and was the Sanctuary and Parlia-
ment-House combined, of the "Guild of Judges and Notaries."
It had a little outside pulpit, whence it was customary for orators to
address general audiences, and for doctors of the law to detiver
public lectures.
San Tommaso,-at the north-east angle,-became later on
tbe church of tbe Medici. " The Guild of Doctors and Apothe-
2F

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 450 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
caries " used this temple for private and public devotions. Here
too many of the W ool-merchants were wont to attend the daily
early Mass. Sant' Andrea,-the senior parish church of Florence.
-was a very ancient edifice, having been founded as a convent of
Nuns, in 852. Near at hand was the Piazzetta di Sant' Andrea
-where the members of the " Guild of Linen-Merchants " were
wont to forgather. In the cburch was the chape~ and altar of
the Guild. Merchants also of the " Calimala Guild " used to pop
in, as they passed, and count their beads.
In the centre o f the Mercato V ecchio was erected a fine
column of oriental cipoUit10, which ca!De out of the Baptistery of
San Giovanni. Upon it was placed, in 1430, a marble figure
emblematic of Abundance-the " Dwitsia " of Donatello. Two
iron rods ran up the shaft, one connected with the bell, whicb was
rung at the opening, and at the closing of the day's business ; the
other rod smartly jangled a similar bell when it was necessary to
wnm all and sundry that there were thieves and evil persons
prowling around I
Before dawn rumbling wheels bore in the day's supply of
country prod~e. The clatter of iron hoofs upon the big flat
stone setts mingled discordantly with the harsb imprecations of
drivers and dealers. The barking of country dogs, and the
yelping of town curs-cuft'ed perchance by lusty yokels or trod
upon by belated carousers-accompanied inbarmoniously the
cackling of geese and the bleating of lambs and calves.
The Florentines of old were early risers, for before the bells
for " Lauds " bad ceased their clang in the belfries, artisans were all
thronging the portais of the churches, euphemistically at least, assist-
ing at the hurried low Mass, as for a brief space they checked
their course to smithy, tanyard, and 1oom. Yes, work began at
. daybreak the year round ; aye, and before the shades of night had
passed, many a ftickering lantem danced its way across the grim
old Market-place.
Mingling in the throng were leather-aproned smiths and
armourers, bare-armed cloth dressers of the " Calimala," silk-

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THE MERCATO V~:CCHIO, WJTH THE COI.ONNA DELLA DOVIZIA AND THE
LOGGJA DI PESCJo:

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 451
spinners wending their way to San Bigio, carders and weavers
bunying to their worksbops from Oltrarno, goldsmiths' artificers
in tidier guise, dyers and tanners with snüned bands and arms
and clothes, and many another bonest working man and working
woman,--greeting one another with kindly words of cbeer or taunt-
ing cries in jest
The day wears on and simple bousewives, in their plain
woollen gowns and linen kerchiefs, ~ket on arm, and child at
breast, range tbemselves along the rows of market-people ready
for their . custom,-seeking their. busbands' breakfasts and other
homely needs. Tbe A/!Jerg-atori-the Innkeepers--too, are early
afoot to pick up cheap food stufl's for good wives to cook to set
before their bungry guests.
Tbe Messen· of the Great Guilds pick tbeir way tbrougb the
cbattering, cbafl'ering crowd, to and from their palaces. Possessed,
as most were, of pleasant villas in the suburbs, wbere true vi/leg--
giatura was ever to be bad, they loved tbe Old Market, and ali its
dirt and noise. I t was to every Florentine the well o f bis life, the
fulcrum of bis fortune, and the sbow-ground of bis pride.
Some of tbese Magníficos are wending tbeir way to the Resi-
dence of tbe Consuls of their Guild, or to the offices of tbeir various
companies, to meet travellers and agents from abroad. Others are
going to see bow their workpeople are getting on in tbe worksbops,
and to inspect new macbines and new methods. Many too are
bound to the Palace of tbe Podesta, or to the Palazzo V ecchio to
transact afl'airs of State, or to advance their own political interests.
Each wears tbe I#«Q, or gown, of bis class, witb ·its distinctive
marks.
Judges too and Notaries in the habits of their callings are on
their way, with befitting dignity, to their seats in tbe Courts-
carefully sbunning, as tbey pass, all familiarities and jocular
greetings.
Silence was unknown in tbe Old Market Early and late, by
nigbt as well as by day, the good year round its many voices rose
up far beyond tbe roof-ridges of the bouses, and climbed away

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. 452 'l'HE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
into the belfries of the four churches, where they were re-echoed
amid the jingle-jangle of the bells. At all seasons there were noisy
clinking at the Money changers' tables, and highly vociferated prices

"LATB DONE I LAT.B Fll.BSCHA !"-MILKMAN

of exchange. The banging of pots and pans dailY,:met the cbal-

lenge of hucksters and cheap-jacks of every kind. The harsh
" Cnia!Jbratta-óaratta, 6'ratta I"-" who \Vishes to exchange or to
sell ! "-not unlike the creaking of a cart-wheel,-sounded here and
there and everywhere.

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 453

As noon approaches the animation of the Market mounts still

higher. Into the Square begin to pour batches of frolicsome
apprentices, set free until the bell tolls them back to their work.
With empty stomachs and hungry mouths they snatch and toss
one to the other, onions and chunks of bread and cheese, casting
anywhere their piea"oli-small money-as often as not throwing
down no coin at ali! On they surge, munching as they go, and
cutting down many a fat sausage hung in their way, on the stalls
of the Pork-butchers. Unheeded are the protests of the amtadi11e
and the salt-meat sellers. Their empty ftasks and drinking cans
replenished with good Trtóóiano, at wine-shops by the way, they
jostle to and fro,-a merry, noisy, mischievous throng, to finish
their frugal meal on the steps of Santa Maria in Campidoglio, and
then to play impromptu at Calcio or Pallont among the stalls and
tethered beasts-heedless of place and circumstances.
Artists too, and artisans, with brief respite for their hands,
ftock into the Market precincts-dirty, hungry, and tired. Some
are bent on dining simply in the open, on fruit and eggs, percbance
with Donatello, Luca delta Robbia, and their set ; and some, with
pockets better lined, are intent on richer fare, with the Ghir-
landaji and Pollaiuoli, and with men of fashion-a Rucellai,
an Alberti, or a Medici.
The sitsta is not forgotten, and many a brawny limb and
·curly head of hair lie prone on steps, nay even on the bare ground
-in later days with fragrant weed or smoking pipe between their
teeth. But, hark I the work-bell rings, and in a trice, the drearners
rise and stretch themselves, and hie them to their tasks again.
But, "Accorr 'uomo I Acawr 'uomo I"-" Help I Help I"-
sounds out alike for a runaway horse and for a personal assault.
Taken up, the cry became, often enough, the signal for the prompt
closing of shops and dwelling-houses, as conftict broke out between
class and class and trade and trade. Riots in the Market were
normal events. Perhaps a clumsy porter, or a pack mule, acci-
dentally kicked a Ricci, who at once struck the offender, and he
in his tum was belaboured with blows from every Albizzi within

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454 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
reach, until the two families and their adherents were involved in
a grim death struggle.1
Rival trades were wont to join in battle-royal over the merest
incident. The dyers and the finishers of the " Calima/a Guild "
fought out to a finish disputes with the operatives of the " Gwld
of W ool," and so on.
Stone-throwing was ever a ready means to an end. Many a
time tbe .street-boys,-" Hooligans " great and small,-bent on
mischief, formed light troops in the van of the opposing parties.
The Podesta and tbe Magistrates sat long and wearily dealing
with troubles of the Market Litigants were as fierce as they were
numerous. Often enough no other remedy was readier than
to clap the lot in the town's Stocks to cool their ardour!
Such unfortunates, it need hardly be said, became the butt of
ali that passed them by. Sometimes the poor wretches suffered
grievous bodily injury, but the Market overseers were wont to
punish the aggressors by placing them cheek by jowl with their
victims I
Was that busy Mart ever swept and garnished? Gamished
indeed it was, but with such materiais as only made the litter
greater. Vegetables, stripped by the side of their natal beds,
went through a further toilet. Chestnut shells lay thick around
the barrows of Brucciata and bis brother roasters. Bits of cloth
and linen, and oddments of silk and v~lvet, with many a tuft of
fur and leather-shavings, were tossed hitber and thither. Offal,
filth, and rags vied with rascality, brutality, and disorder, in
offering unsavoury and forbidding objects to the gaze of noble and
simple wayfarers.
Notwithstanding ali this chaos and dirt, strict rules govemed,
not only the traders in the Old Market, but also their customers:
contraventions of which were treated with severity. The accused,
-whether guilty or not,-were usually tied to the column in the
centre of the Market, with fools' caps upon their heads, and labels,
-stating the nature of their offence,-upon their breasts 1 More
1 G. Biagi, " Prh-ate Life of the Renaiseance Florentines.

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 455
serious infractions of the Market Bye-laws were visited by periods
spent in the Stocks, with a heavy iron collar locked round the neck,
and attached by a cbain to a post ! 1
Tbe market porters,--and mighty men were they,-were of
course under strict rules an'd subject to special bye-laws. For
instance, no man was to undertake loads of more than two
hundred pounds in weight, for a course of two hundred and fifty
yards, and bis wage was fixed at six ámari. For greater, or
less distances, and with lighter loads or heavier, the payment was
to be pro rata. Refusal to pay the recognised tariff, attempts at
over charges, or disputes about the weigbt and distance, landed
the offender in prison for a month.
As the sun westems, preparations are made by the country
people for trooping home, but are intennitted whilst quiet groups
steal in to the four churcbes, at the bidding of the Vesper bell, and
there, whilst mechanically counting down their beads, they mentally
cast up their day's accounts !
lf a lull comes over the busy scenes of trafficking, it is but
a cover for the activities of unfortunate beggars : whilst dicers,
gamblers, and rogues of every degree look out of their hiding
places. Vagabond boys, whose tongues were wont to wag in
concert at brutal street games, pilfer where they will and can, and
little children, running home .from school, carry scares and tales
amid bitter tears and rippling laughter.
Evening coming on apace finds many a group of interested
hearers gathered around the seats of the story-tellers, for few things
did Florentines more thoroughly enjoy than talcs--romantic or
of war. Now laughing, now crying till salt tears ran down the
cheeks of all, the speakers pathos touched sympathetic chords, and
every one dipped into a shallow pocket for a coin of some sort or
another to cast into the charmers proffered cap.
At times strange exhibitions amused the leisure hours of the
busy workers : for example, in I 413, a great sensation was caused
by the capture, in the Mediterranean, of a mermaid or syren.
1 R.ub. cclxü., 1415.

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456 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Presenteei to the Signoria, it was exposed to public view in tbe
Palazzo Vecchio, and excited universal astonishment. Very fitly
it was called in the public notices-" The Fish out of Water "-a
tenn ever after offensively applied to any foolish freak, and
especially when an .official of the State proved himself an unsldlful
workman I Night settles down upon a sleeping city, whilst
ghostly sbirri,-watchmen,-steal along the streets with clanking
iron-shod staves and glowing lantems.

A MAilKET SCBNK-MBilCATO VBCCHIO. FIPTEBNTH CENTURY

Ali the public wants in food and drink were supplied in the
Mercato V ecchio. Originally the cattle and sheep market was
held in the Old Market, but the inconvenience became intoler-
able, and a more suitable site was found in Borgo d'Ognissanti.
In the same way the stalls of the Butchers were later on felt to
be unsuitable and encumbering in the Market, and they were
removed to the shops upon the Ponte Vecchio.
Fish was first sold, of course, on the banks of the Amo, as
soon as it was landed from the river boats, but, later on, its sale

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 457

was taken in band by dealers in the Mercato Vecchio. This

proved a nuisance, and as early as I I 7 7 a small fish-market was
opened in a shed erected at the Lung' Amo end of the Ponte
Vecchio. The Grand Duke Cosimo I. rebuilt the Loggia del
Pesce, and put up the inscription-

"Forum piscan"um q. usq. ad kuc tempon"tur

Quadragesimaiibus ad Pontem Veterum frequentabatur."

Attached to this Fisb-market was a small market for the sale

of fruit and vegetables which could not find room in the Mercato
Vecchio.
Poultry, game, and pork,-alive and dead,-were brougbt daily
to market by the country people, and were sold at the shops of
the "Arte degli Oliandoli." The cries of these creatures added not
a little to the hubbub of the scene. 1-'alcons, goshawks, and other
birds of prey, were not allowed to be sold publicly, whilst faddists
and lovers of feathered songsters,-among the latter being Leonardo
da Vinci,-went about buying up the little birds to give them
again their liberty I
With Poulterers were allied Greengrocers, and no stalls in the
market were gayer than those which were daily decked witb
flowers, and fruit and vegetables. The Giglio of course was the
prime favourite--tbe famous iris-lily of Florence, but roses and
pinks filled tbe air with fragrance, as did the bunches of sweet
herbs and lavender. The painters have preserved the form and
colours of tbe floral treasures of the hillsides and gardens of tbe
Contado--Botticelli and bis mates.
Of fruit tbere was no dearth, and endless was the variety.
Yellow apricots divided first honours with pine fruit and prickly
pears ; brown medlars, piled up in baskets, had for neighbours
what looked almost like strawberries, but were luscious arbutus
berries. Children spent their piCcioJi upon the glossy brown
berries of the Giuggiolo- jujube-tree, and the oval cherry-berries.
In summer time water-melon sellers reaped rich harvests, but
many a thirsty soul preferred the acid juice of the Nespolo,-the

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458 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
yellow mediar, - or the fresh made lemonade of the lemoo
squeezers from the Vicolo de' Limonai.
N uts too were in universal demand, and none were more
toothsome or more in favour with the apprentices than the little
kemels of the stone-pine. Chestnuts raw and roasted were ever
a Florentine fancy. Pinocç!Jia/o,-pine seeds, eaten with honey
and sugar, never carne amiss.
V egetables were as plentiful as they were decorative. Strings
of crimson capsicums, piles of scarlet tomatoes, heaps of purple
Petronci'ani,-pumpions or mad-apples, mounds of golden pome-
granates, mingled their attractions with cabbages of all colours,
creamy marrows, yellow Cea',-chick-pea,-and beans of ali sorts
and sizes. Tender sprays of dark green fennel, strange looking
Fungi with succulent Radú-cmo,-endive,-and tasty Go!JIIi,-the
market name for Carciofi because of their " humpy " appearance,
-artichokes, and many a toothsome herb besides.
Cries of " Sa/ate I Sa/ate ! " daily rent the air,-for all J:o1oren-
tines understood how to make and how to enjoy a salad,-whilst
everybody made a point of patronising the itinerant vendors of
salted lupine seeds.
Under the Vecchietti Palace lived the famed Cavolaj'a, or
cabbage woman, who made her fortune by coming into the
Market every day to seU the produce of her little potúre, or fann.
When she died the bells of the four Market churches and of Santa
Reparata were rung from Ali Saints' Day till Ash Wednesday-
so she willed. She was buried with much pomp in the Baptistery
in Bishop Rannucci's tomb.
In sunny weather, and amid winter rain, covers were allowed
over the stalls in the Market, and awnings were permitted over
the fronts of the shops, but none of these might extend beyood
the width of the stalls, nor more than 6ve yards beyond the
buildings.1
N aturally a great number of private interests and personal
perquisites, if not absolute rights, sprang up in connection with
1 Rub. lxxxix., 1415.

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 459
the Mercato Veccbio. For example in the "Petition of tbe
Guilds," presented to the Signoria in I 378, clause 15 runs
as follows :-" Tbat Giovanni de'Mone, bonourable citizen of
Florence, always zealous in the service of the Commune, and
already rewarded by tbe belt of Knigbthood, sball receive, during
bis natural life, tbree bundred gold florins annually in respect of
Market-dues, paid by the butcbers and the retail-dealers in meat
and poultry." 1
These dues were really the annual rents paid for the óotteglu
or sbops, which were arranged ali round the Mercato V eccbio,
immediately in front of the entrances to tbe houses and palaces.
Giovanni de' Mone was a Corn-cbandler, wbo, with Guido Bandiera
and Salvestro de' Medici, was knighted by acclamation of the
Popo/Q Minuto in the Ci'ompi rising.1
The merriest busiest óotteglu, in and around the Old Market,
were the shops o f the A pothecaries and the saloons of the Barbers.
Ali the fasbion of the day forgathered at the former to deluge
the city witb gossip, wbilst at the Barbers men congregated alone
t,o bear and tell tbe latest scandal.
The operations of the Florentine Bar!Jieri were usually con-
ducted in fair weather in the open : eacb barber baving the rigbt
to place a chair, a sbaving basin, and a looking glass, outside bis
sbops. Tbey were permitted to keep open on Sundays, and to
employ tbeir apprentices ; but were not allowed to place tbeir
sbaving stools and other articles of their craft outside their doors.
On Sundays and Festivais they were forbidden to go or send
out to sbave their customers at tbeir bomes. Among other pro-
hibitions, barbers were on no account to exercise their calling by
candle-ligbt. If any customer ventured to wasb bis bands or bis
face in public tbe accommodating barber was 6ned ten soldi for
eacb offence I 8
Perbaps the most famous of all tbe barber confratemity was
Domenico di' Giovanni Burchiello--" the son of a barber, and
1 G. Capponi, "Storia della Repubblica di Firenze," vol. i. p. 346·
!1 Provv. i. So, 1288. 1 Rub. lxxv., 1415.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
460 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
tbe grandson of a barber "-as be liked to call bimself. His
bottega, in 1408, was close to the Residence of the Consuls of the
" Calima/a Guild , ; and it became tbe most celebrated shaving
saloon of the century.
Burchiello, wbo matriculated in the "CalitllalaGuild" in 1432,
was by way of being a poet, and versified the current topics
of tbe day in the vemacular and style of tbe Old Market.
lndeed be is justly famous as the originator of tbe "Li'ngw.a
Bur&IUelluca ''-tbe inimitable Society slang o f Florence. N oth-
ing was more taking than bis witty verses and bis pointed jokes,
-perbaps, at times, a little strong, and unsuitable for general
repetition I Tbey were publisbed, in Florence, in 1 480-one of
the earliest prints of the Printing Press.
His keen razor kept time witb laugb and splutter. Many a
smart lucco, and many a tigbt-fitting bose suffered from soapsuds
sbot out of cboking roaring moutbs I Still no one could give a
clean sbave better than Messere Domenico Burchiello, and in tbe
fifteenth century at ali events a smootb face was tbe fashion.
George Eliot puts into tbe moutb of tbe Florentine barber NeUo
-" Here at Florence, we love not to see a man with bis nose pro-
jecting over a cascade of hair." 1
Quite the most favourite fasbion of hairdressing, in the fifteenth
and sixteentb centuries, was known as " Zassera." 2 Tbe crop was
cut square on the sboulders and not tbinned downwards. A saucy
finisb was added with tbe curling-tongs, for the love-locks were
disposed as an aureole, or, as they said, "like a moon in a mist."
Tbis was par ezcellmce, in Paris, London, and elsewbere, known
as the " Florentine cut " I Macbiavelli, it is said, was cute enough
to value the delicacy of tbe barber's art, and to discem in bis mani-
pulation of i/ pelo túll' uovo,-" the skin of tbe teeth,"---as we say
-tbe quickening of bis faculties.
Barbers and Apothecaries were rivais in the Market, but tbe
former pointed jestingly at the crowds tbronging " 11 Moro "-
" the Moor "-and otber famous botteglte túgli Spesiali, as bereft of
1 G. Eliot, "Romola," chap. iii. 2 See Plate xxiii. p. 162..

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 461
the joys wbicb alone a sharp razor and a lively wit could
bestow!
Antonio Alamanni, bom in J 480, was a disciple of Giovanni
Burchiello, and kept up tbe cult of "La Burd•ia "-tbe Burlesque.
He too produced topical melodies and establisbed "La Trottola "
-banter-songs. It must bave been a very funny sigbt to watcb
grimacing Alamanni, arm in arm with bis eccentric and serious
friend Antonio Magliabecchi,-the great Librarian,--crossing tbe
Market-place with Giovanni Pegolotti tagging on behind I Tbe
latter was the inexhaustible author of jokes and gibes at the
expense of the clergy and tbe medicai faculty, capricious and
bizarre, but entirely cbaracteristic of the ligbter side of life in
the Market.
M usic too, vocal and instrumental, was not wanting from the
purlieus of the Old Market. Living in a billy country, and by a
swiftly running river, the Florentines were naturally endowed
with sweet and full toned voices, and witb correct and musical
ears--the " Voce Toscana " became a proverb. Dante bas preserved
tbe name and tbe fame of Belacqua, a musical instrument-maker
in the Market, and of Casella, bis skilful musician friend.1
The Mercato V eccbio was a treasury of local traditions and
stories. One,-" The Legend of the White Hen,"-is as follows : -
There was in the Old Market-place of Florence an ancient house
and shop, over the door was the figure, in bas-relief, of a good
fat hen, to show that eggs could be got there. The old body who
kept tbe shop was called Furiccbia, and she was a mystery to her
simple minded neighbours. She had always on hand an enormous
quantity of eggs, but where they carne from nobody knew. She
did a splendid trade, and rapidly became rich-especially as her
eggs had the virtue of curing sick people and bewitched children.
One day a poor but high bom Florentine dame, who was very
jealous of Furiccbia's prosperity, determined to discover the secret.
She visited the little shop, and found its mistress out, but she
heard a hen ducking in a cupboard : -
1 "Purptorio," Canti ü. and iY.

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462 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
"Coccode I Dear me! -Where can Furicchia be?
Coccode! Furcchia mine-Bring me some warm red wine,
Coccode I Tbeae eggs I have laid. Coccode ! now six for your trade,
Coccode I Now these are mine. Bring me quicldy the warm red wine.
Coccode ! Talre them away ; Many more further will I lay,
And thou wilt be a lady grand, As fine as any in ali the land ;
And should it happen that any ooe. Drinks ofthis wine as I have done,
Eggs lilre me lhe will surely lay ; Tbat ia the secret, that is the way.
Coccode I Coccode I" 1
Sure enough on the fire there was a pot of red warm wine, and
without more ado the Signora drank a big mouthful and hastened
home. Alas for ber curiosity and her thirst, for she began to sing
to everybody's amazement : -
" Coccode I what a pain in my leg I
Coccode I I must lay an egg.
And if any eggs I canoot lay
I shall surely die to-day."

And so she went on laying, laying, and pecking at crusts like a

hen. Soon she began to shrivel up until she became a hen and
hatched mice from her eggs, which all ran away-and then
she died I This is the " Legend of the White Hen."
.
The name "Mercato Nuovo" was first applied to the auxiliary
of the Mercato Vecchio in ·the fourteenth century. The destruc-
tion of many houses and towers laid bare a site, within easy reach
of the Old Market, at a time when the daily barterings were
overtaxing its capacities.
The rise of the silk industry, and the immense number of
crafts and trades associated with it, required almost a sepa.rate
mart. Together with the increase of industrial output, the
" Guild of Bankers and Money-Changers " found the Mercato
V ecchio very unsuitable for the dis~arge of their daily monetary
business. Accordingly an area was cleared of rubbish and sur-
rounded by fine buildings-residences, shops, and offices. The
principal families resident in the Mercato Nuovo were the Caval-
canti, Giandonati, Infangati, and Mangiatori. Among the offices
1 Leland, C. G., "Legenda o( Flon:nce," p. n.

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 I

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 463

newly erected was a branch agency of the " Calimala " Guild,
where the banking business of the "Mercanti Francesca" was
chiefly conducted.
At one side of the Market was erected a Loggia, and here the
" Guild of Bankers and Money Changers " established an
Exchange, where couriers and agents might be matriculated, and
where also those already in commission might forgather to render
their accounts, and compare the daily bulletins of foreign Bourses.
Tables with seats for Money-changers were set up ali around
the Market : those of the Matriculated Guild members covered
with green cloth, and those of uncovenanted exchangers merely
bare boards. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there
were nearly a hundred such "Banks" set up. The number of
" Banks " was adjusted to the accommodation of the Market-for
conservatism of locality was ever a canon among Florentines.
Not till the sixteenth century did bankers presume to extend
their business-holdings to other Púuse and along the streets.
The Mercato Nuovo differed from the Mercato Vecchio, in
that no comestibles were sold within its precincts. The sale of
ftowers however was allowed, especially for Church festivais and
public ceremonials,-a form of merchandise and a delightful
custom whicb continues to tbe present day.
Cosimo de' Medici,-" Tbe Father of bis Country,"~er loyal
to bis native city and to bis family, noted the inferiority of the
Florentine Loggia to the Borsa of Amsterdam, and other capiWs,
and determined to erect à more wortby edifice. Two architects
undertook the commission,-Bemardo Tasso and Buono Talenti,
but the former did most of the work, and tbe present beautiful
building was completed in 1 548. By the side of one of tbe
pillars stands the famous bronze Boar, calmly regarding the
cool fountain-it was cast by Tacca, a pupil of Giovanni da
Bologna.
The Loggia presented a fine sigbt wben filled, as it was every
day, at the hour of "Tierce," witb merchant nobles in their stately
robes, and distlnguisbed foreign visitors, swarming like bees, and

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
464 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
discussin~ the state of the Florentine money-market and foreign
financiai quotations. The crowd was divided into three sets,
according to the order of the columns, which supported the roof
of the building :--( 1) the venerable fathers of banking interests,
(2) the vigorous middle-aged operators and speculators, and (3)
the pushing young men clerks and aspirants to fiscal prominence.
In the centre of the Mercato Nuovo used to stand the "Car·
roccio,"-the old Florentine battle-chariot,-for thirty days before
the armies of the Republic moved out to meet the foe. Kept io
the Baptistery, it was in troublous times drawn by two milk-white
oxen, covered with vennilion cloths, into the New Market Over
it was raised the red and white banner of the people, and, at an
altar, erected upon ita square platform, Mass was said daily. A
guard of youths, dressed• ali in white, kept watch around this Pal-
ladium of the city.1 The use of the" CarrO«io" began early in the
thirteenth century, when it preceded the Florentine army on their
way to Siena, in 12 30. Strange to say, the sacred car was last
used in another war against the same city, during which it fell
into the hands of the Sienese, by whom it was destroyed.
In place of the" Carroccio" the Signoria ordered a marble device
to be laid in the centre of the Market, where the car had been
wont to stand. This took the shape of a wheel with six altemate
spokes of black and white marble, let into the paving.
On this spot, later on, was erected a stone pillar, or post, to
which bankrupts were tied, and publicty beaten three times with
every mark of personal indignity. Doubtless the present-day
custom of " hammering " a delinquent on the London Stock
Exchange had its origin in this Florentine usage I
There was no way for a man to obtain bis discharge but by
undergoing this degrading flagellation. lf there was one thing
the Banking community of the Mercato N uovo feared and hated
more than any other it was, of course, failure. A man, or a
business house, who could not meet payments was an ob,;«:ct of
universal contempt and persecution. The same measure was a1so
Delizie degli Eruditi Toscani, vol. vii. p. 4

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 465
meted out to all citizens who persisted in " playing games with
cards and dice, which distract honest men from work." 1
A special privilege however was allowe<l, by custom and law,
to debtors, who were free from arrest, so longas they remained
within the precincts of the Market.
Another law was passed, and generally observed, which made
for the dignity and the liberty of the Mercato Nuovo--no person
bearing arms was permitted to enter. In times o( public tumult,
no doubt, this regulation was inoperative : nevertheless the
trained bands of the " Guild of Bankers and Money-changers "
were always on guard to defend the interests, and fight for the
privlleges of the money-market.
Many goldsmiths' workshops were established in the base-
menta of the houses bordering the Market. The studio of
Giovanbattista Sogliani,-Benvenuto Cellini's third master,-who
.admitted his distinguished pupil to share his quarters, was here.
They did such a thriving business that they required three shops,
which were held from the " Guild of Goldsmiths " by Salvadore and
Michele Guasconti, workers in the precious metals.1
I t was not the fashion to raise the hat in old Florence, and
this was nowhere more evident than in the Market Even the
M useri o( the " Doctors " and the " Judges " Guilds were received
with scant courtesy, for were not the frequenters also mostly
members of honourable Crafts, and possessed of full civic rights,
.or aspiring thereto ?
Tbere was a good deal of " I'm-as-good-as-my-neighbour "
.about the genti of Florence. To salute an equal betokened
inferiority : to cap a superior-well there were none in the
.opinion of the artizan-aristocrats I All were members of a great
and progressive industrial and commercial Republic, wherein the
.meanest citizen had the power of attaining to the highest seats of
dignity. Ceremonious customs carne in with the rule of the
Medici, and marked the downward course of Florentine greatness.
On the other hand not a few were the gestores of contempt
1 Ademollo, i. 179. t J. A. Symonds, " Life o( Benvenuto Cellinl."
2(;
466 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and indifl'erence. To turn sharply away upon the beel from a
person whom it was wisbed to insult, or to pay out, and to
" make tbe fig,'' were very common and otrensive customs in the
Markets. The thumb was pusbed between the laid down two first
fingers of the hand, and then pointed at the disesteemed person.
Dante refers to this gesture in bis " Inferno " : -
" When he had spoken, the wretch just raised his hand
Pointing in moclrery, and cried, 'Take them, the deuce,
At thee I jerk my fig.' • 1
,And certainly our English expression-" don't care a fig "-has its
origin in this Florentine custom.
Sad days however,-as in all bumaq atrairs,-befell the
Markets. Riot, Famine, Flood, Fire, and Plague, in rapid
sequence avenged the frolics and the crimes of beedless and
treacberous citizens. The cry of AO'Arme I AO'Arme I resounded
many and many a time, from side to side of the busy Market-
place, and re-echoed down the streets and lanes, until it was
caught up at river side, and wafted across to Oltrarno and right
over the Contado.
In I 304 terrible encounters were witnessed between the
Bianclliand theNeri-the "Whites" and the" Blacks,"-underthe
Cerchi and the Donati respectively. Fierce popular passions we:re
aroused, and many a lusty craftsman, as well as many a noble
merchant, lay welterlng in bis life's blood. Whole families were
wiped out, and industries were cbecked and destroyed. Fire was
laid to the houses of the rival factions, and the Cavalcanti and
Gherardini, of the Markets, were bumt out.
Again in I 3 I 2 party strife broke out with renewed frenzy.
and Guelphs and Ghibellines fought out their feuds in the Markets.
Operatives and people from the country joined in the fray, and
every workman plied bis axe, bis knife, his mallet, and bis saw,
in the bloody work of civil war. "Men," says Dino Compagni,
" kill each other regardless of law." 1
The fourteenth century found Florence torn and distraught
1 .. Inferno," CUltO UY. I Dino Compapi, "Crooica,, p. J12.

•
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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 467
by party strife. Headed by the Acciaiuoli, the Bardi, and the
Frescobaldi,-the Donati, the Pazzi, and the Cavicciuli,-the
Adimari, the Albizzi, and the Medici-respectively, the populace
was divided into three bostile camps. Day and night resounded
in tbe Markets and in the streets-" Evviva i/ Popolo I "--each
party was tlu people's party !-" Shut your shops--follow us 1-

STaBBT AllCHJT&CTVaB-SPOII.TS AMD PASTIMJtS

pay no more tolls and taxes 1--down with the despots I " Such
were the rallying cries.
Machiavelli, in commenting upon those times of disorder,
says : " They demonstrated forcibly how perilous it is to free a
people who prefer slavery." 1
A few years later saw the city at the very pinnacle of her
prosperity, when citizens and their wives paraded Market and
street arrayed in rich attire and bedizened with jewels and gold.
Music and dancing shortened the hours of labour, and the touma-
1 Macbiayelli, .. Le Istorie di Firenze," lii. sr A •

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468 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
ments and shows reduced the daily Market throng. The whole
city went mad with excesses, and the Mercato V ecchio and the
Mercato Nuovo were the acenes of wild debauchery.
The junketings however were rudely stopped in Novemher
1333, when a fierce storm ~ for four whole days and nights.
The terrified citizens, sobered by the catastrophe, sought the
sanctuaries of the churches, until they too were washed by tbe
ftood. The Market was four feet under water, and many houses
fell: the bridges over the Amo were washed away. Very many
people were drowned and mucb cattle was carried ofl: When
the waters,-after a week of destructive action,--abated, a f®d
slime was left behind, which covered everything and,--emitting an
evil odour,-caused a pestilence to break out in the cramped
houses of the city. The wells too and springs of water were
polluted, and stacks of com and hay and other food stuffs were
rendered useless. Famine seemed to threaten completion of the
fateful work of an avenging Providence.

" 11 Centro di Firnut" became a social and political expres-

sion in the middle of the last century. Decay, dirt, and dissolute
habits, had combined to invest the Mercato V ecchio and its
precincts with an evil reputation. Schemes for restoration, or
amelioration, were raised and dropped: questions of private com-
pensation and of public convenience were ranged against one
another. Financiai obligations became the doom of many a sane
suggestion. At last people tired of a project wbich seemed to be
insoluble, but the cry for the demolition and removal of ancient
buildings became fierce and urgent.
, The Municipality yielded, not unwillingly, to the demand, and
the fell work of destruction was commenced. At first tentatively,
and timidly, the bousebreaker plied bis calling ; but getting bolder,
and casting to the winds his reverence for antiquity, a vast area
was cleared of buildings.
The palaces, towers, shops and tavems of the Otd Market
have disappeared. lts four churches have gone, and the Colotura

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 LIFE AND WORK IN THE MARKETS 469

del/a Doviúia, with all its spiral stories of a busy past, has been
laid low.
The living, though choked up lungs, which had breathed in
and out the life of centuries in Florence-" the Beautiful and the
Busy," ceased for ever their functions I The Mercato Vecchio
was no more!
Memories of long past deeds, and perhaps the ghosts of long
dead worthies stilllinger, and mingle in a weird maze of "Inferno "
with "Paradiso." Time and distance have mellowed the cries of
the tradcrs, and stilled their tramping feet A dim figure . glides
off, and a hushed voice proclaims :-" Here once was the Old
Market I"

SlemWIII de/ P~polo di Firm.e.

A· red cross upon a white field.

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 CHAPTER XVI
THE STREETS, THE SQUARES, AND THE BRIDGES,
WITH SOME OF THEIR STORIES
STREETS :-A maze of streets and laDes. Description of Florentine houses.
Linen windows. Street noises. Children's games. Straw-matting. Fires-
Pace da Certaldo's expedient. Via di Calinlalasnd its State awnings. "Rowdy
Row." Bernardo Cennini's printing of&ce. Gorgeous banners of the Por Santa
Maria. Apprentices and their tricks. Artista' worbhops. A great bhue-
Buffalmacco's jokes. 11 Diavolo del Mercato. A street of Palaces. Narrow
CAiassi. Dark deeds. Charles DickenL
SQUAR.ES :-PiaDa della Signoria the focos of officiallife. Giants at the
Gates. Palazzo della Mercanzia. Loggia de' Lanzi. Piazza di San Giovanni
and great religious festivais. Palia e Mag/iQ. The Crusades. R Ptúllnu.
Santa Croce. li Caldo. Annual fairL Love philtres.
BRIDGES :-Ponte Vecchio. A bridegroom done to death. Butchers and
Gold-smithL Ponte alia Carraia. Loads of wool. A link between past and
present. Ponte Rubaconte, or Alie Grazie. Shop sigDS-f&llimalL The quay of
the sand-men. Ponte alia Santa Trinita. Trysting-place for loverL Dante
and Beatrice.
Scenes and stories :-Street violence. Bordone Bordoni. Wedding-bells.
Practical jokes. Horse races in the Duomo I Solemn Processions. Madonna
dell' lmpruneta. The Misericordia. Festival of St John Baptist. Banners.
TowerL li Palio. B11rú e Bejft I The curfew. The Spirits ~ the past.

A PERFECT maze of streets and squares, with tall irregularly

built houses, of every kind and degree, extended ali around
the Markets. Mostly paved with big hard ftat stones, and, here
and there, a range of river cobbles set upon their roughest ends,
they were the substantial but the noisy stage upon which the
comedies and the tragedies of old Florence were enacted.
The houses of Florence bore many designations-for ex-
ample :-Pa/us()--fl town mansion, Pa/ag'etto--a smaller edifice,
Caso/aro--ao old palace inhabited by many poor people, Casa
-an ordinary house, CaseUa-a small dwelling, Bottega--a.
shop,. and Loggía-a porch or arcade.
470

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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 411
Some of the buildings were ali that remained of the grim
castles of the Sodelà del/e Torre : others showed the crenelated
battlements characteristic of Guelph and Ghibelline days of con-
ftict. As a rule the basements were arcaded, or at least big
pilasters and arches bore up the superimposed ftoors, leaving
cavernous depths, into which scarce glinted the light of the sun.
By day these arcades and loggie were throng~ by small
dealers in every conceivable commodity, who kept up a never-
ending babei of voices, pitched in every possible key.
At night time, and in days of stress,--domestic ?r political,-
big doors or shutters and strong iron bars were wont to · be shot
into position for the security of the inmates and their. property.1
Many were the gaming dens of ill-repute which ftourished in
those dark entries. · Tables for" Chess" and for" Woman,"-the
two popu~ar games,-were laid o~t, and. others for risky and
nameless games of chance. On rough· forms ~t the players, whilst
around were grouped idle and dissolute persons wagering upon
the play. A charge of cheating, or a run of ill-luck, set gamblers,
spectators, and the proprietors of the tables, at maddened variance.
Knives were whipped out, and e'er the cry " Accor uomo I " had
reached the outside world a poor wretch lay prostrate and done
to death.
Shabby enough were the fronts of many of those grand old
houses, in spite of titanic stones and massive metal-work, for, were
not their windows,-if such we may call the many shaped open-
ings for light and air,--covered only with dirty strips of oiled
linen, stretched tightly over wooden frames 't Window-glazing
was a luxury of the rich, and even many o{ the Magnijicos were
content to tive in the semi-darkness of their poorer neighbours.
The street noises were intolerable. What .with the raucous
ejaculations of vendors of merchandise puffing their mtiltifarious
wares, the fierce oaths of drivers of pack-animais and carts, the
imprecations of the jostled hucksters and passers-by, the ribald
and obscene snatches of song and jest, and the howling of un-
1 G. Biagi, " Pri•ate Life of tbe Renaillance Florentines."

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472 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
controllable ragamuffin boys, the air was rent with bewildering
uproar, which no poorly fitting oiled-skin could possibly keep out.
The merry laughter of school children, passing to and fro,
or indulging in happy games, and the pert tones of winsome

GltOOP OF FLOit&NTJJfltS-A STitUT DJSPUTB

maidens giving back as much as they had taken from their bold
lover Jads, were wont to be harshened by the scudding rush of
cutting stones, as one hooligan band gave battle royal to its rival
from the adjoining street.
Of ali the children's games played in the streets of old Florence
nt>ne was more characteristic than that of " Gut{fi o Glliótl/i,i"

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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 47'3
-doubtless the parent of our " Oranges or Lemons." Two strong
youths or maidens, grasping tight each other's hands, stood and
sought to encircle the waists of passers-by, as well as of their play-
mates, asking each captive to which party he or she belonged.
The prisoner was released only to hold on to the tail of his chosen
side. When enough recruits were obtained the two strings pulled
as hard as ever they could, the conquerors tugging1 their weaker
opponents where and how thcy listed.
Full of people in cvery sort of costume, rich and poor, old and
young, merry and grave, ali thc tive long day, no time was ever
found to sweep away the litter and the dust. Happily rain ran
in rivulets, and washed betimes the gutters free from refuse, but
tbis cleansing swept the peoplc's "porkers," which grubbled in
the dirt, into the basement of the houses, and made the disorder
indescribable. The straw-matting, which was on the ftoors of rich
and poor alike, harboured both dirt and vermin I
The houses were, as to their interiors, swept once only in the
week--on the Saturday, so well may be imagined the accumu-
lations which choked every comer, and dusted the tangled veil-
ings of prodigious spider-webs 11
Thc dwellings of the Florentines were much exposed to fire :
their linen windows, the wooden frame-work of their fittings, and
their doors, the vast expanse of drying clothes,-woollen and
linen,-waving their lengths from the topmost stories, ali these,
and many another object, favoured conflagration. 111-contrived
too were the measures of security from fiery outbursts.
Pace da Certaldo,-a fourteenth-century writer,-advised ali
and sundry, •• to keep handy at least twelve capacious canvas
sacks, in which to put your things, whenever there is a fire in
your neighbourhood, and also a thickish piece of rope, to reach
the ground, to help your escape through a window I "s
1 "Florenc:e Gazette," 1891·92· t MS. Biblioteca Riccardiana.

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474 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE

I. STREETS

O f ali the streets which debouched into the Mercato V ecchio

by far the most important was the Via di Calimala-some-
times called Strada Francesca. Not only did the most consider-
able merchants daily frequent it, but it gave its name to the
greatest of ali the Guilds. Its principal building was the Palace
of the Cavalcanti, which they gave over as a Residence for the
Consuls of the Great Guild Upon the feast of the Patron Saint
of the city the whole street was covered with a State awning of
blue canvas richly embroidered.
This was always the rallying-point for friends, and for foes
too, of the merchants. At times the solemn tread of venerable
city fathers and their subdued and serious conversation gave way
to the hurried march of armed Ciompi, seeking,-with protest
first and then with fire,-the removal of some trade injustice, or
·the granting of some political privilege. 1
At the end of the Via Calimala, where it entered the Mercato
Nuovo, was a narrow lane, leading to the Via de' Calzaiuoli-
called "11 Bacçano,''-" Rowdy Row! "- because of the hoarse
and profane cries made by apprentices to attract customers to
fare that way. In I 470 a change came over the scene, and the
discordant voices of disorderly lads, gave place to the metallic
music of the first type-foundry of Florence. Here Bernardo
Cennini established himself as a printer and publisher, and his
machines have revolutionised the world. In the Via Baccano
was situated the first banking-house of the Medici. From "11
Baaano," to the little Via dei Garbo, was but a pace or two,
and there only a short time after printing became the step-
mother of learning, was set up the first Florentine Booksellers'
Row.
The Via Por Santa Maria yietded to none in importance,
wealth, and romance. Here was the Residence of the great Silk
1 L'Osservatore Fiorentlno.

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r.

THE VIA LONTAl\IORTE BY THE OLD 1\IARKET

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
THE STREETS, SQUARES, ANO BRIDGES 475
Guild, whose façadc was wont to bcar thc finest banncrs of thc
city, and whose Cousu1s and mercbants walkcd with hcads crect,
and pockets full of gold florins, proudcr than thcir fellows. And
just because of this swaggcr thc street was famed for its practical
jokers, with crossed cbains and unexpected obstacles, to trip up
the fincst of ali the fine folk I
A favourite trick of the apprenticcs and practical jokers of thc
Via Por Santa Maria was to place before the doors of thc
houscs of the merchants, and under the deep shadows of the
Torre degli Amidei, and of the othcr towers, butts or pails of
dirty water. The unwary pedcstrian tumbling into one of them,
was the signal for uproarious mirth, wbilst skilful stone-throwing
boys, at the corners, sent in deadly volleys I I t was in the Via
Por Santa Maria that Benvenuto Cellini, when only sixteen years
old, routcd five opponents who bad basely stricken down bis
brother.
In the street leading from the Por Santa Maria to the Piazza
della Signoria was situated the ancient church of Santa Cecilia,
where were held the joint meetings for mutual advantage between
the two great Guilds o f W ool and Silk. Sometimcs these con-
ferences led to disturbances through the mutual jealousy of
individual members.
Via de' Calzaiuoli was originally divided into three parts : -
Corso degli Amidei, Via de'Pittori, and Via de'Caciaiuoli. The
lattcr was ever odoriferous with the merchandise of cheese-
mongers,-members of the "Arl4 deg-li 0/iandoli,"-and many an
epicure carne dawdling along on tasting bent. Via de'Pittori
appealed to the art instincts of the people, as did the other to
their olfactory senscs. Tbe new name carne about through the
prosperity of the " Guild of Sboemakcrs," and their cutting,
knocking, punching, and the other noisy details of the trade, were
in full operation. In Via de' Calzaiuoli was the Palazzo Macei,
the residence of the Duke of Athens during bis tenure of the
Chief Magistracy. Thc shops too of the makers of body-hose and
stockings were in this street. Tbis manufacture was a speciality

DlgítízedbyGoogle m
476 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
of Florence, so that wben Cbarles V. entered the city in 1 5o6,
wearing ligbt breecbes, be was hailed as a true Florentine l 1
Just beyond tbe Bigallo, in tbe Via de' Calzaiuoli, Donatello,
Luca Della Robbia, Micbelozzo, and Masaccio, worked as brothers
for the common cause of art and craft.
Tbe Corso was tbe scientific frontier between tbe Cerchi and
tbe Donati. Tbe Via de' Cerchi,- a quaint narrow lane,-ran
parallel to the Via de' Calzaiuoli. At the comer, where the Via
di Cimatori joined it, a stone pillar stood displaying three circles
-the arms of the redoubtable " Whites,"-it was part of their
loggia. Tbe Borgo degli Albizzi, at tbe otber end of tbe Corso,
contained the bouses of tbe " Blacks."
During a street figbt, between tbese bostile parties, in the
year 1 302, a great many candles were burning at the shrine of
Or San Michele. One evening the ftames ignited some waxen
votive offerings banging tbere. Tbe blaze so greatly excited the
populace, that, catching up the burning fragments, they madly
set tire to ali tbe bouses in the neighbourbood I
J ust beyond the Churcb of San Pierino, of the Market, was
the Vicolo dei Guanto-Glove Lane, wbere dwelt the dressers of
kid and calf skin, and the makers of gloves and gauntlets,.-a
favourite trysting-place for cavalier and maiden bent on tasteful
hand wear. Sometimes the narrow lane was called Vicolo del
Leoncino, from its noted bostelry and world-famous banking-
bouse.
In tbe Via di Mellone-now Via Ricasoli-forgathered
tbirteentb century artists and artificers, and playful wags. Tafi,
long gowned and almost giddy with bis mosaic~fixing within the
dome of tbe Baptistery, had to put up witb the daily girdings of
Buffalmacco-tbe champion joker. Giotto cast bis quaintly-
capped shadow adown that way, after ceasing bis toilsome
" Gospel of Labour " on tbe Campanile-bis cbisel and bis
measure stuck in bis belt. Jostling them carne many an
entbusiastic comrade, witb song and jest and gossip, and coy
1 Floreoê:e Guette, •119•-92·

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THE S'rREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 477
glances from buxom Jassies, at the street doors, excited many a
palpitating heart I
In the Via di Vaccherecia the musical tintinabulations of
goldsmiths' hammers, and niellists' gimlets subdued the harsher
melodies of engravers' scratching needles and bumishers' rasping
files. The Pollaiuoli, with Maso Finiguerra and many and many
more, made pleasant and profitable metal harmonies, amid the
chitter-chatter of Brunellesco and bis boon companions. Hard by,
in the Via di Sant' Egidio, at the Casa Della Robbia, Ghiberti
cast bis glorious gates, whilst from Cellini's fumace, next door, in the
Via della Pergola, issued the celebrated pewter-fatted " Perseus "
of the Loggia dei Lanzi.
Andrea dei Sarto with Franciabigio had their shop at the
comer of the Piazza dell' Or San Michele, a famous gathcring
place for artists and for wits. Peals of laughter arrested ofttimes
the passers by, and caused many a curious step to pace the dark
threshold in search of sport. Fra Bartolommeo della Porta,-the
painter par ezcellmce of Florence,--gained bis namc from bis
birthplace near the Roman Gate, and there bis faithful companion,
Albertinelli, exchanged bis brush and palette for the wine-flask
and glass-beaker of the Vinatti'ere.
The Via de' Pelliccieri,-with its palaces and towers of the
Lamberti, Toschi, Cipriani, Pilli, and other families connected with
the "Guild of Skinners and Furriers," was equally frequented by
the Goldsmiths. In this historie street too, pigment masters
dallied, as they chose the fairest pieces of vellum for their minia-
ture illuminations, or the finest grained panels for their Madonna
pictures.
From the elegant and comely avocations of the Via de' Pellic-
cieri to the dirt and reek of the Via dei Fuoco,-just round the
comer o f the Residence o f the " Guild o f W ool,"-was but a step
in distance, yet a league in sentiment. With its image and shrine
of the Virgin, and her ever-buming lamp,--a votive otrering for
the staying of a city conftagration,-the Street of the Fumaces
was always grimy as grimy could be. Charcoal-dealers, iron

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'78 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
moulders, and traders in fiery elements, were ever a strenuous and
a noisy race.
At the comer of the Via de' Vecchietti and the Via de' Feni-
vecchi-where once stood the Palazzo Cavolaia-the Palace of
the " Cabbage-woman,''-was put up the uncanny bronze figure of
"11 Diavo/o tút Mercato,'' cast by Giovanni da Bologna. Appro-
priate enough was its fixture there--the scene of the labours of
scrap-iron dealers, wrangling and blaspheming the live-long day!
The principal workshops of the " Armourers " and " Locksmitbs "
were hard by-scenes of noisy machinery and voluble machinists.
The Via de' Bardi was and is a characteristic thoroughfare of
the city, where every course of stone, and door of wood, and heavy
bits of iron, speak of warlike times, and of old-world romance.
I ts palaces have gone,--gone by fire, pillage, and ftood,-but
there still remain the spirits of strenuous, busy woolworkers and
the subtle-minded bankers.
The Chiasso de' Ricci, and the Chiasso de' Erri, and many
another lane and ginnel of the busy centre of old Florence, were
ative with human interests. Almost shut out of the light of the
sun, by the contiguity of the sheltering eaves of opposite buildings,
the silent waming to wayfarers-" only can you pass an' we will "
--seemed to be as effective to arrest locomotion, as the notorious
street chains in times of unrest and uproar.
Weird entries and courtyards existed,-fringes of the lanes
and streets,-and well designed for tragedy and oblivion. Secret
histories and plots, as well as noble enterprises and literary memo·
ries, invest those narrow, busy thoroughfares with the romance and
the reality of a living humanism.
" Magnificent, stem, and sombre," wrote Charles Dickens, " are
the streets of beautiful Florence."

11. SQUARES
The Piazza delta Signoria was the focus of the legislative and
official life of old Florence, and at the same time the rallying

-
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THE PIAZZ.\ I>EI.I.A su;~ORI.\, WITH THE I'AI.AZZO \"F.CCHIO AND THE
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THE S'rREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 479
place of the armed bands of the Guilds in times of unrest.
Dominated by the P~azzo Vecchio,-built in 1298,-it was a
secure residence for the Priors. The tower,-world famous,-is
that of the old Foraboschi Palace, and it gain~ the name of
Torre del/a Vacm, because the great bell of Florence was hung up
there--the bell whose notes called citizens to fight, or to work,
as times were warlike or peaceful.
" The Giants at the Gates," as they were fittingly termed, were
heroic marble statues of " David " by Michael Angelo, and " Her-
cules slaying Cacus " by Baccio Bandinelli. Over the great portal
of the Palazzo may still be read the proud legend, carved in the
fifteenth century :-"·Ru Regum et Dominus Dominantium."
Along the front of the Palace ran the Ring-lu'era, or public orator's
platform, completed in 1349·
Close at hand was the Badia,-the official residence of the
Podesta,-in it was kept the " Banner of the People,"-half red
and half white. Not very far away was the Bargello, the Palace
of the Capi'tano de/ Popolo, he had the custody of the Banner of
the Republic-the G_ig-lio or Lily of Florence.
On one side of the Piazza was the Palazzo della Mercanzia-the
Chamber of Commerce--the Parliament so to speak of the Guilds.
At an angle of the Piazza stood originally the Church of San
Piero Scheraggio--removed to make way for the U.ffin'--or Offices
of the Govemment, and next it the Loggia de' Lanzi-begun in
137 4 by Orcagna, and named after bis lancer legendaries by
the Grand Duke Cosimo I. in 1 541.
Beyond the Palazzo Vecchio was the g~t Neptune Fountain,
--constructed by Baccio Bandinelli,-and called by Florentines,
" 11 Bian&one "-" the great White Figure "-when, by time-
honoured custom, they invariably bade it a respectful farewell
before starting. upon a foreign joumey.
The Piazza di San Giovanni Battista was the most venerable
square in Florence, and the most highly venerated by the
Florentines. I t was the scene of all the great public religious
festivais. In 1283 the Rossi family and th«!ir adherents, to the

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480 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
number of one thousand persons, dressed ali in white under a
leader stylcd "the Lord of Love," presenteei a series of miracle
plays during the Festival of the Patron Saint
Marriages of prominent citizens were sometimes held in the
open Square, for example, in I 4 I 9, Salvestro di Messere Filippo
Adimari wedded Lisa del Abbatacchio de'Ricasoli, amid great
magnificence, in the presence of Pope Martin V. The brid~
groom's best man was the Condottiere Braccio da Montone, a
successful adventurer and Lord of Perugia.
This circumstance called forth the doggerel verse : -
"Braccio valente "Brave Braccio waring
Vince ogoni rente. Conquers every nation.
11 Papa Marti111J But not worth a farthing.
N on vale un quattn·no I " Is Pope Martin's station I "
-the poverty and gentleness of his Holiness making no appeal to
the practical Florentines.
In I 526, when a new armed force of young cavaliers was
raised to oppose another Pope,-Clement Vll.,-a richly decorated
altar was placed in the centre of the Piazza, wherea.t officers and
simple knights publicly took the oath of allegiance to the
Republic, in the presencc of the magnificent Signoria.
Naming great things and small together-not a few Bull-
fights were celebrated on the quasi-holy ground for the delectation
of foreign princes and ambassadors, whilst, in I453 a Goose Fair
was established as an annual observance upon the Feast of Ali
Saints, greatly to the advantage of the members of the "Arte derú·
Olia1UÜIIi," who kept high festival in consequence.
The Piazza di San Marco contains in its Monastery and
Library the most lasting memoriais of Cosimo de' Medici-" the
Father of his Country." Memories too of the good Archbishop
Sant' Antonino, and of Fra Angelico, the " Divine " painter, linger
lovingly around. But by way of contrast the Piazza was the
playground of the young men of the city. The popular game
played was "Palia e Marlio "-" Ball and Bat" The "Marlio"

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 THE STREETS, SQUARES, ~D BRIDGES 481
was a bat of wood like a flat club, the wicket-a single stump, and
runs were scored much as in modem single-wicket cricket. The
" Palia" was a small hard ball. This was without doubt the
parent of the British national game, brought to England's public
schools and colleges in the sixteenth century at the time of the
so-called "Tuscan Fever," when so many Florentine customs took
root in Great Britain.
The Piazza di Santa Maria Novella was ever the scene of
religious fervour and warlike romance. Here was unfurled, in
1287, the banner of the Florentine Company of the Second
Crusade, which had been committed to the charge of proud
Pazzino de' Pazzi, by the Bishop, in the neighbouring church of
San Donato alla Torre. Thither too he rode back, at the head
of bis knights, wearing the mural crown placed upon bis brows
by Godfroi de Bouillon. •
To mark bis gratitude to Almighty God, Pazzino set apart a
sum of money ·to pay for a perpetuai annual remembrance of the
exploits of bis command. This festival is still celebrated on
Holy Saturday with the ceremony of the Sacred Fire, but it has
been transferred to the Piazza del Duomo.
In this famous Square there were wont to gather the ring-
leaders of the city's tumults. Brave were the speeches and stout
were the hearts of those fierce "Wooden Shoes," as shouldering
tool and weapon, they rallied to the cry " Evviva 11 Popolo I "
Sports and pastimes too found place and partizans under the
shadow of the glorious church. "// Pallone," the foster-father of
Rackets and Court Tennis, was the special game, and the ball was
tossed up merrily against the massive walls and traceried windows,
until prudence and the sense of fitness led to the players
migrating to the Cascine.
The Piazza di Santa Croce yielded to none in the magni-
ficence of its pageants, nor in the romance of its associations.
In early days given over to the solemn chants of monks and the
· harmless plays of children, it became the scene of the city's
welcome to, and entertainment of, her distinguished visitors.
2H

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482 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Together with exhibitions of skill in arms,-the Tournament and
the Parade,-was displayed the special Plorentine gamc-" Il
Calao "-the parent of Rugby Football, and introduced at that
celcbrated Scbool by Florcntines in thc sixteenth ccntury.
Twenty or more noble youths formed equal sides, clad in red
and blue rcspectivcly. The rules, the playcrs, and the ball, werc
ali as wc sce them to-day, only the artistic proclivitics of thc
Florcntines surroundcd them with splendid pageantry. By the

PIAZZA DI SANTA CROC&-A TOUilNAW&NT IN TH& SIXT&KNTH CKNTURY

middlc of the sixtcenth century " Il Cakio " reached its climax : as
great a sum as E. 1600 was spent in mounting the spectacle, and
the spectators, ranged around thc Square, numbered upwards of
forty thousand. All that was noble and lovely forgathered, and
true was the saying :-" None but the brave deserve the fair."
The spirits of the mighty dead still hover over the Piazza : -
for do not thc bodies of the greatest men of Florence lie buricd
within the sacred walls of the grand old church I
Tbe Piazza deU' Annunziata had its annual fair, not a
serious traffic mart in cloth and silken tissue, but a winter
festival and fcast combined, in honour o( thc Conception of Saint

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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 483
Mary. To it was given the name of "Füra ctJUi""" from the con-
JaditU, who came yearly out of the hill country of Pistoia and
the Casentino, to sing their plaintive hymns to the Virgin Mary,
and to sell their yam and dricd mushrooms,-the fonner the
produce of the past year's home-industry, bome in big bundles
upon their sturdy backs. Devotions completed and sales effected,
the residue of the day was devoted to pleasure in the booths and
among other attractions of the fair ground. .
lt was a mothers' and a children's revel, with every innocent
deception and delight. Quack-doctors, conjurers, and cheap-
jacks roared out from their different pitches their nostrums, their
tricks, and their bargains. Mystic pills to allay headache, ear-
ache, and may be, heartache too, were to be had cheap enough,
and antidotes against drowning, buming, and the like uncanny
ms, were moderate enough.1
But the Square, quiet enough at other times, was the gracious
-scene of much kindly benevolence on the part of the saintly
.Servite Brethren. There too, in later days, many a retumed
-explorer related to bis fellow-citizens, and the members of bis
·Guild,-the Doctors and Apothecaries,-tales of adventure and
of success.
The Piazze de' Brunelleschi, and di Cipolle, were ever much
frequented. In the fonner, also called Piazza di Marroni, were,
.along with candied-chestnut vendors, shops of the "Arle &
.Rig-attien'," where the newest things in tasteful nick-nacks to deck
.a maiden's boudoir attracted many a loving couple. The latter,
just behind the Strozzi Palace, was the dumping-ground of the
less odoriferous but ever popular onions. The salesmen dis-
played them on the big stone benches, which surrounded the
Square, and, whilst fashionables rarely risked a visit, many an
.amorous little city lass stole furtively along to secure a love
philtre, from one or other of the old " gossips,'' who sat meditating
.and soliloquising there.
In almost every Square and open space young fellows of good
1 G. Biagi, •• Private Life of' the Florentines o( the RenaiiS&Ilce."

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484 'l'HE GUI~DS OF FLORENCE
birth and manners were accustomed to engage in a curious sort
of game or posing called "// Civettino,"-" The Fop." Generally
three youths were engaged together, and their movements partook
o( the graceful steps of a minuet and the elegant postures of the
gymnasium.1
I li. BRIDGES
Tbe building of bridges has ever been regarded as a token of
vigorous political and commercial life. Florence easily took a
lead over other cities by her early enterprise in bridging the
Amo. M uch of the life and business of the city was carried on
upon, as well as over, her four substantial bridges, whose stones
were polished by the hurrying feet of craftsmen, and their beasts
of burden.
The most famous bridge, as well as the oldest,-the Ponte
Vecchio,-dates from Roman times, when the Roman-Etrurian
street was conducted over the river upon a stone archway. The
first structure was washed away, but in 1 o8o another bridge was
thrown across--a kind of herald of the Renaissance. The vicis-
situdes of the Ponte Vecchio were countless in number and
various in etrect, and aptly illustrate the fortunes of the city itself:.
Flood, fire, pest, and bloodshed, swept those ancient piers, and
assailed those venerable superstructures time out of mind.1
It was upon this bridge, and at the foot of the mutilated
statue of Mars,-the city's earliest Palladit~m,-that, on Easter
Day in I 2 I s, a comely bridegroom was dragged from bis ricbly
capàrisoned steed, and done to death by the daggers of the
enraged Fifanti. Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti had jilted a.
daughter of the Amidei, and had espoused Beatrice Donati : it
was Mosca de' Lamberti who said, " Let him die I " Tbis murder
gave rise to the two great factions,-the Guelphs and Ghibellines.
The present most interesting bridge wa.s built by Taddeo
Gaddi in 1 3 4 5, at a cost of sixty thousand gold florins. U pon
a buttress may still be seen the original inscription : -
Gaddi me fece, i1 Ponte V ecchio sono.''
I Sec Platc uiü., p. 162. • G. VillaDI, "Storia Fiorentüaa," Lib. b;.

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 485
In I 378, in recognition of bis devotion to the cause of the
Popolo Minuto, Salvestro di Messere Alamanno de' Medici was
awarded, together with bis knighthood, by tbe leaders of the
Ciottlpi government, the .annual rental of all the forty-four shops,
whicb had been erected upon the bridge. This produced in 128 I
<>nly the paltry amount of five hundred lif'e, but a bundred years
later the shops were worth at least a thousand gold florins a year.
These shops appear at first to have been occupied by any and
ali comers, but from 1422 to 1490 they were rented exclusively
by members of the " Guild of Butchers," whose trade had out-
grown the Old Market precincts. Under Cosimo 1., tbe Capitani
di Parle Gue!fa signed an order for the Butchers to abandon tbe
bridge, and in their stead were installed tbe Goldsmiths.1 Tbence-
forward have resounded the lusty voices of jolly young appren-
tices, assailing all who pass their way, to purchase some of the
pretty trinkets which their skilful hands have made. 1
In 1564 Cosimo I. constructed the covered corridor which
connects the Pitti and the . Uffizi, and completely altered the
appearance of the venerable bridge.
Tbe Ponte Alia Carraia,-built and washed away, and built
again by tums,-was the workman's bridge. None was so greatly
thronged by hastening operatives to and from the woollen factories
of the " U miliati " and of the merchants of the " W ool Guild."
I ts very name betokens toilsome enterprise, for daily were
its approaches blocked by laden carts and burdened pack-mules.
I ts earliest designation, however, was " 11 Ponte N uovo," and
that it bore in the opening years of the thirteenth century. The
nrst bridge was of wood, and thrown across in 1 2 I 8. The Ponte
alia Carraia is, metaphorically, the link between the medizval
seclusion of the monasteries and monastic influences and the
Renaissance freedom of the arts and crafts. Gaddi's bridge was
finished in 1337, and cost seventy-two thousand gold florins.
The Ponte Rubaconte-first built under the Podesta Ruba·
1 D. Manni, "Della Vecchiezza Sovraegranda de! Ponte Veccbio."
2 " Tnulalrts E.xtrawtiinaltu," Rub. xlv., Lib. iv.

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486 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
conte da Mandola by Messere Lapo, master of Amolfo di Cambio
in 1 2 37,-suffered like its fellows, but it came to be regarded as
the fashionable bridge of Florence, and its bouses were lofty and
handsome.
Tbere is a notic;e in the Archives dated August 22, 1297,
of the letting of fourteen or fifteen shops newly erected upon the
Ponte Rubaconte. The average rental was fixed at from five to
forty /ire, per annum, according to proximity to the Via di Por
Santa Maria. Among the traders on the bridge were six Strap
and Stirrup-makers and five Pouch or Purse-makers--members
of the " Guild of Saddlers." Each sbop was required to bear
a separate sign,-and these signs were ali of animais, for ex-
ample :-" The Two Lions," "The Unicom," "The Wolf," "Thc
Leopard," "The Stag," "Tbe Cat," "The Panther," "The Bear,"
"The Camel," etc.1 In I 333, when the disastrous flood, whicb
carried away the other four bridges over the Amo, spared the
Ponte Rubaconte, the name was cbanged, as a token of thank-
fulness to the Almighty, to Ponte alie Grazie, and a votive cbapel
was erected over the centre arch.
On the Oltrarno side of the bridge was the Piazza de' Mozzi.
Tommaso de' Mozzi built bis palace wbere the river was after-
wards embanked by the Via dei Renai or the Quay of the
Sandmen. They were a very vigorous set, but given, so report
bad it, to personal violence and robbery. Nevertheless they
figured as models for Michael Angelo's "Slaves," and Benvenuto
Cellini's "Pef'seus," and their Trade-association was not tbe least
considerable among its fellows.
Tbe Ponte alia Santa Trinita was the last of the four bridges
to be built. It is said that the Frescobaldi, who with many other
mercbant families settled in the erstwbile poor suburbs of Oltramo
in I 2 52, threw a private wooden bridge across the river from the
Borgo San Jacopo. Tbis was a favourite trysting-place for lovers.
The young men were wont to lounge upon the bridge, and
because it was unencumbered with houses and sbops, its parapets
1 An:hhio del Stato Fiorentino, cap. ui•. (ol. 165.

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 3

NOTE:-
ON THE
1, THE l'ORCH·SCONCK 1
PONTE VECCHIO,
a. THE BANNBK·HOLOERI
WITH THE
ANl> THK
TORRE DEC;LI
3· WOOLLHN-CLOTH
Al\llDEl
HRACKBT
TlfiRTEENTH CKXTCHV
TO THE LEFT

THE PONTE ALLE GRAZIE (RUB.\CONTE)

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II
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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 487

gave directly upon the Lung 'Amo right and left. Thenee could
the maidens of their choice, or the reverse, be seen, modestly
walking hand-in-hand, along the pavement, by the river walls.
Dante was not the only Florentine youth who saw and loved bis
Beatrice there I
Taddeo Gaddi built a new bridge in I 339, at a cost of ')
twenty-six thousand gold florins, after the flood of I333. and tbe .
present structure was completed in I 346.

Cbronieles of faction figbts are not the only reeords of

interest in the story of the Streets and Squares of Florence.
Amusing and diverting are very many of the old narratives.
At one time, for example, robbery with violence became rife
and unbearable. Houses and persons were alike attacked, and
tbe whole scbeme was arranged upon an elaborate system.
A band of thieves organised themselves to sweep the city
bare. Many carried instruments of music and serenaded the
oceupants of bouses, wbo felt bound to unbar door ând window,
and bow to their visitors ; but, when thus engaged, confederates
of the musicians effected an entrance, and of course ransacked
the premises I
A cbarming and unique feature of their exploits was the
engagement of the best connected children, wbo migbt bé
accessible, to accompany t.bem as dancers, singers, collectors,
and tbe like. Some of these were posted at the ends of streets
to be " burglared," to wam wayfarers not to venture there, as
danger was brewing I One of the leaders was a young fellow
called Bordone Bordoni, well connected and rich. He was at
Jast caught and beheaded, and bis band of prowling miscreants
scattered.
Wedding bells too rang in and out of tell-tale belfries, as,
with jingling spurs and chafing bits, cavaliers pranced along to
their bridal with maidens fair of high and noble mien and par-
entage. The frou-frou of silken skirt and the sheen of flashing
gems sweep many a time over the pages of the history of old

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488 THE GUII..DS OF FLORENCE
Florence. Where ey.e spoke to eye, and heart beat for heart,
there they stretched right across the narrow streets, striped
awnings, and greenery festoons. On house fronts were em-
blazoned proud coats of arms, gay banners waved aloft, and,
hanging over balcony and window sill, were tapestries and skins
of beauty and of worth.
The Via della Vigna was crowded from end to end with
people in gala dress and spectators of the show, and ali was gay
for Romola or Caterina, or some other lovely bride. And then,
the marriage over, with music, ftowers, and sunshine, the Tilting-
match attracts the crowd.
On such days the bouquet of fine vintages pervaded the air,
as streets and lanes ran deep with red and yellow wine ; whilst
workmen, serving folk, and beggars, were regaled with much good
cheer. 1
High days were days of frolic too for gay young Florentines.
Inftamed perhaps with game and wine, or with the mere excess
of animal spirits, companies of festive youths were wont to course
through the city, entering houses and breaking up the many
parties they contained, or constraining the hospitable hosts to
make open house and to admit them to the feasts.
Young bloods would, as Benvenuto Cellini records, resort to
practical jokes, which became sometimes outrages upon decorum
and sanctity. It was considered quite a first-rate prank to seize
the ink-homs of passing Notaries, and,-rushing with them into
the churches,-pour their contents into the holy-water stoups !
Raids too were made upon the cringing Apothecaries, and assa-
fcetida and other ill-odoured concoctions were seized to mingle
with the incense stocks in the sacristies I No sport, however,
equalled in jest and desecration that of driving market animais
into the churches, and racing on horseback around the Tribune at
the Duomol
But days of gloom, and hushed with the tread of heavy feet,
came oftentimes to the good people of Florence. The solemo

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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 489
dirge of monks tramping in from La Pineta with the sacred image
of the Matkmna áef Impruneta, in propitiatory procession to the
Duomo, in face of some disaster or catastrophe, brings ali men to
their knees. With a hastily marked cross upon the breast and a
whispered "Ave," working men and women kneel for a moment
side by side on the causeway with their employers and their
rulers. The Guilds are prostrate before the emblems of the
Christian faith. Church candles are ali ablaze, whilst the 1oom
lights are extinguished, and hands skilful in the Crafts are dropping
rosary beads one by one in silent reverent pause.
"May God, Saint Mary and the Saints-especially the good
Saint John-avert the plague or stay it,-give needful rain, or dry
up the flood-waters,..,......defend the right against the public enemy,-
compose the feud of rival bouses: may God protect Florence I"-
such were the orisons which pierced the blue Tuscan vault of heaven.
Still other sights, affecting and arresting, were witnessed day
in day out in old Florence. Through spacious Square and narrow
Street pass the silent hooded bearers of the sick, the dying, and
the dead. The Misericordia Brethren have, time out of mind,
picked up a poor body in some dingy comer--an outcast ora
waif.-perchance the victim of another or of himself, and passing
through the buy~rs and the sellers in the busy Markets, have
struck a pathetic chord in many a rugged heart, and have called
fortb the quiet cry "Miserere nobis Domine" from many a purséd-
up mouth.
The Festival of San Giovanni Battista, the Patron of Florence,
was always an occasion of rejoicin~ in the Markets and the Streets.
Tbe ceremonies of the day began in front of the Palazzo Vecchio,
in the Piazza della Signoria, where every one, noble and simple,
in holiday attire, went to pay their respects to the Gonfaloniere tú.
GiustiJiia and the other Magistrates. These dignitaries, arrayed
in robes of State, took their places upon the Ring-lliera early in
the day.
One hundred gorgeous banners were unfurled, and displayed
by as many richly apparelled gonfaltmieri. They represented not

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'90 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
merely the various ststün· of the city, and the Twenty-one Guilds,
-with the pennons of allied trade companies and confraternities-
but among them were many trophy flags-the captured emblems
of vanquished cities.
Greetings over, the Magníficos led a vast procession to the
Baptistery-there to lay their offerings upon the altar of the Saint.
A splendid feature in tbe cavalcade was the succession of gaily
omamented cars belonging to tbe severa! Guilds, each attended
by the Consuls and Officers and a full complement of members.
Famous artists were employed to decorate tbe cars-for example
Andrea del Sarto painted one for the " Guild of Wool," and Piero
di Cosimo another for tbe "Guild of Silk." The cars were drawn
by richly bedecked horses and oxen, and many bore curious
waxen towers, painted and adomed, which were made to revolve.
At San Giovanni costly offerings were dedicated by the
Officers of State, by the Consuls, and by the richer citizens ;
whilst even the poorest person presented bis humble tallow-candle,
which he had purchased at one of the Apothecaries' shops.
The towers of wax were always hailed with delight, but often
as not with jests. Generally young fellows, up at house windows
on the route, tried to upset the towers and the boys inside them,
with long wands. Others varied the joke by jerking out of the
hands of the processionists their candles and their lamps, which
they did witb long wands or rods. Sucb scapegraces were dubbed
"óeJ Ceio"-" lmpudent stupid fellow" : but nevertheless their
pranks were always condoned.
For the Festival the wbole of the Piazza di San Giovanni was
covered with a vast awning of light blue linen canvas, at the
expense of the "Ca/ima/a Guild." lt was made up of five pieces.
"three of which covered tbe Piazza and the space between tbe ·
Baptistery and the Duomo-the middle strip before tbe doors
bearing the embroidered arms of tbe Republic. The other two
pieces were stretched over the side of tbe Mistrictwdia Office and
formed a canopy to San Giovanni. The purpose of the awning
was, first of ali, to afford shelter from the heat of the midsummer

,
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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 491
sun, and next to lend dignity to the festive ceremonies. I~ was
originally put up in the year 1 349· An entry in the Archives of
the Guild is as follows :-" By the direction of the Consuls of the
' Calimala Guild,' the awnings were made for San Giovanni : they
were light blue, sprinkled with yellow lilies, which numbered
fifteen hundred." 1
At noon a general feast was held. Every tavem and eating-
house in the Market and its contiguous streets was crammed with
hungry, thirsty, and rollicking, merry-makers, perhaps, ·each one
realising for himself a favourite saying of the Market people : -
" caught like a flea in a bundle of tow I "
Then, after the briefest of siestas under the Market loggie, or
elsewhere in the shade, every one moved off to find a place for
the "Palio "-the great annual horse-race. The course lay right
through the city from the Porta a1 Prato to the Porta alia Croce,
along the Borgo degli Albizzi, the Via Vigna N uova, and the
Borgo d'Ognissanti.
The "Palio" invariably formed a foremost feature in ali
public rejoicings. If a victory had bec:n won over Siena, Lucca,
Pisa, Prato or any other rival city, horse-races were the natural
and popular adjuncts. They were held immediately under the
walls of the vanquished stronghold by the victorious troops, as
well as in Florence by the peaceful citizens.
This spectacle over, a further adjoumment was made, either
to the sports ground at Peretola, or to the Piazze della Croce and
Santa Maria Novella, to view the gi'ostre, or toumaments and
games. The merry, noisy, perspiring, throng of the city, swelled
by the incursion of visitors from the Contado and the neighbour-
ing towns and villages, passed to and fro with "*rk and beffe-
jokes and pranks.
An ancient Carnival song ran thus : -
"To tbe Ca/a'o-field, up comrades and away.
Tbe bounding football tbere invites us ali to play
No game so full of sport to occupy tbe day."
1 Vasari, "Vita di Cecca Inseguere."

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492 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Whilst exquisite fonns of youthful manly beauty displayed
their perfect physical channs in sportive exercises, fair maidens-
Tessas, Giovannas, and Marias-smiled approvingly, and, by the
language of the eye, bespoke the lover's tryst.
Fun and frolic ran wild, and many a broken head with
tattered clothes and empty pockets, was carried painfully home
by weary feet, long after the curfew had sounded I

IL CALCJo-FLOitltNTINit FOOTBALL IN THit FIFTKitNTH CltNTUitY

And oh I how, what is left us of venerable palace and ancient

shop, of well wom street and busy mart, speaks, in solemn tones,
o( the sternness and the grandeur, of the frolic and the fray, of
those far-ofl' scenes in old Florence !
Those stout and massive buildings are like the serried ranks
of annoured city companies, those open doorways and secluded
basements resemble busy toilers. Those solid towers,-with
square headed merlins of the Guelphic builders, or forked, after
the manner of the Ghibellines,-proclaim watchful captains of the
Guilds, and proud nobles of the Signoria-all bent and hoary,

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THE STREETS, SQUARES, AND BRIDGES 498
but full of dignity and pathos still. Her buildings are in truth
human entities, with the features, on their fronts, of a Dante,
a Farinata, a Soderino, a Lando, a Savonarola, a Machiavelli,
an Alberti, a Pazzi, and a Medici, all sons, fathers and makers
of Florence I
And out, beyond the city gates, the fruitful Contado and the
fair hill country, with the clear blue Tuscan sky overhead, are
eloquent witnesses of the joys and of the sorrows of Florence the
Busy and the Beautiful.
Her lilies still emit the time-old sweet odours, and her silk-
worms are still spinning the web of industry and romance. From
Fiesole come echoes of the past caught up by shady San Miniato,
and silent spirits of the dead, from the historie Streets and
Squares, and Bridges, linger whispering around the Campanile of
Giotto, the Dome of Brunellesco, and the Torre della Vacca !

Slemma tk' " Prillri tk' UINrla," 1434·

(Reei " Liberta " on a white field.)

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 CHAPTER XVII
THE REUGION OF THE GUILDS
Humanism. Greek ideals. Roman methods. Pleasure, ambition and
avarice. The Church non-aggressive. The Pope's party : tbe People's pan)·.
Campsores Pajkz. Types of the great artists of Florence. The Baptistery.
Early system ofregistration ofbirths. Religious associations. "The Watchers
and Servants of Mary." The Umilüali. Public participation in daily "Hours."
No cant, no hypocrisy I The Madonna. Prayers before business. Obscure
"Beatitudes." "Candle-spikers" and "Breast-beaters." Poor and rich alike
affected. Private chapels. The Certosa di Val d'Ema. " Apostles of the
Lord." Days of religious obligation. The Sporlelli. Ex votos. Facilities for
attending Mass. Free thought. Religious equality. Platonic philosopby.
Writings of Leonardo da Vinci, Leon Battista Alberti, Francesco Guicciardini,
Niccolo Macbiavelli, and of otbers. Church festivais. "The Feast of
Love." Superstitions. San Giovanni Battista. Lorenzo de' Medici's image.
Miracles of healing. " How to extinguish a big blaze ! " Cleanliness next
godliness. The "Evil Eye." The Bret!Í; Large families. Fatalistic tenden-
cies. Monks and nuns. "Firenze la Prima ! " The Council of Florence.
Tbe Inquisition. Savonarola. Sermons. " lmitate Barletta I" Burial
customs. Michael Angelo's torch. The Palerini. The "Black Company."

T HEsimple
Religion of the Florentines of the tbirteenth century was
bumanism. · Tbe blending of the various strains of
human life, which formed the Tuscan race, produced also a
spiritualism whicb inspired men and women with virile devotional
sentiments.
A people so conspicuous for keenness of mind and vigour of
body could not be otherwise than affected strongly by religious
instincts. Essentially practical in everytbing whicb concemed
human progress, the Florentines were ready to assimilate ali
spiritual truths which presented themselves in sympathetic
measure.
Together with simple trust in all the generally accepted
traditions of their race and land, there was mingled a tenacious
hold upon Greek ideais and Roman methods.
494

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 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 496

In the days ;,hen the law of might was superior to that of the
law of right, and when households were broken up and men became
fugitives, the scattered details of a warlike people held on to ali
they knew of nobility of aim, energy of will, and efl'ectiveness of
accomplishment. Into their personalities entered the character-
istics of Dante's three weird animals--the nimble panther, the
haughty lion, and the lean-looking wolf,-pleasure, ambition and
avarice.1 Whereas in most States and cities in the Middle Ages
the action of the priesthood was aggressive, the Religious, who
settled in Florence, were remarkable for their reserve and reti-
cence. Probably this characteristic was induced by the spirit of
freedom, which early breathed throughout Tuscany ; and which
was indeed the guiding influence in ali her pre-eminence in later
years. Hermit clergy, in their cells on hillside and by river bank,
-the self-denying pioneers of Catholic Rome,-bore their part
nobly in the softening and refining of the minds and lives of the
wild people they dwelt among. The favourable bearing of the
Papal See did much to control and to subordinate. the passions of
the lower classes, and to encourage and to foster the goodwill of
the ruling citizens. The Pope's party became also that of the
Peoplc, and, under tbe ti~le of Guelphs, stood for liberty and pro-
gress. The Church of Rome was regarded as a political govem-
ment to negotiate with, rather than a spiritual institution to
submit to.
Florentines were essentially of a non-theological cast of mind :
religious doubts and differences of belief had little or no interest
for them. Rome, ever wise, and able at once to feel the public
pulse and to recognise the popular temperament, never trenched
upon the liberties of the city. If Pontiffs launched now and
again their Interdicts, they were pretty soon persuaded to remove
thcm, and to consult the People's prejudices and wishes ; whilst
they profited not a little by the sapient industrial enterprise, and
far-reaching commercial policy, of their adherents.
That the Florentines were emotional goes without saying-the
1 "Inferno," Canto I.

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496 .
THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Greek and Etruscan in their blood provided this characteristic,
just as clearly as did tbe Roman and the German reticence fasbion
tbeir stoicism. Tbere was a good deal of tbe Greek in the expres-
sion of tbeir religious feelings. Fine forms. fine features, and fine
movements, were ever held in just reverence. Simplicity, natural-
ness, and grace, marked tbeir public functions, and their private
devotions.
Tbe singing boys and girls of Luca Della Robbia's " Cantoria "
with the trinity of " Davids" :-Donatello's goat-berd, Verro-
cchio's town-apprentice, and Buonarroti's young giant-hero,-pre-
serve the comely types of the youth of those days. Masaccio,
Gbirlandaio, and Botticelli, have fixed, with their rare pigments,
the features of the men and women who worshipped God and
reverenced perfect manhood.
San Giovanni Battista was the earliest centre of the religious
life of Florence. There, in the midst of stalls and carts of market
people, with sales going on almost within the Sa.cred portais, stood,
-like the heart in a buman body,-the venerable temple of God,
sanctified by tbe baptism, first vows, and earliest Mass, the
marriage and the deatb rites, of the whole population.1
The black and white beans, respectively, registered at one and
the same time a child of God and a child of the Commune.
Prayers and bargains were in close comradeship, and were joined
together in every contract and statute, as they were in every
church ceremony and civic feast.
Candles too were bumt there, not for meaningless show and
illumination, but, in some sort of a way, as sure accommodations
with heaven.
Catechisms and sermons were taught and preached by priests
-sons of the people--to tbeir own kith and kin, witb a freedom
and a sincerity quite as profound as were those traits in the
characters of the bearers. Each and all worked as bard at
religious duties as in the ordinary avocations of life. Tbey
judged that, as groups and companies in industry and commerce
1 Biblioteca Laurenziana, "Biadaioli " MS.

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THK llAPTJSTERY OF SA!'Iõ (;JOVANNJ
(WtTH A TOt'CII Of ~IOOF.H:o-; TI:\IRS ~)

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'

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 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 497
prospered by the contact of interest and respect, so association in
worship brought with it consolation and refreshment The voices
of laymen and the conduct o( lay devotions were heard and seen
in every sacred building, as people spared time to count their
bcads and recite their "Pater-nosters."
The Monastery and the Church of La Nunziata, for example,
was built by the Servites,-an Order of warking monks, founded
in 1 2 39,-by seven rich and noble citizeas of Florence. They
were in the habit of meeting daily to sing "Ave Maria," in the
chapel of San Zenobio, then standing on the site of Giotto's
Campanile. It is said that their piety and charity were so con-
spicuous, that passers-by in the streets pointed them out as
•• Gua,datori e Servi di Maria"-" Watchers and Servants of
Mary." The walls of their sanctuary quickly became covered
with votive offerings from all conditions of men of like passions.
Great as was the inftuence of the " Umili'a#" upon the in-
dustrial life of the Florentines, it was even more emphatic in its
religious and charitable bearings. Their example and teaching
appealed irresistibly to ali classes of the population. The peers
of merchants and manufacturers in mental calibre, the " Humble
Brethren " were also the equals of artizans and operatives in
manual skill. They were laymen, and as such with no special
class distinctions, they were in full accord with the human in-
terests of their neighbours. Brethren in labour they were at the
same time fathers in religion.
The " Umilia#" exhibited daily how it was possible and pro-
fitable to combine toil and worship. To fear God and to honour
man was the initial tenet of this faith. The daily recitation, in
their chapel, of " The Hours " and various lay devotions, attracted
masters and workpeople alike. There was something virile about
their way of serving God, which agreed admirably with the in-
stincts of the Florentines.
Very soon there sprung up in groups and families the self-
s~me spirit of sobriety, morality, and devotion. The churches
were visited regularly, and serious men and women joined heart
21

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498 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
and soul in the daily offices. This was nowbere more remark-
able tban at Santa Reparata. The clergy, ever tactful, gauged
the temper of the people, and admitted them freely to cboir and
lectem. Immense psalters, with their great big black square notes,
were set up at the entrance of the Sanctuary, in order that men
and lads might stand around and join their voices to the clerical
recitations. This admirable observance was continued in the
new thurch of Santa Maria del Fiore, and it is still to-day
regarded as a special and highly valued privilege, by all the right-
minded men-folk of the city.
No less admirable was the effect of the example of the
•• Umi/iati" upon the charitable instincts of the people among
whom they settled. Tbeir ready sympathy with every form of
suffering and adversity, their loving care of children and the
aged, and their own self-denying lives, won the affection and
imitation of all with whom they were thrown in contact. In-
tolerant almost to brutality of any mere mawkish sentiment
and maudlin ministration, the thirteenth century Florentines
were greatly affected by all that was manly and chivalrous. A
high-toned piety and a discriminating charity became guiding
lights upon their life and their work.
Florentines shared with all other Catholics a profound vene-
ration for the Madonna, regarding her under many attributes.
Early art had fixed her personality and her power upon the
intelligence as well as upon the vision of her devotees. The
whole city, for example, kept holiday when Cimabue's famous
picture was ceremoniously escorted through the streets to its
place in the Rucellai Chapel in Santa Maria Novella.
Santa Maria di Cigoli, near San Miniato al Monte, Santa
Maria delta Selva, Santa Maria Primavera di Fiesole, Santa
Maria del' Impruneta, and Santa Maria dell' Or San Michele
were, in tum and often enough simultaneously, objects of enthu-
siastic devotion.
Merchants and agents about to undertake a foreign joumey,
and manufacturers and citizens at the outset of some important

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 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 499
enterprise, were wont to throng the altar of their favourite
Madonna to beseech her patronage and aid.
The little chapel of Santa Maria alle Grazie, upon the Bridge
<>f that name, was daily thronged with worshippers. So small
was the sanctuary that the candles offered on one day had to be
removed to make space for the morrow's offerings.
Perhaps the most famous Madonna of them ali was that of
.., lmpruneta." In the early years of the sixteenth century at
times of political excitement the " Black Madonna,"-as she
was also called,-was conducted from her shrine, along the seven
miles of road to the Porta Romana, by immense crowds of clergy
.and people, with mounted guards furnished by the Seven Greater
Guilds. At the Gate she was taken charge of by the monks of
S. Trinita, who bore her in solemn procession, and placed her
upon a throne in the midst of the Duomo. There she remained
until the tumult was abated, and where she received the deferential
visits of thousands of the inhabitants. Her prerogative was the
calming of popular passion and the peaceful administration of the
city. Consequently it became a rule to transport the Madonna
into the cathedral before each election of the Signoria, "in order
that God may give us good and wise leaders." 1 The " Madonna
<lel Impruneta" was also regarded as possessing the power of
bealing the sick, curing persons stricken down by wounds, and
<lriving away evil spirits. The road up to her shrine was daily
traversed by bands of Guildsmen seeking a guerison, or rendering
.a thank-offering.
Next to the cult of the Madonna carne, oddly enough, irregular
<levotions to the least authentic and most obscure worthies of the
saintly calendar. Florentines cared little about the Papal im-
primatur in such matters, but when they listed they dubbed this
or that individual a " Beatitude I "
The Umili'ati naturally fumished many a saintly personage
--great in prayer and great in toil Of such were San Gherardino
<li Villamagna-a popular monkish teacher in the woolshops ; and
1 Perrens, ii. 411.

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500 THÉ GUILDS OF FLORENCE
San BarducciO--a virtuous wool-carder, who simply did bis duty
to God and to man.
The figures and features of such blessed examples of industrial
excellence, reproduced by " Masters in W ood and Stone," or in metal
and pigment, were always accompanied by the halo of canonisation..
Every family had its Patron Saint, in imitation of the Patrons
of the Guilds. These were often enough obscure citizens, the
founders of the families' name and fame. To them something-
like ancestor-worsbip was accorded in the annual commemoration
of worthy lives and meritorious deaths.
The peasants of Marignolle canonised a blind poet wbose
cantos had enchanted them, and also a poor village girl, who had
lost her girdle and her purse, and discovered them in answer to·
vehement prayer. At the graves of such as these their relatives.
and friends bumt candles and sang litanies. These country-siàe
observances spread far and wide, and almost every village had its
cottage-chapel, its orchard-shrine or its roadside a voto. Tbese
devotees gained the designation of" Spigo/istn""-" Candle-spikers''
--and "Picclliapetti"-" Breast-beaters "-by the profane, wbo-
regarded them all as hypocrites I
Not merely were the peasantry and the poorer townspeople
affected by these devotions, but they spread their charm over the
in mates of many a country villa-the residences of wealthy Floren-·
tines. At Montebuoni were the Buondelmonti, the Gherardini,
the Fenzi, and the Machiavelli ; at Signa dwelt the Alberti, the
Altoviti; the Morelli, the Cavalcanti, the Pitti-Leparelli, the
Passerini, and other rich Merchant-princes.
The Medici villa was at Poggio a Caiano, the Strozzi and the
Borgherini had country houses at Bellosguardo, and at Peretola
were the Panciatichi and the Vespucci. The Capponi, the Nerli,
the Gianfigliazzi, and the Sacchetti were at Marignolle, and at
Legnaia,-where were grown the best vegetables which were sold
in ·the Mercato Vecchio,-resided the Rinuccini, the Caduccl. tbe
Artinini, and others. All these families, and many another too..
have left splendid evidences of their pious zeal and lordly charity

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 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 501
in frescoed cburcb and sculptured cloister -witnesses too of tbe
wealtb and influence of tbe Guilds.
Tbe Certosa di Val d'Ema especially attracted members of
the Guilds. Some aged and tottering to tbeir graves, and some
in the prime of life, but all weary of the worry and tbe whirl of
-commerce and industry, and yeaming for quiet, sougbt witbin
those silent courts, by acts of self-abasement, tbe peace of God.
Y ou may see wbat those craftsmen were like in tbe flesb, by con-
templating tbeir features cbaracteristically sculptured in glazed
terra-cotta busts by Giovanni Della Robbia upon the walls of tbe
-cloister. Tbe Acciaiuoli family bas left a great name at tbe
· Certosa. Niccolo of that ilk endowed tbe monastery and dedi-
-cated it to Saint Lawrence, tbe patron of bis Guild, and
bequeathed to it bis precious marbles, pictures, and bronzes.
At times a serious mood affected ricb and poor alike botb in
the city and in its suburbs. Men and women affected the monastic
habit, and went about witb beads downcast and uttering pious
phrases. At bome tbey spent their leisure in saying prayers, and
in making repeatedly tbe sign of tbe cross, to render their lonely
hours barmless. Tbey called eacb otber " Brotber "-" Sister," and
spoke about the Society to whicb tbey belonged as "The Apostles
<>f tbe Lord."
Saccbetti, and bis kind, did not spare tbese gloomy religionists,
both be and Boccaccio dubbed tbem " BU~Jnaposto/i "-good
<>nly in that they revealed as mucb of tbe old Adam in their
naturalliv~ as did most otber people !1 To call them bypocrites
would perbaps be too strong, but at all events tbey were almost
tbe only individuais in Florentine bistory to wbose tenets and
<>bservances the term " cant " may be trutbfully ascribed.
Cant and tiigotry were alike distasteful to the Florentines of
-old. Tbey were a good deal too sincere and too downright in
cbaracter to tolerate anything wbich made for creed respectability
.and religious professionalism.
1 s.cchetti, "Lettere," t. iii. p. 375· Boccaccio, "Giom." iii., "Nov." i v. t. ü. p.
.54. etc.

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 502 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Ínays of religious obligation were scrupulously observed in old
Ffor:nce. Not only were the individual duties of citizens, with
respect to attendance at Mass and other functions, exactly laid
down by the Church authorities ; but members of the Guilds were
admonished to visit the churches in their corporate capacity.1
On Holy·days no public business of any kind was permitted
between early Mass and Vespers. Times of fasting and abstinence
were marked by an entire cessation of labour, and the closing of
worltshops and market stalls.
Drivers of carts and other vehicles, and mule and horse
teamsters, were forbidden to carry merchandise, and to work their
animais. Farriers might, under exceptional circumstances, shoe
borses and mules, but they were not allowed to forge iron. Cattle
and horses might be treated medically, and, of course, there was
no restriction in the matter of feeding and watering stock.
Haberdashers, Tailors, Shoemakers, Cobblers, Pork-Butchers.
Cattle-Slaughterers, and Retail Cloth-dealers were especially
wamed to keep their places of business strictly closed all day.
Cuirmadori-quacks of all kinds-were penalised for taking
money during prohibited hours.
The Sporte//i-wickets--of the Apothecaries,-for the sale of
medicines, and of the Retail-butchers,-for the sale of fresh meat
aild fish, were allowed to be partially open. The stalls of Poul-
terers and Game-dealers, and those of certain fresh pork sellers,
were suffered to be half open between Mass and V espers. " Stare
a sporte/lo "-" open half the shop," and " La mia !Jottega sta a
sportello oggi'"-" I open my shop only halfto-day," were common
sayings with respect to days of obligation.
Bakers, Sellers of Macaroni and V egetables, and Fishmongers
were permitted to hawk their merchandíse in public places, without
restridions all the year round. Millers were allowed, when it was
necessary for public convenience, to work upon days of obligation,-
~ with closed doors,-and they were forbidden to deliver flour.
· Church candle-makers were required to keep their shops half
1 L. Cantini, i. 370.

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A SPOI\'TELLO, OR HOJ.Y-DAYtWJCKET
FOURTF.F.'-:TII CF~TI'K\'

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 'fHE REI~IGION OF THE GUILDS 503
open for the sale of ecclesiastical objects, and u voto images.
but on no account were they to sell other goods, or candles for
secular purposes.
Roasters of chestnuts, whilst not. allowed to roast them in
public, might do so at home, and they were permitted to offer
them for sale between Mass and Vespers. Hawkers of small
objects could not dispose of their wares during prohibited hours
by stealth, and, if caught secretly bartering, they were cast into
prison, and their goods were confiscated.
Doctors, Surgeons, and Barbers, were requ~red to stay in doors
on Holy Days and Fast Days, and on no account to seek patients
and clients in the streets. Tavems and I nns, for the sale of food
and drink, were kept closed until mid-day. Domestic servants.
except those of colou r, were free after V espers ; and masters
and mistresses were exhorted to grant facilities for the attendance
of their dependants 11-t Mass.1
The churches were the homes o f .the peeple, for no city could
boast so many, at once so beáutiful and so eloquent of Pc:rsonal
devotion. The Republican sentiments of the population,-rich
and poor,-were nowhere so evident. In every group of kneeling
worshippers at Mass, or in any congregation listening to the
impassioned words of a preaching-friar,-the noble, the merchant.
the tradesman, the artizan, the peasant, and the beggar,-knelt
and stood, shoulder to shoulder, each the peer of the other.
Religious equality was ever a mark of Florentine citizenship.
Free thought undoubtedly was permitted in Florence, and it
existed to such a degree that the Academy of Florence raised
Platonic philosophy to the second throne in the religious hierarchy
of the State. The officers of the Guilds, men of culture, merchant
princes, and successful men of business, generally caught up the
spirit of theological inquiry, and no assemblage or reunion of
such persons, was complete without a debate wherein Christianity
and Paganism each had adherents.11
1 L. Cantini, "Legislazioni," and the Rubrics of 1415.
t Grimm, " Michael Angelo," i. 55·

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
504 'fHE GUII..DS OF FLORENCE
Still it is obvious, from a careful study of the writings of such
men as Leonardo da Vinci, Leon Battista Alberti, and Francesco
Guicciardini and many others, that pure Scepticism was far re-
moved from the minds of those quick-witted makers of Florence.
The soundness and strength of the hold of the commercial
and industrial classes upon the faith of the Church is evidenced
by the abundance, in the streets and squares, of shrines and

AN "AV& MAIUA" BEFOR.& A STR.&ET SHiliNE. SIXTEitNTH CENTt1RY

religious objects. Many still bear their pendant lamps, where

once ftickered the devotions of a religious people. These objects
are not mere inartistic manufactures of ill-conditioned hucksters,
but they are c"efs d't:EUvre of Masters in Stone, in Wood, in Iron,
and in Terra-cotta.
Nevertheless the men of the Renaissance were imbued with
something not inconsiderable of a Pagan spirit, for many carne to
regard Christianity as a guide to private morality, and in no
sense as a controlling power in corporate life. Machiavelli, over
and over again, emphasises this in bis " Prince " and " Discourses."

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 505
The phrase, originally uttered by Gino Capponi, "those who love
their country better than the safety of their souls are wise,'' was
often on bis lips. He contrasts too, vividly, the power of their
religious rites over the lives and characters of the Romans with
the foebleness of the Keys over the morais and intelligences of the
Florentines of bis day. The halting between Christian morality,
so called, and political expediency was a danger and a deceit in
the life of many a Florentine worthy.
There was also a striking medley of things serious and
profane in the religious observances of the citizens. I f they went,
as was their wont, on the first Sunday in each month, to say
their prayers and count their beads at San Gallo,-just beyond
the Gate,-it was in order that the craftsmen and their friends
might spend a merry aftemoon and evening in eating, playing,
<lancing, and courting I
The Feast of the Epiphany-" Bifana "-as they called
it, from the Doll which was carried about on the Eve,
provided both religious services and pleasant entertainments.
Each house, workshop, convent, and church, had its Bamóino,
sometimes beautifully dressed by artists. Every child carried
about by day its sacred doll, and exhibited it in keen rivalry
with others ; whilst at dusk, they were placed upon a window
sill, or in the doorway, and flanked by burning candles and gaily
painted paper lantems. Pageants and cavalcades of the Three
Holy Kings passeei through the streets whilst " Bethlehems" were
<.lecked out by the Altars of the Nativity, and were visited by
merchant and artizan, noble and simple, young and old, as though
upon a solemn pilgrimage.
The First of May was the "Feast of Love." After hearing
Mass, and making offerings at the Shrines of Or San Michele,
and La Nunziata, apprentices with their sweethearts made off to
the hills and woods, to spend the day in amorous sports.
"Youths and maidens enjoy to-day,
Naught ye know about the morrow I" I
I From a Soonet by Mlcbael Angelo.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
506 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Many a city lad won bis country lass, but many an one was
jilted that happy sad May Day !
The choice of Jad and lass was hotly discussed in the home
circle, for marriage was to the Florentines as much a commercial
contract as it was an union of bearts. Florentine motbers were
mucb addicted to match-making. Alessandra Machinghi degli
Strozzi used to go to Mass every moming in Santa Maria dd
Fiore, to have a good look at the girls ber son Filippo admired,
and returned witb criticai remarks, to which sbe cbided bim to
attend. Whilst a good figure and a pretty face went far towards
securing tbe maternal approval, still more conch.isive points were
family influence and financiai means.1
Superstition,-as bas Nature's occult science been named,-
bad its place, and that not ao unobtrusive one, both in tbe
individual life, and in tbe collective activities of the Florentines.
Mars,--earliest patron of tbe city's destiny,-had •bearty
devotees in every class in spite of bis supersession by Saint
Giovanni Battista. For years bis statue graced tbe temple on
the Citadel, then what was left of him by barbarian invaders
was erected upon tbe Ponte Veccbio. Whilst his marred
effigy brooded over the burrying river below, Florence was
triumphant. His destruction meant for ber unbeard-of woes, so,
wben at lengtb in 1 3 3 7, the disastrous flood, wbicb claimed
almost all Florence as its prey, bore away bridge and Palladiflm
together, lamentations loud arose to propitiate a vengeful
Providence.
The attributes of tbe warrior god,-bis strengtb, bis boldness,
and bis victory,-were transferred to the peaceful Forerunner, who
had for co-ordinates the saintly virtues of tbe Gospel. Monkish
tradition and popular fancy, fond of blending like natures, joined
St Sebastian to Apollo, St Mary to Venus, and made of Mercury
tbe valiant St George.
Every unusual circumstance was magnified and ascribed to
occult influences :-a comet in the sky portended war and blood-
1 G. Biagi, p. 6.4-

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 507
shed; lights shooting at nigbt like falling-stars betokened personal
danger to men of eminence; tbunder in clear moonligbt tbreatened
industrial pursuits ; tbe fall of a monument, or of masonry, pointed
to family troubles, and so fortb.
No one was in tbe least surprised, wben Lorenzo de' Medici
died, to bear tbat bis votive image in wax in the cburcb of La
N unziata had fallen, and was broken in pieces. Tbe cry went
from lip to lip :-"Boto, caduto in Santissima Nunziata ! " and
some added " May God pardon bim," " Rest bis soul," and " Tbe
price of wax will rise I "-referring, doubtless, to tbe subsequent
stately obsequies of the departed prince.
Tbe folk-lore of tbe Florentines embraced gbosts, witcbes,
spells, and were-wolves ; but many of tbeir superstitions-so
called-were barmless and even cbildisb. If a woman, as an
instance, lost ber cat, ber best resource was to bum a candle to
the Madonna-by preference at Or San Micbele. If a man
could not avoid beginning a new enterprise or making a bargain
on a Friday, be was careful to slip into the nearest cburch to say
a burried "Pater-noster."
Green was regarded as tbe colour of the unspeakable Turk,
and even suggested the pallid bue of tbe "Inferno" ; hence no
self-respecting citizen would willingly wear clotbes dyed witb tbat
hue, altbougb for bood or cap it was admissible.
The loss of reason was recoverable by the superimposure, on
the head of the unfortunate person, of the mitre of San Zenobio,
the Saintly Bisbop of Florence in tbe fiftb century, wbose
memory was and is still higbly venerated. A furtber infallible
cure was tbe clothing of a deranged person in tbe mande of San
Giovanni Gualberti, Abbot of San Miniato, wbo died in 1073.
Tbe miracles wrought by these two beatified patrons of Florence
have fumished Ghiberti,·Ghirlandaio, and Benedetto da Rovezzano
with subjects for artistic representation.
Here is a famous recipe :-" How to extinguisb a big blaze" : -
" Write the following words on three round 6at stones, and throw
them into tbe fire, wbicb will at once be put out-~ In tbe

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
508 THE GUILDS Olc' FLORENCE
Name of the Father-Shadrach; ~In the Name of the Son-
Meshach; ~In the Name of the Spirit-Adenago." 1
Any uncanny or unusual noise sent off young and old in
quest of holy-water, witb wbich to sprinkle the locality and thus
to exorcise tbe disturbing spirit. lf a murderer could, unmoved, eat
bis supper placed upon the body of bis victims, be was excused
execution.
Strange views were held with respect to tbe curing of
ailments :-for example, jumping tbree times upon a skein of
boiled twine, and rubbing tbe person with oil dripping from the
frame work of church bells, were considered efficacious and very
commonly were they carried out I
Florentine mothers of tbe poorer sort also bad a superstitious
dread of children's clean hands and feet I Tbe more dirt whicb
the little toddlers acquired, in their grubbings in tbe gutter, tbe
more likely were they to escape illness and deatb. When
ablutions became absolutely necessary tbey were followed by
visits to the shrine of the favourite Madonna, where an "Ave"
was said · to avert the evil consequences of such unavoidable
cleanliness I
The cult of the Evil-eye was followed by all classes of the
community, but sometimes the hasty presentation of the pointing
fingers led to recriminations with knife or stone I No people
were swifter in resentment of imagined insult than were tbe
toilers in the Markets and streets of Florence. Any leading
citizen whose name carne to be even accidentally associated with
the city's misfortunes, or with personal and party sufferings, was
always an object for point and cross. Sometimes the superstition
held true against every member of bis family. Tbus the Soderini,
--Niccolo, Lorenzo, and Piero,-were regarded with suspicion and
aversion. This custom originated probably in the general fear
and contempt of the Jewish race. Anyhow no one would think
of passing through the Ghetto--the Israelitish adjunct of the
Mercato V ecchio--without extending the protective sign.
1 Biblioteca Rlceardiana, Codex 3632.

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 rrHE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 509
Every one wore, suspended by a silken or a woollen cord,
around the neck, a little crooked bom of brass or bone or coral~
wbich they were accustomed to toucb if any evil sbadow seemed
about to cross tbeir patb. Tbis token was often accompanied by
a little silken or cotton bag called the " BrtfJe" containing, as often
as not: nothing but harmless powder I Conjurers and charlatans.
sold such charms readily to their simple-minded audiences.
"Wear this," they s.aid, "next your breast, it will help you in
danger and in love." Many a lass took her " BrtfJe " to her con-
fessor to obtain the blessing of the Church upon her destiny.
The course of human life was regarded pretty much as an
experience of the inevitable. Man was bom, the Florentines.
considered, primarily to reproduce bis kind, and secondarily to
resign bis offspring absolutely to the mercies,-tender or other-
wise,-of the overruling powers.
To have twenty, or more, children was quite a natural con-
dition of family life. If they lived to maturity the parents
fervently exclaimed :- " Heaven be praised " ; and, if they died
in childhood, they sanctimoniously ejaculated :-" Y es, and for
everything heaven be praised. Amen I " 1
This fatalistic tendency exhibited itself also in their dealings
with aged and distressed dependants. Gregorio Dati, in bis.
"Liõro Segreto," writes about the epidemic of 1426 :-" The
pestilence was in our house. It began with our man servant
Piccino, within tbree days later our slave Martba died. On the
first of April my daughter Sandra, and on the fifth, Antonia.
We left: the house and went into one opposite. In a few days.
Veronica died. Again we moved, and went to live in Via Chiara.
Here Vandecca and Pippa were taken ill, and, on the first of
August, both went to beaven. They ali died of the plague.
Heaven help them ! "
Among the private records of tbe Strozzi family are tbe fol-
lowing particulars of two old people,-the only survivors of a
family of labourers on the estate :- " Piero and Monna Cilia are
1 G. Biagi, p. 57.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
510 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
both alive and infirm. I have overftowed the field for the next
year, and as I must put it in order, these two old people, if they
do not die, must go and beg. Heaven 'Yill provide." In a letter
written in the same hand a few months later we read :-" Piero is
still alive, so he must put up with it, and go and beg. I t would
be best, of course, if heaven would take him ! " '
Religious persons abounded-indeed occasionally they bore
an abnormal ratio to the whole population. In the beginning of
the sixteenth century-" The Golden Age of Florence "-there
were upwards of one hundred monasteries and convents, with,
perhaps, thousands of inmates, besides the -great number of
secular clergy who served the parish churches.
The dignified clergy,-from the Archbishop downwards, no
less than the youngest priests,-were, as a rule, scions of Florentine
families. The noblest citizens rendered up willingly their sons
for the work of the priesthood. There was always more or less
resentment expressed against alien clergy, and the men who
were admitted to Holy Orders were, as a rule, actuated by patriotic
and popular motives. "Firenze la pn"tna "-" Florence first "-was
their motto. This happy condition of things ecclesiastical was
provocative of nothing but good in the intercourse between the
Altar and the Home.
The Council of Florence, held in tbe Duomo, in 1439, was
marked, not alone by the distinction of the personages attending
its deliberations, and by the unanimity of its decisions, but by the
profound respect and sympathy of the public at large. Perhaps
this was due to two causes-the popular element in the constitu-
tion of the Council, and the absorption of merchants and artisans·
in their worldly callings, with little time and will to study matters
of religious order.
There was in Florence little or no scope for the operations of
the " Holy Office of Inquisition." Only one authenticated buming
is recorded, that of Giovanni da Montecatini in 1450. Wbether
the reason for this exemption was to be found in the undoubted
ort odoxy of the people, or in their absolute inditrerence to

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 'l'HE RELIGION OF 'fHE GUILDS 511
dogmatic questions, no one can say. Probably the tacit policy of
the Vatican, not to interfere with the religious ardour of a popula-
tion triumphant in the world of commerce and industry, had a
good deal to do with the immunity of the city from the rigours of
the stake. Only in the day of Savonarola's domination did eccle-
siastical disputes assume an acute stage.
Perhaps no movement stirred so thoroughly the great heart of

SAVONAJI.OLA PI.&ACHING IN LI.NT IN SANTA MAI.IA D&L FIOI.&

Florence as the coming of the great preaching friars in the fifteenth

century. Girolamo Savonarola and bis brethren proclaimed aloud
•• Jesus Christ is King of Florence ! " The city was groaning
under a load of tyranny, jealousy, and veniality, well nigh unbear-
able. The lust of money, the pride of life, and the affectation of
culture, were leading men to view commercial probity, political
freedom, and domestic virtue, with distorted vision.
Savonarola opposed the Medici and their usurpations with ali
bis energy, and preached unweariedly against excess of worldly
power in high places. His dogmas he formulated generally, as

Dígítízed by Goog [e
512 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
follows :-1. The fear of God in the reform of personal liberty and
habits, 'l. The love of religion in the subserviency of all, J. Peace
among men and forgiveness of injuries, and 4- Government upon
sound Republican principies.
The eloquence of the famous Frate created a three-fold division
among the population :-"Pa//escJ.i"-from the Pawnbroker's
balls--was the name adopted by the adherents of the Medici ;
"FratescJ.i" or "Piagnoni"-" Tears and Treachery"-were the
party of Savonarola ; and "A rrabbiah~"-perhaps " Irreconci/a!J/es ••
was the designation of the general body of opponents.
Florentines loved sermons, but those which treat~ least
of Religion were most to their liking. Their highly cultured
intellects were more attuned to sceptical emotions, and sarcastic
utterances. At first Savonarola failed to touch them, and, not
until he began to deal in metaphors, did they rally to his preach-
ing. His vehemence, and a somewhat brusqueness of manner,
and speech, offended them.
The preachers who drew the largest audiences were those
who belonged to the school of Gabriele Barletta of Naples, about
whom it was said: "No one knows how to preach if he cannot
imitate Barletta." His eloquence was fantastic, uncouth, and
extravagant. •
Savonarola's doctrines were ridiculed by the profaner sort of
men. A goodly number of young fellows,-apprentices, students,
and well-to-do loiterers,-associated themselves together for the
purpose of tuming the impassioned eloquence of the Frate and bis
companions into ridicule. The "Compagnacd," as they were
dubbed by the populace-" good for nothing chaps "-revived
old Bacchanalian revels, as a set-off to the bands of children sent
out to divest citizens of .worldly vanities. They poked fun at
the asceticism and self-abasement of the followers of the monk.
" If,'' they said, " Savonarola enters the fire he will undoubtedly
be bumt : if he refuses to enter it, he will tose all credit with bis
followers." 1 Marini Sanuto,-an observant Venetian of the Savon-
l P, Villari, "SavODIU'Ola," li. 300-

o,~ítízed by Goog [e
 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 513
arola period,-sententiously wrote : " Florence is ;,. ertremis, since
after being under the hands of the doctors (Medici) she is now
suffering under those of the monks."

A DYUJG IIUCHANT, 1496

Customs of mercy and religion attended the bestowal of the

bodies of the dead. Notice of death was at once despatched to
the Office of the Misen'cordia, and óeccamorti,-mutes,-were
detailed to take up their station at the door of the house of
mouming, and to render the last offices. They also registered
2lt

Digitized byGoogle
514 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the deceased person's name, age, and calling, at the Palazzo
Vecchio. Tbe corpse was first moved to tbe " Guardamorto," at
the comer of the Piazza di San Giovanni, but, within eighteen
hours, tbe relatives were obliged to accompany it to the grave.
Mouming colours were brown, or dull red, and some people
affected the unlucky green. Mortuary Masses, in the presence
o( the departed, became customary in the thirteenth century.
Very careful were people of ali classes to have the bodies of
relatives, who died in foreign lands, brought home for interment.t
Notorious evil-doers, and those to whom absolution had been
denied, received scant courtesy in death. Their bodies,-un-
washed and unshrouded,-were cast out naked into the ditches
like dead dogs. The unknown and unclaimed dead, found in
the city or river, were disposed of to the hospitais, and to sculptors
for anatomical purposes. lt is said that Michael Angelo was
wont to study, in a room lent him by his early patrons, tbe
:nonks of San Spirito, with a flaming torch stuck into the breast
of a corpse l
Criminais were geherally harshly treated, no less for small
offences than for great crimes. Those condemned to death were
left to the tender mercies of the gaolers, and no provision was
made for their spiritual wants. Many efforts were made. by
citizens to ameliorate these sad conditions, but nothing was
actually accomplisbed till 1361. In that year twelve young
Guildsmen, influenced by religious enthusiasm, which still re-
mained as a token of "Paten'ni" influence, went boldly to the .
Signoria, and asked for a piece of waste land outside the city,
but near the Piazza di Santa Croce-where executions were per-
formed On this site they erected a chapel, wherein the con-
demned might hear Mass before ascending the scaffold, and under
the walls of whicb their bodies might be decently interred.
Tbe founders of the charity called themselves " La Compagrlia
de' Nen· "-" Tbe Black Company." Their numbers increased to
fifty in 1442, when fifty names were drawn by lot from the
1 Cibrario, p. 262.

·.I

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE RELIGION OF THE GUILDS 515
Compagnia deUa M an"a Vergine deUa Croce-a religious Guild
connected with the Church of Santa Croce,-and recruited from
the competitors in the annual Giostre. The Society continued
its operations ali through the sixteenth century, and there · is still,
at Santa Croce, a Confraternity with similar objects.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 CHAPTER XVIII
THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS
Machiavelli's maxims. Pious trusts of Guilds. Man's usefulness to tbe
State. Self-restraint and unselfishness. Guicciardini's aphorism. "Ca/imala
Guild" and San Miniato al Monte, the Baptistery, and the Piazza di San
Giovanni. The workpeople of the Guild. The "Wool Guild • and the Dtunno.
The Board of Works of the CathedraJ. Poll-tax,-.,C22S,ooo. The "Guild of
Judges and Notaries" and San Ambrogio. "Feast of tbe Miracle." Tbe
'' Guild of Skinners and Furriers" and the Caf>le/la de//' A rle in San Apollinare.
Endowments. The "Guild of Shoemakers• and the Caj)/Jella de/r Arte
at La Nunziata. Ftescoes. The "Guild of Carpenters" and tbe Cappelút túl/'
Arte at Santa Maria Maggiore. Distressed carpenters. Patron saints. Altars
and sacred observances. "The Society of Dyers." Association of foreign
workmen,-Flemish and Gennan,-at La N unziata. Merchants of Lorraine at
San Spirito. Society of Lombard cooks at San Piero del Mugnone. Chapels
and altars in foreign cities for Florentines. Or San Mi&luk, the Shrine of
the Guilds. Com-market and Cburch combined. "Tbe Company of tbe
Pillar." Munificence o( the"Cimlpagnia tú/1' Or San Mt"dule!' Orcagna's
Tabemacle. The Statues of the Guilds. Mendicity. Sacchetti's "Three
blind beggars." Private Benefactions. The Chapels of noted families at
Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, and San Lorenzo. Employment for ali
the grand artists of Florence. " The lovely peasant-maid." The chapel of
the Chestnut-Roasters. Palaces, Libraries, Art-Collections, etc.

F ROM the very first outburst of Florentine prosperity, when

money began to ftow into the pockets of her merchants
and her artizans as pleasantly as the waters of the Amo mur-
mured under the arches of her bridges, notions of benevolence
guided the hands of generous givers.
Human nature, nature's wants, and nature's mistakes ever
occupied the first place in Florentine economics. Thus not alone
the kindly disposed householder and the sympathetic good-wife
gave of their substance in private charity, but the Guildsmen in
their corporate character rendered toll of the good things they
possessed, and the State, taking up the same parable, marked
liberality as an alliteral anagram upon its Priors' shield of "Li!Jerta:•
ss6

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 517
Among the maxims of Macbiavelli, with respect to duties
of religion and charity incumbent upon the State, are tbe
íollowing : -
" Govemments," be says, •• that wisb to preserve tbemselves
incorrupt, must above all else maintain religious ceremonies incor-
rupted, and bold them always in the very bigbest reverence.
Amongst ali the qualities that distinguisb a citizen in bis country
is bis being above all otber tbings liberal and munificent-
especially in tbe construction of public edifices, such as churcbes,
monasteries, and retreats for tbe poor, for the infirm, and for
pilgrims." 1
Tbe Statutes of all tbe various Guilds in addition to a formal
dedicatory preface, contain, in tbeir opening entries, lists of piou-
trusts undertaken by the Guilds with explicit directions bow,
wbere, and wben, fitting observances are to be performed.
This is quite in keeping with tbe cbaracteristics of tbe people
of Florence, and thougb such provisions appear to us somewbat
perfunctory, and, in a way, bypocritical, they were in no sense
regarded as sucb in old Florence.
Tbe intimate union of religion and work was as natural as it
was conventional, and betrayed no unreasoning deference to
dogma and doctrine; but, on tbe contrary, it manifested a sane
view of the spiritual power in the republic of industry.
In· the same way tbere was in the Florentines of old time an
entire absence of professional Cbristianity and mock religion. The
Catholic Faith offered to one and ali a reasonable and a practical
means of grace, wbicb appeared to them exactly suited to their
needs, their work, and tbeir rest.
Tbere was a good deal of mutual sincerity as well as a vast
amount of individual sympathy in ali the religious exercises of
those sensible and wide-awake people. Next to the man carne
bis usefulness in tbe State : love of buman progress was the key-
note of the religion of Florence.
Lorenzo Guicciardini writes thtts :-" Whoso in Florence
t " 11 Prineipe," cbap. i.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
518 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
would be well-liked by the people, must avoid a name for
ambition, nor betray, even in the most trivial matters of every-day
life, any desire to appear grander or more refined than bis fellows.
For in a city, which has for its foundations equality, and brims
over with jealousies, every man must of necessity be odious, who
is suspected of wishing to stand on a different levei to the rest.
and to deviate from the common way of living." 1
The lead in pious enterprises was taken, as one would expect, by
the Master Guild-the "CaJimala." When the ancient Basilica of
~~n Miniato a1 Monte-originally built in 1013, out of the ruins
of the third century Oratory of St Peter, by the Emperor Henry,
Queen Cunegonda, and Archbishop Hildebrand-fell into dis-
repair, what more natural than that an appeal should be made to
wealthy citizens to undertake its restoration ? The Guild stepped
into ~he breach, and expended money and labour upon its adom-
ment. In addition to structural work, Spinello Aretino painted
the fresco of Saint Bemard, and Luca Della Robbia put up
glazed terra-cotta medallions of the Virtues, all at the expense of
the Guild.
Dante mentions San Miniato in bis "Purgatorio " :-
" That Steep upon whose brow, the chapel stands,
O'er Rubaconte looking lordly down." • ·
Many Rubrics in the Statutes of the " Ca/ima/a" Guild make
provision for the works, and earlier records-even before 1220-
exist, which show the devotion of the Merchants of Foreign Cloth
to the interests of piety. The Guild retained the privilege of
repairing and guarding San Miniato al Monte until Piero de'
Medici took it out of their hands.
The restoration of the Baptistery of San Giovanni,-one of
the most ancient churches in Florence, and originally a Temple
of Mars,-was undertaken by the " Calima/a " Merchants, and a
new building was completed in I 1 so, mainly at their expense.
"Already,'' says an early historiao, "in the middle of the twelfth
century certain merchants of the Commune gave money to assist
1 " Opere Inedite," vol. iü., " CMmJds 6/ Pttf«liM." 1 Canto xii.

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THE UIU:AT llAPTIS:\IAL FONT IN SAN GIOVANNI BATTISTA
137'

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 519
building up the battered old church." 1 In 1451 they erected
the façade, and later on, employed the most famous artists of the
day to. do the wood-carving and intaniatura of the choir.
In 1292 when every citizen of Florence, young and old, was
fired with religious enthusiasm by the miracles wrought at the
shrine of Or San Michele, the " Ca/imala " Guild,--quite in touch
with the spirit of thankfulness and liberality then engendered,-
undertook once more the repair and the completion of the
Baptistery.
Old columns and wom-out stone-work were removed and
replaced by splendid marbles brought at. great cost from the
East. Mosaics were commenced in the trlbune by Giacomo da
Turrita, and carried on by Andrea Tafi,-the greatest of ali the
mosaic masters. Much of this elaborate work was clone whilst
the feud between the Buondelmonti and Amidei was at its
height.
Andrea Pisano, in 1339, and Lorenzo Ghiberti, in 1452, put
up the famous bronze doors which bear their names. Andrea
was enrolled as a freeman of Florence by way of reward and was
matriculated into the " Ca/imala " Guild. The latter commission
was by way of being a thankoffering for the passing of the great
plague. The workmanship is characteristic of the intelligence of
the peop1e of Florence, for the faces and figures are " la gente di
Firenze " in miniature.
The interior was enriched by costly offerings--the product
of silk-loom, goldsmith's tool, sculptor's chisel, and painter's
palette, provided in religious emulation by " the Merchants of
Calimala, the wisest and the powerfulest in Florence."
Every year, eight days before the Patronal Festival, six
BuonutJmini-or Deputies-were designated by the Consuls to
attend at the Baptistery on the moming of the Feast, and there
to receive the offerings, made at the Altar of the Saint, in money
and kind, by each matriculated member of the Guild, and by
well disposed members of the other Guilds. The Podesta was
1 Lami. "Sanctae Ecclesiae Flore~~tinae Monumenta."

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520 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
always careful to remind the Consuls of their duty on this behalf,
and. not unfrequently he joined the B~NmiiOfiiÚii in person, or
named bis deputy, to assist in their pious duty.1
The Guild, in I 34 I, zealous for the embellishment of the
city, and wishing to enlarge the Piazza di San Giovanni, purchased
a piece of land near the Archbishop's Palace.2 The Consuls had
already, in 1338, bought two houses belonging to the Adimari
family, near San Cristofano, wbich they gave to the Chapter of
the Cathedral, in exchange for tbe Canons' houses near the
Arcbbishop's tower. In I 339 they acquired a third house for the
sum of seventy-three gold florins from the brothers and sons of
one Martellino ; the title-deeds being drawn up by the Guild
notary, Ser Giovanni Ugolino. Tbe severa) tenements were
pulled down, and their sites thrown into the Piazza, whicb added
mucb to the dignity of the venerable Baptistery.
The salaries or wages paid to those employed by tbe Guild,
in their various public works, were strictly moderate, for
example :-tbe Superintendent of works at San Giovanni
Battista bad only twelve /ire a year I Payments to builders, and
others, appear to have been made througb foremen, who were
required to render accounts of work done, togetber with reports
upon the moral conduct and assiduity of those under them.
All moneys were paid by scale, deductions being made for
delinquencies.
The Catbedral,-at first known as Santa Reparata,-had
fallen into a ruinous condition, and cried alo.ud for restoration.
A decree accordingly was issued by the State Council, in I 294,
wbich commanded the immediate building of a new church.
Among the instructions given to Arnolfo di Cambio, tbe architect,
was one requiring bim to design a church, " of sucb magnificence
that neither the industry nor the genius of man shall be able to
invent anytbing that sball surpass it" 8
1 J. Delecluze, " Florence et ses Vicissitudes," xiü. 276.
E.
2 Archivio di Calimala, Lib. "O."
a A. von Reumont, " Tavole Cronologiche," xiii. Secolo.

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 521
Amolfo's plan was unanimously approved, and the solemn
blessing of the first stone took place on September 8th, 1298,
when the new dedication of Santa Maria del Fiore was bestowed
upon the edifice, by popular vote. The expense was undertaken
by the whole community, with the imposition of a tax of four
dnlari in the gold florin,--equal to about one and a half per
cent.,-upon ali citizens who were in respectable circumstances,
and a poll-tax of two soldi levied on ali inhabitants of the city

SANTA MARIA DEL FlORE AND CAMPANILE. ·1478

and Contado. The average yearly yield amounted to upwards of

twelve thousand gold florins.
Wars and feuds greatly hindered building operations, but in
I 3 3 I work was again resumed, and the Signoria confided the
superintendence of the enterprise to the great and ftourishing
" Guild of W ool." This privilege accorded to the Guild by the
Civil Power was confirmed in I 42 7 by a " Buli " of Pope Martin V.
The members entered enthusiastically upon their responsibilities.
The Consuls nominated the "Operai di Santa Maria de/ Fi'ore,"
-" Board of Works of the Cathedral," in order that its members

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522 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
sbould be able to bring expert knowledge to bear upon each part
of the undertaking.1 Tbis body still carries on the work of
restoration, witb tbe title of " Operai de/ .DIIomo."
Tbe.amount realised by the two taxes was wholly inadequate.
therefore the Consuls directed tbat every factory and shop-
wholesale and retail-connected with the Guilds, should place f
box at all entrances and exits, into which visiting merchants,
buyers, and strangers generally, should be invited to deposit
ofl'erings. At first a precise sum was named,-a dmaro per
person,-herice the name of " Deodmaro "-" God's penny " -
was given to the contribution. This produced in one year the
goodly sum of two thousand gold florins.2
The " Guild o f W ool,'' between I 2 8 2 and I 52 7, spent upon
Santa Maria~'del Fiore, the sum total of four hundred and fifty
thousand gold florins = .l'2 2 5,ooo l
Savonarola also threw bis influence into the Catbedral Com-
pletion Fund. He directed tbat all Wills should, at Probate, bea.r
a Duomo stamp of seventy soldi, and allowed no letters of ad-
ministration to be granted, until this condition had been fulfilled'
I t is said that tbis provision is still in force in Florence.
By a decree of tbe Signoria the superintendence and upkeep
of the Chapel of the Holy Miracle in the Church of Sant' Ambrogio
was assigned to the "Arte de' Gitldice e Notai"-" the Judges' and
Notaries' Guild." Every year upon the Feast of tbe Holy
Miracle, which was celebrated during tbe octave of Corptu CJ.risti,
the Consuls and officials of tbe Guild assisted ceremoniously at
High Mass, and gatbered in the ofl'erings of tbe members. A
kind of Court was held in the Chapel, when any members accused,
or disbarred for minor misdemeanours, or breaches of the Guüd
rules, were set free. At the same time and place a review was
had of the public pious warks of the Guild, and distribution of
alms was made to necessitous cases.
The "Arte de' Vaiai e Pellicciai"-Skinners and Furriers-
had a -chapel ~of their own. I t is named in the Statutes o f the
1 FoUini, tom. <ri., chap. ui., p. 212. I ViUani, <ri. 226.

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 523
Guild under the designation, "Cappel/a deU' Arte di Sanf
Apollinare." The Consuls of the Guild accepted lawful control
of the chapel, and the nomination of a chaplain, in the year
1448, when good Antonino was Archbishop of Florence.
The chapel was originally built and painted at the expense of
one Bartolommeo, son of Costello di Giacherio, of the parish of
Sant' Apollinare,-a furrier by trade and member of the Guild,-
who, by bis Will, desired to be buried in bis own vault, below the
Chapel of SS. Bartholomew and Christopher. The Chapel was
·endowed with " the proceeds of several pieces of land-olive
groves, orchards, woods, and vineyards,-in all thirty-nine staiori
-acres ; with three cottages in the parishes of San Martino da
Guigabanda and San Stefano da Calcinaia." 1
Tbe chaplain, or rector, was obliged to celebrate weekly Mass,
and High Mass upon the Feast of Saint Bartholomew, for the
repose of the soul of the pious founder-for ever. This last
provision was still being religiously carried out both in 1636 and
in 166 3, and was so certified by the regist~rs of the chapel at
these dates. The arms of the Guild were stuck up over the
chapel, and were also sculptured on the façade of the church.
At La Nunziata, among the chapels were those of the "Arte de'"
Cakolai "-" The Shoemakers' Guild "-and of the subordinate
"Arte de' Pi'ttori"--or "Society of Saint Luke." The latter had
frescoes painted by V asari and Pontormio. Rich Guildsmen,
moreover, made numberless offerings of artistic treasures to the
Church-splendid works by Andrea del Sarto, Ghirlandaio,
San Gallo, Alesso Baldovinetti, the Rossellini, Giovanni da Bologna,
Perugino, and Bandinelli.
The " Compagnia di San Giuseppe,"-the Company of Saint
Joseph,-was a religious confratemity of members of the " A rle de'
Legnaiuol•:"-the Carpenters' Guild,-founded in the time of the
Duke of Athens, when he sought supporters from among the
Lesser Guilds. The chapel and altar of the Compagnia was in the
Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, and the Office of the Guild for
1 Manni, .. Sigilli,.. ln'leDtory made I s~ .

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524 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
the relief of distressed carpenters was hard by, in the dld palace
of the Camesecchi family.1
Almost ali the trade assoclations, and industrial companies,
subordinated to the Guil~ proper, had their Religious Confrater-
nities with · their special Patron Saints, Altars, and sacred obser-
vances, with which were usually joined offices for the administra-
tion of charity and the encouragement of art.
In I 300 the "Society of Dyers" had a Church, Guild-House
and Hospital in the Via de' Malcontenti, where the Capuchin
monastery more recently stood. Their coat-of-arms may still be
seen upon the front of the building.
The example of the Florent~e Guildsmen and members of
trade unions, with respect to religious and charitable observances,
was heartily followed by the various bodies and groups of foreign
workmen, who ftocked to Florence from every European country,
and settled down with their wives and families, or else married
Florentine girls and established new families.
At La Nunziata the Companies of Flemish and Gennan
Artizans had their Altar, dedicated to Saint Barbara, where they
resorted for the daily and weekly Masses, and told their beads
and made their confessions. At San Spirito the Merchants and
Artizans of Lorraine had a Chapel, in the Sacristy of the Church,
to which the dedication of San Felice was given. They had
also a separate burial-place within the sacred precincts.
Among minor associations was the " Society of Lombard
Cooks." They had many privileges- sacred and profane.
They were accustomed to recite their hours, first in San Piero
del Mugnone, in the Via San Gallo, but later on, they trans-
ferred their devotions to a Chapel within the church of their
patron saint, San Carlo, in the Piazza del Or San Michele.
On the other hand Florentine Merchants were very careful to
retain as much of their home life as possible during their residence
in foreign cities. Hence in Rome, Naples, Paris, Montpellier, and
other centres and depots of Florentine trade, they established
1 F. L. de! Migliore, p. 436.

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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
EXTERIOR OF THE c;U(LU CHURCH OF OR SAN :\IICHEJ.E
IJJÓ

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 525
Religious Confratemities, and founded Chapels and Altars in one or
other o f the town churches. These were almost always dedicated to
Saint J ohn the Baptist, and everywhere traders, agents, and work-
people, gathered together periodically for religious exercises, and
wise counsel in the local Chapel of the Saint.
The devotional corporate life of the Guilds centred in the
Guild Shrine of Or Sau Michele. The very name bespeaks its
origin,-the " Garden-Chapel," -for, away back in the eighth
century, holy monks from Lombardy dedicated a small church to
the patron of their country-the Archangel Michael, and then
planted trees around it. Rebuilt somewhere about theyear 1000,
and made a parish church for the extension of the city between
Santa Reparata and the river, the Garden was still preserved
and tended by Cistercian fathers. A Piazza was formed by the
Uberti, Abati, Cavalcanti, Caponsacchi, Macei, and other rising
families, who built their houses around the Church.
Despite the encouragement of the Popes-especially Inno-
cent III. and IV.-the venerable building became greatly dilapi-
dated, so much so that, in 1249, the Signoria intimated their
intention of pulling it down. This was accomplished in 1284,
and in consequence of the inadequacy of accommodation in the
Mercato V ecchio for the Hay and Com-dealers, it was determined
to build in the middle of the Piazza a Loggia for the purposes of
a Grain-market.
Amolfo di Cambio was commissioned to supply a plan, which
he did ; and he also undertook the erection of the Church of
San Carlo di Mercato, in lieu of the more ancient shrine.
Amolfo's work was destroyed by fire in I 304. The new Loggia
for the market was opened in 1 317, Taddeo Gaddi being the
architect. He worked in pútra f01'te of the best kind, and he
and bis assistants, were placed under the special observation of
the "P01' Santa Man'a "-the Guild of Silk.
Whilst the Loggia was in building, a famous By.zantine-like
Madonna, painted by Ugolino da Siena, which was attached
to the wall of a house in the Piazza, became famous by reason

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526 'fHE GUILDS OF 'f4'LORENCE
of the many miracles which she was supposed to work.
Transferred solemnly to an alcove under the Loggia, and
fixed to one of the supporting pilasters, the Sacred Picture
continued to carry on its beneficent mission, until it became daily
the object of the devotions of great numbers of pilgrims.
So vastly grew the cult of the Maáon11a de/ OrúJ that in 1291
a Confratemity was founded, which included many members of the
Greater Guilds and other inftuential citizens. They called them-
selves "La Compagnia de/ Or San Miclule "-but were more
familiarly known as " La Compagnia de/ Pilastra "-" The Com-
pany of the Pillar."
The Statutes of the Company contained forty chapters, which
were mainly concemed with the receipt and application of the
ofl'erings of pilgrims. These consisted of many objects of value,
and in kind, with votive waxen images. A Notary was in con-
stant attendance to inscribe the names of visitors, to enter the
amounts of their donations, and to chronicle the efl'ects of their
religious exercises. He also enrolled the names of new associates
of the Company, and kept a list of those, who when dying,
desired the prayers of the faithful.
Every day " Lauds" was sung by the lay brethren, who
attended in rota, whence came a new designation of the Com-
pany :-" Lam/esi di Santa Maria "-" The Singers of Saint
Mary." Allocutions were constantly addressed by brethren to
groups of worshippers, counselling piety and charity ; and per-
sonal visits were made to the bedsides of aged, crippled, and
dying people. Processions of the brethren were beld every year
to the Churches of Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, San Marco,
San Spirito, del Carmine and La N unziata, where litanies and
hymns were sung : the streets through which they passed being
decorated, and crowded with devotional spectators.
U ndoubtedly the great glory of the " Company of Or San
Michele " was the munificence of its charities, which benefited,
not only the dwellers in the city, but those who lived far away
in the Contado and beyond.

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 527
In the conftagration of I 304 the Sacred Picture escaped,
almost miraculously, and this added enormously to the reputa-
tion of the "Madonna de/ Orlo." The Com Market became

TH& COkN GkANAkY-ok SAN KICH&L&

thronged not with the buyers and sellers of grain only, but with
pilgrims at their devotions. Business was greatly impeded, and
consequently, in I 3 36, the Signoria closed the Loggia, and con-
verted it into a church, by building up the arches and inserting
mullioned sculptured windows.
For some years the dual avocation of selling com and singing

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 528 'fHE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
hymns went on simultaneously, and those who came to buy and
tbose who sold alike left their ofl'erings. Thus into the fierce
commercial life of the Florentines entered a new and enthusiastic
spirit-that of unwearied piety. The ofl'erings in money received
in I 348 reached the great sum of three hundred and fifty thousand
gold florins.
In I 350 a stafl' of priests was attached to the Oratory, who
said Masses daily at the altars of the Church, which, nine years
later, was adomed by the exquisite Tabemacle of Orcagna. The
old records say that, " the members of the 'Company of Or San
Michele,' having amassed very great wealth, resolved to erect a
tabemacle for the Madonna."
By an old decree of the State Council it was enacted that all
property left to Hospitais must be sold within two years and its
value devoted to pious uses. Failure to observe this law caused
the benefaction to lapse to the "Company of Or San Michele." 1
At one time the annual income of the Confratemity amounted
to eighteen thousand gold florins from estates bequeathed directly.
or lapsed, and seven thousand gold florins from other sources.
During the ravages of plague, in the middle of the fourteenth
century, legacies and gifts produced, in one year, the sum of one
hundred and twenty-five thousand gold florins.2
The greatest respect and veneration was paid not alone to the
Shrine but to its precincts. The tethering of asses, beasts of
burden, and cattle under the Loggia or by the columns, or any-
where near the building, was visited with fines of forty soldi. No
rubbish or merchandise was sufl'ered to be deposited within the
sacred area under pain of similar penalties.1
The first united action on the part of the Guilds, with respect
to Or San Michele, was taken in the year 1406. The building.
which was a parallelogram, bad niches let into its exterior walls.
I nside one of these the " Guild of Silk " obtained permission to
erect a statue in marble of their patron saint-Saint John the
Evangelist. As a matter of fact the Statue was not completed
1 Varebi, ü. rog. 1 S. Ammirato, i. 373· 1 Rub. eclü., r41 5o

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 529
and installed until two hundred yean had passeei, when Baccio
da Montelupo, a pupU of Michael Angelo, finished it.
The application of the " Silk GuUd " however stirred up the
Consuls of the other Guilds, and they secured, from the Signoria,
the right to regard the buUding as the peculiar property of the
Guilds of Florence.
Each Craft,-great and small,--offered to supply a statue
without and a painting within. At the same time the members
of each Guild bound themselves to make an annual collection, on
the Festival of their Patron Saints, which should be handed over
to the " Company of Or San Michele," for distribution amongst
poor and ailing folk. ·As a gauge of ownership the Consuls of
the Guild were pledged to receive, once a year, on Michaelmas
Day, a visit from the Signoria, and there and then, to pledge
them in libations o{ wine-newly made and blessed.
The "Calimala Guild,''---ever foremost in good works,-in
1406, commissioned Lorenzo Ghiberti to chisel their Patron Saint
-Saint John the Baptist, and in 1428 he was put up in bis
niche, being the first statue actually placed in position.
The " W ool Guild " following suit the same year, put up in
the third niche on the west side, the figure of Saint Stephen in
bronze-also by Ghiberti. The first niche, on the south
side, that of the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries," was the
most richly adomed of them ali. Simone da Fiesole sculptured
the Anns of the Guild-the Madonna and Child-with a rich
framework of statuettes. Twice subsequently was this statue
removed--once in 149 3, when a fanatical J ew threw a stone
at it, and again, under the Grand Duke Ferdinand, because a
rumour went abroad that it possessed miraculous powers, and
crowds were attracted to pay their devotions before the new
shrine.
The "Guild of Furriers and Skinners" had St ]ames for
their patron, and Nanni di Banco or Niccolo d'Arezzo was
entrusted with the commission for a statue. The third niche was
occupied by St Mark, by Donatello, ordered in 141 1 by the
2L

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 580 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
4' Guild of Retail Cloth-dealers and Linen Merchants," and set up
in 1430.
On the westem front of the church, the statue of Saint
Eligius,-the patron of the "Guild of Blacksmiths," by Nanni di
Banco, was put up in I 43 I. The next position was originally
assigned to St Lawrence,-Patron of the " Guild of Bakers,"
but their funds running short, they yielded their niche to the
" Guild of Bankers and Money-Changers," who, in I 4 I 9,
employed Michelozzo Michelozzi to do St Matthew-in 1422
Ghiberti became bis partner in the work.
Undoubtedly the finest statue of the whole series, and one of
the cMfs d' ~uvre of the Renaissance, was on the north side--
St George--chiselled by Donatello, in I 4 I 6, for the " Guild of
Armourers and Sword-Makers." This splendid figure exactly
preserves ali the physical attributes of a manly young Florentine
-alert, serious, strong, and virtuous. When Michael Angelo saw
it, he exclaimed in delight, " Commit~a I"-" March I "-it seemed
so life-like.
The " Guild of Masters in Stone and W ood " erected in
I 4 I 7- I 420, in the next niche, a group of four sculptors martyred
under Diocletian. N anni di Banco carved them, but Donatello
adapted them to fit into their places.
" St Philip," who comes next,-likewise by Nanni di Banco,
was commissioned by the "Guild of Hosiers "-an ambitious
corporation not included in the Hierarchy of Twenty-one Guilds.
The Guild of Butchers, in I 408, commissioned their patron-
Saint Peter-next in order. Donatello was again the sculptor.
Their arms appeared in a medallion above the niche as ü Becco-
the Goat-which is said to bave given them their name " Beaai."
In addition to St John Baptist of the "Calimala," the east front
of the church has Saint Luke--the protector of the " Guild of
Judges and Notaries." It was the work in bronze of Giovanni
da Bologna, late in the sixteenth century. A fine group occupies
the next niche, " Christ and Saint Thomas," erected at the
expense of the Corte della Mercanzia-the Chamber of Commerce

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INTERIOR OF THE GUILD CHURCH OF OR SAN MICHELE-ORCAGNA'S SHRINE

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 THE PA'fRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 531
-and done in 1483 by Verrocchio, after a dispute about terms
with Ghiberti and Donatello.
Ali around the four sides are medallions and bas-reliefs : the
former reproduce the Coats of Arms of the Guilds, and the
latter are mostly scenes from the lives of the different Patron
Saints. The curious lean-to arch-way joining the Shrine to the
.Residence of the " Guild of W ool " was an afterthought.
The interior of Or San Michele is very striking. The walls
:and pillars were richly painted by artists in the fifteenth century,
at the charge of the various Guilds, who also contributed funds
for the rich stained glass. The Tabernacle of the Madonna is
<>ne of the most magnificent monuments of the Renaissance
Orcagna has given his masterpiece the appearance of having been
carved out of a single piece of marble. The Altar itself, dedicated
to the Patron Saint of Florence, was erected by the Signoria in
I 349· The whole building is a unique example of the life,
thought, and work, of the great Guild system of Florence, and
preaches eloquent sermons to the religious and the industrious
alike.
Mendicity-unknown in the earlier years of the Reriaissance,
became, by the natural devolution of things mundane, in course
of time a scourge and a bye-word. Loafers, cripples, beggars,
and the other human atoms of a submerged tenth, infested the
Markets, the Bridges, and the doors of Monasteries, Palaces, and
Churches. Or San Michele, by reason of the immense concourse
.of worshippers and pilgrims, became their favourite dumping-
ground. There assembled daily a mass of human misery, which
invited at once commiseration and abhorrence. At one time, as
many as eighteen thousand destitute and reprobate persons are
said to have crowded the portais of the Shrine.
Dante speaks of the begging confratemity in pathetic terms : -
" So those blind beggars that bave lost their all
Frequent tbe churches to supply tbeir need." t
The tricks and subterfuges of these wastrels and sufferers
t " Purgatorio," Canto xiii.

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582 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
were infinite in variety and viciousness, and created a tradition
in the annals of Florence, which exists at the present day.
Writers of the times sought to throw obloquy upon tbe public
disgrace, and to rid the city of the undesirables by jibes and
sarcasm.
Sacchetti's tale of " Tbree Blind Mendicants" is highly amus-
ing. They agreed to beg in certain separate districts of the city,.
and to divide lhe. gross proceeds. They met at a smaJI wine-shop
in the suburbs, and immediately began to disagree and to beat each
other. In their struggles they unwittingly demolished much of
the fumiture of the room, but when tbe landlord came in to quell
tbe riot they beat bim too. Tbe worthy landlady however was
something of a virago for she belaboured the quartette and made
off with the poor men's plunder 11
N ot satisfied with the benefactions offered to the cause of
religion, and to the adomment of cburcbes by the members of the
Guilds, in their corporate capacity, very many of the richer nobles
and merchants made individually munificent contributions, and
employed leading artists, for the decoration of Chapels and Altars..
Indeed, there appean to bave been quite a fierce rivalry between
inftuentiaJ citizens in the erection of artistic memoriais in con-
nection with the offices of the Church.
These memorials,-at once the imperishable records of
commerciaJ prosperity, and the most splendid achievements of
modem art,--exist in every sacred building in Florence, and
especiaJly in the magnificent churches of Santa Croce, Santa.
Maria Novella, and San Lorenzo. At Santa Croce the Choir
belonged to the great Alberti family, and the surrounding chapels
to the Cavalcanti, Pazzi, Bardi, Peruzzi, Riccardi-Guigni, Soderini,.
Morelli, Baroncelli, Castellani, Medici, Rinuccini, Tosinghi-Spinelli,.
Ricasoli, Conti-Bardi, Pulei, and Niccolini.
This is a roll of famous Merchant-princes such as no other city
could produce, and at the same time an honour list of glorious
artists. I t contains tbe great names of Giotto, Margaritone,.
1 Sacchetti, "NO\·." ex!.

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 THE PATRONAGE OF THE GUILDS 533
Agnolo Gaddi, Mainardi, Giovanni da ~ilano, Andrea del Sarto,
Giottino, Donatello, Mina da Fiesole, Desiderio da Settignano,
Perugino, Michelozzo, the Della Robbia, the Rossellini, and
othersl
One family-Pazzi- further ennobled their name, in I 4 I o,
by the erection of the contiguous and beautiful chapel of Santa
Maria Maddalena, after plans by Brunellesco, with its cluf d'tZuwe
of Perugino, " The Crucifixion," ordered in I 49 3·
In Santa Maria Novena are the chapels of the Merchant-
princes Rucellai, Strozzi, Filippo-Strozzi and Gaddi. These art
patrons employed Cimabue, Orcagna, Uccello, Filippino Lippi,
Ghirlandaio, Bronzino, ~mardo Rossellino, Benedetto da Maiano,
and Neri di Bicci to beautify their family shrines.
The Cappella degli Spagnuoli,-the name was perhaps given
from the fact that Spanish merchants and artizans assembled in
the chapel for their daily Mass and devotions,-unrivalled for its
frescoes by Taddeo Gaddi, Simone di Memmi, Andrea da Firenze,
and Antonio Veneziano,-is a further witness, if such were needed,
of the prosperity of the Florentine Guildsmen, of their whole-
hearted encouragement of the Fine Arts, and of their admirable
devotion to the services of Holy Church. Giovanni Rucellai in
I470, after the designs of Leon Battista Alberti, erected at his
sole cost, and to the honour of God, the fine façade of Santa
Maria Novella-the noblest example of Tuscan Gothic ever built.
San Lorenzo, with its Sacristies, is the superb memorial of the
Medici family. Its re-erection, however, after the calamitous fire
of I 4 I 7, was undertaken by the Medici and seven other merchant
families, as a thankoft'ering for success in business and in the
State. lt was due to Giovanni de' Medici that San Lorenzo
became the shrine of bis family. Brunellesco, Donatello, and
Filippo Lippi were associated in the new building and its decora-
tion; whilst Michael Angelo made the "New Sacristy,''-
built in I 529, by Guilio de' Medici, Clement VII.,-a treasure-
house of masterpieces of sculpture.
By way of affirming the adage that " money is made in

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534 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
humble callings," and to point the moral of Florentine prosperity,.
it is not a little interesting to note that a well-known chestnut-
roaster in the Mercato Vecchio amassed quite a considerable
fortune. The worthy huckster, when an old man, gave a com-·
mission to Andrea del Sarto, to decorate the " Chapel of the
Chestnut Roasters " in the Church of San Frediano.
Castello Quaratesi,-a Wool-merchant,-bequeathed to the
"Guild of Wool," in 1450, a sum of money to erect the façade of
Santa Croce, but insisted that bis coat of arms should appear over
the principal portal. The Franciscan monks objected specially t~
honour one man, when so many had so munificently adomed the
church. Quaratesi, in a huff, altered bis will, and built instead
the Church of San Salvadore a1 Monte. He employed 11 Cronaca
as bis architect, and when the building was completed, in I 508, it
was so perfect that Michael Angelo called it "La Bel/a VülaneUa '"
- " The lovely peasant maid ! ''

•
The Anns of the "Captains of Or San Michele"

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A TYPICAL BEGGAR AT THE SHRINE OF OR SAN MICHEI.E
1473•4
[Stt !al't J.Jl]

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 CHAPTER XIX
THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS
A large subject. The Calima/a Guild an example for the rest :-Monasteries,
Hospitais, Scbools, H ornes for aged persons, and tbe insane, Poor-bouses, etc.
etc. Speáali-di Sanl' Eusebio, di Santa Maria e San Gallo, di Santa Maria
Nuova and its drug-store, di San Lazaro, di Santa Maria della Scala, dei
Ortebello, di San Giovanni, di San Matteo and the Notary Lapo Mazzei,di San
Giovanni di Dio, di San Paolo, the Convalescent Hospital of "Por Santa
Maria," and degli Innocenti. Home for widows. Hostelfor young men. Muni-
fieence of Niccolo da Uzzano and of Francesco da Mantoa. Marriage dowries.
Tbe Misericordia-its origin and development. The Compagma de/ Biga/lo.
A dead body. Sylvanus da Samosata. Fra Pietro da Verona. Paúrini.
Congregtuione di San Marlino. Archbishop Antonino. I Povm Ve:rgog-
nosi. List of the 6rst twelve BfiOflwmim: Money-boxes. The Bllt»>llomint'
del/a Slinclte. The BuOflflllmt'm di San Bona'llenhlra. Bankrupt merchants.

I T length,
would quite impossible, save only at very considerable
be
to tabulate ali the Charitable and Pious Works of
the Guilds, during the period of the Renaissance. Perhaps a
brief list of such benefactions in connection with the " Calimala
Guild " will serve as an example for the rest, and substantiate the
contention that the Florentines were inspired with ali the noblest
instincts of humanity.
The " Calimala " Statutes, and other records affirm that the
"Merchants of Foreign Cloth" maintained the following bene-
volent institutions, in and about Florence : -
Monasteries :--at Montecalvoli, Ripoli, San Donato in Torri,
Faventia, Le Mura, Borgo San Lorenzo da Mugello, Santa Maria
al Prato, San Jacopo in Vincoli, Bibbiena, Maiano, Sán Matteo d'
Arcetri, Santa Lucia in Quaraceshi, Sant' Egidio, Podio della
Croce, San Giovanni Battista da Mugello, San Spirito, del
Carmine, etc., etc.
Hospitais .-San Gallo, di Bigallo, Giambuoni di Vai d'Ema.
535

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_I
536 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
Bella Gionalina, Santa Maria Nuova, Sant' Eusebio, Santa Maria
di Cafaggio, San Lazaro, San Miniato a1 Monte, San Giovanni
Battista, etc. etc.
And what the premier Guild did, on such a munificent scale,
ali the other Guilds emulated, and, in their degree of competency,
acbieved relatively splendid records of beneficence.
Monasteries were endowed for a variety of purposes. Tbey
served not only as sacred refuges for religious persons, who gave
up their wbole time to divine exercises ; they were also retreats
from the world for many a weary worker in the Market and the
shop.
Some of them were schools for the young in sacred and pro-
fane knowledge, whilst in others the Brethren were taught useful
Crafts. Many too were bomes for tbe aged, the crippled, and the
mentally affiicted, and some were hospitais for the sick, and
some ·sbelters for the needy.
Their custodians were, at first, Religious, the clergy,-regular
and secular,-and holy and devout women. Later on the laity
were entrusted with these charitable offices, in concert with the
Religious, and at last the priestly element was entirely
superseded.
For example :-In 1344 the Duke of Athens, during his
Pode5taship, confided the sole charge of the Spedale di Sant'
Egídio to the " Calimala '' Guild ; and the Monastery of San
Bamabo was, in 13 50, placed, by the State, under the exclusive
care of the "Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries." These lay
boldings were confirmed by Papal " Bulls."
Every considerable building enterprise, and every great
industrial establishment, had its complement of trained charit-
able assistants. At San Miniato al Monte, San Giovanni Battista,
and Santa Maria del Fiore, the workpeople and their faniilies
were looked after, both in health and in sickness, and were placed
under disciplinary and beneficent regulations.
Mac~iavelli records the temper of bis time with respect to
such matters :-" Public works," he says, "should be carried on

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 537
with the utmost becoming and kindly treatment of the work-
men, so as not to drivc them to despair." 1
There were Hospitais, Refuges, and Homes, for all sorts and
conditions of men and women. Sucb Guilds as had no special
Hospitais undcr their care, maintained their poor sick members in

A SICK MAN IN HOSPITAL

their own dwellings or in small Lodges ; and not only so, but
paid handsome pensions to the aged sufferers and, often cnough,
to their relatives as well. Many Hostels for poor travellers had
their useful and charitable mission. Persons out of work were
registered at their respt:ctive Guild Offices, and assisted out of
Guild funds. Leper stations were placed near the Gates of the
city, supported wholly by the gifts of mcmbers o( the Guilds. In
1 "li Principe," chap. vii.
588 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1338 there were tbirty fully equipped Hospitals,-great and
small,-in the city, witb more tban one tbousand beds for tbc
accommodation of sick, needy, and aged, pcople.
In Lorenzo de' Mcdici's time thcrc were at least forty Hospitais
of various descriptions in active operation, witb a total annual
income, from investments alone, of more than sixty thousand gold
florins. During tbe same .pcriod the monasteries and convents
numbcrcd upwards of one hundrcd large,-and vcry many
small houscs.
The following is a list of the more notable Guild Charitable
lnstitutions : -
1. Spedale di Sanf Euseóio.
Probably tbe Hospital of Sant' Euscbio in Prato d'Ognissanti
was the earliest charitable institution foundcd in Florence for the
relief of su ffering humanity. Primarily the building was a convent
of the ·Nuns of Saint Ann, and among early benefactors were
members of the Donati family. In 1186 the Religious addcd, to
their duties in religion, the care of the affiicted ; and they retaincd
their pious charge till the year 1278, when the Captain of the
Parte GNe!fa, with the consent of the Papal Sce, relievcd the nuns
of theit charitable functions, and entrustcd the care of the sick to
a mixcd commission of Umüiati and "Ca/ima/a" and "Wool"
merchants, under the dircction of the M ercato of the monastery.

2. Spedale di Santa Maria di San Gallo.

Early in the thirtcenth century Guidalotto di Volto dali' Orco
founded this Hospital, for tbe rclief and maintenance of the poor,
and of pilgrims. In 1218 he bequcathcd bis benefaction to the
Church, by whom it was greatly extendcd, cspccially as a refuge
for young children desertcd by their parents. In 1292 the
Hospital was placcd under the protcction ofthe "Guild of Merchants
of Porta Santa Maria." New buildings wcrc erected in a garden
near the Piazza dei Servi belonging to tbe Guild ; but, owing to
the " Scarsusa & dman·,"-as the rccord quaintly has it,-they

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Ft:F:DJNG THE HUN<;Ry
GIOVASNI DEl.I.A ROHHIA

\'ISITING THE SICK

GhW.ANNI DRLLA ROBRIA

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•

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 5·39
were not finished until I 444, under the direction of Francesco
della Luna. In 1463 the "Brefotrofio di San Gallo,"-as it was
then called,-was amalgamated with the Hospital of Santa Maria
degli Innocenti.

3· Speáale di Santa Mana Nuova.

The Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova,-which still exists,-
was founded in 1285 by Folco Portinari, ·two years before the
marriage of bis daughter,- Dante's Beatrice,-to Simone de' Bardi.
Dante describes him as " a man of exceeding goodness." H e
held in tum all the highest Offices of State, and was often elected
Consul of bis Guild-the " Calimala." The Hospital was opened
on January 23, 1288, with seventeen beds. In 1329 bye-laws
were made for the govemment of the Hospital. Two wards were
established,--one for men and one for women,-whicb were daily
visited by members of the first Order of the "Guild of Doctors
and Apothecaries."
A Medicai School was ·attacbed to the Hospital in 1350, and
a Library of Medicai Books, a Museum of Drugs,--chiefty foreign
and constituted by the Apothecaries,-and an Anatomical Theatre
were added.
The patronage of the Greater Guilds assured to the charity
permanence and competency : indeed the amount of benefactions
was so considerable, that in the fifteenth century, the Govemors
had, at one time, a yearly revenuc of upwards of fifteen thousand
gold florins. The year of the Great Plague,-1 348,-a sum of
at least twenty-fivc thousand gold florins was contributed to the
funds of the HospitaJ.l

4- Speáale di San Lazaro.

In the year 1338, the "Calimala Guild" built this Hospital
outside the Porta a Faenza, in a hamlet called Campoluccio, and
cndowed it with food, clothing, and medicai treatment, for old and
1 Varchi, ii. 109.

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540 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
infirm poor persons. This institution carried on its charitable
work until I 5 29, when, during the famous siege of Florence, it
was demolished to make way for the fortifications of Michael
Angelo.

5· Spedale di Satúa Maria del/a Scala.

The Spedale di Santa Maria della Scala was founded in I 306,
by Cione di Lapo Pollini, a member of the S. Maria N ovella
chapter o f the " Guild of W ood-carvers," on the lines of an hospital
established at Siena, in the ninth century, for travellers and persons
in distress. Cione was by way of being a cobbler-the humble
trade of the least esteemed division of the " Guild of Shoemakers.01
His connection with the W ood-carvers' Guild is not very obvious :
perhaps pride of place, if not of trade, had its inftuence : but then
it was of course a common practice for a member of an inferior
Guild to seek honorary enrolment in one of higher degree.
Anyhow the benevolent operations of the Hospital, with the
upkeep of its buildings, etc., were takeil in hand by a " Company
of Shoemakers " which, under the title of "La Compagnia di SS.
Crespino ~ Crespipiano--was established in 1502. Their Offices,
for the relief of poor craftsmen, were in the old Palazzo Marucelli,
where assistance was freely given to German, and other foreign
workers in leather-shoes and slippers, and to jobbing cobblers.
In I 53 I the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala was incorporated
with the Hospital of Santa Maria degli Innocenti.1

6. sp~dale dei omoello.

Niccolo degli Alberti,--a wealthy Wool-merchant,-founded
a charity in I 377, for the benefit of aged poor women, who should
act as nurses to unfortunate young mothers. lt was, perhaps, the
earliest Florentine Lying-in Hospital, and was originally reserved
for wool operatives.ll
l Pagnini, ii. p. 121. ' Ademollo, ii. 419.

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 541

7. Speáale dz· San Giovanni.

Bonifazio Lupi, Marchese di Soragna, who was one of the
famous Condottieri, employed by the Republic of Florence in the
wars witb Pisa, built a Hospital, in I 377, for insane people, to
which the name of ".Mani&omio di Bonifa&io" was given. lt
was the only asylum for these unhappy people, who hitherto had
been assigned to the Stindu-the Debtors' prison I The build-
ing and endowment cost twenty-five thousand gold florins, and
was a tbankoffering for tbe freedom of tbe city, whicb had been
conferred by a gratcful people, upon their successful General.
Lupi also Jeft, at bis death, an annual income of seven hundred
gold florins, and confided its administration to thc " Calimata
Guild." 1
8. Spetlale di San M atteo.
Lemmo da Montecatini,-a Banker,-towards thc end of thc
fourteenth century, commenced to build a Hospital for poor
country people visiting Florence, whicb he dedicated to Saint
Nicbolas, and, dying in I 3 89, he left an ample endowment.
Early in the fifteenth century the " Guild of Bankers and Money-
Changers , took over the complction of thc buildings, and thc
administration of the charity. Tbe name of the Patron Saint of
the Guild,-Saint Matthew,-was joined to tbe original dedica-
tion, but ultimately it. was known as the Spedale di San
Matteo. I ts spccial function was also cbanged, and it bccamc
an Asylum for aged men and women. Thc Consuls of the Guild
were appointed sole govemors, whilst each member of the Guild
was taxed-.pro rata-to contribute towards the expenses of the
upkeep. Among administrators of tbe Hospital wa.'l the well-
known Notary Lapo Mazzei. He has left several interesting lettcrs
bearing upon the question of cbarities. " There are many
mercbants," hc says, " who after their yearly accounts are made
up, come to me to ask which are the more worthy charities, in
order that they may judiciously apportion certain proportions of
1 Cavalcanti, ü. 496·498·

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542 THE GUILDS 0}~ FLORENCE
their profits." With respect to the accommodation provided,
Mazzei says, " at one time the inmates numbered two hundred
and fifty." 1
The Hospital of Saint Matthew still continues its useful
mission, but it has been remOved, for in 1784 the Grand Duke
took the building for the purposes of the Accademi'a del/e Bel/e A rti.

9· Spedale di Sa" Giova,,; di Dio.

In the same century, somewhere about 1411, Simone Ves-
pucci endowed the Convent of Santa Maria deU' Umilita, in the
Borgo d'Ognissanti, for poor and infirm workmen. After the death
of its founder, it was placed under the direction of the Captains
of the Bigallo. In 1 sso the Hospital was transferred to the care
of the Order of San Giovanni di Dio-better known as the
"Frati"dei Betee Fratelli"-" The Brotherhood of Good Brethren,"
and received its new name.

1 o. Speda/e di Sa" Paolo.

Within the building, which became known a5 the " Hospital
of Saint Paul," had settled a body of Franciscan Pilgrim Fathers,
and the house served as a resting-place for religious persons on
their way to and from Rome. In 1413 the monks opened a
wing, as a lay Convalescent Hospital, which, in 1457, was trans-
ferred to the care of the Proconsul and the Consuls of the " Guild
of Judges and Notaries "-the Arms of the Guild are still upon
the façade. Somewhere about 1 soo sick poor were admitted,
and the scope of the foundation was enlarged. Another change
awaited the Hospital, for at the end of the sixteenth century, the
sick folk made way for other inmates, and an Industrial School
for Girls, especially devoted to the silk trade, was established
within its portais by the Grand Duke Piero Leopoldo.

11. The "Por Santa Maria," erected, in the middle ofthe little
town of Segna, somewhere about I 430,-a Convalescent Hospital
1 L. Muzei, i. 39, 2.44-

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COSJ:\10 DE' :\IEDICI, " !L PADRE Dh'LLA PATRIA," AND ARCHJIISHOP ANTONINO
SUP.,;RJNTENDING THE I!UIJ.DING OF THE l\IONASTERY o~· SAN :\IARCO, FI.ORJo:NCE

ARCHBISHOP ANTONINO VISITING A FOUNDRY IN THE CONTADO

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~
Digitized byGoogle
and Loggia, for the reception of their workpeople, who had bcen
taken ill in the prosecution of their indu~try, and who, upon
partial recovery, required country air. The Hospital, which had
no saintly dedication, was fumisbed with every convenience, and
even luxury, as befitted the wealth of the Guild.

I 2. Spedale di Sa11ta Maria der/i /11ti()Cmti.

Perbaps the best-known Hospital in Florence in the prescnt
<lay is the "Hospital for Foundlings," with its portico splendidly
-decorated with medallions of óamói11i by Andrea Della Robbia.
Moved by a stirring speech of the leamed Leonardo Aretino in
I 42 I, upon the urgent question of the great increase of illegitimate
births in Florence, the Signoria determined to erect a Foundling
Hospital, where such unfortunate children might be received and
nursed.
Designs for the edifice were prepared by Brunellesco, and the
Hospital was opened for its little inmates in 1444· The care of
1t was bestowcd, by the Signoria, upon the wealthy and rising
~· Guild of Silk." The number of children within the Hospital
in 1579 was sixteen hundred. A sum of ten thousand gold
florins was raised for the purpose of apprenticing the boys
between the ages of twelve and sixteen to shipmasters of
Livomo.1
At the comer of tbe Piazza Santa Maria Novella and the
Via della Scala, in 1430, Lisa di Ranieri Paganelli, the wife of
Géntile di Vanni degli Albizzi,-a member of the " Guild of
W ool,-founded a Home for four indigent widows of the poorest
dass of woollen workers of Oltramo.
In connection with the University of Florence, Niccolo da
U zzano-a wealthy " Calimala" merchant, by bis will, in 143 2,
'bequeathed a sum of money to build, and to endow, a Hostel
for the reception of fifty poor but honest and promising young
meq, natives of Florence. He nominated, as bis trustees, the
<:onsuls of the " Calimala " Guild. Da Uzzano was quite the
1 Diario de' Settlmani•

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 most prominent citizen of his day, tbe leader of the aristocratic
party, and the opponent of tbe ambitions and aims of the Medici.
His disinterestedness and absolute loyalty have bcen memorialised
by Macbiavelli, wbo puts into bis moutb tbe saying : " God detiver
tbis city from private usurpation." 1
By way of example of the charitable liberality of Florentine
citizens in connection witb tbeir Guilds, the will of Francesco da
Mantoa, in 1400, may be quoted. To tbe Spedak di Santa
Maria del/a Stala be left six bundred gold florins "for marrying
girls and maintaining children,"-to tbe Speda/e di San Gia,.
!Jattista, two hundred gold ftorins,-to the Spedale di' San GaiiiJ,
two hundred ftorins,-to tbe C0111papia de/ Bigrzllo, four hundred
gold florins for distribution to the occupants of the debtors' prison,
and eight bushels of bread a montb for twenty years ; and many
bequests to churches for completion, decoration, and repair.•
The Linen Manufacturers were not a whit behind the other
GuUds in religious and charitable proclivities. Two members of
the Guild,-Antonio di Antonio and Giuliano Carracci,-left by
their wills in 147 S certain sums of money to be invested for tbe
benefit of the daughters of deceased matriculated members as
dowries upon marriage. The choice of the maidens rested
annually witb the whole of the living members,-as did a1so tbe
approval of tbe fortunate swains,-preference for whom was always
given to youtbs matriculated in tbe Guild.1
It is interesting to note tbat every popolo or parish in
Florence had a number of " marriage portions " for deserving
poor girls of good character.

In old Florence there were three great and inftuential general

organisations of a corporate character :-"La Misericoniia " -
" La Compagnia túl Biga/lo " and /I Congnran"otu di San
Marli'tw.
1 MachiavelU, "Le Ístorie di Firenze," pp. 175·177.
1 L Mauei, i. 25J. 1 L. Cantini, ix. 87.

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 La Misen"cordia.
The founder of this great institution was a plain market
porter of the name of Pietro Borsi. I ts history may be briefly
told.1 At the time of the great annual fairs in the early part
of the thirteenth century, which were held in October and
November, and which were chiefly concemed with the sale of

SBV&N CORPORAL ACTS OF MERCY

NoTB:.-/n tlu foregrtlNnd are ricn mm jortr1ing a Monte di Pieta, fllnilst tlllltrs
are relieving ptHJr pilgrims.

woollen cloth of native manufacture, many porters were employed

to carry goods from the manufactories to the Market. Whilst
looking for jobs the men were accustomed to congregate in and
about the Piazza di San Giovanni, and, in bad weather, they were
permitted to shelter in the cellar of a house belonging to the
1 Florence Gazette, March r898.

2M

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 Adimari family. Here they spent their leisure in gambling,
drinking, and blasphemy. When a mere stripling, in 1240,
Pietro Borsi joined this vicious society. He had been carefully
and religiously brought up, and he was greatly shocked by the
scenes and sounds around him. Waxing bold one day, he
approached a set of men, who were the leaders in infamy, and
reproved them, suggesting that it would not be a bad thing if
they were to impose upon one another, and upon ali the
frequenters of the locality, a small fine every time a man uttered
a blasphemous word,-blasphemy was ever held as a grievous sin
by the Florentines. His proposition was received seriously, and
he was emboldened to plead that the men should form themselves
into a Society to help the sick and needy. This also was agreed
to and, with the amount raised by fines, they purchased six litters,
--one for use in each of the six sestien' of the eity,-to convey
victims of street accidents, and sick persons generally, to the
Hospitais, and the dead to burial. Contributions in money and
kind ftowed in, for example, during the Great Plague, in 1348,
thirty-five thousand gold florins represented the amount of public
alms bestowed upon the Fratemity.
Part of the house, under which they were accustomed to
meet, was purchased, and converted into a street hospital, with an
Oratory attached ; and in 1 2 5o, without ceremony, the erstwhile
company of blasphemers blossomed out into the "Company of
Brothers of Mercy." A distinctive dress was adopted, for the
prote<:tion of the Brethren, when engaged in charitable duties, and
for the prevention of undue curiosity, and inconvenient demon-
strations-this was at first a dull red colour, but black being
thought more suitable, that colour was adopted.
Somewhere about the year 13 50 plans were ·approved for the
erection of a Loggia wherein Brethren engaged in their daily
duties of mercy might rest for a while ; and where, also, little
children,-strayed or abandoned,-might be retained until
claimed by their parents, or some benevolent sympathiser. This
was but the expansion of the beneficent work carried on since

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 547
1242, when the Orfanotrofio de/ Biga/lo was founded for the care
o{ parentless children. Andrea Orcagna was the architect of this
exquisite building-with its delicate iron grille by Francesco
Petrucci.
Among daily duties were included the nursing at their homes

THB BIGALLO

of the sick poor, and the regular visitations of such suffert:rs as

had been conveyed to Hospitais and Hostels. As time went on
many other duties of benevolence were undertaken by the
Brethren : their one aim being to render effective help in the
readiest and best manner. The status of the members, moreover,
underwent considerable change.
No longer were the members only market-porters, or confined

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to tbe humblest ranks in society, but the scions of noble families
and the sons of wealthy Guildsmen gladly assumed the habit of
the Order, undertook its duties, and sbared its privileges,-thinking
themselves happy if allowed to bear their part in sustaining the
terrible weight of human suffering. A rota was arranged, and a
bell was hung in the Loggia, so that when it sounded the
Bretbren, down for duty in the streets, might hasten to render
their service.
Mass was said every moming in the Oratory, and Litanies
were sung by the Bretbren in attendance, the objects of their
devotions being the pious intention of the Bretbren, and the
repose of the souls of the departed. Boxes for the receipt of
contributions were placed in severa! parts of the city, eacb
adomed with a pictured " Pi'eta." They bore the legend : -
" Give alms for the poor and needy sick," and by tbe side of each
stood a Brother-guardian in bis habit It is said that the box
placed outside the Baptistery, in one day, received more than five
hundred silver florins and small coins.
In I 42 5 the "Mistn"cordia" united with the " Compagnia dtl
Biga/lo," but the fusion did not work well, for members of the
latter Society refused to carry sick persons.
A sad circumstance led to the reconstitution of the " Brothers
of Mercy." Early in the year I 47 5 the corpse of a man was
found in the Via de Macei, with no one to bury it A market-
porter passing by, threw down bis Ioad, and, taking the dead body
reverently upon bis shoulders, staggered with it to the Palazzo
Vecchio, and deposited it at the .feet of the Gonfaloniere di
Giustizia.
This act determined the "Miseni:ordi'a" to sever their con-
nection with the " Compagni'a 'de! Biga/lo" and again to undertake
the burial of the dead, as well as to resume their other distinctive
organisation. At first bodies interred by the Brethren were
buried in a pit, which they dug, and railed in, upon the site of
the Torre della Guardamorto,--destroyed by the Ghibellines.
This was soon found to be wholly inadequate for the demands of

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 549

sepulture, and a petition was presented to the Operai di Santa

.AIaria de/ Piore, for the grant of facilities for burial. Three
vaults, below the Cathedral, were granted for this pious purpose,
. which may still be recognised by the sculptured arms of the
"' M isericordia." The Brethren continued to use the Bigallo
until the year I S24, when they gave it up to the " Compagnia
de/ Biga/lo,'' and transferred their headquarters to the Church of
San Cristofano, which stood in the Corso degli Adimari. The
last remova! of the " Misericordia" was in 1 S76-to the present
()ratory and Office in the Piazza del Duomo.

La Compagnia de/ BigaUo.

Another charitable organisation, very much upon the lines of
the "Misericordia," was evolved from an emotional movement far
away in the Middle Ages, which played an active rôle in the lives
of the Guildsmen of the Renaissance.
In the seventh century one Silvanus of Samosata, an un-
reasoning disciple of the Apostle Paul, denied the Incamation of
Christ. His followers became out and out Manich~ans. One of
them found his way to Florence, in 12 I 2, and claimed the title
of Bishop. Many converts,---chiefty Ghibellines,-ftocked to bis
banner. He was a plain Milanese working-man enthusiast, and
called Filippo Patemono.
Dominicans and Franciscans joined their forces against these
beretics, and, under a young monk,-Fra Pietro da Verona, better
known as Saint Peter Martyr -as leader, the " Society of the
Captains of Holy Mary " was enrolled, from the ranks of young
cavaliers, for the suppression of the sectaries.
The sufferings these misguided people endured gained for
them the designation of "Paterini." In I 245, the Captains,
robed in white, attacked and routed them, and finally drove them
from the city. The victors set up the Colonna di Santa Felicita
and the Croce al Trebbio, as tokens of the triumph of the Catholic
Faith.1
1 Dino Capponi, tom. i. p. 32.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 On their part, the scattered "Paterini" accepted their defeat.
and wisely tumed their energies into another and more sensible
direction. In and around Florence were a number of small
Hospitais and Asylums, ill-supported and ill-conducted. These
the "Paten'ni" took in hand, and made their headquarters in one.
on the way to Arezzo, which bore the title of" 11 Bigallo."
Very many members of the Guilds, especially of the Lesser
Guilds, who sincerely sympathised with the sufferings of the
poor heretics, gave their support, and even joined hands with the
new hospitallers, who assumed the style of "La Compag71ia de/
Bi'g-allo."
At first they assembled for united worship in the small church
of Santa Maria di San Gazzio--or San Cajo,-but, amending
their errors, they were ultimately granted a Chapel in Santa
Maria Novella, for their religious devotions, aAd ;or the adminis-
tration of their charities.
For generations the inftuence of the tenets of Patemono was
felt in the minds and lives of many a wool-carder and dyer of
Oltramo. This probably had something to do with their indiffer-
ence to public õpinion, and with their political unrest There
was in the religious character of the average Florentine working-
man and woman, not a little of the rigour of the latter-day
Methodists I

La Congreg-azi'one di' San M artt'nc

Florence, with her perpetuai succession of new Govemments.
the continually varying ascendency of parties, and the private
rivalries between families, was exposed to greater vicissitudes of
fortune than are the inhabitants of industrial centres, who are
merely victims of the caprices of trade.
Men, who one day held power and office and the making of
wealth in their hands, were liable, on the morrow, to charges,
incurring fines, imprisonment, exile, and even death. The result
of ~uch a state of things was a large amount of misery, nobly

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 uome ano 01 poverty, careJuuy concea1ea. 1 ne nnest pa1aces
often enough sheltered the greatest suffering. Gently bom and
delicately reared, their inmate." were the pathetic victims of
untoward circumstances.
Private, unostentatious charity failed to reach these objects of.
mistortune, until the year 1435, when Frate Antonino di Niccolo
Pierozzo was elected first Prior of the Monastery of San Marco.
He at once took up the Apostolic mantle of benevolence, for he
saw and understood the suffering around him, and thought out
very eamestly the means of helping i p()flen' vergognosi-the
sbame-faced victims of poverty-as they were called.
The good Prior sent for twelve of the most upright men in
Florence,-men of ali classes, a merchant, a manufacturer, a
banker, a wool-carder, a furrier, a silk-winder, a shoemaker and
others,-members of the Guilds, laid before them the harrowing
details of distress, and unfolded his ideas for their relief.
The twelve · Buonuomini, touched to the heart by Frate
Antonino's revelations, and by his unaffected disinterestedness,
wannly offered themselves as assistants in carrying out the
charitable programme. In this way arose, in 1441, an institu-
tion, which still survives and prospers, "La Congregazi'one di San
M artino "-so called from the little church of that name, wbere
the meetings--devotional and conversational-of the " good men "
were held.
The names of the first " Congregation" have been preserved : -
Michele di Messere Piero Benini.
Francesco di Benedetto di Caroccio degli Strozzi.
Luigi d' Urbano Bruni.
Bernardo di Maria di Messere Foresse Salviati.
Ser Alessio di Matteo di Pello-Notaw, Notary.
Nofri d' Agnolo-Drappiere, Cloth-dresser.
Primerano di Jacopo--Cakaiuolo, Hosier.
Giovanni di Baldo-Lanaiuolo, Woollen-draper.
Pasquino d' Ugolino del Vemaccia-Setaiuolo, Silk-manu-
facturer.

le
 Antonio di Matteo da Barlienio.
Giuliano de' Staggi-Drappiere, Cloth-dresser.
Jacopo di Bragio--Tutore, Weaver.
They established a Central Office in a room in the Badia,
granted to them by the Signoria, where, along with a store of
medicines and surgical appliances, were always in attendance
members of the cc Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries," with nurses
-both male and female. In 1470, however, Primerano di Jacopo
presented the Congregation with a house in the Piazza di San
Martino, to which the agencies of the BUQ1tuomini were removed.
Outside the Church of San Martino and the Office of Charity,
were money-boxes placed to receive offerings from passers-by.
The former was put in its place by Prior Antonino, and is still in
situ. The alms thus gathered were divided each month among
the twelve Buonuomini, who, in pairs, visited each of the six
sestieri of the city, and made direct distribution among impover-
ished and decayed nobles and merchants and their families.
" The Good Archbishop,"--as he was affectionately and
popularly called,-after bis consecration, in 1 446, as fifth Arch-
bishop of Florence,-forbade the Congregation to hold capital, or
to purchase land, and other securities ; at the same time he coun-
selled the BUQ1tuomini to conduct their charitable work without
charge on the Congregation. Every benefaction, in kind, was
quickly reduced to its best marketable cash value, and the money
was distributed promptly and without distinction of any sort.
The story of the foundation and early work of the Congregazüme
di San Martino was preserved upon the walls of the Church of
San Martino.

The " Twelve Good Men of Saint Martin " found very helpful
coadjutors in their works of charity in the twelve BUQ1tuotmni
del/a Stinclte, empanelled in 1470, for the purpose of distributing
discriminatory relief to unfortunate persons condemned to prison.
A few years later, in the first decade of the sixteenth century,
another benevolent cc Twelve," the BUQ1tuomini di San Dona-

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 THE CHARITY OF THE GUILDS 553
ventura, added their kindly offices to the alleviation of distress in
the families of merchants, and of all others who carne under the
category of " I Poveri Vergognosz:" Their aims were chiefty the
assistance and direction of merchants who had become bankrupt
through no fault of their own.

RltLIEVING THK NKKOY-STRKitT BKGGARS

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 CHAPTER XX

"FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA ! ''

(FLORENOE PROSPEROUS THROUGH HER INDUSTRIES)

I. POPULATION AND PROSPERITY.-First Register of Baptisms-black and

white beans. Podesta Torcello di Strado's census. Villani's testimony.
Ariosto's rhyme. Numbcrs and classes of the people. Factories and opera-
tives. Banks. Bake-Houses. Pestilence, Flood, and Famine. A State
Balance-Sheet. Objects of Commerce. Taxation. Self-denial and extrava-
gance. Embassies. " Florence is the Fifth Element in tbe U niverse I" A
Millionaire. Ratepayers. Marriage portions. Macbiavelli on soundness io
finance. The siege of Florence. Noble shopkeepers. An ancient pocket·
book. Guido del' Antella's "Ricordanze." Slaves and slavery. Baldovinetti's
"Zi6altlone."
11. MINT1 COINAGE, AND PAWNSHOP1 OF FLORltNCK.-The Zecca. Maeslri
del/a Zecca. Testing gold florins. Minting coins. Touchstones. Price of
gold and silver. Official assayers. Foreign mints. Leather money. Coins of
ali countries pass current. The Silver florin of 1150. The gold tlorin of
1252. Money values. Penalties against coiners of bad money. Bargúltili.
The "Presto" or Lending Office. Accumulation of money. Jews invited to
settle in Florence. Their prosperity and their expulsion. Preaching monks.
Growth of the "Prufll." Strict Jaws and regulations.
111. THlt GOLDEN AGE or FLORENCE.-Theera of the Medici. Salvestro
di AJamanno de' Medici,-Capitano di Parte Gue/fa. Giovanni de' Medici,-
Gonfaloniere di Giustizia. 11 Calasfll. Coaimo de' Medici,-" the Great Mer-
chant,, -"Padre del/a Palria / 11 Lorenzo de' Medici,-" Capo del/a R'lu661i&a."
"The Splendour of allltaly I" Piero and Giulio de' Medici. Precarious con-
ditions. The discovery of America. The passing of Florence. Florence the
Queen of the Crafts.

I T was an old saying that :-" The Sienese are the richer in
land, the Florentines in industry," and this may be compared
to Aristotle's maxim :-" The more barren the soil the richer the
city."
In a sense this was true of Florence and of Tuscany,-
although the fruitful Vale of Amo can in no way be called
barren,-perhaps in the sense implied in the distich : -
554

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 " FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA!" 555
" Ma ne si bella seta, ne fin oro.
Nai Fiorentini industri tesser fanno I"

"Not for lovely silk nor for finest gold,

But for her industry the fame is told
Of busy Florence I "
Y es, it was industry that made her fortunes I
The Florentines were perhaps the very first people who kept
a Register of Baptism. Every baby bom in Florence was, from
the earliest time, baptised by immersion in the big font at San
Giovanni. A box was originally plac:ed near the font, in which
the sex of each child presented was marked by dropping in
beans--black for a boy and white for a girl. Ao old chronicler
says this "became a very unreliable and a very dirty habit, as
dust accumulating destroyed the colour of the beans." 1 In 1450
a better method was adopted for the registration of the popula-
tion-the keeping of written records of all baptisms performed
within the Baptistery.
Some idea of Florence and her population at difl'erent epochs
in her history may, of course, be gathered from historians.
At the period of Totila's invasion of Tuscany, in the sixth
century, Florence was a large city, counting upwards of sixty
thousand souls. In Dante's time she numbered as many as one
hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, inclusive of the Contat/q.
Ao attempt was made in 1233, by the Podesta, Torcello di
Strado, to schedule the population. All the male inhabitants of
Florence were ordered to appear before the Notaries of their
severa) sestien~ to declare whether they were nobles, knights,
doctors, judges, merchants, men of leisure, soldiers, tradesmen,
mechanics, artizans, operatives, and what not.
Villani says that in the year 1300 there were in the city
go,ooo inhabitants enjoying the full rights of citizenship.
Of rich Grandi there were 1 soo, and of those able to bear arms
2 s,ooo. Strangers passing through the city numbered about
2000. In the elementary schools were Sooo to 1 o,ooo children.
1 Lutri, •• Richerche delia Populazione Fiorentina."

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From 1000 to I soo boys were studying arithmetic, and soo to
6oo grammar and rhetoric.
The churches and religious houses numbered one hundred
and ten. In twenty-four nunneries were five hundred Religious,
and there were also ten monastic houses of Regulars. Thirty
hospitais and poorhouses afforded aid and shelter to upwards of
one thousand sick and needy people, who were served by more
than three hundred monks or nurses.
Within the · city were very many palaces and considerable
private buildings, as well as the public edifices. The Con/adQ,-
within which boundary there were upwards of So,ooo armed
men,--was full of villas, and handsome country residences, sur-
rounded by fine gardens and fruitful orchards. Ariosto refers to
this token of the wealth of Florence : -
" Wbile gazing on thy viUa-studded hiUs
'Twould seem as though the earth grew palaces."

Villani also fumishes many very interesting notes with respect

to the industry and commerce of Florence in the first half of the
fourteenth century. The taxes raised at the gates represented, on
the average, fifty-five to sixty-five tuns of wine, four thousand
fat oxen and calves, sixty thousand sheep, thirty thousand pigs,
twenty thousand goats, three to four thousand loads of melons.
The factories, warehouses, etc., belonging to the " Guild of
W ool " numbered more than two hundred ; wherein were manu-
factured seventy to eighty thousand pieces of cloth, valued at
I ,200,000 gold florins. The woollen operatives were upwards of
30,000 all told. The value of foreign woven cloth imported by
the '' Calimala " Guild after being redressed and finished in
Florence was well over 300,000 gold florins. Of Exchange
Banks there were eighty. The value of the gold coinage in
circulation ranged about 3 so,ooo gold florins, in addition to
20,000 pounds in weight of small silver and bronze money.
The morais and legal rights of the inhabitants were looked
after by members of the "Arte de' Giudici e Notai,"--eighty-four

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 Judges and six hundred Notaries or lawyers,-whilst their bodily
health and wellbeing was attended to by sixty Physicians and
Surgeons, who handed them on to the hundred shops of
Apothecaries for dose and medicament That there might be an
ampJe supply of bread, one hundred and fifty bakehouses, and as
many more bakers, were busily at work.
Within fifty years of Villani's computation the population
had decreased in an extraordinary fashion. Y ears of Pestilence,
Flood, and Fire, followed in quick succession, 50 much 50 indeed
that in the year 1 348· the first of these terrible scourges alone
accounted for forty thousand deaths-nearly one-half of the
whole number of inhabitants I
Fluctuations occurred as years rolled on, but in 1478 signs of
permanent decrease were apparent, the census only showing a
total of seventy-one thousand people of all kinds and conditions
in the city. Fifty years later, in 1 532,-the year of the silencing
of the Campana-and the end of the Republic, the numbers of
Totila's Florence were again reached, namely 67,000, but then
" lchabod " was written big over the workshops of the one time
busy city, and her population was numbered upon a downward
grade ; the lowest figure--fifty thousand-was reached in 1 57 4·
The financiai prosperity of the Republic in the middle of the
thirteenth century is shown by extracts from the annual accounts
of Receipts and Expenditure.1 The average of the former
totalled up to three hundred thousand gold florins, the latter to
less than fifty thousand: a yearly balance on the right side of the
account of nearly i I 30,000 was no mean profit
The following rough and abbreviated Balance-Sheet may
aptly show the financiai position in the fourteenth century : -
E~penditure (I 3 20) : -

Salaries-Podesta, and bis attendants I 5,240 piccioli.1

Do. Captain of the People, and do. 5,880 do.
1 VillaDi, lib. xi. cap. 91·94- t =
Picciolo sixpence.

le
 Salaries-Defender of the Guilds, and fifty
horse, and one hundred foot
soldiers 8,400 gold florins
Judge of Appeal . 1, 1oo piccioli
Expenses-Executing Judicial Orders against
the Grandi . 4,900 do.
Inspectors of sumptuary otrences 1,ooo do.
Table of the Consuls. 3,600 do.
Musidans, Heralds, Criers, etc.,
etc. I ,ooo do.
Feeding Lions, Torches, Candles
for Consuls . 2,400 do.
Prizes for "I/ Palio," etc. . 1 oo gold florins

In addition to this very modest statement the Si'g11Qria spent

an annual amount upon public edifices,-in fact the moiety of the
whole cost of upkeep, repair, and alterations,-the other moiety
being shared among the Guilds, the Religious Corporations, and
Private citizens.

Revmue (1 366) : -
Gate-tolls upon Merchandise, Food-stutrs, etc. 90,200 gold fl.orins
Duty on retail sale of Wine (one-third the
value). 58,300 do.
•• 11 Esti'mo "-Property-tax in Cot~tado 30,100 do.
Tax on Cattle slaughtered . 19,400 do.
Duty on Salt 14,450 do.
Tax on House-porches, Loggie, and shop
projections . ;,ooo do.
Duty on Flour Mills . 4,250 do.
Taxes or Licenses upon Money Lenders 3,000 do.
Licenses to carry Arms (at 20 soldi a head). 1,300 do.
Tax on Sweepings of the Corn-Market 750 do.
Tax upon Green-grocers' Stalls 450 do.
Tax on Timber Rafts on the Amo 50 do.

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 -··- ---· . . ._. _____ ·----···~:to -t'·... -·-.., - · ~--,--- .,--- --------
on an average for the ten years, 1366-1376.1
The almost endless variety of articles of commerce, which
were despatched to and from Florence, in the early years of the
fourteenth century, may be seen in an inventory of goods,
forwarded in 1321, from Pisa to Florence.1 The following are
some of the items :-Old cloth-remnants, sea-fish, old iron, palm-
branches, a bundie of veils and shawls, books, Tunisian washed-
wool, sugar, chests full of men's clothes, pike-staffs, drawn silk
in hanks, silk-worm eggs, silk fibre unwound, Siena wine, saddies,
donkeys, mattresses, etc. etc.
In another inventory are tabled :-.Nine hundred and fifteen
pieces of gold and white tinsel for Ieather embossing, one parcel
new keys, a cloak-bag of Ieather, velvet saddie-bags, seven balls
of raw Sardinian lambs' wool, dogs' collars, linen gloves, Greek
wine, a bale of horse brushes, a bundle of sundries from Buigaria,
etc. etc.
During the greater part of lhe fifteenth century the mean
price of wheat was one li'ra, two soldi, eight denari per bushei ;
wine--both red and white--twenty-seven soldi, eight denari a
barrei ; oil, six /ire, ten soldi a barrei ; fresh butchers' meat, four
soldi to two soldi per pound.
Artizans, bankers, and merchants, were the founders of the
wealth of the Republic. The rolls of Gonfalonieri and other
State officials contain the names of men of all sorts and con-
ditions. Every man paid bis quota to the common purse, and
undertook the share of the common burden. In this connection
it may be interesting to note the amounts received from direct
taxation in each of the six sestien. vary, not with respect
to their class superiority from rich to poor, but rather the
reverse.
In 1340 the sum total raised in this way was Ioo,ooo gold
florins, as follows :-Oltramo--the poor man's quarter-28,ooo,
San Piero Scheraggio--the official quarter-2 s,ooo, San Piero
1 Napier, ü. p. 573· 1 Archiviodel Stato di Firenze,-Mercanzia, 14, 1441.

ogle
Maggiore-Iz,ooo, San Pancrazio-13,000, Borgo d' Ognissanti
- 1 2,ooo, and Porta del Duomo-- I I ,ooo.
This equality, or indeed superiority of the Popolo Minuto
contributions to the Public Exchequer had very much to do
with the manners, the dress, and the food of the people. The
responsibility of upholding the State raised the character and

A MltRCKANT'S DINNKR PARTY IN THE LOGGIA OF HIS HOUSE

demeanour of ali classes of the population. There was a level-

ling up, as we call it, throughout the whole of Florentine society.
The hovel became a small house, the small house-a town resi-
dence, and the town residence-a palace. Fittings, furniture,
decorations, utensils, etc. etc., all followed suit, and ennobled
festive boards and homely meals alike.
Still the old-world habit of hoarding and of self-denial held its
ground, with respect to certain private indulgences. The use of

Dígítízed by Goog [e
 silver plate, for example, until well on in the fifteenth century, was
regarded as ostentatious, even upon the table of the richer citizens.
At most, forks and spoons and cups were allowed in the precious
metais, other vessels were of brass-including candlesticks, basins,
and dishes. lt was nevertheless quite customary to emblazon
the owner's coat-of-arms, or crest, in silver upon each of such
articles.
At public banquets, however, these limitations were disregarded,
and no community could offer such regai magnificence in their

I
.
~
table equipage as could the Merchant-princes of Florence. They
gloried in the fact that, whilst in private life they kept up the
good old rules of simplicity and frugality, in their public entertain-
ments they surpassed reigning monarchs in prodigality.1
I This characteristic had been all along very marked in the
private life and public service of the merchants. N one were too
\l proud not to put one hand upon shuttle, scale, knife, or other
implement, in the exercise of their craft, whilst with the other they
'i
'; directed the great policies of the State.
.
~~<
I
Never perhaps was the wealth and importance of Florence
,J
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more strikingly exhibited than during the Jubilee of Pope Boniface
;.
'•
VIII. in 1300. She sent to Rome an embassy splendidly equipped,
and representative of every era in her history. Not only so, but,
through her bankers and her merchants resident in, or dealing
with, foreign states, she contrived that the representatives, specially
accredited to the Papal Court for the ceremonies of the Jubilee by
almost ali the European Powers, were actually Florentines. Ver-
miglio Alfani rt:presented the Emperor of Germany, Simone de'
Rossi-the Emperor of Byzantium, Musciatta Franzesi-the King
of France, Ugolino de' Cerchi-the King of England, and so on,
Florence herself being directly represented by Palia de' Strozzi.
A large suíte of knights, superbly mounted and attired, escorted
the ambassadors, who were all equipped in the State uniforms of
the countries represented.
Boniface, a~azed at the magnificence of the cavalcade, and
I Borghini, "Discorso della Moneta Fiorentina," vol. ü. p. 16,3.
:ZN

-1

le
 astonished at the opulence of the gifts brought to bis feet, cried
out, as records an old manuscript : " Whatever sort of a city is
this Florence 1 " No one was found ready with an answer, but at
last a Cardinal,-fearing the Papal displeasure,-timidly remarked :
" Your Holiness, the city of Florence is a good city."
"Nonsense," replied the Pope, "she is far away the greatest of
all cities I She feeds, clothes, and govems us alll lndeed she
appears to rule the whole world I She, and her people, are in
truth, the fifth element of the universe I " 1
Of ali the rich men of Florence in the fourteenth century
proba.bly Niccolo degli Alberti was the richest. He died in 1377,
possessed of at least three hundred and forty thousand gold florins
-ÂI5o,ooó-an enormous sum in those days I
Florence in 1422 was considered the richest city in Europe:
every useful trade and ornamental art ftourished exceedingly.
No less than two million gold ftorins were in effective circulation
-an amount not arrived at in London until the year I 8 3 8 !
The expenses of the wars with Genoa, Pisa, and Leghom,
amounted, in I 42 7, to two and a half millions of gold florins-
a further proof of prosperity and wealth.1
In the same year the number of Sopporlaton:-Ratepayers,-
those who contributed to the year's "Catasto,'' carne up to 37,225;
in 1470 they were 40,238. The Revenue at the end of the
century totalled 345,540 gold florins,-without taking into account
the "Decima,"-and the Expenditure-226,ooo. The average
yearly yield of the latter impost between, say, 1470 and I 520,
was from 40,000 to 5o,ooo gold ftorins.
" At that period the city," writes Giovanni Cambi, "appeared
to be richer than ever before, for whereas forty years before
fourteen hundred gold florins were given as a marriage portion on
both sides among citizens of the Greater Guilds, they now give as
much as two thousand five hundred, and even three thousand, gold
florinsl" 5
1 Bibl. Lauren&iaDa,--Osse". Fior. vi. 21.
I Lorenzo Pipotti, " Storia della Toac:aua," vol. ili. pp. 2J·J8.
• " Istorie" (Delizie degli Eruditi Toacani, vol. xxii. ).

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 Machiavelli has a sententious economic axiom which exactly
places the condition of industrial and financiai matters in their
true and sound relative positions, when he writes as follows of the
Florentines,-merchants and citizens,--of bis time. He says : -
.., The people are rich when money does not go out of their country,
when they are content with what their land produces, and when
money is constantly brought in by those who want the products
of their industry, which they supply to foreign countries." 1
The wealth of the city during the first decade of the sixteenth
-century attracted princely usurpcrs and beggars from all lands.
To the King of France the Republic paid 100,000 gold florins,
and the same amount to the Emperor, whilst the King of Spain
received fifty thousand.
In 1 5 27, however, owing to the numbers of armed bands,
marching to and fro, the city was strongly fortified ; and the
liberty of the citizens was greatly curtailed. No p'rson was
allowed tO' go more than sixteen miles beyond the city boundaries.
Provisions for a period of fifteen days were not permitted to enter
the city without paying duty, except wine and oil, upon which
the tax was reduced fifty per cent1
The famous siege of Florence by Pope Clement VII. and bis
mercenaries, under the Prince of Orange, in 1 S29·30, found
Michael Angelo Buonarroti at the head of afl'airs as generalissmo
of the forces aAd director-in-chief of the fortifications. The
enemy approached the city crying :-" Prepare, Florence, your
brocades of gold, we are coming to purchase them with the
measure of our pikes I "
A very interesting relic of the ancient commercial greatness
of Florence is seen in the existence of the little wicket-gates, or
small shop doors at the comer of the palaces of nobles. Over
them one reads the words, "Canova di Vi1w,'' "Canova di TorcJ.i
di Cera," " Canova de//' Olio," etc. etc., indicating that the produce
of the princely owners' estates or factories might be purchased
1 Machiavelli, " Le lstorie di Fireoze," chap. viiL
t Lon:nzo Pignotti, "Storia della Tote:aDa," voL lv. pp. 123. 159-
retail within. As a case in point, tbe Strozzi family still keeps a
large candle-factory and shop.
In tbe Buondelmonte Palace a few years ago was discovered
bidden away a pocket writing-tablet Tbe leaves of tbis memo-
randum book are of wood, covered with a cake of wax. U pon
tbis medium the merchant to wbom it bad belonged bad, with a
stile, made many entries and marks conceming the day's business.
Unbappily the outer cover, wbicb probably bore tbe owner's name.
bas disappeared, but the date, I 300, is quite legible.
Guido dei' Antella, has left in bis " Ricordanze," not only his
trade-journal, but also a diary of domestic life, wbicb is full of
interest, and reveals much of tbe inner life of the Florentines of
tbe fourteentb century. Tbese "Ricordanze " were continued by
bis sons and tbeir descendants.
In 13 7 5 the bead of the family says that be bas taken as
domestic servant, one Caterina del' Passa, at a wage of six gold
ftorins a y~ar, witb a tbree weeks' annual boliday. To anotber
maid servant,-wbom be calls sclliava-slave,-be arranged to
give only tbirty /ire a year. Tbe wortby man seems to bave
been blessed with many olive-brancbCSJ for be notices the engage-
ment of four or five nurses in succession, wbose average wage was
sixteen gold ftorins. Some of bis children were put out to nurse
on equally favourable terms.1
This revelation of tbe domestic beartb of a typical Florentine
bome introduces a subject affecting tbe private life of tbe citizens.
wbicb bas been bardly toucbed upon by bistorians-that of slaves.
Domestic service was abborrent to the freedom-loving and
proud Florentine: men and women sbirked it, and difficulty was
constantly experienced in tbe matter of servants. Tbe extension
of tbe trade of tbe city, and the enterprise sbown by the agents
of merchants in foreign lands, led to an alien supply of a common
want.
At first, by ones and twos, retuming merchants introduced
young boys and girls, wbo bad attracted them in Eastem or
1 Arcbivio Storico Fiorentino, I. Series, tom. v. p. S·

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 Southem lands. They came as pages and playmates for them-
selves and their children, and every well-to-do establishment
boasted coloured dependants--they became the fashion and the
fad of the time.
The custom grew, being fed by the vagabond lives led in
foreign lands by Florentine traders, until the traffic in slaves
became a feature of the commerce of the thirteenth, fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. " Oriental slaves bought as live goods,"
says Doltore G. Biagi, " generally through Genoese, V enetian, and
Neapolitan, brokers, were chiefty Tartars,. Greeks, Turks, Dalma-
tians, and Circassians. . . ." 1
An ancestor of Baldovinetti,-the painter,-has left drawings
of three slaves in the margin of bis Zióaldone, whom he bought
in 1377, 1380, and I 388 :-" Dorothea, a Tartar, from Russia,
eighteen years or more of age; Domenica, of white skin, from
Tartary ; and Veronica, sixteen years old, whom I purchased
almost naked from Bonaroti, son of Simon de' Bonaroti." Such
women entered the houses of wealthy citizens to perform humble
offices, and to take care of the children.
Alessandra Macinghi, the mother o f the Strozzi, in I 469,
wrote tbus to ber son Filippo, when at Naples :-" Let me re-
mind you of the need we bave of a slave, for so we have always
had one. If you give orders to bave one bought, ask for a
Tartar, for they are the best for hard work, and are simple in
their ways."
" Slaves often enougb obtained by faithful labour, good be-
haviour, and general aptitude, many a liberal bequest on the
death of their masters. Indeed not infrequently the cbild of the
female slave was looked upon as legitimate, and passed by the
name of the master,-thus Alessandro de' Medici was the reputed
son of Lorenzo, Duke of U rbino-but in all probability Clement
VII. was bis father. His motber was a mulatto slave, and he
had dark skin, thick lips, and the curly hair of a negro!
Slaves were common in all the cities and States of I taly in
l Guido Biaai, "Private Life oftbe Renaissance Florentines," pp. 30, 31.

·-
le
the era of the Renaissance, and their treatment varied with the
characters of their masters. Pistoja in I 20 S led the way in
freeing her slaves, Bergamo followed in I237, Vercelli, in 1243p
Bologna, in 12 56, and Florence-by three stages-severally in
I 289, 1344, and I41 S· The last date was not only that of absolute
emancipation for ali persons held in bondage, but of the proclama-
tion which forbade citizens of the Republic to have, or to buy.
slaves, whether old or young, male or female, under severe penalties
in cases of contravention.
The character of the population and the greatness of the
prosperity of Florence--beautiful and busy-proved the truth of
the ancient distich : -
" Gms lrepiáal ameia áalvue tributa,
Ceu Ltmgo/Jarái, uu Tusclli, sunt trmuf.zcli
Cum Flormti!Jusl"

The old Mint of Florence was behind the Church of Santa

Croce, but in I 2 52, when the currency was thoroughly overhauled,
and when the financiai transactions of her Merchants and Bankers
had attained vast proportions, a new Mint was erected at the
Uffizi, where the present-day Post Office is situated.
Two officials called Maestn· del/a Ze«a--Masters of the Mint
-·presided over the manufacture and circulation of coinage. They
were chosen by the Head of the State : one was required to be a
member of the " Calimala " Guild, the other-of the " Bankers and
Money-changers." Their term of office wa,s six months, like the
Consuls.
In addition to these presidents a goldsmith, of proved probity
and intelligence, was employed twice every year at the incoming
of the new " Masters " to test and to weigh a number of gold
florins in circulation, and newly minted. Such as failed in his
tests were rejected, and of those approved, a number were enclose<,i
in a small leathem bag, which was firmly sealed and labelled,
as a guarantee or proof of quality-hence the designation "fonnq
di suggello."

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 THE DI SAN
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Digitized byGoogle
 "FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA!" 567
Gold and silver coins were generally struck without alloy of
any kind. The minters were well accustomed to the mysteries of
cupellation, for frequent mention is made, 4in the Archives of the
Zecca, of acqua pn·ma, acpa filosofica alpn·mo grado, mixtures of
nitre and acetic acid, and their property of separating gold and
silver, and of oxidising metais, etc.
Florentines in the thirteenth century understood the use of
touchstones in dealing with valuable metais. The family papers
of Balducci Pegolotti, and the records of the Peruzzi Company,
explain that the tesdng of the currency of Florence was done by
means of paragrmi or touchstones. The Company, for example,
received four gold florins every year from the Mint for the hire of
a touchstone, which they sold outright in I 329 for twenty gold
florins. The charge for testing coins with a touchstone was six
dman: It appears likely that the Money-changers kept a touch-
stone by them, and made a charge for its use by their clfents on
the spot.
The following is an extract from a manuscript1 "For four
touchstones which we have in Florence, we are to receive in
the kalends of July I 3 3 5 one hundred and sixty-four gold
florins, to be paid to Giotto Peruzzi and our Company as in
the book 'de/ Asse' No. 5, p. 14. One is in the gold Mint, for
the hire of which we receive four florins a year ; the other three
are with Bartolo U guccioni in bis house at the shop."
In the Balducci Pegolotti manuscript is a dissertation on the
practice and method of treating and alloying gold and silver. The
formula for refining gold with cement required the composition of
the cement,-brick-dust and salt,-to be absolutely pure, and free
from earth and sand. Separating gold and silver was done with
sulphur and lighted charcoal. Many other instructions follow, the
gold being alwàys reckoned by the carat, and the alloy by the
pound and ounce.
Balducci Pegolotti further says :-"For the expenses of the
Mint of Florence it may be calculated that the cost of melting
1 RiccaJdiua MS.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
1o lbs. of gold will be one dman" of gold. And in refining the
gold,-that is the gold and silver taken from the cement,-from
six ounces of gold yo11 will receive five ounces of refined gold.
And the cost of refining a pound of gold is 1 o soldi (piccioli) for
the expenses of the chief refiner. And the cost of one fooco,-
firing,-in the mint, as decreed for the better safeguard of the
Commune, costs 4 soldi 7 dman" (piccioll) per pound, for the
expenses of the Rimettitori of the said mint. And for melting the
cement and cleansing,-a mass which they make of 90 pounds of
cement,-costs 3 5 soldi in florins of 29 soldi to the gold ftorin.
And the cost of parting the gold and silver taken from the cement
is 2 soldi and 6 denan" ( piccioli) per pound. And the cost in
Florence for a carat of gold parted from the silver by cementation
is 1 o soldi a fion"ni of 29 soldi to the gold ftorin. And the cost
of the rough silver parted from the gold is 14 soldi a fion"ni an
ounce. And the cost in Florence of the slag from the melted
cement of each mass is 5 soldi (piccioll). "It may be calculated
that for gold carried to the Florentine exchangers for sale, either
ftat or in bars, the price will be - for 2 1 carat gold, 9 soldi,
7 denan" a fion"ni, and downwards according to the carat. And
8 dmari a fion"ni for each carat of silver.''
Thus far Balducci Pegolotti. The reader will observe that
the /ire, soldi and denari are designated a fiorini, which means a
" ftorin of account" and not a " market ftorin "-that is a con-
ventional or imaginary ftorin of 29 soldi, like the scudo and
pezza..
The ancient Registers of the Florentine Mint, which fortunately
remain to us, give particulars every six months of the administra-
tion of the mint, and striking of the currency. But as no register
was kept before 1303, the chronicler Villani, who was one of the
heads of the Mint in 1 3 16, introduced an official bo,ok called the
"Fion"nario," which explained the stamp or symbols impressed
upon the coins struck every six months,-this book is in the
Magliabecchian Library. These symbols ceased to be described
in 1373, for the Masters of the Mint, being members of the

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 leading families, suppressed the stamps, and struck tne money w1tn
the arms of their houses.
In I 3 2 7, the Duke of Calabria appointed two principal mer-
chants to execute the offices of assayers of the gold and silver
coinage for a period of six months. They were Giovanni Villani,
of the " Calimala Guild," and Bartolommeo de' Simonetti, of the
" Guild of Bankers and Money Changers."
Balducci Pegolotti also gives a description of the correspond-
ing foreign Mints, their locality, the metallic compositions in
use,-that is silver, gold, and alloy,-according to the currency
to be struck, with their prices and the expense of each Mint.
The Mints mentioned by Pegolotti are the following-Tana
on the Black Sea, Torrisi in Persia, Ajazza, Famagosta, Tunis,
Chiarenza, Castel di Castro, Majolica, Messina, Naples, Ancona,
Aquileia, and Venice. In Cambalu, capital of the Chinese
Empire, there was only a paper currency.1
The fame of the Florentines for skill in minting was great,
and many foreign Mints were actually in their hands. In I 269
the Tomaquinci Company held the Mint of Bologna. Under
Edward 11. a Frescobaldi was made director of the London Mint,-
to correct its errors. In I 3 3 8 Angiolo V emaccia and Francesco
Benacquisti held the Mint of Aquileja : those of Rome, Naples,
and Perugia, were also governed by Florentines.
Paolino Pieri,-in bis " Chronicle "-from I o8o to 1 30 5,-
and Targioni-Tozzetti, Vettori, and Borghini, agree that, before the
time of Federigo Barbarossa, severa) kinds of coins were struck,
and were in circulation in Florence.
Nevertheless Antonio Pucci relates that leather money was in
circulation, stamped with the Emperor's head. He goes on to
say that Frederick 11. in 1240 coined at bis own expense a gold
" Augustos," and put a number of such coins into the hands of
the merchants and artizans. This favour was "highly valued by
the people of Florence, who were very sorry for themselves at
having only leather money, and gladly exchanged it." 2
1 B. Pegolotti, " Manuale del Mercante Fiorentino." 1 " Centiloquio," 6, 17.
 Whilst the coins of ali the nations and cities with which
Florentines had business connections were accepted and passed
current in the city ; and whilst each had its market value, and
was subject to the daily vicissitudes of exchange, there was, of
course, a system of coinage peculiar to Florence herself.
The currency was in silver-lire and fiorini. The former
was the value of a pound weight of various coins of the same
metal. Probably the earliest Florentine pound was issued in the
reign of Charlemagne. lt had an arbitrary value of twenty soldi,
of twelve dnuzn' each,-which, it need scarcely be pointed out, was
the origin of our own British coinage.
The " ftorin,'' which contained twelve denan', first made its
appearance in I I 50. The name was of course derived from
the name of the city. It was worth the twentieth part of the
pound originally, and was, in I I 8 I, equal in value to four-pence
English. Both it and the pound, or pu3a, were silver coins.
By another system of values the lira was divided into twelve
&rasie ór sixty quattrini, or two hundred and forty denari.
The following table shows the value in grains of the lira in
pure silver at different dates : -
I252-770 35o-225..f.h- I47I-I36
I305--39I~~ I4I7--I40 I53I-IOOJ
The higher figures of course point to periods of prosperity, the
lower to seasons of depression.
In I 2 52, " the Signoria deterrnined,'' says Peruzzi, "to strike
a gold c.oin like the ancient nummo aures, which sbould be with-
out equal for intrinsic value and artistic workmanship." 1 The coin,
to which the name of Fiorino d'oro was first given, weighed
seventy-two grains, or the eighth of an ounce, and its standard
value was put at twenty-four carats. lt bore upon its face the
effigy of St John the Baptist, the city's saintly patron,-and on the
reverse, the floral emblem-the lity, or íris. lt was worth about
ten shillings English.
1 Peruui, "Storia del Commercio," p. 125.

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 In addition to its official designation it bore several names
according to its variations of shape and face value :-" fiorino di sug-
gello "-mint stamped
florin, "fion'no di galea " :
-exchange ftorin, "fior-
ino largo "-ftorin ster-
Jing ; but each kind was
of standard value. A D&NARio, uso

This splendid coin

was at once universally
accepted and became
the model for the gold
coinage of England,
A SOLDO, 12S2
France, and Spâin. The
Z ecca was called u pon
to min t as many as four
hundred thousand gold
ftorins annually to keep
up with the demand.
As in the case of
the silver ftorin the face A SlLVEit FLOit.IN, liSO

value of the gold ftorin

varied considerably. At
first it contained twenty
soldi like the silver coin,
but as early as I 29 I its
value had risen to thirty
soldz: In I 30 I the
A GOLD FLOIUN, 12S2
Consuls of the Guilds
lMPRitSSIONS OP COINS IN Cllt.CULATION IN
in conference deter- rLoll&Nc& IN THE THIIlTEENTH CltNTUilY
mined the arbitrary N111e.- The last one is the famous gold floriu of 125:2,
actualsize
value of twenty-nine
soldi. This value was adopted by the Banks of Florence, and
was registered as obligatory.1
1 Paolino di Pieri, "Cronica," Rnb. i. Suppl. li. 33·

ogle
 Gold florins, however, of the I 29 I value, were in extensive
circulation, and consequently much confusion ensued. By a
Prtn'Vist'ont the new values were called " small florins," and their
component parts were renamed pi«ioli in place of soldi and denari.1
lt was after the Fall of the Republic, that the gold florin
beu.me known as a ducato, a scudo, or a corona.
The silver florin was used for the daily market transactions,
and irom shop to shop, and the gold florin was reserved for
financiai business, exchange, and transportation. Salaries also
of magistrates and officials were paid in gold. In the Statutes of
I 4 I S :-" all merchants and artizans in the City and Contado are
required to make use of the silver and copper coinage, and not
the gold florin of commerce, in their dealings among themselves,
except members of the "Calimala,'' "Wool," "Silk," "Bankers,"
•• Doctors and Apothecaries,'' and "Furriers and Skinners "-the
Seven Greater Guilds.1
During the fifteenth century the smallest coins current were
of bronze :-.picdoli or denari-four of these made a quattrino
nero,-first coined in I 332,-and five went to a quattrino !Jianco.
Moneta 6ianca, and moneta nera or di rame,-silver money and
silver mixed with baser metal,-were first distinguished in I 3 16.
The quattrino was the amount of the tax upon a barrei of
wine at the Gates-it was also called "Battezzone," and bore St John
Baptist's effigy on the obverse, like the florins. Five quattrini
made one cruia-the twelfth part of a lira. These quattrini
were equal to seven soldt~ which was also the value of a coin
little used, but a value often quoted, namely, a grosso or grosso11t.
On March 21 , 1307, ordinances were enacted against all such
as had, or passed, false gold, silver, and copper coins, or who
cut, or debased, good money. Every month ali coins in
circulation were ordered to be retumed to the Mint for examina-
tion, and for comparison with new genuine issues. At the same
time ali Bankers and Money-changers were directed to keep, and
expose prominently, tables of values. Such tables also were
1 Provv. vi. 118 vo, 1 Rub. xxni., 1415.

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o;gitized by Google
 "FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA I" 573
ordered to be stuck up in the Mercato V ecchio, the Mercato
Nuovo, atOr San Michele, on the Ponte Vecchio, and in other
public places.l
Base coins were constantly issued by dishonest speculators,
and such were generally called " Barg-elli'ni,'' a name given to the
debased coinage of the four months' Podesta, Lando da Gubbio.
The " Presto,'' or Lending-oftice, had really been tacitly in
existence, for many a long day, in Florence, before the Govem-
ment of the Republic took the question up, and made laws to
regulate the borrowing and lending of money. Perhaps to state
the fact more clearly, we may say that every man who had a
spare ftorin or two was i'pso fado a " Presto I "
In 1430 public attention was effectively directed to an evil
which had grown by degrees until it was no longer soluble. The
accumulation of money in the hands of Bankers and Merchants,
and such like, had assumed such vast proportions, that the poorer
citizens were actually ground down under an unbearable yoke,
and had little or no chance of raising themselves out of their
misery.
The borrowing of money had become a glaring pretence for
demanding exorbitantly usurious interest. At last the Magistracy
took the matter in hand, and after much debate the solution they
discovered,-to us so extraordinary,-was effective. They deter-
mined to invite Jews to come and settle in Florence and bring
their money with them ! 1
These wary mon~y-makers had of course made their influence
felt ali over Europe, but, up to the date named, they had never
been suffered to set foot in Florence. An intimation was ad-
dressed through the agents of the " Calima/a " and the other
Guilds to ali centres of J ewish population, extending a cordial
welcome to ali Jews possessed of means, and offering them in-
ducements to. make Florence their home and their market.
The invitation, it need hardly be said, was eagerly accepted, ·
altbough it was accompanied by some stringent and ungracious
1 Provv. xili., fo. 72. 1 "Florentine Gazette," March r899.

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restrictions. A Jewish settlement was formed in Oltramo-to
which was at once applied the name Via dei Giudei. The Jews
were compelled by law to wear yellow badges to distinguish them
from the citizens. They were forbidden to carry arms, and to
take part in any way in the government of the City and Republic.
They were also forbidden to engage in any wholesale business,
and they were denied admittance into the Craft Guilds. Tbeir
trading instincts were to be confined within reasonable bounds, and
in no case were they allowed to Ievy interest upon loans of money
to citizens in excess of 20 per cent.
In spite of all these disabilities the Jews prospered exceed·
ingly in Florence. Their wealth and their influence mounted up
far beyond anything the Bankers and Merchants could attain.
They had not been in Florence fifty years when they had col·
lectively made upwards of fifty million golden florins l
The discovery of this condition of affairs stirred the anger of
the populace, wtiich rose in a body, and demanded the expulsion
of all and every Jew from Florence. The voice of the people
prevailed, as usual, and a decree was promulgated by the Signoria,
in 1495, expelling the whole of the Jewish inhabitants. Only a
few months however passed before fickle public opinion veered
round, and the decree was withdrawn.
The Jews, nevertheless, found themselves faced by another,
and even stouter enemy-the Church. The preaching friars-
both Dominicans and Franciscans-took up their parable, not
only against the Jewish money-lenders, bqt generally against
the corrupt practice of loans at exorbitant rates. Antonino,-
" the good Archbishop,"-Bernardino da Feltre, and Girolamo
Savonarola, in turn, denounced the iniquities of the money-
dealers. Like the wise men they were, they did not cry down
a corrupt system without advocating amelioratory measures.
Their ideas were much as follows, ei~er :-( 1) loans should be
effected without any interest at all, or ( 2) money should be lent
on the receipt of a pledge, and a very low rate of interest should
be charged only to meet the expense of the transactions.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 The Signoria were unanimously aft'ccted by the pleadings and
reasonings of the good monks, and they advocated the adoption
of the second plan suggested, with a view to the protection of
the people against exactions and overcharges by men of means.
In fact the soluti~n reached gave to Florence her first Pawn-
shop, or "Presto,"--established by the law of the State, and it was
further confirmed by the approval of the Church in decrees issued
from the Vatican.
The cc Presto " began its work in 149 5 upon the small capital
of 2 890 florins (about ~I 5oo) collected by means o f private alms
and gratuitous loans and deposits, In I S30, after the defeat of
the rebels at Pisa, a grant was made to the " Presto," out 1o f the
property confiscated, so that the funds in reserve for carrying on
the State Pawnshop amounted to upwards of ~9000.
The work of the cc Presto" increased rapidly, and consequently,
to meet the convenience of the people, three distinct Offices
were opened in dift'erent parts of the city. By degrees another
development carne in to use, and several dependencies of the Head-
offices were authorised, under the control of private individuais,
but subject to the inspection of the State officials. These private
pawnshops,-.so to speak,-were allowed to keep open doors
when the Head - offices were dosed. Here money could be
obtained, on pledges left, by those who could not wait for the
ordinary business hours. These pledges were transferred every
day to the Head-offices, where only owners could redeem them.
The Pawn-shops became a source of danger to the public,
inasmuch as it was possible for any one to give himself out as a
" Presto-dependency," and thereby confiding and unwary clients
found themselves mulcted in charges in excess of the legal rate,
and also repeatedly lost their pledges through their premature sale
by the pseudo Pawn-brokers.
From the middle of the sixteenth century the Statutes of the
Republic are full of enactments passed to regulate these rogueries,
for example, no man or woman was allowed to practise the trade
of Pawn-broker, or " VetlurifiO" except possessed of a license

le
 issued by the Adminisbator of the " Pnsto."' Tbc namc • Vethl-
rituJ" was due to tbe fact tbat a ~ Velhlra,• or vehicle, was
nccessary for tbe bansport of the pledges to the Head - office
day by day. •
A very interesting Codex is stil1 presa ved in the "Pnsto,"
which gives tbe laws and rqulations by wbich the Institution bas.
been managcd cver since its inauguratioo.
The headquarten of the " Mtnúe t1i Pie/a • are now in Via
Palazmolo, in tbe old monastery of San Paolino, whicb is itself a
link with wortby monkisb founders in the fifteenth century.

Tbc era of tbe Medici was the " Golden Age of Florence."
lf the foundations of the Commune and of ber industry ba\'e
been well and truly laid, and the superstructure of the Republic
and of ber commerce wisely and nobly reared, the brains and
bands wbicb planned and plaad the capstone of the splendid
cdifice, were none otber than those of the grat.t Merchant-princes
-tbe Medici.
Tbe attitude of the makers of the family towards the industry
and commerce of Florence was marked by admirable and con-
sistent diligence, loyalty, and enthusiasm. If it be opposed that
t:bey did but seek to serve their own ends, it should be remem-
bered that the pre-eminence, riches, and glory, of family were
ever the chief aims of ali Florentines.
In tbis characteristic emulation the Medici did, througb
natural ability and force of genius, outrun ali competitors. They
were entirely sympathetic with respect to popular aspirations and
prejudices. They lived as citizens among citizens, keeping un-
obtrusive their private aKairs, and their public conduct unostenta-
tious. Risen from the middle class they first entered upon tbe
profession of medicine, but later took up the more influen.tial
occupation of banking.
Salvestro di Alamanno de' Medici was the first member of tbe
family who rose to eminence. A ricb and ambitious popolano, he
1 CaatiDi, " Legisluioae," YoL Yiii., p. 99, etc.

---·--
o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 was tactful enough to conceal bis bent, but acted upon the maxim
hc was never tired of quoting :-" Never make a show before the
people."
In 1376 he became Capitano di Parte Gue/fa, and, two years
latcr, Gtmfaloniere di Giustüia-the nominal hcad of the State.
His rivalry with Benedetto degli Alberti threw him into tbe arms
-of the Ciompi-" the wooden shoes "-as the mass of woollen
-operatives were called. He and the popular leader, Michele
Lando, swayed that tumultuous rising, and steered the sbip of
State safely througb tbe troubled waters.
The patriotic and statesmanlike course taken by Salvestro
.inspired tbe confidence of the populace, and also of the middle
classes-both in bimself and in bis family. His deatb in 1388
wàs the dawn of the Medicean dominion.
Giovanni de' Medici, wbo was bom in 1360, belonged to
.anotber brancb of the family-that of A verardo de' Medici. H e
-was a man of extraordinary strengtb of character-a born ruler
-of men. He gained tbe goodwill of bis fellow-citizens by bis
.unselfisbness and generosity.
In I 42 I Giovanni was elected Gonfa/oniere di Giustisia, as
the representative of the middle classes, in opposition to Rinaldo
-degli Albizzi and Niccolo da Uzzano. Tbe Republic sigbed for
peace, the Crafts for quietness, but immense liabilities, incurred by
many costly warlike enterprises, had to be met. Giovanni pro-
posed, in 1427, a tax wbich sbould not weigb too beavily upon
.any body. Eacb citizen, wbo possessed a capital of one bundred
gold florins, or more, was mulcted in a payment to the State, of
half a gold florin-five shillings. Tbis tax, which was called " /1
Catasto," was unanimously accepted : it was said " it pleased tbe
people greatly." Giovanni bimself was taxed as bigh as i:uty one,
namely, tbree bundred gold florins.
Giovanni associated bimself with Agnolo Pandolfini, the leader
-of tbe Peace Party, wbo is remembered in tbe annals of Florence
as " Tbe Peaceful Citizen." Tbe tenets of the party were : I.
Peace abroad, 2. Prosperity at bome, and 3· Low taxation.
20

le
 Giovanni was also instrumental in the founding of the Studiu
Gmerak-the University ofFlorence-whence such excellent fruits
were gathered by craftsmen of ali kinds. He died in 1429.
Cosimo de' Medici,-Giovanni's eldest son,-was, perhaps, the
greatest of ali that noble family. Bom in 1389, he early evinced
mercantile proclivities, and was placed by bis father, when he was
a mere lad of seventeen, in charge of the foreign agencies and
correspondence of the family's banking business. He used bis
opportunities so well that he speedily excelled ali the men of bis
house as a successful financier and merchant. He placed the
fortunes of his family in such an unassailable position that their
bankruptcy would have meant the irremediable insolvency of the
State.
Cosimo was not unworthily acclaimed as "The Great Mer-
chant." He could give commercial advantages to all who asked.
As the richest citizen he had absolute control of ali markets.
Bribes influenced rivals, whilst gifts controlled the Church and the
poor. He ne\rer interfered with the middle classes, but left them
to their business and their pleasure. On the other hand he did
ali he could to conciliate the lower classes, carrying on the
democratic policy of Salvestro. Assuming the office of Gtm-
faltmi'ere di Giusti'zia in I 4 SS, he made little ór no effort to
alter the form of government. His administration of public
funds gave rise to the proverb :-" Taxation must be used as a
dagger i" The introduction in 1447 of the "Scala" or "Slid-
ing Scale," and its application gave this saying its point. For
example, incomes of under fifty gold florins were rated at eight
per cent., whilst those over fifteen hundred were taxed at fifty
per cent.
Cosimo dealt with the luxury and extravagance of his times
quite characteristically. He induced rich merchants to undertake
public office as a matter of pride, and clothed them with increasing
dignity and circumstance.
Certainly, as a counterpoise perhaps to bis own aspirations, be
curtailed some of the political power of the Guilds. By advancing

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
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o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
families rísíng to atHuence, but belongíng to the Popoto Minuto,
to association witb the Greater Guilds, be cbecked the exclusive
influence of the latter, wbilst be diminisbed tbe growing power of
tbe Lesser Guilds. He was wont to say jokingly :-" Two
yards of scarlet cloth is enough to make a citizen ! "
Cosimo lavisbed enormous sums of money in cbarity and in
the adomment of the city. Every Craft felt tbe impulse of bis
munificence, for bis beart and soul were set upon the pros-
perity of bis city and of ber people. Tbe five years of bis exile
furnisbed an object lesson to friend and foe alike-tbe absence
of tbe Medici meant ruin and decay.
One of Cosimo's famous sayings was :-" One must always
consult tbe will of tbe people," and " tbe People" replied by
acclaiming bim "Padre deUa Patria "-" Fatber of the Country."
H e died in I 464. He bas been called "a great mercbant alld
party leader-tbe first of Florentines by birtb, and tbe first of
Italians by culture." He will be remembered for ali time as a
perfect example of the great Florentines of tbe fifteentb century.
Lorenzo de' Medici carne to the beadsbip of tbe family wben
tbe noontide sun of its glory was at its greatest brilliance. Bom
in I 449, be entered upon his inberitance,-a structure of princely
magnificence and financiai security,-as one fully fitted for bis
position. Tbe wealtb of his bouse provided bim with tbe means
and with tbe leisure be desired.
Unanimously elected Capo del/a Repubblica,-" Cbief of the
Republic,"-in succession to nis grandfatber, in I 470 be empbati-
cally enforced the axiom, " the family is the unit of Florentine
life." Tbe autbority of the Podesta and tbe judicial power of tbe
Tn·bunale del/a Mercanzia,-" Tbe Cbamber of Commerce,"-were
at once diminisbed by tbe assumption of princely attributes by
Lorenzo for bimself and bis beirs.
Tbe combined powers of the Consuls also called for reform,
and Lorenzo made an effort to reduce the number of the Guilds.
Tbe latter move was made probably ratber against tbe accumula-
tion of capital tban for political ascendency. Anyhow it was

le
aimed principally at tbe Greater Guilds. Indeed matters went
so far tbat tbe realisation of tbe assets of tbe Parte Guelfa, and
of tbe Mercanzi'a, was effected.
Lorenzo's cbarities, and bis patronage of tbe Arts and Crafts,
gained bim bis title "11 Magnífico "-an acknowledgment of bis
daim to be addressed as " Y our Magni6cence.'' H e was much
more of a Prince than a Mercbant, and tbe men wbo gatbered
round bim tbougbt more of display than of business. In truth
extravagant idleness began to take tbe place of frugal industry.
Nevertbeless he invited and patronised artizans and men of
good parts from every land. Printing and Engraving, Embroidered
Tapestry, Engraving on Cameos, Painted Porcelain and many
otber useful and ornamental bandicrafts blossomed fortb in the
Florentine bome of their adoption. He bimself was entirely
devoid of interest and knowledge witb respect to commercial
matters. Indeed tbe principal foreign agents of bis bouse at
Paris; Lyons, Bruges, Brussels, London, and elsewbere, speedily
took bis measure, and were not slow to profit by bis unbusiness-
like proclivities.
Lorenzo de' Medici was far and away tbe greatest of ali tbe
Medici in tbe universality of bis attainments. Magistrate,
Orator, Poet, Artist, Benefactor, Atblete, Lorenzo took first
honours in tbe " U niversity of H umanism " wbicb be bad so
lavisbly endowed. He is, so to speak, tbe epitome of the spirit
and life of tbe Renaissance. His was the epoch of tbe Platonic
Academy-bis villa at Careggi was a second Areopagus.
Tbere was in sbort nothing tbat be could not do. One of
bis favourite sayings was :-" Wbatever is wortb doing at all,
is worth doing well." Tbis bad its pendant in bis boast : -
" I am a Florentine, and a Florentine is a citizen of tbe great
world." Witb the deatb of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492,-wbom
Benedetto Dei describes as :-" The splendour not of Tuscany
only, but of ali Italy,"-disappeared the most brilliant period of
tbe Renaissance.
Piero de' Medici, son of Lorenzo tbe Magnificent, provcd the

Digitized byGoogle
 "FIRENZE RICCA PER INDUSTRIA! " 581
truth of the adage :-" Ability rarely runs in two consecutive
generations." H e was just as feeble as his fatber was strong.
Entering upon an unique beritage be frittered it away, and by
bis pusillanimity brougbt ruin and disaster upon Florence and ber
commerce. He died miserably in 1503.
Decay in tbe merchant-spirit of the Florentines set in witb
bis death, and the later Medici, with few exceptions, did nothing
to arrest the decline of industry and commerce.
Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, during bis temporary charge of
the destinies of the city and people in 1 S 18, certainly retrieved
some of her fading glories. He reduced the public finances to
order, cbecked the power of monopolies, lightened taxation, re-
stored prestige to the Guilds, and entered into new commercial
treaties.
Acceptable to the populace on account of bis ecclesiastical
dignity, and to the better-to-do. citizens by reason of bis name
and family, he was wise enough to dissociate himself from all the
parties in the State. " I t was," records N ardi the historiao, " the
universal opinion that never since the city had been under the
rule of the Medici had it been govemed with a greater appear-
ance of civil liberty.'' 1 In 1 52 3, Giulio became Pope under the
style of Clement VII. and died in Rome in 1 534·

Three conditions existed from the middle of the sixteenth

century which rendered the position of Florence uncertain and
even precarious :
1. Tbe instability of political institutions.
2. The insecurity of property througb frequent commercial
failures.
3· The competition of other markets, and the discovery of
America.
With respect to the latter it is not difficult to understand
how dreams of the New World drew off men's attention from
the steady prosecution of their wonted occupations. The dis-
1 Nardi, "Storia di Firenze," Yol. ii. p. 4

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
coveries of Christopher Columbus, Vasco de Gama, and especially
of Amerigo Vespucci, the Florentine, caused an appreciable dimi-
nution in the commercial pursuits and prosperity of the old
channels of business.

AMitRJGO VltSPUCCJ ON THit SHOilltS OF SOUTH AKitlliCA

(NDte tlu Snúlunl Cmss)

A new light, still more brilliant than that of the Medici,

had burst in upon an expectant hemisphere, and Tribaldo de'
Rossi . wrote of it thus : " A letter has come to the Signoria
saying that certain youths, gone out in sailing ships, have arrivcd
at an immense island, to which never before have any people
sailed, which is inhabited by men and women all naked 1." 1
This was the proclamation of the discovery of the New
1 "Rieordanze di" (Delegie degli Erudite Toscani, vol. xxiii. p. 281).

Dígítízed by Goog [e
back in 1306, foretold this new terrestrial paradise : -
" To tbe rig'bt band I tumed, and fixed my mind
On ·the other Pole attentive, wbere I saw
Four Stars ne'er seen before save by the ken
Of our first parents. Heaven of tbeir rays
Seem'd joyous."-" PURGATORIO," canto i.
With the beginning of the sixteenth century dawned a new
era, gilding alike the sky of Poetry and the Arts, ~nd the river of
Literature and the Crafts. The preliminary signs had made them-
selves felt in the growth of wealth, in enfranchisement from its
prejudices, and in release from primitive rules of living. Egotis-
tical tendencies, which had been working very quietly but surely,
prepared the way for the evolution of what we now call " Indi-
vidualism."
Here we have the limits and the tokens of the Spirit of the
Renaissance. The love of country, and the ties of the family,
were weakened by an universal craving for pleasure and self-
gratification. ldleness, sensuality, scepticism,- three baneful
sisters,-gained the upper hand, and loosened the fabric of Floren-
tine society.
The gradual extinction of public spirit, the slow deterioration
of general character, and the sapping of personal energy, are
the dull tones which tinge with melancholy the later pages of
Florentine History.

Ring down the curtain! Merchant and Artizan have doffed

their workaday garments of leather, cloth, and fustian I The
ghosts of Guildsmen pass silently along, stretching out their
hands helplessly : their time has come and gone I But, hark I
lnto the slumbers of the past, there steals softest, sweetest, music,
and many melodious Tuscan voices are singing in unison : -
" Firmze-ricca per •"náuslria I"
"Firmzt-Regi114 rúlf Arh" I"
"Fire111e la Bel/a I"
"EV'IIiva I Firmze la Bel/a !-la Bel/a I"

le
Digitized byGoogle
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
MANUSCRIPTS
In Flormee
Archivio Antichete Italiane
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" , -Atti Pubblichi (1498-1502)
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 CHRONOLOGY
B.C.
200. Roman Camp of Florentia
The Flaminian Road assists early development, and crosses the Amo by
the earliest "Ponte Vecchio"
A.D.
488. Baptistery of San Giovanni founded
542. Totila, King of tbe Gotbs, besieges the settlement
556. First Wall,-Primo Cerchio,-built
625. Theodelinda, Queen of tbe Lombards, encourages industry
724- Churcb of Santa Reparata so named
774- Church of San Miniato ai Monte built
786. Cbarlemagne, Emperor of the West, visits the town
8I6. Pope Leo 111. encourages the Crafts ofTuscany
825. A Co//egium Arlium founded under the Emperor Lothair's CMISti'lutiones
0101U11Ses
852. Wool trade ftourishing in Florence
934- Medicai faculty in practice
962. Otto I. extends the Contado to six mile radius
990- Benedictines settle and build the Badia
1003. Florentine Cloth-merchants finish San Miniato ai Monte
1036. Bonifazio III., Marquis ofTuscany, a friend to Florence
1038. Smithing and kiadred trades ftourishing
, " Consuls" first named (Burello, Florenzetto, Broccada, and Servolo)
1o62. Fulling-mill first mentioned
1o63. Great Religious Revival
I074·78. Second Waii,-Secondo Cerchio,-begun: Oltrarno taken in
1076. Countess Matilda of Tuscany greatly encourages Crafts
I079- Mercato Veccbio first so called
Io8o. Old Roman bridge rebuilt in stone and called Ponte Vecchio
ICJ9Ó. First Wool Dyer named, Petnu-tmtqn
I IOI. Consuls for the Crafts first appointed by Matilda
1 I07. Expansion of city : Monte Orlandi and Prato taken in
I 1 I 5o Deatb of Matilda : Birtb of Commune-Florence declared independent
of ali externai rule
1 I 38. City divided into Six Wards-Sestien': Bu01U10111i elected for each
1150. Silver Florin first used
, Calimala Consuls take in hand the Battisterio di San Giovanni
1154- First record of Florentine merchants trading with Great Britain-chiefly
wool
U65·ll77· "Society of the Towers"for the Grandi, aJ\d "Corporations" for
the PojJolam· establisbed

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 CHRONOLOGY 601
1183- The Peace 'Of Constance confirma self-govemment to Florence and other
Tuscao Communes
1187. College of Judges founded
1190- First mention in documenta o( the "Calimala Guild •
1192. Federigo I. visits Florence, and extends the Conlaáo to a radius of ten
miles
, Consuls of the .l..allll, CaliiiUIIa and Sela Guilds sign documents-first of
such Recorda
I 193- Title " Rector • replaces tbat o( Consul
I 194- First record of Florentine Bankers
1 197. Legal Tribuoals fully establisbed
, First distinct mention of Seven Greater Guilds-tbe Calimala Guild being
entirely separated from tbat o( "Wool"
I 198. Tusc:an League under lead of Florence established by Pope lnnocent 111.
at San Miniato al Monte
1199- First recorded mission of Florentine Bankers to London
1200. Commercial Treaty with the Lords of the Mugello for the Protection of
Trade Routes
, Silk industry in a tbriving condition. Early pattems for weaving ob-
tained from the pavement of the Baptistery
1201. First mention o( the Guild of Bankers
1202. Florentines capture Castles and protect Communes
1204- The Rectors of the Guilds styled " Priors"
, Ammirato's Census of the population and occupations
1206. Old title of Consul replaces that of Prior
1207. First Pwsta-Gualfredotto Grasselli da Milano-elected
1208-1228. Wars with Pisa, Pistoja, Semifronte, Siena and other cities
1215- Tragedy at the Buondelmonte-Amidei marriage originates the two great
parties-· the Guelphs and Ghibellines
1218. College of Doctors and Apotbecaries in existence
, The Ponte alia Carraja built in stone
, Inbabitants of tbe Contadtl required to take oath of allegiance to Florence
1222. The fint Motúe Com111U or Pawnshop opened
1223- School of Medicine and Surgery founded
1228. Fim State enactment a«ecting the Guilds issued
1233- Tbe Podes/a-Torcello da Strada-orders every adult male to register bis
name, age, and occupation
12,34. Mercantile Compaoies affiliated. to tbe various Guilds
1236. First Scheduled List ofthe Guilds-Twenty-one
, Inftuential position held by Butchers and Graziers
, Streets of Florence paved with hard stone setts
1237. The Ponte alie Grazie-Rubaconte-built
1238. The "Umiliali"-Humble Fathers-arrive and settle
1240. The "Múeriçoráia" founded
1247-49- Party feuds and the encroachments of Federigo 11. and oC tbe Uberti
retard trade and commerce
1250. Podes/a deposed-Capitmso túl Pojolo appointed instead
, Foreign Collliotlieri first employed

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
602 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1250. Thirty-six representatives of Trades cbosen-six to eaeh Stsliert-the
first really popular Government of Florenee
1251. First CapilaM dtl Popolt~-Uberto da Lucca-elected
1252. Ztcca-Mint-established. The Great Gold Florin coined
, The Ponte alia Santa Trinita built
1254- Pisa grants free import for ali Florentine merchandise
1258. Bargello built
1 26o. "Ltlltrt di Ca1116io" first issued by Bankers
, The Roman Ponte Vecchio rebuilt
, Battle of Montaperti
1261. Count Guido Novello assumes supreme authority
, Tbe Public Prison-Siinc.tt-opened
1266. Second Scheduled List of the Seven "Greater" and Fourteen "Lesser,.
Guilds
, The Consuls o( the Seven Greater Guilds constitute the Supreme
Magistracy o( tbe State
1267. The "Parte Gwlfa" enrolled
, First recordo( a Florentine Commercial Journey in Europe by Guido del
Antena
, Council of Capitudini delle Arti Maggiori
, Charles of Anjo'!, Lord o( Florence, makes many Knights
1:z6c). Disastrous floods destro) bridges, factories, etc.
1271-79- Serious family and party feuds prevalent. No checks to industry, but
spurs to enterprise I
1278. Taddeo d' Alderotti established as Professor of Medicine in Florence
1 28o. First " Si"gn~~na • assume office
, First five Lesser Guilds designated Arli Mtáiant-" lntermediate Guilds ••
-and their Consuls admitted to the conferences of tbe Consuls of the
· Seven Greater Guilds
1282. Three "Priors of tbe Guilds" elected : their powers second only to that
of the Chief.Magistrate o( tbe State
, The Guild of Wool undertake the charge of Santa Maria del Fiore
1283. Third Scheduled List of the Guilds-their Precedence settled
u84-85. Third Wall,-Tertio Cerchio,-built
1284- Great additions made to tbe number of Mercantile Companies
1285. Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova founded
1287. Piaua di San Giovanni enlarged for the Patronal Festival
, Feuds between the Cercbi and Donati binder work
1289. Great Fire destroyed many workshops and much men:bandise
, Battle of Campaldino
, Abolisbment of slavery in Florence
1291. Many miracles at the Shrine of Or San Micbele
, Banners and coats·of-arms allotted to nine lowest Guilds
1292. Giano della Bella in power
1293- "Ortliruunmli di Giuslida" promulgated
1294- Duomo, Palazzo Veccbio, Santa Maria Novella, and Santa Croce begun
1294-1310. Amolfo di Cambio flourished, great builder and architect

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
:neral Code for the Guilds upon the
·del/a Mer&anzia
:ies in France
'f Pope Boniface 111. by Floren-

!Ven' e Biandu'
nental in expeUing Neri and

the Guilds. The New Code

md privileges of Florentine

:i bad trade
'ampagni

e
Flanders and elsewbere

1 revised by officials of

1elled
·miths passed
cchio
ier

cp1 ports

•d Lord of

prentice

le
604 THE GUILDS OF FLORENCE
1344·5· Many Gralll6 families eorolled among Po~úuU
I345· Re-enactment of the OrtliiUIIIUtlli di Giuslida
., Butcbers occupied the forty shops in tbe new Ponte Vecchio
I347· Powers o( the Corte tlella Mer&a~~~ia eolarged
,. Artizans strike for higher wages
I 348. Great Plague. Three-fifths of the inhabitants di e
, BUBello rebuilt
I355· CON/oltiere system fim created. Many Florentines became soldiers
I358. Florence bad one hundred Judges and six hundred Notaries
1362• .úggi'a di Pesei in the Mercato Veccbio erected
I364·1427. Matteo Palmieri ftourished,-famous Apothecary and poet
I372. "Ten of Liberty" elected
1373- Giovanni Boccaccio, Professor o( Literature at the University
I374·14IO. Buonaccorso Pitti's "Chrooicle"
1376. Salvestro di Alamanno de' Medici, Captain ofthe Parle Guelfa
1378. Papal Scbism beneficiai to banking business of Florence
., Rising o( the Cio,P.: Three operative Guilds formed
., Michele Lando, Gtmfalotliere tle Giusli:na
1)86. Thorough revision o( the Statutes o( the Guilds
1388. "La Cena FiormliiiiJ,"-The Florentine Supper,-all the rage
1391. Tribunal oftbe MercatUta at zenith ofits power
1395. Buonaccorso l'itti's Commercial Joumey and Diary
1399- " White Penitents" made pilgrimages
1404- Pisa captured. Florence very prosperous
1404·75· Leon Battista Alberti flourisbed-Physician and astronomer
141 I. Cortona purcbased for 6o,ooo gold florins
1413- Hospital of San Paolo founded
14I5. Fourth Scheduled List oftbe Guilds-twenty-one
I419- Martin V. resides in Florence, and gives the "Golden Rose" to the
Govemment
1420. Bisbopric o( Florence raised to an archbishopric
I421. Giovanni de' Medici Gonfa/ollin-e di Gillshna
, Spedale degli Innocenti founded
, Port of Livomo purcbased for Ioo,ooo gold florins
, Six Maritime Consuls appointed-L' Arlt tlel Mare
1427. New system of taxation-" tlle Cataslo"
., Grallái attempt to reduce fourteeo Lesser Guilds to seven
I4Jo. Jews allowed to settle in the Ghetto
, First date ofWood-engraving in Florence
I436. Consecration of the Duomo
I437· Cennino Cennini's '' Trai/alo tlella Pillura" written
1439- Church Council held at Florence
1440. Compulsory planting of mulberry trees
144I. Congregut'one ái San Marlino enrolled by Archbishop Antonino
I45I. Florentine commerce sufl'ers througb Venetian protective tarifl'
, Cosimo de' Medici bailed " Padre tlel/a Patria ''
I458. Priori della LibertA elected
1463- Piaua delta Signoria completed

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
14U\I-U/• yy a.& . ., ,... ~"'""" " ...&A • " ". . . . . . ." "

I470. Lorenzo de' Medici styled "Capo del/a Repuóólica"

I47I. Bernardo Cennini's printing-press first in operation
, Luca Della Robbia President of the Guild of St Luke
I472. Lavish bospitality by members of the Merchant Guilds
I475· Unwritten law affinned: "EveryFlorentine-bom adult is free to gain bis
living as he wills "
I478. Conjuration of the Pazzi
I48o. Many fiscal reforms agreed to
, First private Florentine merchant-ship launcbed at Livomo
I482. Paolo Toscanelli, the discoverer, died
I483. Savonarola preaches in Lent
148<). Francesco Guicciardini's account of the State of Florence
1490- The Guild of Wool undertake charge of the Duomo
1492. Death of Lorenzo de' Medici
1494- Great constitutional changes. Curtailment of liberty
1495· Govemment Pawnshop-il Prest~pened
I497· Amerigo Vespucci sailed from Cadiz to discover America
I498. Vespasiano da Bisticci, the last Scnplorius, died
1502. Corruption creeps into Florentine Legal Tribunais
, Giudici a/la Rola-Council o( Justice-appointed
, Piero Soderini elected Gonfaloniere for life
I 509· Florentine militia established by Machiavelli
1511. Great frost. I/ Calcio, and other games, played on the frozen Amo
I527. Florence a prey to disorders and plague
, Population divided between "Palluchi "-adherents of Medici-and
"Arraóóiati"-the popular party
I 528. Michael Angelo fortifies the city
I529-30. Siege of Florence by Prince of Orange for Pope Clement VII.
I530. Manufactory of Tobacco established
, Honesty and patriotism o( Niccolo Capponi
1532. Alessandro de' Medici created Duke o( Florence by the Pope
, The "Signon'a" abolished
I5J4. Fourteen Lesser Guilds arranged in four Universities. Many privileges
cunailed
I 536. Charles V. visits Florence. Great Illuminations
, Burial Reforms instituted by Statute of the Guild of Doctors and
Apothecaries
, Cascine laid out
I537· This is the usual date assigned to the end of the Republic and the
transfonnation of Florence into a Principality
1540. First notice of casting steel in Tuscany at Florence
I543· Duke Cosimo I. induced Flemish tapestry workers to settle
I546. New Lo;:gJ'a erected in Mercato Nuovo
I547· lnundation and famine
ISS7· New Code o( Por Santa Maria provided by tbe Medici
r §6I. Cosimo 11. forbids imports of woollen doth from England and
Flanders-tbe deatb-knell of tbe Calimala !
, Cosimo 11. institutes Military Order of St Stepben
I 562. Accademia delle Belle Arti founded by Cosimo 11.
I 564- Last of tbe Umiliali
I568. Cosimo 11. gives new Constitution to the Tribunal ofthe Mwcauia
I 58o. Decline of mercbant spirit evident in every spbere
I 595· Sir Ricbard Dallington's visit and Diary
1597· Guild of Judges and Notaries abolisbed. "College of Judges and
Notaries" incorporated instead

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 INDEX
ACADEMIES :-di San Luca, 271 ; delle Artillery. 424. 425
BeiJe Arti, 271 ; della Crusca, 252 ; of Artists, List of famous, 532, 533 ; do. in
Florence, 504 Stained Glass, 271
Accounts, Payment of, n5 Artizans from Greece, 161
Admission to Guilds, 114 Assay, Tbe, 86
Advocates, 39, 98, 103 Assurance, Contracts of, 30
Afliliated Companies, 113 Athens, Duke of, Podesta, 53 ; Expelled,
Agents :-of Commercial H ouses, 21 ; do. of 304 ; bis novel Windows, 311 ; favoured
Guilds, 1a3; Association of do., ra; Dyers, 152 ; Revenge on Bankers, 194
Qualifications and Duties of do., 123 ;
do. of "Calimala," 131; do. in France, BACARELJ.I Bank, 181
18a Badesi Bank, 181
Agriculture, Court of, 358 Badia, Tbe, First Residence of tbe Podesta,
Alámanni, Antonio, Barber·Poet, 461
Alderotti, Taddeo d', Founder of School of Bak~ fond of Litigation, 436 ; Dise.teem
Medicine, 238 of do., 437; Regulations conceming,
Algarves, Wool from the, IS5 439, 440; Weigbts and Measures of do.,
·• Amerigbi, Messere Amengo, a Notable 442
Jud~·90•?1 Balance-sbeet of tbe Swe, 557, 558
Ampule1us on ' Linen," 350 Balduccl, Francesco, Agent of Bardi Com·
Anatomy, Chair of, 248 pany. 182
Angelico, Frate Giovanni, 356, 357• 48o Bale of Cloth, A (Torsello), 134
"Annona," 'Magistracy of Abundance, 432, &ndinelli, Baccio, Sculptor, 340, 479
433· 4~ 435 BANKS AND BANKERS :-Mercatores Papee,
Antella, Gwdo deU', Agent and Cbronicler, 171 ; do. in London, 171 ; Vanous
132 designations of, 172 ; Tbe Gold Florin
Antonino, Arcbbisbop, 48o, 551, 552· 574 of ras:a. 172 ; Dante on, 173; Treat·
Anziani (Ancients), 8 ment of Capital, 173, 188 ; Excbange
Apothecaries :-Lioences of, 251 ; Guarantees Oftices, 173 ; Esecutore--a special Bank
of, 251; "Fannacia del Moro," 252; Ofticial, 174 ; Rack for Delinquents•
do. " del Giglio," 25~; "Spezeria di 175 ; Sureties for Members of Guild,
Santa Maria Novella, 253; do. "delta 175: Money·lenders Uncovenanted,
Pecora," 253; do. •• del Pinadoro," 254 ; 176 ; Tables in tbe Market, 176 ;
otber fnmous Drug Sbops, 252-254; Books of do. open for Inspection, 177 ;
number of Apothecaries, 254; under· Entries in Ledgers, 178 ; System of
takers, a 56 Book1teeping, 178; Florentine Cash·
Appeals, Supreme Coun of, 71, 88, 89 reckonings, 178 ; VCRrly Balance of
Appeals :-to Pope and Emperor, 49; do. Accounts, 179 ; Piety of Bankers, 18o ;
of Debtors, 88; Judges of do., 93 List of Banks, 181, 182; A Day on
Apprentices, 67, 68, 113, 114, 228; Age of 'Cbange, 183, 184; Loggia of Mercato
do., 241 Nuovo, 184 ; Transfer of Stoçk, 184 ;
Arbitration, Coun of, 86 Jobbing, 185; Number of Banking·
" Arbítrio," Tbe (Tax), 192 Houses, 185, 186; Palaces of Bankers,
Architects, 325, 336, ~7· 338 185 ; Vastness of Banking Business,
Arcbitecture, " Rustic ' Style of, 338 186 ; Brokerage, 188 ; Amount of Money
Areuo, Commercial Treaty witb, 30; MORey raised for State Loans, 192, 193 ;
Credit of War witb do., 189 Universal Fame of Florentine Bankers,
Armenia, King of, favours Florentines, 195 198 ; Foreign Mints, 198 ; Failures, liOO;
Armour, Kinds of, 417, 418; do. for Giostre, Professional Banks of tbe Guild of
423 . . Doctors and Apotbecaries, 1164
Amo, Water of tbe, 149 Bankruptcy, Declaration of, 72; Coun of
" Arrabbiati," The, 198, 512 do.,86
Articles used in Woollen Jndustry, 167; do. Banner-makers, 213
sold in Shops of Oil·mercbants, 399, 400; Banquets, Costly, 375, 561
do. do. Apothecaries, 254, 255,256; do. Baptlsmal Register, S55
do, Retail Clotb-dealers, 349· 3SO Baptistery of San G1ovanni, 5, 46, 130 ao6,
6o7

le
 3111, 336. 361J,*·
Gatea o( do., 1166 ·
445. 49Ó· 518, 519 ; Bridle, Bit, and Reins-makers, co, 137,1178, 405
" Bripte," Tbe, or Social ~ies,
Barbers IIJid Hairdreuen, 61, 1141, 244t 1149, Brokerage sanc:tiotted by &nkers,
Brokers and Agents, 11111, W4o 457
11l
• • 459· 46o
Bardi &nk, 181 Bronze, FIUDOUI Woriters m, 413
Bargains, Striking, 401 Brunellesco, Filippo, Architect, 340· 479
Barge and Boat·men of the Amo, 378 Bruni, Leonardo, Aretino, 18, 96
BMgello, Tbe, Residente of the <:aptain of Buc:cberi (Sc:ent ), 1157. 1161
the People and afterwards of the Podesta, Buft'almacco, Painter and Joker, 476
13· 333.476 Builders' Waga, 331
Bartolini Bank, 181 Building Contracts, 3117 : do. Materiall, 330 ;
Buket-makers, 59 Vut <>Peratio-XIII. Centwy, 336;
Baths, 11146 XIV. Cent., 331; XV. Cent., 338:
Ba.uaccari, Rouo, Ship-master of Pisa, 115 XVI. Cent., 339
Beaten, Wool, 149 . Buonarroti, Michael Angelo, 1171, 311, 339•
~i~ della, Prior, 46; bis "Ordina-
340- 388. 479· 514
•' Buonuomini "--under Matilda, 7, 811 ; be-
menti della Giuatizia," so ping o( XIII. Cent., 41 ; "Thirty-Sis
Bells,-Worit, 73• 74; "La Trecca," 73: B. ," 41, 43. 44: "Ten B.,"1o8
"La Montanan~" La CamDIUia Burc:hiello, Dominic:o di Giovanni, Barber.
dell' Anui," 74; ' do., 179; ~. La 459· 46o. 461
Vac:ca," 479 Burial Observanc:es, 346
Belt and Girdle-makers (Women), 68 Butc:hers' Shamblea, 301 ; Restrictions con-
Bencivenni Bank, 181 cerning do., 301 ; "Tit-Bits," 3011; Dis-
Benevieni, Antonio, Surgeon, 1149· :166 esteem of do., 305
Berta the Flower-seller, Legend of, 73
Bibl~pbical Tables. 585-599 CA81NET·MAKltllS, 4:118
Bisticct, ~espasiano da, Cbrontcler, 1168 "Calcio," 11 (Florentine Footbell), 457, 4811
Black Company," "The, 514 Calimala Guild, 105·138
" Blacks and Whites," 1311, :166, 465 Cambio, Amolfo di, Architect, 14, 154. 3311·
Blacksmith's Outfit, A, 313 5115
Bobbin Winders (Silk), 1113 <:ampaldino, Battle o(, to
Boboli Gardens, 34~ Campanile, G iotto's, 111, 13 ; " D Spirito del
Boccacc:io, ~iovanru, 16, 93 ; ~ntof Cali· Campanile," 13
mala Guild, 134 ; on Money es, 11}6, "Camps<~~a Pape," 171, 181
:166, 'qll; on Vair, :1185; on ooking, Candles, ~
376 ; on Bartering, 444: on the '' Canna jStandard Yard Meuure), J44, 330
Market Language, 448; on Hypocritea, " Canove ( Private Shops), 563
Canvas-makers, 61
"Boft:,~ .. Tbe, a Guild Guarantee, 116 Capital, Treatment of, 1~
Bologna, Commercial Treaty with, 113, 109 ; Capitano deU' Arti (CaptaJn of the G<.Jilds), 48
University of, 76; Functionaries from, Do. del Popolo (Captain of the People),
76 ; Doctors o( Law of, 78 ; Leaa1 De- 48, 71: Houaebold of do. , 81
greea, 84: other Degrees, 911· 94 ; l"aculty Capitudani (Heads ofGullds), 8, 43• 53
of Medicine, •37 Cap-makers, 1163
Bologna. Giovanni da, Sculptor, 3111, 478 Capponi Bank, 181
Bonifazio I 11., Marquis of Tuscany, 7 Capraia. Commercial Treaty with, 109
Bookbinders and Bookbinding, 383 Carders, Wool, 131, 149
Book Collecting, 3811 Do., Silk, lU3
Book-keeping, System of, 178 Carding·Machine Oilers, 149
Books, J::arly, 1167; Numbers publilhed, Cargoes, Premiums on, 30
1168 ; Book Induauy, 1168 Camival Songs, 491
Booksellers, 11611 Carpenters, .Association of, 4115 : Tools of
Bottic:elli, Sandro, Paioter, 1168 do., 41116 : Reatrictions concerning do. ,
Bow and Arrow-makers, 59, 4111 4117 : Famoua Carpenten, 430; " 'Ibe
Brass Workers, 309 Fat ~ter," 431
Bruiers, 5~· 64 "Carroccio, ' The, 464
Bread, Weil[bt and Pric:e of, 439, 440 Calcine, The, t..S, 3311· ..St
•• Breve." fie, .509 Cuh Reckoning, 178
Bric:klayers, Muter, 313: do. Wages, 331 "Cauoni." Wedding, IIIJII, 4:118
Bridges:- CutiJlione, Count Baltauare, and " 11 Cor-
Ponte Vecchio, 11119, 11146, 4117. 484 ; Shops ugiano," 403
on, 189, 301, 333 Cutrum, lbe Roman, 4
AllaCarraia,147• 333· 337• 485 "Catasto," The (lnc:ome Tu), 97, 191J. 1167
Rubaconte (Alie Gnuie), 337, 485 Cattle Gruing, w:p ; do. Slaugbtering, "97 ;
Alia Santa Trinita, 333· 331, 486 do. Eatage, ~ , lmpon o( do., a1J9 ~

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 laxes on ao., 301; nreecung 01 ao., 31111 ao., !19; UOUI t;Utters, 123, 128, 130
Cavalcanti Bank, 181 Clover·Juice, Popular Beverage, 367
Caxton, William, "Tbe Playe of Chesse," Cobblers, 316
1001 101 Cocoons, Steamers ofta14 ; Sprayers of, 214 ;
Ceilinp, Fine, 338 Sorters of, 214 ; reatment of, 219, 220
Cellin1, Benvenuto, ::171, 312, 341, 413, 475, Codeof Prohibition, 49 ; do. of Guild Statutes,
477· 488 JJQ-129
Cenni, Taddeo, Florentine Merchant at Coinage, Depreciation of, 86 ; Forelgn do.
Venice, ::17 in Florence, t86
Cennini, Bernardo, Printer, a66 CoUar and Belt-makers, 278
Do. Cennino and bis " Trattato della "Collaterali," Podesta"s Judges, 81
Pittura,"::l70 Colle!le o f Tudges, 77
Centro di Firenzet " 11, 468, 469 "CoJlegia,1' Roman, ~· :138
"Cerdli " or Whltes, u, 466 " Collegium," Lothair s, 6
"Cen:bio "-Prima, Secando, e Tertio Columbus, ::172
(Walls), s. 7 Comacine Gw1d, Tbe, ZS, 1169, 3!KI• etc.
Cereais, 4~ Combmakers, Wool, 149; do. Silk, 213;
Certosa d1 Vai d'Ema, 501 do. Hllir, Z4
'Chan~, A Day on, 183, 184 Commission, Neri Berri's, on Statutes of
Chanier's Brochure on Fur, a85 Guilds, I .
Cheese Factors, 394 ; Cheese, lhe best, 400 Commune, Íouadations of the, 14
Chestnut Rooster, A famous, 534 "Com~i.'' Tbe, 512
I Chief Ports for Florentine Commerce, 23
Church Vestments Makers, 213.
Compagn1a de! Bigallo, .744• 549, 5SO
Do., di San Man1no, sso, 551, ~sa
CHV&CHES AND CHAP&LS in tbeir relation to Companies, Trading, 39, 51 ; Credentials of
the Guilds :--Sant' And~ 450; Sant' do., 71 ; do. of Families, 72; do. of
Ambrogio, saa ; Santa Cecilia, 475 ; San Militia of Guilds, .44. 55, SS ; Aftiliated

I Carlo di Mercato, 524 ; Santa Croce,

:169. 271, 31~ 333> 337· 515, 532; San
Donato alia Torre, 481 ; San Frediano,
534; San Giovanni Battista, S. 46, 130,
do., u3; Me:raantile do., 130
Compus, lnvention of tbe, 29
Competition, Foreign, Efl"ec:t of, 64, 165, 166
Concessions at Foreign Ports, 24
I ::106, 312, 3,36. 36a. 367. 445. 491), 518,
519 ; San Lorenzo, ~55· 532· 533; Santa
Maria in Campidogho, 449 ; Santa Maria
Condottieri, Famous, 99, 421
Conjurers, ::172
ConsiRnments Time Limita of, 187, 188

I Maggiore, 73. 523 ; Santa Maria Madda-

lena, 533 ; Santa Maria Novella, 253,
1169. 271, :392· 337· 498. 532· 533; Santa
"Consorterie, 1• Tbe, of lhe Nobles, 37
Constitutiones Olonenses of Lothair, 33
Constitutions, Tentative, for Guilds, 43;

I Maria Ughi, 73; San Martin_!>t 552; San

Matteo, 1169; San Miniatoal Monte, 130,
1169, 337· 518 ; La Nunziata, ::170, 271,
Democratic do., 44
Consul, Title of, first named, 8 ; do., Head
of Rornan lndustries 36
CoN&tiLS resident at Foreign Ports, a3 ;
337, 497, 523. 524; Or San Michele,
::171, 334. 357, 525; d'Ognissanti, 146, tbeir Stalfs, 24 ; Special Duties of Consul
\ ::173. 337 ; San Piero Buonconsiglio (San
Pierino), 449, 476; San Piero Scheraggio,
at Pisa, 24 ;• ~· Six Consuls of tbe Sea,"
a6, ::17 ; Military do., 39 ; do. or tbe
I 8o, 479 ; San Pietro de! Mugnone, 524 ;
Santa Reparata, or Santa Maria de!
Fiore (DuOmo), 271, ::172, 312, ~3, 334.
Guilds, 41, 43, ~5, 77, 79, u8; do. of lhe
Four Universilles, 63; Number of do.,
70; Disputes at Efection of do., 70 ;
336. 498. 499. sao. 521 ; San Salvatore Qualifications of do., 71; Voting at
ãf Monte, 534 ; San Spitito, ::171, 272, Election of do., 71 ; Meaning of the Title,
337; San Tommaso, 449- 78 ; Calimala do. at Paris, 133
Cimabue, 14, ta65, 1169, 498. Contracts, Registry of, 164 ; wilh Seamen,
Cinderella's Slipper of Viiir, 28.5 27 ; do. o{ AssUrance, 30
Ciompi, "Wooden Shoes," 48, 54, 55, 56, 58, Cooks, 6o; Restriction of do., 303 ; Salaties
94· 141,165, aoo, 305,338,356.370,378, of do., 376; Society of LombaM do.,
379· 459t 4:~. 485 524 . .
"Civettino,' 11 Handy Pandy Game), 484 Coopers, 4Z
Civil Causes in ourt, 92 Copper-plate Workers, 63, 1167; do. Smiths,
CliiMote of Tuscany, 2; do. affects Lock- 63,309
smithery, 412 Copyists, Last of lhe Master, a66
Clímax of Florentine Prosperity, 199 Com, Price of, 433, 434; Kinds of do., 434;
Clocks, 73 Daily Consumption of, 434
Cloth, Forelgn, 115 ; Sales of do., JJ5 ; Com Chandlers, 394 ; Affidavits of do., 434 ;
Treatment of do., 125; Value of lmports Shops of do., 436
of do., 135; Demand for, 135; Drying Corsini Bank, 181
of, 16:1, 163; Stretching Grounds, 105 Council of Florence, 510
2Q

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Co1IIICill :-" Special,
of the "Capcain
"JI ; "o-.1," ... :
dle Seft:D ~
Dlrt in Hou.ea, 472
Dilcofti'Y of America, 873
Guilds,.... ; ol tbe SWe. sa. 71· 96.
ol Juatice (Rota), 83 ; of" Tbe Hmadreél,0\
Diabea, Favourite, 313• 314
Dilpatea, Trade, 321
+4• ,. ; of the CODSUII ol tbe Odill, Diat.aff foc Flax, 355
119 Diatillers, Apothecary, 241
.. Courilell O( I'Wfectioa, .. ,.. •• DoctOI" Jaria," 71
Coun of Final Appeal, 45, 85 ; MOftble do. Docton' feea, ll391 &49 : do. Appevance,
f« tlle Colltaifo, 83; do. ol ~. &48: do. Methods, 244: -Petrarch's
86 ; do. fOI" Arbitratloas, 86 ; SesaioGs ol Appreciation of, 245 : Remedis, &4S.
do., 87 246; Reclpes, • · 1111 : Nurnb.- Of
Coverlet.---., ,.a Doctora, 243. ~: Pride of do., •so:
C:O.Onl Bank, :r81 Quack Docton, 2,50
Cradle aod Chest·malten, 61 " Dogana" (Custom Hoase.. 899. 3531 310t
Credit oC Callmala Gvild, 135 400.433
Credit, Letten of, 145 Dorodippen, .,.
Cremoaa...:...CoDeciUift et Solde, 35 DoCe TollliJIIUCI, Mocenigo's TestmloaJ, 186
Cri-, CapiGil, 81 Dome of tbe Duomo, Competitioa for, ~
Criminais, Treatment of, 514 Donatello, 312, 3118. 476: do. tbe .. no.iuia"
Crou-bow-màera, S3 in tbe Old Marbt, 450
Cruade, Tbe Secon<f, 482 •• Donati," Tbe, or " Blackl, '' 466
Cnuca," ••Tbe della, 78, •s- Doublet-maken, 341
Culilllll')' Matten, 313. 314, 315. 376 Dress of Floreatines, ~~86-l~gs
Cultivation oC LaDd, 316, 387 nre-. oi Vair, 278; elo. LamhlláAI, 278
CWTien, 149 Dueb, 424
Cutlen, 163. 341 DIM, Summary or Comlllel'Cial, 811
Cutten of Cloth, 1•3· 111, 131): do. of Skins, l>uDmo, The. S. " Churchs"
Sl7t ; do. L-.tben, 1171 ; do. of Gema and oyen, ~ .x. s6. 61, ~-. :1311 523;
Cameoe, 339 Duues ofdo., 1114: ThreeCiauel or, 150;
Rulea for do., 151 : Pre-eminence oi their
DALLIMGTON, Sir R., "Slaney oi tbe OniDd Workmanship, 187; Wool 0,.... 149;
Duke'a Eatate," 211, •r9J •35· 305. 364, Silk Dyen, 213
36 . Dyen and DyeiDg Malerillla, 1114. 125. 127 ;
~IIJ _of_Metala, 413 Collt ol do., 151
Dante Aligbieri, Poetry of, :14:.
Tradlng FamDies, 31 ; oa KnlglltDOod,
_Eart,
EAlLIItST Craft, 3113
94 : Agent cl " Ca1bii8la" Guild, 134 : oa Katinc·HOUllel, m! 31s
s.Jes clWoollea aotb, r63 ; on Be.nten, Eccleslutical Buildinp, 336
173 ; on U suren1 195. t96; 011 the Silk Ed(e-tool-malaera, 64. 309
lnduatry, ll33; nis Matrlculation, -.o, Educatioa, Iaftuence of, 14 : do. of a Oentle·
265 ; on Dreu, 1186 ; on Punes, 401 ; man, 40llt 403
the " della Crusc.a," 447 ; on " Maklng Electioa o( Guild Oflicers, 117
the Flg," 465: 011 the New World, FJiriua, &ory oC St, :JO(i
Embouiag of Metais, 413: Famous Em·
~fMace. oi the, 513, 514 ~41:4
Dealers in Raw Sllk, 263 Embrolderen, 61 ; do. Sllk, ll3; do. Gold
Death, Sentence of, so; Deaths oi Guild IDd Silva-' •3ll
Memben, 114 EmigratiOD of Ai1ifioers forbicldea, 7So 135.
Debt, Public, 191, 1911 154
Debton, Laws apinst, 87 ; do., act as Enfland, I>lreet Communicatioa witb. 28,
Executlonen, 88 107
"Decima," Tbe (lncome Tu:), :192 Eoglish Traveller-s in Tu.may, 18
Decline of Wool lnduatry, r67: elo. of Eqrava-s of Gema anel Coins, 140: do. ou
•• Ma.aten:,'' 342 Cop~, 4:10; do. OD Brul, 61; ED·
Deftlulten, 88 gJaYIJII, fl67
Delinquent Guild Memberl, u6 Entrance Feea to Guilds, 66
"Denario" OI' Danario, Standard CoiD, 115 Eqaity Florentine 1..oft of, 76
Depreciation of Coinace, 86 Elcut~ and Sbield·maken, 419
Dewtioa., Popular, SOO "Elecutore,'' The, a Special BaDk O.c:ial,
Diaries, Private, r8 'lH
" DlaTOlo del Mercato,'' 478 " Estimo," The (Tu). 97 .
Dlce-makera, 59 Euphemisms oonc:emmg Usury, 196
" Dlfentore c!ell' Arti e degli Artifici. e EYil·EJe, Tbe, SOl
Capitano e Consenaton della Pace," Elldlange Ollices, 11J
.a. 71
Dini Bank, r81
Eacutiooen, Debton u, 88
Eaaptionl frorn Militar)' Semce, ap

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Experts oC Woollen Ooth, 1113- 189 18o ; ~· 18o, 1911 1100: Segni, 1135;
Ezplorers and Dlsccm!ren, 'lfll
Exporta oC Dres8ed Fura aDd Sldlls, aSa: do.
Serragl!, ~5: ~. 55· 183,
SoldaDien, I'S/ ; Spúú, 137: ~ 54.
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of Food Stuft's, 394 5S. 1'S/0 1~3,198; F'ilip~,
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m
F AltNZA, Commercial Treaty witb, 113 39, 146: Toecbi, ll8o ; TCJIÜ!Ibl, 39 ;
Failures hated, 4Ó4 Tolillgbi-Spin.elll,
.Falucci, Niccolo di F~ di, Doc:tor- Ubalducci, 39: u~. ~95: Uberti,
Surpm,IJ46
•• Famiglie di Torri e Loggie," 'SI
3·x.•· 1111, 33.39 : u~. 611,-. 11133-
Valori, 18o; V~, 39 ; Vellati, - ,
F AIIJLI&S, CoiOIBRCIAI. :-Abati, 39 ; Al::- 11113; Vapac:c~, SOO; Vettori, 11M, 11113;
ciauoli, n, •'SI· 18o, 191, 1100, a15, 314, Vulani, 15, 1~ I'S/, 18o, 185 · .
~· ~~: Adimari, 39• I 'S/, 'S/4- 467, S.O; "Fare il SignOre, •67 • -·
Adimes, 3C), I'S/, 484;
Alamarmi, US, Farms and Farming, J86, J87 ; Clóps, 311 :
461 ; Albeni, 18, ~. I'S/, 18o, 1166, 4J14, Bailiffs, 3911 -··
JOO, 5311 : Albizzl, 46. 54· ss.
611, 137. Faniers, 309-
4.53. 467; Altoviti, •'SI• SDO; Amieri, 39• Fatalistic Tendeocles of Florentina, 509
131: Am~, 340: Ante!!-~ •.311· 137, " Feast of Love," 505
18I ; ADtelessi, 1100; ADUIUIU, SOO ; Fees,I>oc:tcra' 11139
ArdiDghelli, I'S/, Ih Feltre, Frate, ~da, 574
Baldovinetti, 18ca; BaDdiuelli, I'S/; Bardi, Do. Vittorino da, 4011
130, •'SI· ·~ •89. 191, ·~· ~ a3<J. "Feneratori" (Money-leoden) for tbe Uni-
464; Baronelli, •'SI· $3!1: BibbieDa, 30_: versity, 18
9iúini, 'S/11 ; Borgberina, soo : BraDcacci, Ferrara, Trade Corporaúou at, 36
18a : Bripmontl, 195 : s-accorsi, Fest!val Eating, 375 ; do., Festive Bovd, 4118
1'S/, 1100; Buonafi, 'S/11: Buonaparte, Festivais, Cburch, 73· sos ; do., St }oba
x8o; Buondelmoate, 39o 55• •'SI• 484. SOO BAptist, 489, 490t 519
Caducci, soo ; Caponsacchi, 36. 39: Fen:r Epidemics amoog Sllk-Worken, az9
Cappoai, •'SI· x6s, soo:
Castellani, xh, Ficino Marsilio, Surgeon-Writer, a66 .
5311: Castiglioncbi, 55: Cavalcanti, 'SI• Fico's Tavern, 'S/4 ; Fa"VOurite Dlshes and
107. lo8,. ·~; . 181, •34· 46a, #. soo. Wines at do., 'S/4; L.oc:ksmitb's ahop
soa : CaVICCioli, 55· 467: Ceffuli, 107 : do.,4u
Ceochi, 1}0.: Cberi:hi~ u, 13!'• •'SI· 46;6: Field of the Cloth of Gold, 11134
<:~•· •'SI :. CJampoli, 'Siõ Ci~ Fiesole, 1169
nam, aSa ; Coi:ch1, 1100: Coale-Bardi, F'JeiiO!e,lfino da, Sculptor, 340
532 : Corsi, a34; Corsinl, •'SI· 1100 Filelpo1 Meaere. l'rofeiiOI' at Uni\oersity, 16
Donati, ~' 39, IJII, 1'S/, 183, 467 Financiai Position of Guilds (14th ctllltury),
Fantoni, 'S/11 ; Fem:i, SOO : F"tfánti, 484 : 511
Foraboschi, 333; Frescobaldi, •'SI• x8o, Fines :-Breach oi Trade Customs, 49: Un-
1991 1100, 1133. ~· .486 sanctioned Agrwments, 51 ; Bad Work-
Gadd1, 533:. Garlian1, 'S/11: ~~~· ~: mansbip, 1119: Butcbers', 304
G~~· 466. rfX': ~·otu, 37: Finlguerra, Maso, Engraver, 477
Giamberti, 340 ; Gianfigbazm, 195, SDO; Finisbers, Asaoc:iatiollsofOoth, 1113, 188, 11119.
GiaDdOIWi, 46a ; Guicciardini, 1'S/, 183. 131
.,a : Giudetti, I'S/ ; Gualterotti, <46 Fire Risks, 4711
IDfanpti, 39 Firemuola, Agnolo, oo "Lace," 355
Lamberti, ~. I'S/, 1J8a Firewood and F'uing, Restrictions aboat, 398,
M8cci, 'S/11: MachiaYelli, 183 ; Mala· 4411
testa, 'SI:. ~alespini, 39: Maripolli, Fishmongers, 3011 ; Kinds of Fisb, 303 : Filh-
'S/11 : MediCI, I'S/. 193, ~· 304t 340· inc-Grounds, 146
35.7• 467, 48o. ~: Mcirelli, SDO . . •
Naa, I 'S/: Nerb, 39o 130, 500 : NICCObDJ, w.,.
"Flsb out of Water," 456
Flaminian 4
Flu, CultlvatiOD of, 357 ; R~ou COD•
.

~ 3Q. 5S. u8, ·~· 131, 183. 48~,

467, 5311, 533; PasseriDI, SD0: Peruu1,
ceming do., 354 ; do., Weaftl'l' Aaocia-
tion, 356
46, 131,. 18o, 185.. 191, 195. ~99- 1100; Flood, Great (1333), <468 • •
~lotti. x8o; Pilli, ll8a : Portinarl, 183 ; Fl.oRI:NCit :-Ongin ol, 3; Pecn1iar Condi·
Pulcbl, 5311: Pollaiuoli, 340• 477 ; Peecori, tions of, 9 : Folk.SO';JP o!• 10 : Prosperlty
3111 : Pandolfini, 4511 oe, zo, 65, 1135 : un•ver'lllty or. •5 : liead
Quaratesi, 534 of tbe "Tu.n ~... 30: Collegium
. Ri~ 54•. 453 ; Ridolfi, 131 ; Rinucci •. 131_: et .Sc:bolae, 35; J~icial System of, 75 ;
RmUCCJD~, I3Z· sao. ~: RC?n~tilli. 010Wt of Prospenty, 199 ; as a Silk
1111 ; Ru:uoU, 5311 : · Riccardi-Guipl, Man, 11n ; Siee of, 339: "Tbe Florence
5311 ; Rucellai, 1:116, 533 ; Roul, 4n Supper," 'S/5 : ,, Fireme la Beila," 6, 14 ;

.•
612 INDEX
" Le Genti di Fireme," 14 ; '' Studio Gates, Dues and Tolls, 11991 353· 378, 400,
Fiorentino," 14 433
Florentines, a Nation of Sbopkeepers, 13; Gauntlet-maken, 405
Talkativeness of, 30 ; Cbaracteristics of, GaURJ, Maken ol Silk, 1193
74. 7Ó ; ~guage of, z8 ; Doctors of Genoa, Commercial Treaty with, 30
the Notariate, 78; Slrilfu1ness of do. " Genti, Le, di Firenze," 14
Workmen, lf:r1; ArtiaU of do. in Eng· Geoilraphical Position of Florenoe, 3 ; do.
land.t. ~~; Types of do., 388, ~llg Research, 1165, 212
Florin1 ua.ueons, coined, 119 ; Vaned values Germu War-Lords, 1196
OI do. 194 Gesso, Work in, 4119, 430
Foldera, Ooth, 123, 128, 1119, 131 Gbetto, Tbe, 5oS
Folk-lore, !'P7 ; do. Songs, 10, 389 Ghibellines, 10, 54. 69, 171, 333, 466
Food Stuft's, Export of, 394 ; do. Salea, 396 Gbiberti, Loren&O, 1166, 317, 334, J6o, 477•
Foot Wear, Kinds of, 318 519
Foreign Qoth, Superiority of, n5, 124 "Giants at the Gales," 479
Do. Coinage, c:urrent in Florence, 186 " GiJiio," Tbe, 457
Forges, IJ'Oil, 3Q6 GimlfiWlO, Towers of, 39
"Fortunes round tbe Comer," 345 Giostre (Tournamenl, 57, ICD, J04, 403
Founders ol Scbool of Medicine, 238 " Giotto " 111, 1169. 4
'' FI'IIIICa Pietra," 439 Giovannl, Ancient ·ne ol San Battista,
France as Second Fatberland, 132 5, 46 ; Dec:oratioa of do., 130 ; Tessel-
Franciabigio, Painter, i77 lated Paven1ents of, Ro6
Francil, Salnt, of Assis1, 1o6 Glass,Artistsin&mned,R71
"Frateec:bl," Tbe, 5111 Glass-blowers, 61, 1162, 394
" Frati Guadenti," Tbe, 43 Gold, Makers of Cloth of, 228
Frauda in Trade, n6, 117 Gold ud Silver-workers, 1113, 228
Freemuons, 321, 322· 323 Gold-be!lters and Gold Wire-pullers, 213.
Free 1bougbt, S03 !162
Freights, Prices of, r6o Goldsmitbs, 228, 11119, 465, 485
French Silk Manufactura founded by Floren· "Gonfalonieri" (Sta.ndard Bearersl ol the
tines, !134 Gmlds, ~3. 44o ss. 71, 1o6; di Giustizia,
Frian, Pre!lcbing, r98, 571 5-4. 5S· .§8, 71, 78, 96
Fruit, Kinds of, in Market, 392. 457 ; do. Grain, K1nds of, in the Market, and Prices
abunda.at in Contado, 392 oldo., 433
Fruiterers, 397 "Gr!lndi," The, under Matilda, 7, "Sf, 323~
Fune:rals, 2S6, of Monna Piera de' Valori do. ullderCharles of Anjou, 44; Faction
Curonn1, •57 ; of Niccolo di Jacopo Figbts of do. , 99
degli Albeni, •57; do., Expentea and Grascia." "Arcbivio del1a, 91; Ofticials of
Customs, 257 tbe, 99· J48, 436
Fllrlliture, 427, 4118 Gruselli, Gualfreddo, Fint Podesta, 8o
F un :-Treatment of Skins, 11179 ; Kinds of "Grasso, Popolo," 54
do., 279. 28o; Prices of, do., 281; Wear- '' Grave of tbe Republic," 74
ing of do. 283, 2fl4, 285, 377 ; Cbarrier's Guelfa," "La Parte, 54, 55, 59, 70
Brocbure on Wearing do., 285 Guelpbs, 10, 54· 69, 171, 466
" Fuste," or Shallow V essels, !17 Guicciardini, Francesco, llg, 103, 2JS, 517 ;
Fustian-cloth, 355 do., " Counsels of Perfection," -
GUILDS :-in Generai-Origin of, 33; Captains
'' GABIItLLit" (Taxes), 59, 190; Items of do., of, 48 ; Membersbip in, 65, 66, 375;
191 Entry into, confined to Florentines, 69 ;
Gaddl, Taddeo, Bridge-builder, 87, IJ69, 333, Women Members, 68; Erratic Changes
484.487 in, 70; Disputes, 49, 71; Registen of,
"Galle dfMercato" (Merchut Vessels), r, !11 71 ; Ofrenc:es Rgllinst Statutes, 72 ;
Gambling, 91 ; do. Dens, 471 Administration of Estales of Deceased
Games :-o~ Chance, 114 ; do. forbidden, Members, S., 86; in General Council,
154; Kmds of, 371; do. Sports, 57• 304, 87 ; Sospension from, 89 ; Admission to,
403; Children's do., 473 113, 114; Deatbs of Members, 114;
"Garbo," Wool of, 1s6; Price of do., 16o; Penalties, 114, 175; "Tbe Bollo" or
Value of Cloth or, 163 Guarantee, n6; Taxation of, 190 ; Books
Gargiolli, Andrea, First Florentine Naval of the Guilds, 277; Annual Commemora-
Commander, 28 tions, 316 .
Gates (Porte) and Custom H ouse (Dogana):- Seven "Greater Guilds" specially named,
San Ambrogio, 337 ; alia Croce, 491 ; 42o47o 52t.!;;:a
San Gallo, 337 ; Gbibellina, 337 ; Santa Foutteen " Goilds" do., 42, 4S. 46,
Maria, 179 ; San Piero, 63, 305, 399, 47· 58, 62
438 ; ai Prato, 145, 1116, 337, ~91 ; Five "lntennediate" do., 45· 46, 47•
Romana, 4911 ; Rossa, 162, 372 1196

Digitized by Google
Guilds-elnlilltUd Guilds, Tbe Twenty-one--clllllillaud
Twelve •• Greater Guilds" specially named, XVII. Se.ddlers, 401-408
138, ~. 345, 352 References to, 411, 47, 611, 64, 486
Tbree r.Subordinate Guilds " do., !/J, 58, XVlll. Locksmiths, 4o8-415
6o,62 Reference<J to, 411, 41· 53• 62, 64, 97·
Final Grouping of thc " Lesser Guilds,' '62 307· 308. 311, 478
Hienarchy of the Guilds, 276, 315, 343 XIX. Ãrmourers and Sword Makers, 416-
Companies of Militia of the Guilds, 39· 44, 424
References to, 411, 47, 611, 63, 97, 1113,
G~dd of the Market People, 393 . 307· 311, 379. 478, 530
Guild of Religious Persons, 515 XX. Carpenters, 424-431
GUILDS, THE TwENTY..()NE : - References to, 42. 47, 611, 63, 97, 311,
1. Judges and Notaries, 74-104 318, 425· 5113
References to, 411, 47• 52, 53· 61, 6g, XXI. Bakers, 431-442
8o, 97· Il3, 142, 449· 5211, 530· 536 Referenc:es to, 42, 47, 611, 63, 97, 305
11. Calimala Merchants, IOS·IJS
References to, 42, 47• 511, 53· 61, 6g, HABERDASHftS (" Merciai "), 611, 11611, 378
10· 711, 77· 151, 168, 172, 1108, 216, 251, Haberdashery, 258, 261
"Hammering" in the Money-Market, 464
nr."wool, 139-169 Harness-malters, 405
References to, 42, 47, 511, 53, 6t, 6g, Hat, Raising the, 465
:10> 12· 77. 97· 151, 172, 211, 216, 251, Hawkwood, Sir John, Condottiere, 118
305.485,5111,5119, 5s6 Herbalists, 241
IV. Bankers and-Money-Changers, 170-1103 Hierarchy of the Guilds, 276, 315, 343
References to, 411, 47, 511, 53. 61, 70, Highway Robbery, 30, 282
77· 142,145.462.530 Hinges, Makers o{ 4111
V. Silk, 1104-235 Hire of Merchant Ships, as
References to, 42, 47, 48, Silo 53· 61, Hoby, Tbomas, and bis Dwy, 19
69.72,77·88·97· 131,142,335.5118 Hone-Jobbers, 59
VI. Doctors and Apotbecaries, 236-273 Horsemanship, 402
References to, 42. 47, 48, 97, n3, 125, Horses, Kinds of, 404
228, 265, 2711, 3811, 449. 483. Mercers, Hosiers, Silk, 21~, 404/ 405
Veil-makers, Perfumers, and Stationers, HOSPITAL& :-List of 'Calimala" Hospitais,
2611 ; Painters, 269, 5113 ~. 537; San Bartolomm~, 337 ; Sant'
VII. Skinners and Furriers, 274-'.186 Egid1o, 536 ; San Euseb1o, 130, sJ8 ;
References to, 42, 47, 48, 511, 53, 61, San Gallo, 337 ; San Giovanni, 51~!";.4 ;
70, 97, 276. 378, 51111, 5119 San Giovanni di Dio, 542 ; San o,
VIU. Butchers, 1196-305 539; Santa Maria degli lnnocenti, 93 ;
References to, 42• 46, 47, 53, 61, 63, Santa Maria di San Gallo, 544, 538 ; San
69. 89. 97, 456, 485, 530 Maria deUa Scala, 540, 544 ; Santa Maria
IX. Blacksmiths, 305-314 Nuova, 217, 337, 539; San Matteo, 541 ;
References to, 42, 46, 47, 61, 63, 6g, 97, del Orbetello, 540 ; San Paolo, 542 ;
315, 530 Por Santa Maria, 542 ; di Niccolo da
X. Shoemakers, 314-318 UWLIIO 543
References to, 42, 46. 47, 6t, 63, 6g, Hours of Work, 114, 154
378. 475· 5113 Houses, Kinds of, 470
xr.· Masters of Stone and W ood, 319-342 House-Tilers, 61
Referencesto, 411•46•47,53,59,61,63,
2118, 307· 311, 378, 530 ILLUIIINATORS of MSS., 1168
XII. Retail Cloth Dealers and Linen Imitation Gold and Silver, Measures against,
Manufacturers, 342-356 li2Q
References to, 42, 46, 47, 53. 61, 65, 97, Immigration of Foreign Work-people, 1611
1118, 229, 1188, 345, 378, 463, 544 ; Haber- lmports of Mulberry Leaves and Silk Worms,
dashers, 378 219 ; do. of Com, 433
XIII. Wine Merchants, 357·366 lmpruneta, Madonna dell', 489, 498, 499
References to, 42, 47, 611, 63, 97· 305, lncome-Tax (Prestanza), 190
lndustry, Florentine Royal Road of, 15;
xf!.!References
Inn-Keepers, 366-375
to, 42, 47, 62, 64, 89, 97,
Liberty of do., ,r;o
Inlayers ofWood, 430
JOII, 305. J78, 451 Innkeepers, 366-375; Regulations for do.,
XV. Tanners, 375-383 371 ; Number of do., 371
Referencesto,42,47•62,68,1178,3IS lnns :-for Strangers, 370; Signs of do., 370 ;
XVI. Oil Merchants and Provision Dealers, List ofFamous do., 3711 ; Purchase of, 397
384·401 Inquisition, Tbe, 510
- References to, 42, 611, 6J, 97, 305, 457• Inspectors :-of Spots and Blemishes,
48o; Salt Merchants, 47• J78, 394 W oollen Cloth, 1119 ; do. Silk Piect:s,

le
 INDEX
314 ; do. oi lhe Çalimala, 1.16; elo. of KlfiGHTS : -Their Precedenoe, 91 ; Creldoa
Gold ud Sit_. WOI'k, 3119 i ao. oi Flu o{, 94; Iavestitare of, 94 ; of St SUpbcn,
Becb, 3.53 J68; Wea.ring of Fur, a85; Buqaeta OD
Interdict, Papal, aoo lnvatiture, 376: Tbree Famoua, 459 ;
lateral, Ratea oi, 194; Uawioua do., 195 ; Klts of Knigbta, .pa, 483
Private do. In tbe Mercaao Vea:hio, 459
InteriOI' W ooclwOI'k, 338 LABOR.t.TOKY, Fint Florentine. ag
Intemational Law, 39; do. Questioas, 88 "Laborerum" (Coxnadne Guild), p, 324.
IDYCDtories of Importt and EllporU, ,559 327· 335
lnvoioes of Contenll of &lea (Tonello). 134 Labour, .... Tbe Gospel of Jntelli&eDt, 12
Iron :-Iroofounders, 59: Dealen in Scrap Laboun:n, 6e
do., 309- 410 i Wrouabt lroo, 311 ; Cast Lace, Gold aod Silver, 232 : do., Painted lllld
· lron, 311; do. Grille WOI'k, 312: varlous Gemmed, •Ja ; Thread, de. , do., 355
objecta made of do. . 313: Ironmongery, Land Cultivatioo, !.87
SackUen'. 407 Lando, Micbele, Wõol-comber, ss.
sfJ, 94.
~ of tbe Florentines, 78
Italian Types, a66; do. Warehousemen. 4011
Items oi Gabelle (Ts::~~.-91
Ivrea Collegium et 35 Lantern-makers, •
Latinl Bnllletto, 134: do. on Batc:bers, 304 ;

!
~. 187, 1~5. 197, 19Bo837·395·57~574 do. on Horses, 404
obs, ~ng, .pa Ladno, Cardinal de' Frangipanni, Qxlference
okea, Pracúcll, 475· ,.as, 490 of, 69, 7.~ 3'7· 326
ousu, OI' Toumamenta,
UDGES, 75•104; ~ly
g;.;• 3Q4. 403
of, 77; do.
Laurentian Library, Ceiling oC tbe, 338
Law, Intemational, 39
(15971. 103; Tnbunal of, 77; PaylDCIIt Leatber, Boiled, 385 ; Anistie Work in do.
of, h: M<mlble Courts nf, 83: do. of 409 : do. M"akers of Gilded lAII&her
tbe 'rWbeel," 84 : Higb Reputation of, Artlcles, a63 : do. Dressers, ~.
91 ; Precedence of, 91 ; Title oi M~ aod Embouss, a78
accorded to, 91 : Dress of, 91 ; PaJlDCIIt Ledgers o( Bankers (1427h_197
of, 92; do. of Appeals, 93; Veniality of, Lepl Functionaries from .tSologna. z6
i 9~ : Seek Knigblhoocl and Embusies, 94 Lqend oC" Berta, lhe Flowerseller, ' 73 ; do.
ndiciai System, 75; Severity oCSentencea, 88 of " Tbe Wbite Hen," 461, 462
VI ud Disb MUen, 1168 Legialation, Adverse Foreign, 138
Ultice, ~fOI', 76 ; Seaaiona of Couru LendingCM&ce, Public,573• 57~ 575,576
ofdo.,87 Leper Stationa, 537
JUI&inian, Emperor, Statntes about Money, "Lettere di Cambio, n A4- 145. 187, 199
194 : Protec:ta Silk Indllltry. SI04 Liberty of Labour, so
"Librai," Bookmakers aod Booksellers. Sl68
KJHGS, and Queens, &Dd Commerce :-Theo- Licenses, Apotbecaries', 257 ; do. IDD-
dolioda, Queen or lhe Lombards, 5· 321· keepers', 330
-Cbarlemagne visita Florence, 5 : ex- Linen Manufacturers : - 350 • ~ ; Euly
tenda tbe Contado,.,s ; bestows tbe T itle Account of, 352 ; Compames of, 352 ;
" Firenze la BeiJa, 6; makes Knigbta, Localities for Manufacture, 355
94: en~es Industries, ~~~~.;.... Literature and Writers (Guild of DoctOI'S and
I.otbair, 6: ' Conatitutiones · ," Apotbecaries), a6s
35· 36: "Scbobr:dell' Arti," J,S.-Frederic Litigation, Florentinc Lave of, 100 : do.
11. {i'I'U lhe names " Guelpb " and Butcbers and Customers, 303; Women
" Ghibelline," 10 ; Cluúr of Anatomy, Litigants, 90, 91
248.-Cbarles of Anjou Podesta, 44 ; Livomo, Port of, acquired by FIOI'ence, a6,
makes Knigbu, 94 : bis ~e, 185- 16o
Englisb Sova-eigns :-Edward I. and 11., Loafers (' • Scioperati "), 65
199 : Edward 111. repndiates ~btl to Loans to Worltmen, 153: Publi.c do., how
Banken, aoo; Edward IV. fOI'btds Ex· raised, 188 : do. to Foreign States, 199-
port of Wool, .158; issues Sumpt~ Local Aulhority, Tbe (" Le PotenJDe"), 53
Laws, 167 : Elizabetb, Decree agaiiiSt Locksmitbs :-408-415 : Tools, 407 : WOI'k
Florentine Mercbants, 159 : Hemy 11., of, aft'ected by Climate, 4111 ; Kinds of
107, 1ç6; Henry Ill., 199; Hemy IV, , Locks and Keys, 412 : Wu Modela,
158 : Henry VII., Commerclal Treaties, 412 : Embossed Metalwork, 413 :
159, 341; Henry VIII. encouraces FIOI'· Damuc:ening, 413: Useful Articles
entines, 159. - . 232, ~1 . Robert oC made by, 414: Fine Tools for Artists,
Sicily repudiates Bankers Advanoes, ao1. 415
Frencb King penecutes Mercbants, ao1, Locomotion, means of, 136
Francis I. encourq-es Florentine Mer-
chanta, 396, 341: invites Flemisb Wool·
Lodi!ngs fcn: Stranc-ers.
'S/0 •
Loggte :-dei Lauui, 334- 337 ; de1 BiDllo.
WOI'kers to compete " ilh Florentines, 337: della Zecca (MintJ, 337 : def'Mer:
157, 199- Ferdinand of Portupl, 'lf/2 cato Nuovo, 337, 463; di Pesce(FIIb).457

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 INDEX 61'5
Lombards, I~ oi, f. ·
London, Cloth Fairs o , 107 ; Baukinl ud
Marlei Lapo-Notary, I'»; on LcndiD(
Money, 188; on Prices of Vineyards,
Trading Companies in, 80l, - 3&1 ; OD Hospitais, s.a. 544
Loom, An Old WOollen<lotb, I5t Measurements of Wool Guild, 144
Lothair, Empaw, 6; "Constitut.Jooes Oloa- Meat Tracle, 300
enais," 35, 36 ; "Collqiwn et Sebota." 35 Medicine in Middle Ages. a86 ; do. Sala of,
Love-pbiltriS. 483 asa; Ofticial Stamps for do., asa
Lw:a. Company of the Bro\ben o! San. r;o; Media, Maken of Bleadling·, 26a
St Luke'l Day, 1171; Aocadelnia di San, · Medicai ReRareb and Cosimo I.. a53
f17I Medici :-Salve~~tro de', 54, 459, 48.s, SJ6;
Lucca, Silkworken from, :n6; do. l>ya'a of Giovanni de', 203, 4631 57a ; Cosimo de'
Silk, 1n7; Early Wool--vi~ at, (" Padre della Patria 'l, 253, 4Ó3, 578;
139; Bauken of, 171, ~?a ; Comraercial l>iero de', 194- ,ao ; Lorenzo de' (" 11
Treaty with, a3, 30 Mlllnifico "), 87o 163o 194, 847, 339• 341,
Lung' Arno, t47, 154. 165 501; Grand Dukes :-Cosimo de', L, 73•
lofACHJAVELLl, Niccolo (Cbanc:ellor of the
Republic:), .96; on tbe Wonl ludaatry,
i!: 871.168, 1911, 194· 271, 310, 31,5· 364.
~ ; JUessandro de:' 74•. 87 ; Fenl~do
, I., 103. 169; FenbnaD4o de, 11.,
1o6; on Uberty, ah; oo Money, 197; 291; Cosim? de', IL, ~ 168; Gio~na
011 Public Orda', ~; on a Pagan do, ~ ; F ranc:esc:o de , ~; Calerma
Spirit, .505 ; on Religtous Dutiet, 517 ; de', 356; Cardinal Giulio ae,· .sii
on tbe Treatment of Workpeople. ~ Mendicity. 531
Madder (" Robbia ") for D~ and-,.ao. M~ :-Tribanal of the, 117, 84; Re-
Ding, 125 prisals settled by do., 31a ; Code o f do.,
Madonna, R~ fOI' tbe, 498; Popular as; JurisdictioQ of do., as; Foreign
Madonnas, 498 ; Madonna dell' Im- Merchants' Appeals, as; Final CoW"t of
~· 4119. 498, 499; Madonna deU' Appeal in Commercial Sults, as; Deals
wtth Depreciation of the Coinqe, 86 ;
~J Abundance, The (" Annona "), Maritime Sults, 86; the •• U niversita delta
~&~~·433. 435.436 Mercanzia.," 86; New Constitution, a7
--.~trates, Dresa of, 1190 "Mercato," OI' Labour Master of Monaateries,
~liabeccbi, Antonio, Librariall, 4ÓI 9 ; do. of the " U miliati," •.46
Maw10, Benedetto da, Sculptor, 340 Merc:ato Nuovo, 84, 12:2, 1p, 176, 179. 184,
Maioto, Tommaso, Book Collector, 3h 19Q,253, 4111
Malafizi, Giudici dei, h Me:rcato Vecc:bio, xo6, 1144o 249, 279· 300,
~ni, Ricordano, OD Dn:a, etc., 15, 356.36o, 374o411, 484
Merc:atores TUscie, 171
Maoual for Silk Maoufactwers, 2:23...S MerchalltNa~off'Wnmce,d,~
Maoutius Aldus, " ltalic " type, ll66 Mercbant Princes, List of, 538· 533
Maremma, The, 152 Merciai-Raw Silk Dealers (H&berdashers),
Maritime Deftlopment of Florence, 84 ; Six 62, 1162, 37a
Consub of Maritime Guild, 26 Messere, Title of, 91, 290
Markets, Life and Work in the, 446-469; Metal-Workers, Restrictions oo, 3o8; Lilt o{
Disputes in do., as; Langusgeof do., 447 leading do., 314
Marriage Feasts, Cost of, 376, 48o; do. of Methods of Working in Wool, 149J ISO
Giovanna de' Medici, 293. 294 "Mezzaria," System of (Land DiYisions~ 359•
Marriageable AR.e for Girb, :a88 386
Ma.rsh Mallow for Tanning, 377 Micbelozzo Micheloui, Arcbitect, 476
Marsuppini, Carlo, ChaDcellor of Republic, Midwives, 841
96. Pa1nter,
. Milan-collqium et Scbola, 35
M asacc1o, 476 Military Arts, Treatise upon, 484
Mask·makers, 26a Militia, Guild Companies of, 39, 44, 55
Masters of Stone and Wood, 318-344; List Militum Scbol&e, 33
of Famous Scúlpton, 340 Millers, 438 ; Regulations affectiD( do,, 439
Master Wool-apinners, 149 Mineral Wealth of Tuscany, 306
Matilda, Tbe Countess, 7, a, 107; ber LeJal Miniato, San, a1 Monte, IJO, 269, 337, 51a
Tnbunal, a2 ; Encourages lndustnes, Miniver or Vair, Dresaers of, 27a; Wearing
of do., d5; Cinderella's Slipper of Vair,
Matti~~ns ;--Qt Uni-veraity, 16;
Min~ifasters of the,
Register
of Guild do., 49; Rolls of do. bW"Dt, 55 ; 86; do. Regulations,
Obligations and Conditions of do., 79 ; s67. s68. s69
Board of do., 10~; do. Fees, n3, 279; "Minuto Popolo," 31· 45, ss, SS
Earliest Silk Guild Roll of do., 1107; Mirandola, Pico della, •• PbteniX of the Age,".
R~ters of do., U7; do. of Minor 18
Guüds, 307; do. of Women, 353 Miscomini Antonio, Printer, 100
Mattress-maken and Stuft'crs, 59, a13 "Misericordia,"Tbe,489,513,545•546•547•548

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
616 INDEX
Monasteries, Influence of, on Industry, 8; do. Ornamental Sword-makers, 26~
and the Supply of Wool. ISÓ; the Orvieto, Commercial Treaty Wlth, 77
" Lamp of Leaming," a;r7 ; List of "Ostellani" (lnnkeepers), 22
" Calimala" Hospitais, ,536 "Ostellieri" (Commercial Inns), a
Money Lending and the Church, 188 ; Or San Miehele, Tribunal of, 62; Precincts
Pleasing Euphemisms about do., 190 ; of, 164; Woollen-cloth Frames at, 162;
Disputes concerniog, 195 ; a Precise Canons of, 169 ; Stained glass, 271 ;
Science, 196 ; Repressive Measures, 197 ; Captains of, 3011. 303, 333 ; Officials of,
Limited lnterest, 1<17 396; Com Market at, 429: Com Supply,
Money Values, F1orentine, 9§9, 570. 571, 572 433 ; Shrine of, 434 ; Oreagna's Tabec·
Monopolies, 49 ; Cbaracter of, 72 ; do. of nacle, S~I
Salt, 40 Oubliette, SttDche, 90
"Montanana, La," 74 <Mrlaying Wood-workers, 429
Moataperti, Battle of, 13 ; Eft'eet of do. , 171 Overseers of Silk Exporta, a13
" Monte Com une" or Public Bank, 98, 184,
189.191,192,194,198,395. 57S. s76 PACK-Hoasa:s and Mules, 371
Mc.aic, F1orentine Wóod, .pll, 429 Padua, ~am et Schola, a3 ; do. Faculty
MU21illo, The, Signori de!, Commercial of Medicme and Surgery, a37
'"'rreaty with, a3, Jo8 Painten and Painting (under the Guild of
Mugnone, The River, 27; do. Saw MiUs, J48 Docton and Apothecaries), 26~; Incor-
" Mutar il Stato I '' 9 JXII"I'lÍOD of do.. 269 ; Matriculatlon, 270 ;
Religious Duties of, 270
N ASSI·N ASCIO, and the H ire of the Sbip Painting on Silk and Satin, a33
Sa11 Pittro, as PALACES of Members of the Guüds :-Adi-
''Nine of Commerce," s6 mari, 445; Acolanti, 445; Alamanni, 445 ;
"Nobili," The, 14 Albim, 3311; Alfier~ 445 ; Altieri, 445 :
Noises in Streets, 471 Amidei, 475 ; Amieri, 445 ; Antinori,
NOTARIES- Punishments of, S0; desire 338; Badia, 337, 479; Bott..beri!'i, 3~2o
l{nighthood, 94 ; Traioing of, 94 ; 338; Buondelmonti, 338; ~
Qualifications of, 9S ; Signatures of, 95 ; 445; Caponsacchi, 445 ; Cavalcanti, 138,

2;
RqiSinltion of, 9S ; " Sapientes J uns," 473 : Cavo~a, 478 ; Cipri1111i1 477 ;
Payment of, 96. 97; Offices he!d by, Comprobbosa, 164; Foraboscba, 479;
; Public Auditors, 96 ; Keepers of Geraldi, 338 ; Guicciardin~ 338 ; Gaad-
tate Records, 97 ; attached to Business agni, 338 ; Lamberti, aoS, 1115, 395;
H ouses and to Guilds, 97· 98; employed Lamberti Simonetti, 371 ; Macei, 445,
on Ships and Embassies, 98 ; Position in 475 ; Manfredi, 445 ; Medici, 445 ;
Court and Dress of, 100; Notary-Wool Mercan~, 479; Mozz!, ~.: Nerli, 445_:
Merchants, 100, IOI, 1011; Numbers of, Pandolfint, .338 ; Panaatícha, 338 ; PaW,
1011 31a: 338 : PegolottiL. ~S ; Peoori, 338 ;
Pilb, 371, 477; t'ltta, 3311; Podesta
OAK·TREES and Bark for Tanning, 38o, 381 (Bargello); 731 85, ~· 333: 337, 476,
Oaths of AllegiMce, la, 130 : do. ofSyndics, 71 479 ; QuaratesJ, 31a ; Riccarda, 312o 3311 ;
Observances, Religious, 396, 501, soa, so3 Ruct>Jl~i, ~· ; 5erristori•. 3311: Sigi, 445;
Occult Sciences, a37 Soldanten, 445 ; Stroua, 73, 31a, 338,
Odds and Ends, 34S 483 : Tornaquinci, 445 ; Torrigiani, ~ ;
Olfences against Guild Statutes, 7a "toschi, 477; Tosingh~ 448; Uguccaoni,
Officers of Justice, 41 86, 338; Vecehietti, 44S· 4S8; Vecchio,
Oil-Merchants and Provision Dealers, 3114·401 55·73· 86.94. 333. ~337·479.481
Old-Ciothes Dealers, 61 "Palio' 11 (Horse-Races), 491
Olive-Cultivation, 390, 391 ; Export of Oi!, " Palia e Maglio" (Bat and Ball), 48o
391, 398 " Pallesehi, .. The, 5111
Olivero, Wool-workers of, 141 Palmieri, Matteo, Apothecary and Poet, 241,
"Olonensis Constitutiones" of Lothair, 3S 266
Oltrarno, 147, 162, 164, 22a " Palone 11 " (Rackets), 451, 481
" Opera dei Duomo," 327 Pandolfini, Agnolo, "Peaceful Citizen," 4011
"Opera Fabbrica" of Comacine Guild, 322, Papal Sc:hism, The, 181
32tt 327 Paper-makers, 262
Operataves, 54. 290 Parehment, Preparation of, 381, 38a; Prices
"Oratorio di Santa Maria della Tromba." 447 of, 3811
Orbetello, aoth-stretching Grounds at, I6S Paris, Central "Calimala" Ageney, 133
Order of Precedence of Guilds, 42, 51, 58, 61 Parte Guelfa," " La, 54, ss, S9l 1119, aoS, 31116
"Ordinamenti della Giusti.zia," so. 5I Passavanti, Frate, on the umguage of
"Oricello," or Wbite Moss, 1a3, tas, 126, IaS Florence,448
Origin of Florence, 3 Pastry-Cooks, 441; do., kinds of, 441, 442
Origin of Guilds, 33 Patchers, Cloth, 1a3, 128, 130; do. of Skins.
Orlando, Monte, 141 and Hides, 378

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 " Paterici," The, 514, .549 de' Stefanescbi, 97 ; Pagano di Porcari,
Patrons of Sük Industry :-Pbilip, Duke of xo8; Otto da Mandola, 147; Jacopono
Burgu»dy, 232; Por. Paul III., 232: Rangoni da Modena, 325 ; Rubaconte
Henry VII. and VII . of England, 234 ; da Mandola, 486
Filippo Maria, Duke of Milan, 234 Poliziano, Ambrogini, Angelo, Scholar, 18
Pawn Office, Public, 911, 573. 574, 575• 576: do. PoUaiuoli, The, Painters, etc., 87, 340, 477
Broken', :n5, 2119; do. Shops, 573. 574. "Popolani," The, 7, 14. 36, 37, 39> 45, so, 99
575· 57Ó • • "PopoloGnasso," W• 54
Payment of Accounts, 145; do. of Silk Guild, do. "Minuto, 37, 45, 54. 58, 279, 'P/
212 do. " Potente," 37
Pazzino de' Pa.zzi (Second Crusade), 481 do. "Le Bene," 53 ·
Peasant Dress, 287, 2119 do. '' 11 Primo," 323
Peasant Farmen.l.. 386, 387 : do. Boy of "Popoleschi," The, 37
Donatello (" uavid "), 388 Population of Florence, 555
Pegolotti, Balducci, "Manuale" (Silk), 221, " Por Santa Maria," Guild of. See "Guild
233 of Silk," 1104-235
People, Guüd of the Market, 393 Porta, Bartolommeo della, 477
Peretola, S~ns Ground at, ~~ do. Bernardino Della (First ... Defender of
Perfec:tion, "Counsels of (Gtucciardini), 911 the Guilds "), 48
Perfnmery, asa: Count Magolotti on, 258: Porto, 11, River Laíldlng-stage, 117
Perfumes,259• 26o, 261,263 Porto Pisano, 27• 147, x6o, 161
~ia, Commercial Treaty witb, 23 Porto Venere, 26
Peter s Pence, x8x " Potenze, Le" (Local Authority), 54
Petrarch, Agent of Calimala, 134: do. Letter Potters, 59· 2Ó3
to Boccaccio about Florentines, 15: do. Ponches and Purses (Scarselle) Maker , •~
apprenticed to Guild of Doctors and 4o8
Apotbecaries, 245, 266 Poulteren, 397
Pewterers and Pewter- smiths, 64, 263, Poveri Vergognosi," "I, 551 1 552
Prato, Commercial Treaty wtth; 109, 141
Pb~ Culture of Florentines, 402 Preaching Friars, 198
•• Piagnoni, .. Tbe, tCJS, 512 Precedence of the Guildl, 42, 51, 58, 61 ; do.
PlAzztt - Sqnares connected with the of Magistrates, 79
Guüdl :-d'Alessandri, 163; deU' An- Premiums on Cargoes, 30
nunziata, 482; de' Brunelleschi, 483: di "Prestanza," The (Income-Tax), 190
Cipolli, 483; de! Duomo, 424, 488 ; de' "Presto," The, 513, 574. 575· 57Ó
Guidici, 84; de' Macei, 372 ; de' Marroni, Prices :-General Trading, 167 ; Raw Silk,
488 ; de'Mozzi, 486; dell' Or San Michele, Woven Silk,. etc., 228
486 ; Sant' Andrea, 356, 450 ; Santa Printen and Printing (uoder tbe Guüd of
Croce, 301, 481, 491, 543: San Giovanni Doctors and Apotbecarles), 266
Battista, 337· 479· 490· 514, 520; San Printers and Publishers, 267
Marco, 48o; Santa Maria N~~· 58, "Prioristi," Io'amilr Recordl, as7
337, 48x, 491, 543; San Sptnto, 164; Priors :-" Three,' 41, 46; their Signatures,
della Signona, 55· 86, 163, 337• 475, 478, f.'.õ "Six," 48, 49: "Nine," 55· 70;
479; deUa Travi, 141, 154 ' Eight," 58 ; do. of the Guildl, 69, 70.
Fl~. C1otb, xa3, 128, 131 71, 7a, 18a ; Secretary to the Priors, 96 ;
Fllatus, Leontius, Professor of Greek, 16 Priors of Liberty, 182
Pisa, Commercial Treaty with, a3, as, 30: Priso!', Public (Stinche), »7 ; Date of Erec-
Importance of Pisa to Florentine Mer- tton, 89 : Fates of Piisonen, 96 ; P1ace
chants, 24 ; Free Impons to Florence, of Detention for Irregular Guild Mem-
as ; Restrictions removed from Floren- bers, 122
tine Commerce, 25; Capture of do., 25 Proconsul, The, 78, 95

i
Pisani, The, Sculptors, 312, 332· 519 Probibitions, Code of, 49; General do., 73 :
Pitti, Bnonaccorso, Chronicle of, 21 Action of ForeiJD States concernin~ do.,
Plague, "The Black Death," 201 ; do. of 137 ; do. affecttng Dress, 288 ; Pohcy of
I42Óo 509 do., x67, ar8
~antations ofWood, 332 Propert:y, Conditlons of Landed, 392· 393
Pledges, 155 Prospenty of Florence, 199, ss6. 557
Podesta, The, President of Repnblic, 48 ; Protection of Materiais, x36; do. of Work-

I always a Foreigner1 and why, 48, 74,

76 ; Supreme Magtstrate, 8o ; Council
of do., 81; Household of do., 81. Some
men, 153; do. of Wool and Woollen
Cloth, 1~5; do. of Silk, 215
Pncci Antoruo, 276 ; Language of Mercat~

I Prominent Podestas : - Gualfredotti Vecchio, 448; Stanzas upon Activities of

Grasselli da Milano (First Podesta), 8o: Mercato Vecchio, 448, 449
Count Guido Novelli, 42; I due Frati Pulchi, Luigi, Court Poet, 267
Gaudenti, 43; King Charles of Anjou, Punishment of Delinquent Guüd Member..

I 44; Duke Walter of Atbeas, 53; Pietro 72, n6

1.
t

le
Pune, Tbe PQblic, 559 Rottes, Jobannes, Müer d TapeltrJ, 1611

QuAC::X·DocTolll a6a, ...S S...CCHII:'n'l, F~. "Tbe Ecbo ol tbe

Qualific:ations for~ and Suraeoat, :a39; Old llofarilet," 448; on J~Liti·
do. Notaries, 95 pnts, go, 93 i Oll X.0.. of , 196 i
Quartieri, Guidicc CiYile dei, 8a 011 Uturer~' PraQ!c:es, 196 ; oo
.. Q\IMtordici, .. Tbe, 3C'4 Remediei. !a46 ; on Drea, 1193; . on
Butc:bers' Tric:ks, 305 ; on Good Eating,
RAC& ol TUICIUI8, 3 . 376; on tbo LancuiiP ol tbe Marlret•
Rack, Tbe, for BanlàJII DeliDqaiDts, 175- ,..a, on Hypoc:rites, SOl ; oo Bccaars,
Raphael Santi, " Book of tbe World,' 1171 ;
do. •• School of tbe Wodd," 540 Sad~. :178. 383· 4011-409
Ratepayen, s6sa Sad4lers, Ilealera in Fuc:y Artic:les, :a65
Ravenoa, Trade Corporatloaa at, ~ i FIMlUI- Saintly Pat~ soo
lÍCII of Doctors and Apothecanee, •YI SaJaries ol 8IUIJu'upQ, 18~
Recípes ror Dying Silk,-., ele. i do•. Doctors', Salemo, Faculty of Medic:ine and 5urJery,
Sl.f6, . 2'g
~ ~·7.· deltroJed, 8
Rec:tora of Guilda, ~ 77
Sales, Spurlous, of F"anilbed Ootb, 115 ;
Aonual do. of Woolleo Ooch, 164; do.
Ref~. Faab1011able, 575 or Foociata& forbidden, 396, 391
Reglsters or Guilda,71 ; do. or eonncu. 164 Sallc:eto, GIJilielmo di, a famous l)Urpem,
Religious ObRnances, SOl, ,soa, S03 1147
Remedie& in Si~ Docton', 1145, 846 Salt-Men-hants, 3'18 ; Mooopoly of do., 451 ;
Remoant Dealers, 346 Treatmeot or Salt, 40:1
Reprilals or Reta8átioo in 1)ade, 301 31 i Salutati, Colucc:io, CbanQellor oi tbeRepqblic:,
San~-makers, 316, 3'18
Disputes coaceming do., 32
Residences of Coosula of Guilda :-CaWmala,
.p, 55· xo6, 138; Jud&a and NOW'iel, Sauovini, Tbe, Sculptors, 340
8o, 86; "Wool,' 164; Bukers anel Sano, Andrea del, Painter, 'STSo 477
Molle)'..Cbangers, I7S.• 179; ." Silk," 11J7, Savonarola Girolamo, 198, 395. s-. 574;
:ao8; Doctora and Apotbec:aries, 16ct, :142 i Books by, :a67
Furriers and Skinners, 1176 ; Butcbers, Sbirri (Po=t:
1198 i Blackamitbs, 3Il ; Shoemalun, Sc:abbard- 6o, 3'f8, 405
!106; Mutcn of Stooe and Wood, 331 ; Sc:aftold·builders, 335o 338, 4117
~etail Clotb Dealers ud Lineo Manu- Sc:ale&-makors, :113
fac:turera, 346, · 3s6; Wme Mercbuu, "Sc:arlatto d' Oritiillo,'' 1117: do. "di CoJpo,"
364 ; Jon.l{éepers, YJI ; Tanners, m; la,' ; • • Scarlattini n 12'J
Oil-Mercbanu ud General Provilion "Sc:anelle" (Poucbes), 408
Dealers, 395 ; Saddlers, 4116 ; Lock- Scbole Aniwn, 33, 35 : do. Militum, ss ; do.
smiths, 411 ; Armourera, 4114; Carpenten, of Comac:ine Guild, 3:12o 324 ; do. at
- i Balun, 438 : ud of tbe Ulliciali Westmioster, 341
Forestiere, 86 Scieoc:es, Occ:ult, :131
Retail Clotb Dea1ers, Early, 64 Sc:olari Filippo ~li-Commercial Trateller
Retall Clotb Dea1ers, Guild of, 343·367 : do. for "Calimala ' Guild, ai
Llat of Gooda on Sale at Sbopa of Mem- Sc:rap-iron Dealers, 59. 64
bers, 349· 3SO " Sc:rivani," Writers of Manuscripts, :a68
Retall Dealt:rs and Drapers (Silk), :113 Semifoote conquered, and Comlllerc:ial Treaty
Retai1era of Sw~elries, 59 witb, 157
Do. Slll&ll Lineo Articles, S16ca Sellatora of tbe City, 41
ReYenue, State, bow Raiaed, 190 Senteocc of Deatb, 8o
Revision of Guild Statutes, 51 Sessions of Courts of Justicc, 87
Ricb Meo, Some, 562 Settignano, Desiderio da, Sculptor, 340
"Ringbiera," Tbe (Public: Platform), 94· 334 Severity of Judicial Seoteoc:es, 88
Ri.sing of tbe '' Ciompi," 54, etc. Sbambles, Butcbers', 301
Rivalry betweeo Guilds of "Calimala" and Sbearers, Wool, 149
.. Wool," IIS Sbestb and Casemakers, 1163
Robber Captaio~ 36, 4115 Sbeep-fanning, 154
Robbia, Della, Tbe, and Glued Terra-c:otta, Sbeep.sbeareta, S(i, 3'18
:110. :a8c}, 3111, 340· 389. 4:16, SOI Sbieldmakers, 383, 405 ; Kinda of Sbields.
Roll of Matriculations, ~liest, 107
Roman Castrum, 4 ; do. Road, tbe P'lam- Sbip~m Private Mercbut, 29 ; do. Canal,
lnian, 4 161
Rome, Collegium et U oiversitu, 3, 36 Sboemalren,fl78,316,317os8S
Rope and Hemp Mercbants, 6o Sbops, oo Ponte Vec:c:hio, 189; do. Apotbe-
Roai Bank, J8:a caries, :aS(i : do. Retail Ooda Dealen,
" Rota," Giudici alia, 83, 84 sS6; do. Wine Mercbants, 3611 : do.

o, 9 ítízed by Goog [e
 Goldsmlths, 46s ; do. Gil Poate alie " Sportello," The 93· 114. ,SCII
Gruie, 486 Spurs," " To win ~·_.;,;'" ~
Sbo~. FloreDce a Nlllioa oi, 13 Standard Coin, The~. IIS
Shri~~e~, Street, ,5114 Stllle Rewa-, how ralsed, I9D
Sllriakaae oi IndiJIUies, 6f Scadoaera, :163. 348. ~
Sieae oi~. Tbe, 389· s63 STATUTKS :--IUYiaíoã of Guild Stalutes,
Sieila, Commercial Treaty ~ith, 113o ,o, 41, SJ ; Neri Berri's CollllDissiOD OD do., 51 ;
77• lf71, I73o _, oi the "Uni18'Sity of Commerce," ~~;
Sieftmalten, a63 of the Three Subordinate (" Ciompl ")
Sipatures of C.onmls, 77 ; do. oi Nowies, G1ülds, 57 ; ol tbe Guilds pllerally, 78 ;
9S ; do. or Relail Clolh Dealera. M1; Wriuen m J..atila (Gr.ler GuüdB), ,e;
do. Oil Men:hants and Geoen1 ProVISIOD do. with respect to Galnblinf, 91
Mercbants, 396 "Statuto, 11, di' ~·" 8~
•• Signoria," Thc, so. SS. 66, 13; abolisbed, "Statuto Veoc:hio, 11, oi Gulld oi Siik,
117 • 1109
SJLK. :-Industry tntroduced from the East, Stinche, The (Public Prilon), 89, 1•, 331 ;
111114 ; El&abliahed in ltaly ud Slcily, IIOS; Fates of Priso~~~n, 90
Fint FlcnDtine Si1k Mercbant. IIOS ; " Stocks," The Public, iSS
Silk·worm fint noticed, IIOS ; Mulberry Stone-cutting, tbe Earltest Cnút, 323 ; do.
Trees in the Con\lldo, aos ; lndnstry Masons, ~S; Kiads ol Stoae, 33I, 3311 ;
lesa tbriviug than Wool,II06; Raw Sllk, do. throwing, Street·Bon. 4.W
1106 ; ManUÍIICl\IJ'en, 1106 ; Earlielt J>at. Story of Berta the F1owei Sellér, 73 ; or
terna for Teztures, 1106; Profits on Spun Giudetto ~Torre. aas: or v~ de'
Silk, 1106; Archives of Early Corpora- Buondelmonll, 1194; of St Elegtus, 3116;
tion, suo; ClaslesofWodters, au, &I6;
Sabordinate C~m, 213; Workpeople's
or Giova.nai del T-.
"Fat Carpeuter," 131:
J18 : or tbe
Ginewra di
Fees, lii3; Allicd Trades, 213 ; l>eálen N"tccolo degli Amidei, 447 ; of tbe Three
in Raw Silk; ••3: WuehOUMS, ai~; Blind Beaars. 532
Waps, 21S; Lucx:a Worb:n settle tn Straw ud Felt Hat Maken, a6a
Flonoce, aJ6; Lombardy Silk-dyers Straw and Hay Dealen, 3911
do., 8I6 ; lruportance or Mulberry Street-paving, 331
Trees, 1117 ; Legislation conCli!I'1ÜDI{ the Strikes, Workmen'a. I66
Cultivation of do., 217 ; Lucca Silk- String, Cord, ud Rope Malun, a63
Dyen settle in F1orence, 2I7 ; Suitable StriDp, Malun of Catgut, and Musical In-
Land for Mulberry, aiS ; Sir Richard struments, a63
Dallington's Testimony, 218, &19J 113S; "Studio F'IOI'elltino," I 5 ; No«aries at, 98 i
Imporu of Mulberry Lea-, 219; Fever Students at, :1111
due to do., 219; Im~ of Sillc Stuft' WNven, 61
Cocoons, 1119; Best Raw Si1k from Spún, Summary or Commercial o-, a81
aa1; Silk WorkersemigratetoOltruuo, Sumptuary Laws, 90, 99
aaa ; Velvet Plush, aaa; Sarcenet Superstibons, Popular, ,S06. !P"/. $1011
diiCOuraged, aa3 ; "Manual for Silk SupperClubs, 374; The "F1orentine Supper,"
Workera," aa3-aa8; Recipes for Dyeing 315
Silk, 1124, etc.; Tables of Raw Silk, aa6 ; Surgeons, Famous, 247• 249; Numbers of,
do. of Winding Silk, aa6; Sizes of Silk 243· 249 : Fees, 249
Pieces, 227 ; Payments for Silk Weaving, Surgery in Middle Ages, 236; Treatile oa
2117 ; W eights of Silk Pieces, 2117 ; Prices do., 247
of do., ll:l1, 228; Number of Silk Work· Suneyors of Weights and Meanres, 354
shops, a33 ; do. of Operatives, 233; Silk Swordbelt Maken, 378
Stufl's exportcd, 833 ; Signs of Dec:ay of Syndics, 41 ; do. of Guilds, 71 ; their Oathl,
Silk lndustry, a~s; Work Girla' Song, 71 ; seU Defaulters' Goods, 88
235 ; Silk Càrding-combs, makers of,
r a63
Skins ud Furt..Treatment of, :179. aSa
Slaughterera, Kestrictions 38ainst, 301
TAPI, Mosaicist, 476
"Taglia," The, 93 ·
Taüors, Silk, 61, 6s. ar3t 346; Re,ulations

I Slaves and Sla.very, 563, 564; Frecdom ol

Slaves,,S66
SUppel'·makera, 278
Soao.boilen, 394t sn. 512
concemin~, -uS, 349
" Taking the · .r4as
TalamODe, Port or,' acquired from Siena, as
Talenti, Buo~ Architect, 464
I Soc:tiii Societies (" Bri te "), 54
"Societa delle Torre. r37
Soldier's Kit, A, ~
Talenti, FrancellllO, Ulpo Maestro, 31119
Tannen, Guild of, 376-384; do. Regulations,
319o ~; Outfit of, 38o; Metbods of
·

I Spagnuoli, Cafpella degli, 1169

"Spec:ch' "I (Taxiug Books), 190
Spindles,~. 355; Whorls on do., 31S
spinnen, Wool, 149
Tannmg, 3llo. JIII; Use of Marsh·
mallows and Oak-bark, 311
Tapestry, 168
Tares, 145
I
1.

,. . ..
gle
620 INDEX
Tariffs oo Frei«bts, d T~. Marriage, 293
T11110, Bernardo, Architect, 464 Truss and Suspendera Malters, 1163
TaYel'll Keepers, 361 Turin Collegium et Scbola, 35
Tues or "Gabelle," 59; "Arbltrio," 192; Tuscan Race, .3; do. "Fe'f'er," 481 .
'' Catasto," 192 : ''"Decima," 192; •• Pres- Tuscany :-Climate of, li ; Geographical
tanu.," 190 ; " Monte Comune," 191, Position, 3; Englisb Tra~ers in, 18 :
194; do., on Silver, 66: do. on Agriculture of, 358, 385: Peasants of,
Commodities at tbe Gates, 188 ; do. on 388: Sheep of, us; Wines of, 359· 36s~
Cattle, 301 .366
Twme-pullers, 1194
Taxing·masters of Funiers, 278
Teacbers of Medicine, Early, 239 TYPes of F1orentines, 388, 389
"TenofUberty," s6
Tennis Bat and BaU-makers, 116~ _ UGOLINI BANK, 181
Theodolinda, Queen of tbe Lombardl, 321 s. Uberti, Farinata de«ll, 22
Thieves and Rogues, 487 Uberto da Lucca, Fíési Captain of the People.
Thomas, William, and bis Diary, 18 8ll
" Tit· Bits," Butchers', 302 Ufticiali Forestiere, 14: Residence of, 86
Titles of Guild Members, 52 "Umiliati," or "Humble Fatbers," 8, 145,
Timber, Kinds of, for Buildings, 332 146, 147, 148, 411s. 497• ~· 499: sup-
Time Uiuits for Consignments, 187 pressed, 148 ; Manufactortes of, 162, 2I6-
Tolls, Dopna or Gate, 299 Undertakers (Apothecariea), :asf>
Tools, Carpenters', 4116 Universities, FourTrade, incoi-porated under-
Torkington's, Sir Richard, Journey, 18 Cosimo 1., 62. I. St Peter's Gate, 63t
Torrigiano, Piero, Sculptor, 341 305, 438; 11. Master Workers in Leatber.
Torture, in Extreme Cases, 89 6J, 316, 3711. 406 ; 111. Artizans, 63t 310,
Toscanelli, Paolo, Explorer, 1165, ll7ll 415, 419, 432 : IV. Linen-Drapers, 64,
Totila overruns Tuscany, 4 357· 364
Toucbstones, SÓ7 Universitr of Florence, 15; Statutes of, 16;
Tournaments, 57, 403 : do. at Peret~la, 423 Matrículation, 16; ConditionsofStudent·
Trad~ Customs, :ao, 29, 51 : do. DISputes, sbip, 16 : Students and Money-lenders,
321 : do. Routes, :ao, 29o 16o 18 ; Rector of, 18 : Roll oi Members, 18 :
Traders, ntb and 12th Centuries, 39o 40. 41, Sumptuary Laws, 18 : Distinguisbect
141 ; do. expelled from France, 136 Graduates, 18
Trading Companies :-General, 51 : Creden· U pholsterers, 383
tials of do., 71 ; Acciauoli, 191, 200, Urbino, Duke F"ederigo d', 402
215: Antelesi, :aoo : Bardi, 130, 4Ó7; Usaoze di Calimala," "Le Buone, ns
Buonaccorsi, 200 : Cenchi, 130 : Cercbi, Usurions lnterest, 195: F. Saccbetti and G.
132 : Coccbi, 200 ; Corsi, 234; Corsini, Boccaccio on, 196 ; Efforts to Cbeck, 197
200; F~baldi, 130, ~ ; Medici, :ao~,
~ ; Nt:~b, 130 ; PuZ1, 130; P~, V ACCA, Torre de!, 479
130o 185, 191, 195. 200 ; Salembent, 199 ; Valuers of F1ax, 354. 355
Scali, 130, 131; Segni, 235; Uzzano, Values :-Importa of Foreign Cloth, 135 : do.
200 Woollen Manufactures, x6g ; do. Dresaed
Traditions of tbe Mercato Vecchio, 454, 461 Furs and Skins, ll82, d3 ; do. Wine-
Travellers, Commercial, 20, 159 lndustry, 367
Travelling Companies, 136 Varnisbers, 61, 4116
Treasurers of Guilds, 120 Vegetable-Dealers, 1196, 457
Treaties, Commercial :-Areuo, 30 : Bologna, Vegetables, Kinds ot, in tbe Market, 457, 45a
23, 107 ; Capraia, 107 ; Cbieftains of tbe Veilmakers, ll:fl• 1163
Maremma, 23 ; Faenza, ll3 ; Fano, 30 : Venice, Coll~um et Scbola, 35: Commercial
Genoa, ll51 116, 30, 31 ; Lucca, 23, 30· Treaty Wttb, 30• ~-~
172 ; Lords of the Mugello, ll3, xo8 ; Verra, Carnucceo della, Distinguisbed Fur-
Lords of Trebbio, 6<), 71 ; Orvieto, .77• rier, :a76
207: Padua, 30 ; Perugta, ll3, 30: Pisa, Verroccio, Andrea de!, Sculptor, 312
23, liSo 30 ; Pogna, 68 ; Prato, 109, 141 ; Vespucci, Amerigo, Explorer, 213· S8ll
Rome, 77 ; Semifonte, 107 ; Siena, ll3, Vest and Doublet Makers, 213
30, i•· 77, 107, 17~, 207: Spoleto, 30 ; Vestments, Makers of Cburch. 213, 351, 355
Ventce, 30, 31 ; Vtterbo, 30: Volterra, Vtlt DltLL' ARTI-Business Streets :--Corso-
30· 207 degli Adimari, 99 ; Via dt!i[U Alfani,
Treatise on tbe " Arte della Seta," ll33 123, 141, 165 ; Borgo degli Albizzi,
Tribunal or Judgea, 77; Central do., 82: do. 163, 18s, 476, 491 : Corso degU Amidei,
of tbe Sestieri, 83, 92 : " alla Rota," 83 : 475 ; Via deU' Arciveccordo, 372 ; Vta
della Mercanzia, 84·87 : of the Guilds, degli Arauieri, 168 : Via di Baccano, 99·
8788 474; Via de' Bardi, 147, 185, 478:
Tri~ers. 302 Chiasso del Buco, 428 : Cbiaqo de•
Trouch Makers, .~9. 4116 Baronelli, 277 ; Via de' CacciauoU, 475 ;

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 INDEX 621
V~a deUe Caldai, x6a ; VJa di Calimala, Wearing Skins and F1U11, a83, 537
99· xo6, 107, 122, 474 ; VJa de' Calzaiuoii, Weavers of Silk and of Cloth of Goid,
474, 475, 476; Via del Castelluccio, 1113 ; 1113
Vm de' Cavalieri, 371 ; Via dei Cimatori, Weddings, a6x i do. Cassone, 393; do. BeUs,
x6a, 476; Vm de' Cerchi, x8s, 476 ; V1a .4117. 488
de' Chiara, x6s ; Vm deUa Colonua, 1115 ; Wesg~ts and Measures :-Wooi, xaa ; do.,
Vm dei Corso, 476; Chiasse de' Erri, Stlk, 11117 ; do.. Bakens, 4411
478 ; Via de! Fuco1 477 ; Via de' Ferre- Well Rope and Gearing Makers, a6a
Yeechi, 478 ; Vm aei Garbo, 156, 474 ; Whorls on Spindle, 315
Via de' Ginori, 141 ; Via di Gora, 147; Will, A Strange, 66
Borgo de' Gn;ciz 185 ; Vicoi~ de1 Guanto, Windows (House), 471
476; Vm de Lambenescht, 1177, 4116; Wmes, and Wme Merchants :-Guild of,
Vicolo de1 Leoncino, 476; Via di Lontan- 358-367 i Sell;ers of, 36~; Shops of,

e;
mone, 371; Vm Mau!~ x6x, 164 ; Via 3611 ; Regulattons and Measures, 3611,
de' Malcontenti, 5114; VIa della Morta, 363 ; Distinguished Wine Men:hants,
+f7 i 'V_"Ja di Melloae, 476 ; Borgo ~·Og­ Amount consumed in F1orence,
ntssantt, 147. x6a, 1116, 456, 491 ; VJa alla ; Pric:es of, 367 ; Foreign Wines, 370 ;
~üa, 372 ; Via de' Pandoifini, 8o; Via iDds of Native Wine, 371
de Pellicc:iai, x6a, aSa, 477; Vm alia Per- Woad, or Guado, 1115
g~la, 141 •. x6s, 477; Via de' ~·. 185; Women :-Disabilitles of, 90: do. and
ta
V dei Piaua, 3711; Borl!O de Pintí, 41 ;
Via de' Pittori, 475; Viá di Por Santa
Notaries, 99 i "Require theStick I" 91;
Matriculation of, 353
Maria, 99t 474• 486; Vm del1a Porta Woodwork :-4117, 4a8, ~i Kinds ofWood,
Rossa, 99 ; Vm de' Renai, 486 ; Chiasse ~i Polishing do., ~: lniaying do.,
de' Ricci, 478 ; V1a del Proconsoi2t 79. 430; Famous Workens, 430; Wooden
1111. ;•Sant' Ecidio, 165. 477; San r"elice Shoe-makers, 316 ; Master Wood-
In Piaua, 16a i 5an Gallo, 5114; Borgo cuttens, 3115
San Jacopo, x6a; San Piero Gatolino, WooL :-Carders, Association of, 53, 68;
x6s :. San Romeo, 3711 ; Fondaco San Dyens, do., 53 ; Sortens, do., s6 ;
Spmto, x6a; Vm de11a Scala, 543; Wasbers, do., 149; Weavers, do., 149;
Vicoio della Seta, lii5, 2llll ; Via de' Winders, do., 149; the Staple lndustry
Servi, Ili:J. 141~ x6~~J·; Via de' Spadai, of Florence, xo6; F'ust Notlces of
4114; VJa degb s I, 370· 3711, #7 ; Woollen lndllltry, 139, 140 ; Eariy
Via de' Tavoiini, 176; Corso de' Tin- Trade in Wooi, 141; Klnds of do., IS(I,
tori, 16a ; Via de' Tomabuoni, 85 ; Via 157, 16o; Suppiy of Native do., 154;
delle !or:::~kta dell' UcceUo, 165 i Prices of Raw do., x~s. a6o; Wool
Vm di V , 3711• 437 ; .Vm de from British Monastenes, Istí ; Wooi
Veccbiettl, 478 ; Vm de' Velluti, 2llll ; Men:hants in London and elsewhere,
VJa deUa ViJD&t x6a, 488, 491 159; Bienniai Wool Sales, 164; Haura
Vallani, Gicmuuu :-Testimony to Wooilen of Workers in Wooi, 73. 114. 154; For-
lndllltry, x6x, 1611, x63; to Banking bidden do., 153; Numbers of Wooi-
Businesa, x8x, saox ; to Dress, etc., workers, 163; Methods of Working in
Wool, 149; Kinds of Woollea Cloth
Vinci~do da, x8; do. ShiP-Canal, x6x i 144, 161 ; Weights or do., 144; Ann~
do. " Book of the Worid," 1171 ; do. Value of Wooilen Manufactures x63;
" Schooi of the Worid," 340 ; do. with Wagt'S of Workens, 153; Foreign Work-
Peasant Models, 388 ; and Little Birds, people attracted, x6a; System of Wages,
457 • r ~ x65; Weights and Measures, xaa; Dues
ViDe, Cultivatton o the, 3""1 upon Warehousing Wooi, x6x ; Articies
Viutqe, 365, :tJ6 DSed in WooUen Manufactures, x67; Son-
VJSitors, fnflwr: of, 368, 370 ing and Beating forbidden, 154; Wooi-
Viterbo, Commercial Treaty with, 30 ien-Cloth Men:hants in England, 159 ;
"Voce TOIC&II&," 461 Difference hetween British and Spanish
Voiterra, Commercial Treaty with, 30, S107 Woollen Cloth, x6~; Declineoflndustry,
Voting, Rules of, II9 x67 ; G. Villani s Testimony to tlie
Prosperity of lndustry, 161, 163; Guiid
WAGJtS of Wooi-workens, 153 i do. of Silk- of Wooi, lhe F'tnt Trade Corporation of
Workers, 1115, 1117 F1orence, 141 ; do. not to Clash wlth
Wali Hangers, 383 .. Calimala," 143
War, Twelve Captains of, 3115 Work and Workers :-Ma~ter Workmen 67;
Warrior's Kit, 41111• 4:13 ClassesofWorkmM, xaa, 1113; Emigra-
Watching Streets, xaa tion of Workens forbidden, 135 ; Charit-
Wax-modelling, 339; do. Moulding, 334; able Care of Workpeo~le, 537; Workers
do. for Locks, 4111 ; do. Chandiens, a6a in Metais, 3o8; Association of Workers
Weaith of Florenoe, stía. 563 in Goid and Silver, aa8; do. in Silk,an ;
Weapons, Kinds of, 417, 418 Silk Workgirls' Song, 1135

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