EFFECT OF AGGREGATE SHAPES ON

THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

BY

SHUAIBU, Mustapha Isah

2007/1/28170EC

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B. ENG) DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY.

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, MINNA

NIGER STATE, NIGERIA.

OCTOBER, 2012

i
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project was carried out by me in the Department of Civil

Engineering under the supervision of Engr. S. F Oritola. Information and data obtained from

published and unpublished works of other people have been duely acknowledged

Shuaibu Mustapha Isah Signature/Date

Matric No: 2007/1/28170EC

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work, being submitted by SHUAIBU MUSTAPHA ISAH;

MATRIC NO: 2007/1/28170EC, has been supervised, read and met part of the requirement

for the award of Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng) Degree in Civil Engineering, Federal

University of Technology, Minna, Niger State.

Engr. S.F. Oritola Signature/Date

Project Supervisor

Engr. Dr. M. Abdullahi Signature/Date

Head of Department

External Supervisor Signature/Date

iii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty Allah for his infinite mercy, guidance and

protection granted to me throughout my research and degree program.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise and gratitude is due to Allah, the Lord of the world, the uncreated creator

and un-sustained sustainer for extending my life up till this time and for making it possible

for me to see this day that marks the successful completion of this project work. My ineffable

appreciation goes to my amiable and able supervisor in person of Engr. S. F. Oritola who

guided me through this project work. I pray to the Almighty to continue to guide, protect and

see him through in all his endeavors.

My sincere appreciation goes to the Dean School of Engineering Engr. Prof. S.

Sadiku, Head of Department Engr. Dr. M. Abdullah, Engr. Prof. O.D Jimoh, Engr. M.

Mustapha, Mal. A.O. Ibrahim, Mal. O. Aminullah, Mal. I. O Jimoh, Mal. Mahmud, Mal.

Aliyu, Mr. R. Adesiji, Dr. P. N. Ndoke, Engr. S.S Kolo, Mall. M. Kudu, Mr. O James, Dr. T.

Y. Tsado, the Lab attendant Mall. Umar and the entire staff of the department.

May I also register my profound gratitude to my beloved parents Late Alh. Isah

Shuaibu and Hajiya Hussaina Shuaibu for their love, care, support and encouragements, May

Allah grant him an eternal rest. My beloved sister Munirah Isah Shuaibu for her support, my

guardians; Alh. Sirajuddeen Shuaibu and Alh. Muhammad Lawal Shuaibu for their support

and encouragement, my loved ones; Jamaluddeen, Kamil, Jamila, Raihanati, Nazeef, Barr.

Abdulganiyy, Alh. Abbas, Nurain and to my friends; Kehinde, Abubakar, Muhammad and

Isma’eel.

v
 ABSTRACT

This research work examines the effect of aggregate shapes (coarse aggregate) on the

workability of concrete using crushed granite rock (of angular, flaky, irregular and elongated

shape) mix ratio of [Link], water – cement ratio of 0.5 and sand as fine aggregate. The main

properties of concrete examined in this work are workability and compressive strength. Tests

includes specific gravity test, bulk density test, moisture content, water absorption test and

aggregate impact value test on the aggregates. Slump and Compacting factor test on the fresh

concrete and also compressive strength test on the hardened concrete at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days.

The test result indicates that Angular shape coarse aggregate is more workable and have

higher compressive strength followed by flaky shape with appreciable workability but with

low compressive strength, irregular shape with very low workability but has good

compressive strength and then elongated with very low workability but has reasonable

compressive strength.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Pages

Title page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vi

Table of content vii

List of table xii

List of figures xii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of study 1

1.2 Need of study 2

1.3 Problem of statement 3

1.5 Aim and objectives 4

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 literature review 5

2.1 Aggregates 5

2.1.1 Basic characteristic of aggregates 6

2.2 Classification of aggregates 11

2.2.1 According to source 12

2.2.2 According to petrological characteristics 12

2.2.3 According to unit weight 12

2.2.4 According to sizes 13

vii
2.3.5 According to shapes 14

2.3 Granite aggregate for normal concrete 15

2.4 Workability of concrete 15

2.4.1 Significance of workability 17

2.4.2 Factor affecting workability 20

2.4.3 Measurement of workability 20

2.5 Compressive strength of concrete 27

2.6 Concrete mix design 28

2.6.1 Method of designing concrete mixes 28

2.7 Curing of concretes 29

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and methods 31

3.1 Sources of materials 31

3.2 Testing of materials 31

3.2.1 Specific gravity of test 32

3.2.2 Sieve analysis 33

3.2.3 Bulk density test 34

3.2.4 Moisture content test 36

3.2.5 Water absorption test 36

3.2.6 Aggregate impact value test 37

3.3 Mix design 38

3.3.1 Mix design for angular shape coarse aggregate 39

3.3.2 Mix design for elongated shape coarse aggregate 42

3.3.3 Mix design for irregular shape coarse aggregate 44

3.3.4 Mix design for flaky shape coarse aggregate 45

3.4 Batching 47

3.5 Concrete – mixing 47

viii
3.6 Moulding of specimen 49

3.7 Workability test on fresh concrete 49

3.7.1 Slump test 49

3.7.2 Compacting factor test 51

3.8 Test on hardened concrete 52

3.8.1 Compressive strength test 52

3.8.2 Dry density test 52

3.9 Curing of cubes 52

CHEPTER FOUR

4.0 Analysis and Discussion of result 52

4.1.1 Result of moisture content tests 53

4.1.2 Result of specific gravity tests 56

4.1.3 Result of sieve analysis tests 59

4.1.4 Result of Bulk density tests 62

4.1.5 Result of percentage porosity of aggregates 67

4.1.6 Result of percentage of void in aggregates 68

4.1.7 Slump test results 69

4.1.8 Result of compacting factor tests 70

4.1.9 Result of water absorption tests 72

4.1.10 Result of aggregate impact value 73

4.1.11 Result of compressive strength tests 74

4.2 Discussion of result 75

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and recommendation 80

5.1 Conclusion 80

5.2 Recommendations 80

ix
5.3 References 81

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Description and Classification of Aggregates According to Shape

Table 4.11 Result of Moisture Content Test of Aggregates

Table 4.12 Results of Specific Gravity Test

Table 4.13(a) Sieve Analysis Test of Fine Aggregate (sand)

Table 4.13(b) Sieve Analysis of Angular Shape Coarse Aggregate

Table 4.13(c) Sieve Analysis of Flaky Shape Coarse Aggregate

Table 4.13(d) Sieve Analysis of Elongated Shape Coarse Aggregate

Table 4.13(e) Sieve Analysis of Irregular Shape Aggregates

Table 4.14 Results of Bulk Density Test

Table 4.15 Results of Percentage Porosity of Aggregates

Table 4.16 Result of Percentage Void of Aggregates

Table 4.17 Slump Test Results

Table 4.18(a) Compacting Factor Test Result

Table 4.18(b) Summary of Slump and Compacting Factor Test

Table 4.19 Results of Water Absorption Tests

Table 4.110 Result of Aggregate Impact Value

Table 4.111 Comprehensive Strength Tests Results

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 4(f) Comprehensive Strength Graph

Fig 4(g) Slump Test Chart

Fig 4(a) Sieve Analysis of Sand

Fig 4(b) Sieve Analysis of Angular Shape Coarse Aggregate

Fig 4(c) Sieve Analysis of Flaky Shape Coarse Aggregate

Fig 4(d) Sieve Analysis of Elongated Shape Coarse Aggregate

Fig 4(e) Sieve Analysis of Irregular Shape Coarse Aggregate

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preamble

Concrete is one of the most versatile, economical and universally used construction

materials. It is among the few construction materials produced on the job by the user. To

know proper mix, it is important to identify the desirable properties and components to be

able to use the factors involved in producing concrete and the method employed in concrete

production.

Concrete can be cast in any desired shape and fashion and it’s therefore appreciable

for most building purposes. Its long life and relatively low maintenance requirement add to

its popularity. Concrete does not rot or decay and it is resistant to wind, water, rodents and

insects. It is a non-combustible material, making it fire resistant and able to withstand high

temperature.

Concrete is a mixture of aggregate and often controlled amounts of entrained air held

together by a hardened paste made from cement and water. Aggregate is a granular material

such as sand, gravel, crushed stones, blast furnace slay, and lightweight aggregate that

usually occupies approximately 60-70 percent of the volume of concrete. Aggregate as one of

the constituent of concrete, its proportion (especially the coarse aggregate) significantly affect

the workability of plastic concrete and also it durability, strength, thermal properties and

density of hardened concrete. An aggregate property such as shape has a significant effect on

concrete behavior especially on workability of a fresh concrete. Therefore the effect of

aggregate shapes on the workability of fresh concrete is an important factor in concrete mix

1
design. Shape of aggregate is an important characteristic of aggregate since it affect the

workability of concrete which in turn affect the strength of the hardened concrete.

The behavior of fresh concrete from mixing up to the compaction depends mainly on

the property called “workability”. Workability is defined in ASTM C 125 as the property of

fresh concrete that determines the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of

concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity. The term “manipulate” includes the early-stage

operation of placing, compacting and finishing,

Therefore in order to produce a concrete that is workable, the shape of the aggregate

is an important factor to be considered in order to achieve the desired workability.

1.2 Need for study

It is a well known that the shape of aggregate plays an important role in `shaping` the

properties of concrete yet, very little attention is given in controlling the shape characteristics

of aggregate, Shape is an integral characteristic as it affect the workability of concrete.

Hundred percent compaction of concrete is an important parameter for contributing to

the maximum strength of concrete. Lack of compaction will result in air voids whose

damaging effects on strength and durability is equally or more predominant than the presence

of capillary cavities. Hence, the need to know the effect of aggregate shapes on the

workability of concrete is imperative since it contribute to attaining good compaction of a

fresh concrete which in turn affect the maximum strength of concrete.

In recent times, Engineers and other stakeholders in concrete engineering have

develop interest in knowing the aggregate shape that will give a desired workability. It is on

this note that at the end of the study, the aggregate shapes and their respective effect on

workability of concrete mix using Portland cement will be determined and recommendations

2
will be made. For instance, aggregate shape that gives the highest workability will be

recommended for jobs where high workability concrete is required.

1.3 Scope of work

The study covers:

A. Selection of four different aggregate shape from granite rock (crushed rock)

B. Sieve the analysis for grading of aggregates

C. Physical properties test on aggregates

i. Specific gravity

ii. Water absorption

iii. Bulk density

iv. Moisture content

v. Impact value (Aggregate impact value)

D. Workability test on fresh concrete mix

i. Compacting factor test

ii. Slump test

E. Dry density test on the hardened concrete

F. Compressive strength of the hardened concrete

1.4 Problem statement

The workability tests carried out does not give complete details about workability as

more sophisticated apparatus have been developed e.g. delivery-chute torque meter, K-slump

test, slump rate machine etc which are not available at my disposal. Therefore, two tests on

workability will be carried out i.e. slump test and compacting factor test.

3
 In addition, round shape aggregate will not be used as it is impossible to obtain round

shapes aggregate from crushed granite rock.

1.5 Aims and Objectives

The main aim of this research work is to determine the effect of aggregate shapes on

the workability of concrete (i.e. fresh concrete).

The objectives of this research work are as follows;

i. To determine the workability of the fresh concrete.

ii. To determine the dry density of the concrete.

iii. To determine the compressive strength of the concrete.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Aggregates

Hydraulic cement concrete is cement and water pastes which aggregate particles are

embedded. Aggregate is a granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, blast-

furnace slay, and light weight aggregates that usually occupies approximately 60 to 75

percent of the volume of concrete. Aggregate proportion affects the workability of plastic

concrete and also the durability, strength, thermal properties and density of hardened

concrete. Aggregates properties known to have a significant effect on concrete behavior are;

i. Shape

ii. Surface texture

iii. Grading

iv. Strength

v. Deformation (toughness and hardness)

vi. Porosity

vii. Specific gravity

viii. Impurities

Aggregates have three main functions in concrete viz;

1. To provide a mass particle which are suitable to resist the action of applied loads

and show better durability than cement paste.

2. To provide a relatively cheap filler for the cementing material

3. To reduce volume of changes resulting from moisture changes during drying.

5
2.1.1 Basic characteristics of aggregates

(A) Shape of Aggregates

Particle shape is defined in terms of “compactness”, which is a measure of whether

the particle is compact in shape i.e. if it is close to being spherical or cubical as opposed to

being flat (disc-like) or elongated (needle-like) or angular (angularity) which refer to the

relative sharpness or angularity of the particle edges and corners. The higher a particle is in

compactness (The closer it is to a sphere or cube), the lower its demand for mixing water in

concrete and the lower the amount of sand needed in the mixture to provide workability.

More angular and less spherical coarse aggregate requires higher mixing water and fine

aggregate content to provide a given workability.

The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic since it affects the workability

of concrete. It is difficult to really measure the shape of irregular body like concrete

aggregate which are derived from various rocks. Not only will the characteristics of the

parent rock, but also the type of crusher used influence the shape of aggregates, e.g. the rock

available round about pane region are found to yield slightly flaky aggregates, whereas good

granite rock found in Bangalore will yield cubical aggregate, The shape of aggregate is very

much influenced by the type of crusher and the reduction ratio i.e. The ratio of size of

material fed into crusher to the size of the finished product. Many rocks contain planes of

parting or joining which is a characteristic of its formation. It also reflects the internal petro

graphic structure, As a consequence of these tendencies; selisks, slates and shales commonly

produce flaky forms, whereas granite, basalt and quartzite usually yield more or less equi-

dimensional particles. Similarly, quartzite which does not posses cleavage plane produces

cubical shape aggregate.

6
 From the stand point of economy in cement requirement for a given water/cement

ratio, rounded aggregates are more preferable to angular aggregates. On the other hand, the

additional cement required for angular aggregate is offset to some extent by the higher

strength and sometimes by greater durability as a result of the interlocking texture of the

hardened concrete and higher bond characteristic between aggregate and cement paste

(Shetty, 2004).

Flat particles in concretes aggregate will have particularly objectionable influence on

workability, cement requirement, strength and durability. In general, excessively flaky

aggregates make very poor concrete (Shetty, 2004).

One of the methods of expressing the angularity qualitatively is by a figure called

Angular Number as suggested by Shergold (1953). This is based on the percentage voids in

the aggregate after compaction in a specified manner. The test gives a value termed the

angularity number. The method of determination is described in IS: 2386 (Part 1) 1963.

A quantity of single sized aggregate is filled into metal cylinder of three liters

capacity. The aggregates are compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of void is

found out. The void can be found out by knowing the specific gravity of aggregate and bulk

density or by pouring water to the cylinder to bring the level of water up to the brim. If the

void is 33 percent the angularity of such particle is considered zero. If the void is 44 percent

the angularity number of such aggregate is considered 11. In other words, if the angularity

number is zero, the solid volume of the aggregate is 67 percent and if angularity number is

11, the solid volume of the aggregate is 56 percent. The normal aggregates which are

suitable for making the concrete may have angularity number anything from zero to 11.

Angularity number zero represents the most practicable rounded aggregates and angularity

7
number 11 indicates the most angular aggregates that could be tolerated for making concrete

not so unduly harsh and uneconomical.

Murdock (1960) suggested a different method for expressing the shape of aggregate

by a parameter called angularity index “fA’’.

3 fH
Angularity index fA= +1.0
20

Where fH is the angularity number

There has been a lot of controversy on the subject whether the angular aggregate or

rounded aggregate will make a better concrete. While discussing the shape of aggregate, the

texture of the aggregate also enters the discussion because of its close association with the

shape. Generally rounded aggregate are smooth textured and angular are rough textured.

Some engineers prohibits the use of rounded aggregate on the plea that it yields poor concrete

due to the lack of bond between the smooth surface of the aggregate and cement paste. They

suggest that if at all the rounded aggregate is required to be used for economic reasons; it

should be broken and then used. This concept is not fully justified for the reason that even

the so called the smooth surface of wind aggregates is rough enough for developing a

reasonable good bond between the surface and the submicroscopic cement gel but the angular

aggregate are superior to rounded aggregates from the following two points of view:

(1) Angular aggregates exhibits a better interlocking effect in concrete which property

makes it superior in concretes used for roads and pavements.

(2) The total surface area of rough textured angular aggregate is more than smooth

rounded aggregate for the given volume. By having greater surface area, the

angular aggregate may show higher bond strength than rounded aggregates, the

higher surface area of angular aggregate with rough texture requires more water

8
 for a given workability than rounded aggregates. This means that for a given set

of conditions from the point of view of water/cement ratio and the consequent

strength, rounded aggregate gives higher strength (Shetty, 2004).

(B) Grading

Grading of an aggregate defines the proportions of particles size in the aggregate.

The size of aggregate particles normally used in concrete varies from 0.15mm to 37.5mm.

Generally, fine aggregate or sand has particles majority of which are is smaller than 5mm.

The rest are commonly known as coarse aggregate.

The grading of aggregates can have considerable effect on the workability and

stability of wet concrete and is the most important factor in designing a concrete mix. A mix

with a too little fine particles is defines as harsh and does not place easily because the main

aggregate tends to segregate away from the cement paste. A mix with too many fine particles

on the other hand requires more water resulting to a concrete with inferior properties.

Grading is the particle – size distributing of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis

using wire mesh sieves with square openings. The grading is determined in accordance with

ASTM C136, “sieve or screen analysis of fine and coarse aggregates”.

(C) Specific gravity (Relative Density)

The specific gravity of an aggregate is the mass of the aggregate in air divided by the

mass (unit weight) of an equal volume of water. An aggregate with a specific gravity 2.50

would thus be two and one-half times as heavy as water.

Each aggregate particle is made up of solid matter and voids that may or may not

contain water. Because the aggregate mass varies with its moisture content, specific gravity

is determined at fixed moisture content. Four moisture content conditions are defined for

9
aggregates depending on the amount of water hold in the pores on the surface of the particles.

These conditions are described as follows;

1. Damp or wet: Aggregates in which the pores counted to the surface are filled with

water but with free water also on the surface.

2. Saturated surface dry: Aggregate in which pores connected to the surface are

filled with water but no free water on the surface.

3. Air – dry: Aggregate that has a dry surface but contain some water in the pores.

4. Oven – dry: Aggregate that contains no water in the pores or on the surface.

The volume of aggregate particles is usually assumed to be the volume of solid matter and

internal pores.

(D) Texture

Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the relative degree

of which particles surfaces are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends on

hardness, grain size, pore structure, structure of the rock and the degree to which to which

forces acting on the particle surface have smoothed or roughened it. Hard dense, fine-grained

materials will generally have smooth fracture surfaces. Experience and laboratory

experiments have shown that the adhesion between cement paste and aggregate is influenced

by several complex factors in addition to the physical and mechanical properties (Shetty,

2004).

As surface smoothness increases, contact area decreases hence a highly polished

particle will have less bonding area with the matrix then a rough particle of the same volume.

A smooth particle however will require a thinner layer of pest to lubricate its movements with

10
respect to other aggregate particles. It will therefore permit denser packing for equal

workability and hence will require lower paste content than rough particle. It has been also

shown by experiments that rough textured aggregate develops higher bond strength in tension

than smooth texture aggregate (Shetty, 2004).

(E) Absorption and Moisture Content

Some of the aggregates are porous and absorptive. Porosity and absorption of

aggregate will affect the water/cement ration and hence workability of concrete. The porosity

of aggregate will also affect the durability of concrete when the concrete is subjected to

freezing flawing and also when the concrete is subjected to chemical aggressive liquids. The

water absorption of aggregate is measured or determined by measuring the increase in weight

of an oven dry sample when immersed in water for 24 hours. The ratio of the increase in

weight to the weight of the dry sample expressed as percentage is known as absorption of

aggregate. But when we deal with aggregates in concrete the 24 hours absorption may not be

of much significance, on the other hand, the percentage of water absorption during the time

internal equal of final set of cement may be more significant. The aggregate absorbs water in

concrete and thus affects workability and final volume of concrete, the rate and amount of

absorption of the aggregate.

2.2 Classification of aggregates

2.2.1 According to source

1. Natural aggregates: Native deposits with no change in their natural state other

than washing, crushing and grading e.g. sand, gravel and crushed stone.

11
 2. Artificial aggregates: They are obtained either as a by product or by a special

manufacturing process such as heating e.g. blast furnace slag, expanded perlite

etc.

2.2.2 According to Petrological Characteristics

1. Igneous rock: Are formed by solidification of molten magma e.g. granite

2. Sedimentary rock: Are obtained by deposition of weathered and transported

pre-existing rocks or solutions e.g. lime stone

3. Metamorphic rocks: Are formed under high heat and pressure alteration of

either igneous or sedimentary rocks e.g. marble

2.2.3 According to Unit Weight

1. Heavy weight aggregate: This provide effective and economic use of concrete

for radiation shielding, by giving necessary protection against X-rays, gamma

rays and neutrons as well as for weight coating for submerged pipelines. It

has a specific gravity greater than 2.8 and the density of heavy weight

aggregate ranges from 4000kg/m³ to 8500kg/m³. The effectiveness of the

heavy – weight concrete depends so much on the aggregate type, the

dimensions and the degree of compaction. It is usually difficult with heavy

weight aggregate to obtain a mixture (concrete mix) which is both workable

and do not give in to segregation. Examples of heavy weight aggregates are

barite, limonite, magnetic, hematite, ilmenite, non-steel punching or shot

(ASTM C637, 638).

2. Normal weight aggregate: These aggregates are suitable for most purposes

and produce concrete with density ranging between 2300 to 2500kg/m³, they

12
 also have a specific gravity between 2.8 ˂ Gs ˂ 2.4. Examples of normal

weight aggregate are gravel, sand, crushed stone. Rock aggregate are obtained

by crushing quarried will to the required size or by extracting the sand and

gravel deposit formed by alluvial or glacis action. Some sand and gravels are

also obtained by dredging going from sea and river beds. Normal aggregate

can either be neutral or artificial.

3. Light weight aggregate: Light weight aggregate are either of natural or

artificial materials. Example of light weight aggregate includes shells, palm

kernel, sawdust and so on. Concrete made from light weight aggregate have

considerable low density. The density ranges between 300 to 2100kgm³.

Light weight aggregates are used in concrete product such as insulating screed,

reinforced or pre-stressed concrete blocks and so on. The products also have

good fire resistance properties. They have a specific gravity ˂ 2.4.

2.2.4 According to Size

1. Fine aggregate: These are aggregates finer than 5mm or those pass that

through 0.5mm British standard sieve (BS 882, 1992) e.g. sand. Fine

aggregate content usually contain 35% to 45% by mass or volume of total

aggregate.

2. Coarse aggregate: Such as crushed stones, crushed gravels which consist of

particles larger than 5mm or those retained of 5mm. British standard sieves

(BS 882, 1992). They are typically between 9.5mm and 37.5mm.

13
2.2.5 According to Shape

In practice, the shape of aggregate is usually described as rounded, irregular, angular,

flaky and elongated. The table 1 below shows the detailed description of classification and

example of each shape.

Table 2.1: description and classification of aggregates according to shape.

Classification Description Examples

Rounded Completely water worn and fully River gravel

shaped by attrition.
Irregular Naturally irregular or partly shaped Land gravel

by attrition.
Flaky Materials of which thickness is Laminated rocks

relatively small with respect to other

dimensions.
Angular Possessive well – defined edges Crushed rocks of all types

formed at the intersection of roughly

planar faces.
Elongated Materials of which the length is
considerably longer than two other
dimensions.

Flaky and Elongated Materials having the length

considerably larger than the width
and the width larger than the
thickness.
2.3 Granite Aggregate for Normal Concrete

The parent rock for granite is the igneous rock. It is a very hard rock that is formed

from the action of volcanic eruption. The granite group includes gneiss, granite, granodiorite,

granulites, pegmatite, quartz-diorite and syenite.

Aggregate formed from these rocks are known for their durability, hardness and

toughness. The granite aggregate is produced in various shapes and sizes and it has good

14
surface roughness that helps to create proper bonding between cement paste and aggregate

particles.

2.4 Workability of Concrete

The behavior of fresh concrete from mixing up to compaction depends mainly on the

property called “workability of concrete”. Workability of concrete is defined in various ways

as follows.

i. ASTM C 125: defines workability as the property determining the effort

required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum

loss of homogeneity. The term “manipulate” includes the early-age operations

of placing, compacting and finishing.

ii. Workability is also defined as the ease with which a freshly mixed concrete

can be properly compacted and also that it can be transported, placed and

finished.

iii. The strict definition of workability is the amount of useful internal work,

against the internal friction between the individual particles in the concrete,

necessary to produce full compaction.

Workability of a concrete is a composite property with at least two main components as

follows:

i. Consistency: indicates the mobility or flexibility of freshly mixed concrete.

ii. Cohesiveness: indicates the water – holding capacity (the opposite of

bleeding) and the coarse aggregate holding capacity (the opposite of

segregation).

15
 The desired workability for a particular mix depends upon the type of

compaction adopted and the complicated nature of reinforced concrete. A

workable mix should not segregate. The partial properties of workability are

discussed below:

a. Mixability: It is the ability of the mix to produce a homogeneous fresh

concrete from the constituent materials of the batch, under the action of the

mixing forces. A less mixable concrete mix requires more time of mixing

to produce a homogeneous and uniform mix.

b. Transportability: Transportability is the capacity of the concrete mix to

keep the homogeneous concrete mix from segregating during a limited

time period of transportation of concrete, when forces due to handling

operations of limited nature act.

c. Compatibility: It is the ability of concrete mix to be compacted into a

dense, compact concrete with minimum voids under the existing means of

compaction at the site. The best mix from the point of view of

compatibility should close the voids to an extent of 99% of the original

voids present, when the concrete was placed in the moulds.

d. Mouldability: It is the ability of the fresh concrete mix to fill completely

the forms or moulds without loosing continuity or homogeneity under the

available techniques of placing the concrete at a particular job. This

property is complex, since the behavior of concrete is to be considered

under a dynamic condition.

2.4.1 Significance of workability

16
 A workable concrete allows full compaction using reasonable amount of work. This

helps in achieving maximum possible density (i.e. minimum possible voids) of concrete,

which results in more strength and durability of concrete. Lack of proper compaction which

is due to insufficient workability can lower the strength as much as 30%.

2.4.2 Factors affecting workability

Workable concrete is the one which exhibits very little internal friction between

particle and particle or which overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the form work

surface or reinforcement contained in the concrete with just the amount of compacting efforts

forthcoming.

The factors helping concrete to have more lubricating effect to reduce internal friction

for helping easy compaction are given below:

(a) Water content

(b) Size of aggregates

(c) Surface texture of aggregate

(d) Shape of aggregates

(e) Use of admixtures

(f) Mix proportions

(g) Grading of aggregates

A. Water Content: Water content in a given volume of concrete, will have significant

influences on the workability. The higher the water content per cubic meter of

concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of concrete which is one of the important

factors affecting workability. At worksite, supervisors who are not well versed with

the practice of making good concrete resort to adding more water for increasing

workability. This practice is often resorted to because this is one of the easiest

17
 corrective measures that can be taken at the site. It should be noted that from the

desirability point of view, increase of water content is the last recourse to be taken for

improving workability even in the case of uncontrolled concrete. For controlled

concrete, one cannot arbitrarily increase the water content. In case all other steps for

improving workability fails only as last recourse the addition of more water can be

considered. More water can be added provided a corresponding higher quantity of

cement is also added to keep the water/cement ration constant so that the strength

remains the same.

B. Size of aggregate: The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less the surface area and

hence less amount of water is required for wetting the surface and less matrix or parts

is required for lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction. For a given quantity

of water and paste, bigger size of aggregates will give higher workability. The above

course will be true within certain limits.

C. Surface texture: The influence of surface texture on workability is again due to the

fact that the total surface area of same of rough textural aggregate is more than the

surface area of smooth rounded aggregate of the same volume. From the earlier

discussion it can be inferred that rough textured aggregate will show poor workability

and smooth or glassy textured aggregate will give better workability. A reduction of

inter particle functional resistance offered by smooth aggregates also contributes to

higher workability.

D. Shape of aggregates: The shape of aggregate influences the workability in good

measure. Angular, elongated or flaky aggregates makes concrete very harsh when

compared to rounded aggregate or critical shaped aggregates. Contribution to better

workability to rounded aggregate will come from the fact that for the given volume or

weight it will have less surface area and less voids than angular or flaky aggregate.

18
 Not only that, being round in shape, the frictional resistance is also greatly reduced.

This explains the reason why river sand and gravel provide greater workability to

concrete than crushed sand and aggregate.

The important of shape of the aggregate will be of great significance in the case of

present day high strength and high performance concrete when we use very low w/c

in the order of about 0.25 (Shetty, 2004).

E. Use of admixture: Of all the factors mentioned, the most important factor which

affects the workability is the use of admixtures. It is to be noted that initial slump of

concrete mix or what is called slump of reference mix should be about 2-3cm to

enhance the slump may fold at a minimum doze. Without initial slump of 2-3cm, the

workability can be increased to higher level but it requires higher dosage-have in

economical.

At given water content, air-entraining admixtures improve the consistency and

cohesiveness of the concrete by increasing the volume of paste. Pozzolanic

admixtures tend to improve the cohesiveness of concrete. At a constant water content

of a concrete mix, the addition of a water-reducing admixture will increase

consistency.

F. Mix proportions: Aggregate/cement ratio is an important factor influencing

workability. The higher the aggregate/cement ratio, the leaner is the concrete. In lean

concrete, less quantity of paste is available for providing lubrication, per unit surface

area of aggregate and hence the mobility of aggregate is restrained. On the other

hand, in case of rich concrete with lower aggregate/cement ratio, more paste is

available to make the mix cohesive and fully to give better workability.

G. Grading of aggregates: This is one of the factors which will have maximum influence

on workability. A well graded aggregate is the one which has least amount of voids

19
 in a given volume. Other factors being constant, when the total voids are less, excess

paste is available to give better lubricating effect. With excess amount of paste, the

mixture becomes cohesive and fatly which prevents segregation of particles.

Aggregate particles will slide past each other with the least amount of compacting

efforts. The better the grading, the less is the void content and higher workability.

The above is true for the given amount of paste volume.

For a concrete technologist, a comprehensive knowledge of workability is

required to design a mix. Workability is a parameter, a mix designer is required to

specify in the mix design process, with full understanding of the type of work,

distance of transport, loss of slump, method of placing and many other parameters

involved. Assumption of right workability with proper understanding backed by

experience will make the concreting operation economical and durable. A concrete

considered workable for mass concrete foundation is not workable for concrete to be

used in roof construction or even in roof construction, concrete considered workable

when used in thick section is not workable when required to be used in thin section.

Therefore, the word workability assumes full significance of the type of work,

thickness of section, extent of reinforcement and mode of compaction.

2.4.3 Measurement of Workability

As discussed earlier that workability of concrete is a complex property. Just as it

eludes all precise definition, it also eludes precise measurements. Numerous attempts have

been made by many research workers to quantitatively measure this important and vital

property of concrete but none of these methods are satisfactory for precisely measuring or

expressing this property to bring out it full meaning. Some of the test measures the

parameters very close to workability and provide useful information.

20
The following tests are commonly employed to measure workability.

(a) Slump test

(b) Flow test

(c) Vee Bee Consistometer test

(d) Compacting factor test

(e) Kelly Ball test

A. Slump test: Unsupported fresh concrete flows to the sides and sinking in height takes

place. This vertical settlement is known as SLUMP. Slump test is the most

commonly used method of measuring consistency of concrete which can be employed

either in laboratory or at site of work. It is not a suitable method for very wet or very

dry concrete. It does not measure all factors contributing to workability nor is it

always representative of the placeability of the concrete. However, it is used

conveniently as a control test and gives an indication of the uniformity of concrete

from batch to batch. Repeated batches of the same mix, brought to the same slump,

will have the same water content and water-cement ratio, provided the weights of

aggregate, cement and admixtures are uniform and aggregate grading is within

acceptability limit (i.e. slump test is not considered applicable for concrete with a

minimum coarse aggregate size greater than 40mm. Additional information on

workability and quality of concrete can be obtained by observing the manner in which

concrete slumps. Quality of concrete can also be further assessed by giving a few

tapping or blows by tamping rod to the base plate. The deformation shows the

characteristics of concrete with respect to tendency for segregation.

The apparatus for conducting the slump test essentially consist of a metallic mould in the

form of a frustum of a cone having the internal dimensions as below:

21
 Bottom diameter 20cm

Top diameter 10cm

Height 30cm

The thickness of the metallic sheet should not be thinner than 1.6mm. Sometimes the

mould is provided with suitable guides for lifting vertically up. For tamping concrete, a steel

tamping rod 16mm diameter along with bullet end is used. Fig 6.1 shows the details of the

slump cone apparatus. The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and freed from

superfluous moisture and adherence of any old set concrete before commencing the test. The

mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface. The mould is then

filled in four layer, each approximately ¼ of the height of the mould. Each layer is tamped

25 times by the tamping rod taking care to distribute the strove evenly over the cross section.

After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel and tamping

rod. The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly and carefully

in vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside. This subsidence is referred to as

SLUMP as stated earlier. The difference in level been the height of the mould and that of the

highest point of the subsided concrete is measured. This difference in height in mm is taken

as slump of concrete. ASTM measures the centre of the slumped concrete as the difference

in height. ASTM also specified 3 layers.

The pattern of slump is shown I n fig 6.2 and 6.3. They indicate the characteristic of

concrete in addition to the slump. If the concrete slumps evenly, it is called TRUE SLUMP.

If one half of the cone slides down, it is called SHEAR SLUMP. In case of shear slump, the

slump value is measured as the difference in height of between the height of the mould and

the average value of the subsidence. Shear slump indicates that the concrete is non-cohesive

and show the characteristic of segregation. A zero slump and collapsed slump are both

outside the range of workability that can be measured with the slump test.

22
B. Flow test: This is a laboratory test, which gives an indication of the quality of

concrete with respect to consistency, cohesiveness and the proness to segregation. In

this test, a standard mass of concrete is subjected to jolting. The spread or the flow of

the concrete is measured and this flow is related to workability.

Fig 6.5 shows the details of apparatus used. It can be seen that the apparatus consists

of flow table, about 76cm in diameter over which concentric circles are marked. A

mould made from smooth metal casting in the form of frustum of a cone is used with

the following internal dimensions. The base is 25cm in diameter, upper surface 17cm

in diameter and height of cone is 12cm.

The table top is cleaned of all gritty material and is wetted. The mould is kept on the

centre of the table firmly held and is filled in two layers. Each layer is rodded 25

times with a tamping rod 1.6cm in diameter and 61cm long rounded at the lower

tamping end. After the top layer is rodded evenly, the excess of concrete which has

overflowed the mould is removed. The mould is lifted vertically upward and the

concrete stands on its own without support. The table is then raised and dropped

12.5mm 15 times in about 15 seconds. The diameter of the spread is noted. The flow

of concrete is the percentage increase in the average diameter of the spread concrete

over the base diameter of the mould.

Flow per cart = spread diameter in cm – 25 x 100

25
The value could range anything from 0 to 150 percent.

C. Vee Bee consistomer: The workability of fresh concrete is a composite property

which includes the diverse requirements of stability, mobility, compatibility,

placeability and finishability. There are different methods for measuring the

workability. Each of them measures only a particular aspect of it and there is really

no unique test, which measures workability of concrete in its totality. This test gives

23
 an indication of the mobility and to some extent of the compatibility of freshly mixed

concrete.

The test measures the relative effort required to change a mass of concrete from one

definite shape to another (i.e. from conical to cylindrical) by means of vibration. The

amount of effort called remolding effort is taken as the time in seconds required in

completing the change. The results of this are of value in studying the mobility of the

masses of concrete made (i.e. fresh concrete).

The time required for complete remolding in seconds is considered is a measure of

workability and is expressed as the number of Vee-Bee seconds. The method is

suitable for dry concrete. For dry concrete slump in excess of 500mm, the remolding

is so quick that the time cannot be measured. It consists of a vibrating table, a metal

pot, a sheet metal cone and a standard iron rod. Slump test discussed earlier is

performed, placing the slump cone inside the sheet metal cylindrical pot of the

consistomer. The glass disc attached to the survival arm is turned and placed on the

top of the concrete pot. The electrical vibrator and stop watch are switched on at the

same time. The vibration continued until such a time as the conical shape of the

concrete disappears and the concretes assumes a cylindrical shape. At this stage, the

stop watch is switched off and the time required for the shape of concrete to change

from slump cone cylindrical shape is recorded in seconds and this is known as Vee-

Bee Degree.

D. Compacting Factor test: The compacting factor test has been developed at the

research laboratory in United Kingdom. It is one of the efficient methods for

measuring workability of concrete. Compacting factor test is adopted to determine

the workability of concrete, where nominal size of aggregate does not exceed 40mm

and is primarily used in laboratory. It is based upon the definition that workability is

24
that property of the concrete which determines the amount of work required to

produce full compaction. The test consists essentially of applying standard amount of

work to standard quantity of concrete and measuring the resulting compaction. To

find the workability of freshly prepared concrete, the test is carried out as per

specification of IS: 1199-1959. Workability gives an idea of the capability of being

worked i.e. idea to control the quantity of water in cement concrete mix to get

uniform strength.

It is more sensitive and precise than slump test and is particularly useful for concrete

mixes of low workability. The compaction factor test is able to indicate small

variations in workability over a wide range. This test works on the principle of

determining the degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of work done

by allowing the concrete to fall through a standard height. The degree of compaction

called the compacting factor is measured by the density ratio i.e. the ratio of the

density actually achieved in the test to the density of the same concrete fully

compacted.

The upper hopper is filled up to the brim with the sample of the concrete to be tested.

The trapdoor is opened and the concrete is allowed to fall into the lower hopper.

Then the door of the lower hopper is also opened and the concrete mix falls into the

cylinder. In case of a dry mix, it is likely that the concrete may not fall on opening

the trap door, in such a case a slight poking by a rod may be used to set the concrete

in motion. The excess concrete remaining above the top level of the cylinder is then

cut-off with the aid of plane blades. Then the outside cylinder is wiped clean will

sample is weighed to the nearest 10grams. This is known as the weight partially

compacted concrete.

25
 The cylinder is then emptied and refilled to achieve full compaction. The top surface

of the fully compacted concrete is carefully struck off – level with plane blade and

weighed to the nearest 10grams. This is also known as the weight of fully compacted

concrete. The compacting factor is the ratio of the weight of partially compacted

concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete.

Compacting factor = Weight of partially compacted cone

Weight of fully compacted concrete

The range of compacting factor is within 0.78 to 0.96. This test is very useful for

concrete mixes of very low workability (Shetty, 2004). Compacting factor test must

always be less than 1 and usually given in two decimal places.

E. Kelly ball test: This is a simple field test, which have been devised by Kelly and

known as Kenny Ball test. The advantage of this test is that it can be performed on

the concrete placed in site and it can also be performed faster with a greater accuracy

than slump test. One of the disadvantages of this fact is that it requires a large sample

and it cannot be used when concrete is placed in thin section. The surface of the

concrete is struck off-level and the ball is lowered gradually on the surface of the

concrete. Then, the depth of penetration is measured immediately on the stem to the

nearest 6mm. The test can be carried out in about 15seconds and it gives much more

consistency result than slump.

2.5 Compressive strength test of concrete

Compressive test is the common test conducted on hardened concrete, partly because

its easy to perform most of the desirable characteristic properties of concrete are

quantitatively related to its compressive strength.

A steel mould made of cast iron of dimension 150mm x 150mm x 150mm is always used for

casting concrete cubes. The mould and its base are rigidly clamped together so as to reduce

26
leakage during casting. The sides of the cubes are thinly oiled before casting so as to prevent

the development of bond between the moulds BS1881: 1870. Stipulates that cube should be

filled in three layers. Each layer is compacted by 25 strokes of 25mm square steel rammer.

The ramming is done efficiently to ensure full compaction. The cubes are then cleared of

excess concrete by passing an iron in a sawing over the top of the cube. The free surface is

then finished using a hand trowel. The cube is then stored for 24 hours undisturbed at a

temperature of about 18°c to 22°c and a relative humidity of not less than 90%. The mould is

stripped off after 24 hrs and the cubes are then stored in water for curing in a tank between

19°c to 21°c (BS1881: 1970). At the end of the test, the cubes are crushed with cast faces in

contact with the plates of the testing machine. The BS1881:1970 states that the load on the

cube should be applied at the rate of 15N/mm². The rate of increase in strain is due to the

non-linearity of the stress – strain relationship for concrete at high stress. The strength at

failure is reported to the nearest o.5N/mm² (Neville, 1997). One of the purposes of testing

hardened concrete is to confirm that the concrete used at the site has developed the required

strength.

2.6 Concrete Mix Design

The aim of mix design is to select the optimum amount of cement, aggregate and

water to produce a concrete that satisfies the requirement of strength, workability, durability

and economy. Therefore, concrete mix design is defined as the process of selecting suitable

ingredients of concrete in determining their relative quantities with the objective of producing

as economic concrete of certain prescribed minimum properties notably consistence, stress

and durability. Several empirical relationships can be used for initial selection of these

27
proportions but it must be strongly emphasized that the final proportions to be adopted should

be established by actual trial ad adjustment on site.

The road research laboratory, the American concrete institute and others have given practical

procedures for the preliminary selection of the mix proportion. The procedure of design is

based on two empirical parameter used to determine the strength and durability.

- Water/Cement ratio is first chosen to determine the strength and durability

- Aggregate/Cement ratio is then chosen to satisfy the workability requirement.

4.6.1 Methods of Designing Concrete Mixes

The methods employed for the design of concrete mix include:

- Fuller’s ideal method

- Baloney’s empirical method

- Fineness modulus method

- Absolute volume method

In practice, it is only absolute volume method that is mainly in use. This method assumes

that the volume of the compacted concrete is equal to the sum of the absolute volume of

all ingredients. In this method 1m³ of cement is added to the total weight of given

volume of concrete to compensate for wastage during mixing and casting. Using the

formula below one can design the mix.

W + C + Af + Aa = 1m³ of concrete
1000Ƿw 1000Ƿc 1000Ƿa1 1000Ƿa2
Where W = weight of water per m³ of concrete

C = weight of cement per m³ of concrete

28
 Af = weight of coarse aggregate per m³ of concrete

Aa = weight of fine aggregate per m³ of concrete

Ƿa = specific gravity of coarse aggregate

Ƿf = specific gravity of fine aggregate

Ƿc = specific gravity of cement

Ƿw = specific gravity of water

The above method is used to calculate the volume of material for concrete as to select the

relative quantities of concrete constituent (Neville, 1981)

2.7 Curing of concrete

The purpose of curing is to allow the hydration process to complete its course, which

at normal temperature may last up to 30-50 years. Consequently, greater strength is achieved

by allowing a longer period of moist curing. It promotes the hydration of cement, control the

moisture and temperature of the concrete after placing. Because concrete gets harder by

reaction between cement and water, premature loss of water prevents normal hydration.

Concrete that dries to soon may have a dusty surface and a weak interior structure. Concrete

does not shrink appreciably while it remain saturate, shrinkage and its associated stresses

only develop as internal moisture lost.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Sources of materials

29
 The research method adopted for this project was basically practical in nature. The

purpose here is to find details on the effect of aggregate shapes on the workability of concrete

(normal concrete).

To this effect, four samples of different shapes of coarse aggregate from crushed

granite rock (angular, flaky, elongated and irregular shape) were obtained from a quarry in

Chanchaga local government, Niger state, along with sand (fine aggregate), ordinary Portland

cement and water.

3.2 Testing of materials

In the course of the research work, the following tests were carried out;

 On Aggregates

 Bulk Density Test

 Sieve Analysis

 Moisture Content Test

 Aggregate Impact test value (on coarse aggregate only)

 Specific gravity

 Water Absorption test

 On Fresh Concrete

 Slump Test

 Compacting factor test

 On The Hardened Concrete

 Dry Density test

 Compressive strength test

3.2.1 Specific gravity test

30
 Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of material to the

same volume of water at a specific temperature. The specific gravity of materials depends on

the amount of voids and the specific cavities of material which it is composed. (A STMC –

127-84)

 Apparatus

 A shallow tray not less than 325cm2

 A Weighing balance of capacity not less than 3kg readable and accurate to 0.5kg

and such type to permit the weighing of vessels containing the aggregate and

water.

 A wide mouthed glass vessel such as gas jar of over 1 liter capacity\

 Procedure

The sample of aggregate was taken and weighed to the nearest 0.01kg and the

cylinder weighed (M1). The cylinder was taken and then filled with aggregate sample

and weighed (M2). The aggregate was put gently into the cylinder and was half filled

with water, the cylinder was thoroughly shaken and then filled with water to the level

of meniscus and weighed (M3). After that, the cylinder was emptied, washed cleaned

and filled with water up to the level of meniscus and the weighed (M4). The specific

gravity is measured as the ratio of weight in air of the sample to weight in air of an

equal volume of water displaced.

The summary of the above procedure is as follows

i. Determination of the weight of the cylinder M1

ii. Determination of the weight of the sample + cylinder M2

31
 iii. Determination of the weight of the cylinder filled with water only M4.

iv. Determination of weight of sample + cylinder M3

v. This was repeated for all the different shapes.

Ƿ= M1 - M2 /
(M4 - M1) - (M3 - M2)
Where ƿ is specific gravity

3.2.2 Sieve analysis

Sieve analysis is simply the separation of aggregate into fraction. Each fraction

consists of particles with specific limits, these being the openings of standard test sieves.

The sieves which were used is this project were BS sieves which were mounted in

frames such that they were placed one above the other with larger sieves sizes at the top and

the smallest size at the bottom. The material is poured from the top and the sieves are given a

vigorous shake mechanically with a sieve shaker. After shaking, the material retained on a

particular sieve represents the fraction of aggregate. The experiment is aimed at determining

the particles sizes distribution of aggregates.

 Apparatus

I. Set of sieves

II. Electronic Weighing balance

III. Sieve Shaker

IV. Wire brush

V. Scoops

VI. Sample divider

 Procedure

32
A Representative dry sample (fine and coarse aggregates) was weighed and each sieve

was cleaned and properly arranged on top of each other from the largest to the smallest

size of sieves.

The representative sample was weighed and placed in the sieves of prevent blinding of

the sieve aperture. The sample with the sieve is then taken into the sieve shaker and the

sieve + the sample were shaken for 10minutes. The set of sieves were then removed from

the shaker and the each sieve and the sample retained were carefully collected and

weighed. The weight of the sample retained on each sieve was recorded and the

percentage passing and percentage retained were also calculated and tabulated. The

experiment was repeated for all the experiment was repeated f or all the shapes.

3.2.3 Bulk density test

Bulk density is the actual mass that would fill a container of a unit volume and this

density is used to convert quantities by mass to quantities by volume. The density

depends on how densely the aggregates are packed and consequently on the size

distribution and shape of the particles for a coarse aggregate of a given specific gravity.

Higher bulk density means there are few voids to be filled by sand and cement. The bulk

density test is employed in proportioning of mixes. It is specified in BS812: PART2:

1975 that there are two degrees; Loose and Compacted.

 Apparatus

I. A rectangular metal mould of 180mm x 870mm x 110mm dimensions water tight

and rigidly constructed to retain its form under rough usage and free of corrosion.

33
II. A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross-section, 16mm diameter and 60mm

long.

III. A weighing balance readable to 0.5 percent of the sample to be weighed

IV. Scoop

 Procedure

i. Compacted weight; the vessel was filled about one-third full with aggregate and

tamped with 25 strokes of the tamping rod. A further similar quantity of aggregate

was added and further tamping of 25 strokes given. The vessel was finally filled to

overflow, tamped 25 times, and the surplus aggregate stroked-off, using the

tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of the aggregate in vessel was

determined and bulk density calculated.

ii. Loose or Un-compacted Weight; the vessel was filled to overflow by means of a

scoop, the aggregate being discharged from a height of about 5cm above the top

of the vessel. The surface of the aggregate was leveled with a straight edge. The

net weight of the aggregate in the vessel was then determined and the bulk

densities calculated.

iii. The experiment was repeated for all the shapes.

The bulk density was determined from the expression

Un-compacted Bulk Density = Weight of un-compacted sample

Volume of the vessel.

Compacted Bulk Density = Weight of compacted sample

Weight of sample

3.2.4 Moisture content test

 apparatus

i. Moisture content cans

34
 ii. Oven

iii. Electronic Weighing Balance

iv. Scoop

 Procedure

The can was selected, cleaned and weighed (W 1), the sample was then placed in the

weighed can by means of a scoop, the can + sample was reweighed (W2), and the whole

system was placed in the oven and dried at a temperature of about 105 + 5 0C for a period

of 24 hours after which the weighed can plus sample was removed from the oven and

allowed to cool. The weight of can plus the sample was taken again (W 3). The moisture

content of the aggregates was then calculated from the following expression;

Moisture content = (W2 – W1) – (W3-W1) x 100%

W2 - W1
3.2.5 Water absorption test

The water absorption test of an aggregate is determined by measuring the increase in

mass of an oven dried sample when immersed in water for 24 hours, (surface water being

removed). The ratio of the increase in mass of the dry sample expressed as a percentage is

termed absorption.

Water absorption, permeability and porosity of an aggregate influence such properties

of the aggregates as the bond between it and the hydrated cement paste; the resistance of

concrete to freezing and thawing as well as its chemical stability and resistance to abrasion.

 Apparatus

i. A weighing balance of capacity not less than 3kg and accurate to 0.5g.

ii. A well ventilated over thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of

100 – 1100C

35
 iii. A perforated container of convenient size.

iv. A soft absorbent cloth not less than 75cm by 45cm in dimension.

 Procedure

A sample of the aggregate was taken and thoroughly washed to remove dust from the

surface of the aggregates and then placed in perforated container. The sample was

then immersed in clean water with perforated container for 24 hours.

The sample was allowed to drain and further dried by the water absorbent cloth and

the weight was recorded as (X). The sample was again kept in the oven, inside a

shallow tray for another 24 hours. The weight was also taken as Y.

 Calculations

Water absorption percent of dry weight = 100 (X - Y)

Y
Where X = weight of the surface dried sample

Y = weight of the oven dried sample

3.2.6 Aggregate impact value test

It is possible to determine the impact value of bulk aggregate and the toughness

determined in a related to the crushing value (Neville, 1996).

 Apparatus

i. BS Sieves of 2.36mm

ii. Electronic Weighing balance

iii. An impact testing machine, complete with standard measure and tamping rod.

 Procedure

A sample of aggregate (coarse aggregate), a 7.6cm diameter cylinder was filled with

the sample of aggregate. The sample was weighed to the heaviest grain (weight A). The

sample in the cup was then fixed firmly in position on the base of the impact machines.

36
 After that, the sample was then subjected 15 blow by allowing the hammer to fall freely.

The crushed aggregate is then sieved with sieve size. The percentage passing by weight

was then determined (weight B).

The aggregate impact value was calculated using the formula

Aggregate impact value = WA/WB x 100

Where WA = weight of over dried sample

WB = weight of fraction passing 2.36mm sieve for separating fine.

The following procedure was repeated for each of the shapes of the aggregate sample.

3.3 Mix design

The required properties of hardened concrete are specified by the designer of structure

and the properties of fresh concrete are governed by the type of construction and by the

technique of placing and transporting. These two sets of requirements make it possible to

determine the composition of mix taking into account the degree of control exercised on site.

As earlier defined, mix design is the process of selecting suitable ingredients’ of concrete

and determining their relative proportion or qualities with the purpose of producing an

economical concrete which has certain minimum proportions, notable workability, strength

and durability. Nowadays, we use design mixes rather than pressurized mixed for which

specifications lay limiting values for range of properties which are usually, the maximum

water/cement ratio, minimum cement contact, minimum strength, minimum workability and

minimum size of aggregates and air contact with specific limit.

37
Methods of mix design have been explained earlier, the method employed in this project is

absolute volume method. Considering 1m3 of concrete, the quantities of cement, aggregates

and water are calculated from the expression,

W AC AF AA = 1m3
1000 ǷC x 1000 ǷF x 1000 ǷA x 1000

Where W = weight of water per cubic meter

AC = weight of the cement per cubic meter

AF = Weight of the fine aggregate per cubic meter

AA = Weight of coarse aggregate per cubic meter

ǷA = Specific gravity of cement

ǷA = Specific gravity of sand

ǷC = Specific gravity of coarse aggregate

The mix ratio is [Link] was used throughout the test with water/cement ratio of 0.5

1 = cement (c)

2 = Fine aggregate (fa)

4 = Coarse aggregate (ca)

3.3.1 Mix design for angular shape

Mix ratio - [Link]

ǷC = 3.15

38
 ǷF = 2.6

ǷA = 2.75

W/C = 0.5

W = 0.5C

AF/C = 2

AF = 2C

Aa/C = 4

Aa = 4C

Therefore

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3.15 x 1000 2.6 x 1000 2.75 x 1000

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3150 2600 2750

1.27613 x 1010C + 7.15944 x 109C + 1.734788 x 1010C + 32.803272 x 109C

2.255225 x 1013

6.858671 x 1010C = 1m3

2.255225 x 1013

3.04124 x 10-3C = 1m3

C = 328.8kg

Volume of 1mould concrete

The mould used is 150mm x 150mm x 150mm

39
 Volume of 1 mould = 0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m

= 0.003375m3

12 cubes of concrete will be casted for each shape

Volume of 12 moulds = 0.003375

= 0.0405m3

.: 1m³ of concrete contains

328.8 x 0.0405 = 13.32kg

Allow 20% wastage

11.437 x 1.2 = 15.98kg

Weight of cement by ratio = 15.98kg

Weight of fine aggregate by ratio = 2 x 15.98kg

= 31.96kg

Weight of Coarse Aggregate by Ratio = 4 x 15.98kg

= 63.92kg

Weight of water by ratio = 0.5 x 15.98kg

= 7.99kg

Check

40
 Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate
15.98kg 31.96kg 63.92
15.98kg 15.98kg 13.98
= 1 : 2 : 3

Water cement ratio

7.99 = 0.5
15.98

3.3.2 Mix design for elongated shape

ǷC = 3.15

ǷF = 2.6

ǷA = 2.83

W/C = 0.5

AF/C = 2

AF = 2C

Aa/C = 4

Aa = 4C

Design Mix

C _____ + 2C + 4C + 0.5C = 1m³

ǷC x 1000 ǷF x 1000 ǷA x 1000 1000

__C_ + 1C + 4C + 0.5C = 1m³

3150 2000 2830 1000

41
 7.358 x 109C + 17.829 x 109C + 32.76 x 109C + 11.5885 x 109C
2.31777 x 1013

69.53585 x 109C = 1m3

2.31777 x 1013

0.003C = 1m3

C = 333.33kg weight of cement

Volume of 1 mould = 0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m = 0.003375m3

Volume of 12 moulds = 12 x 0.003375 = 0.0405m3

.: 1m3 of concrete contains 333.33 x 0.0405 = 13.32kg

Allow 20% wastage

13.50 x 1.2 = 16.20kg

Weight of cement by ratio = 16.2kg

Weight of fine aggregate by ratio = 2 x 16.2kg

= 32.4kg

Weight of Coarse Aggregate by Ratio = 4 x 16.2kg

= 64.8kg

Weight of water by ratio = 0.5 x 16.2kg

= 8.1kg

3.3.3 Mix design for irregular shape

42
 ǷC = 3.15 Mix ratio = [Link]

ǷF = 2.6 W/C = 0.5

ǷA = 2.62 no. of moulds = 12

W/C = 0.5

W = 0.5C

AF/C = 2

AF = 2C

Aa/C = 4

Aa = 4C

Design Mix

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3.15 x 1000 2.6 x 1000 2.62 x 1000

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3150 2600 2620

1.07289 x 1010C + 6.812 x 109C + 1.6056 x 1010C + 3.276 x 1010C

2.14578 x 1013

6.68069 x 109C = 1m3

2.14578 x 1013

3.1135 x 10-3C = 1m³

C = 321.18kg

Volume of 1 mould = 0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m = 0.003375m3

43
Volume of 12 moulds = 12 x 0.003375 = 0.0405m3

.: 1m³ of concrete contains 321.18 x 0.0405 = 13.0kg

Allow 20% wastage

13.0 x 1.2 = 15.6kg

Weight of cement by ratio = 15.6kg

Weight of fine aggregate by ratio = 2 x 15.6kg

= 31.2kg

Weight of Coarse Aggregate by Ratio = 4 x 15.6kg

= 62.4kg

Weight of water by ratio = 0.5 x 15.6kg

= 7.8kg

3.3.4 Mix design for flaky shape

ǷC = 3.15 Mix ratio = [Link]

ǷF = 2.6 W/C = 0.5

ǷA = 2.71 no. of moulds = 12

W/C = 0.5

WC = 0.5C

AF/C = 2

AF = 2C

44
 Aa/C = 4

Aa = 4C

Design Mix

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3.15 x 1000 2.6 x 1000 2.71 x 1000

0.5C + 1C + 2C + 4C = 1m³
1000 3150 2600 2710

1.109745 x 1010C + 7.046 x 109C + 1.7073 x 1010C + 3.276 x 1010C

2.21949 x 1013

6.797645 x 1010C = 1m3

2.21949 x 1013

3.0627 x 10-3C = 1m³

C = 326.51kg

Volume of 1 mould = 0.15m x 0.15m x 0.15m = 0.003375m3

Volume of 12 moulds = 12 x 0.003375 = 0.0405m3

.: 1m³ of concrete contains 326.51 x 0.0405 = 13.22kg

Allow 20% wastage

13.22 x 1.2 = 15.87kg

Weight of cement by ratio = 15.87kg

Weight of fine aggregate by ratio = 2 x 15.87kg

= 31.74kg

45
 Weight of Coarse Aggregate by Ratio = 4 x 15.87kg

= 63.47kg

Weight of water by ratio = 0.5 x 15.87kg

= 7.94kg

3.4 Batching

Batching simply means how various concrete constituents are being proportioned for

any given mix ratio in the design. It can either be by weight or by volume.

 Volume Batching: Volume Batching is not a good method for proportioning the

material or ingredient of concrete because of the difficulty it offers to measure

granular materials in terms of volume. Volume of moist sand in a loose condition

weighs much less than the same volume of dry compacted sand. However, for

unimportant concrete or for any small job concrete may be batched by volume.

 Weight Batching: Weight batching gives more correct measures of materials. For

important concrete, invariably, weight batching system should be adopted. Hence, the

method used in the project work was weight batching because it facilitates accuracy,

flexibility and simplicity. This covers the total weight of concrete needed plus an

additional 20% for voids and compactions for any given mix

3.5 Concrete mixing

46
 Thorough mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. In

mixing, it should be ensured that the mass become homogeneous and uniform in colour

and consistency. Basically there are two methods, of mixing concrete, namely;

a. Mechanical Method

b. Manual Method

The mechanical method involves the use of concrete plant mixer for mixing concrete

constituents, while the manual method involves the use of hand in mixing the concrete

constituents. Manual method was adopted for the purpose of this work.

 Apparatus

a. Trowel

b. Shovel

c. Head Pan

d. Large Tray

e. Weighing Balance

 Procedure

The quantity of material for a mix ratio calculated (cement/sand/aggregate and water)

were measured out with a weighing balance; the aggregates were first spread out

uniformly on a hard, clean and non porous tray. Cement was then spread over the

aggregate (coarse and fine) and the dry materials were mixed together by turning over

from one end of the tray to the other and cutting with a shovel until the mix appeared

to be uniform, it was then spread out in thickness of about 10cm. water was the

sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over, this operation was

continued until a good uniform, homogeneous fresh concrete was obtained. It was of

particular importance to see that the water was not poured but only sprinkled. Water

47
 in a small quantity was added towards the end of the mixture to get the first required

consistency. The above procedure was repeated for each of the different shapes and

tests were carried out on the mix respectively.

3.6 Molding of specimen

a. 150mm x 150mm x 150mm metal mould

b. Tamping Rod

c. Trowel

d. Scoop

 Procedure

The concrete mix poured into each mould and compacted in three layers by hand

Roding. Each layer was given 25 strokes with 16mm diameter and 600mm in length

hemispherically tipped at the lower end. The strokes were distributed in a uniform manner

over the cross section of each mould. The bottom layer was rodded throughout it depth. After

the top layer was rodded, the excess concrete was stroked – off with a trowel, and the

specimen was stored where the temperature of the concrete will be maintained. The

procedure was repeated for each of the four mix design.

3.7 Workability test on fresh concrete mix

3.7.1 Slump test

48
 Slump is the measurement of the concrete’s workability, or fluidity. The inexpensive

test, which measures consistency of a fresh concrete mix, it is used on job sites to determine

rapidly whether a concrete batch should be accepted or rejected. The test method is widely

standardized throughout the world, including in ASTMC143 in the United States and EN-

12350-2 in Europe. Slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh

concrete. The slump test is a measure of the behavior of a compacted inverted core of the

concrete under the action of gravity. Basically, there are three types of slump as explained

earlier in the previous chapter.

 Apparatus

a. Slump Cone

b. Scoop

c. Trowel

d. Tamping Rod

e. Meter Rule

 Procedure

The inner part of the cone was oiled using engine oil and placed on a flat moist, non

absorptive surface where it was held firmly in place. The mould was then filled in

three layers, each approximately one – third of the volume of the mould. In placing

each scoopful of concrete, the scoop was moved around the edge of the mould to

allow the concrete to slide from it to ensure symmetrical distribution of concrete

within the cone. Each layer was tampered 25times with the use of a standard 16mm

diameter steel rod rounded at both end. The top of the cone was then cleaned off (i.e

trimmed off). The cone was removed by lifting slowly, the reduction in height

(slump) between the cone moulds carved concrete cone was measured. The procedure

49
 was repeated for each of the four mix design (each shape) with three trials

respectively.

3.7.2 Compacting factor test

Compacting factor test gives the nearest indication of the degree of workability of

fresh concrete mix, the degree of compaction i.e the compacting factor, is the ratio of the

partially compacted concrete to the weight of the same volume of fully compacted concrete.

 Apparatus

a. Compacting factor apparatus which consist of two hoppers and cylinders

b. Mixing Tray

c. Trowel

d. Shovel

e. Tamping Rod

f. Scoop

 Procedure

The hinged doors of the hoppers were locked and the cylinder inside the surface was

polished. The hopper was then filled with concrete, the bottom door of the hopper was

then released and the concrete falls into the lower hopper and was filled to overflow.

The bottom door of the lower hopper was then released and the concrete falls into the

cylinder. Excess concrete was trimmed off by two floats slide across the top of the

mould and the net mass of the concrete, the volume of the cylinder was determined.

The cylinder was emptied and cleaned, it was then filled with concrete in four layers,

each tamped 25 times and the net mass of the concrete in the cylinder was determined.

The procedure was repeated for each of the four mixes (each shape) with three trials

respectively. The compacting factor for each mix was the calculated from the formula

50
 Compacting factor = Weight of partially compacted concrete
Weight of concrete to fill the cylinder without void

3.8.0 TEST ON HARDENED CONCRETE

3.8.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The cube is place with the cast faces in contact with the platens of the crushing

machine, i.e the position of the cube when tested is at right angle to that as – cast. Load was

then applied on the cube at a constant rate of stress equal 15KN/m 2/min. Because of the non-

linearity of the stress-strain relationship of concrete at high stresses. The load of the cube was

then lifted immediately when it the failure of the concrete cube was observed. The crushing

value of the concrete cube was determined. This procedure was repeated for each of the

shapes a t different, ages (7, 14, 21, 28 days).

3.8.2 DRY DENSITY TEST

The concrete cube was removed from the curing tank and allowed to drain, the

concrete cube was then weighed. The volume of the mould was then determined, the dry

density was obtained by the formula

Density = Mass
Volume

3.9.0 CURING OF CUBES

Immersion in Water: This is by fast the best method of curing as it satisfies all the

requirements of curing, namely; promotion of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and

absorption of heat of hydration. After 24 hours of last, the cubes were demoulded. Three

cubes each of angular, flaky, elongated and irregular shape aggregate mix design were cured

51
for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. This was done at room temperature. All the cubes were immersed

in a curing tank.

CHAPTER FOUR

52
 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1.1 Results of moisture content test

 Moisture content of fine aggregate (sand)

Going by the procedure giving in chapter three, it was assume that

Weight of empty can =A

Weight of can with wet sample =B

Weight of can dry sample =C

Form the test carried out the following result were obtained

For trial 1

A = 25.0g, B=81.0g, C=81.0g

Weight of wet sample =B-A

WW = 81.0 – 25.0 =56.0g

Weight of dry sample =C-A

Wd= 81.0 – 25.0 =56.0g

Moisture content of sample M,

M = ((Ww-Wd)/Wd) ×100 …………………………………… from equation 1

M = ((56.0-56.0)/56) ×100 = 0.0

For Trial 2

A=24.0g, B=85.5g, C=85.0g

53
Weight of wet sample = B - A = 85.5 - 24

= 61.5g

Weight of dry sample = C-A = 85.0 - 24

=61.0g

M = ((61.5 - 61.0)/61.0)×100 = 0.5

Trial 3

A = 24.0g; B = 96.0g; C= 95.0g.

Weight of wet sample

Ww = 96.0 – 24

= 72.0g

Weight of dry sample

Wd = 95.0 – 24

= 71.0g

Moisture Content M = ((72.0 -71.0)/71.0)×100

= 1.41

The same procedure was followed to obtain the moisture contents of the coarse aggregates, the

results are summarized in the table below;

TABLE 4.11

Moisture content of aggregates

54
 Aggregates Trial Weight of Weight of Weight of Moisture Average

Wet Dry Water (g) Content Moisture

Sample (g) Sample (g) (%) Content

(%)
Fine 1 56.00 56.00 0.00 0.00

Aggregate 2 61.50 61.00 0.50 0.82 1.11

(Sand) 3 72.00 71.00 1.00 1.41

Angular Shape 1 164 163 1.00 0.61

Coarse 2 162 162 0.00 0.00 0.62

Aggregate 3 161 160 1.00 0.63

Flaky Shape 1 158 158 1.00 0.64

Coarse 2 159 159 1.00 0.63 0.64

Aggregate 3 137 137 0.00 0.00

Irregular 1 107 106.00 1.00 0.97

Shape Coarse 2 120 119.00 1.00 0.84 0.91

Aggregate 3 112 112.00 0.00 0.00

Elongated 1 140 140 0.00 0.00

Shape Coarse 2 135 134 1.00 0.75 0.74

Aggregate 3 138 137 1.00 0.75

4.1.2 Results of specific gravity test

 Specific gravity of fine aggregate.

Specific gravity of fine aggregate (sand) following the procedure in chapter

three, it was assumed that,

55
Weight of empty cylinder =A

Weight of cylinder with water=B

Weight of cylinder with sample=C

Weight of cylinder with sample with water=D

From the specific gravity test carried out the following result were obtained.

For Trial 1

A=98g, B=361.0g, C=133.0g, D=383g

Weight of dry sample, E= C-A

E= (133-98)

E=35.0g

Weight of water occupying the same volume of the sample, F= (B-A)-(D-C)

F= (361-96)-(383-133) =13

The specific gravity =E/F from equation 2

S.G =35/13 =2.69

For trial 2

A=114g, B=377.0g, C=157.0g, D=404g

Weight of dry sample, E= C-A

=157-114=43

Weight of water occupying the same volume of the sample, F = (B-A)-(D-C)

56
 F= (377-114)-(404-157) =13

=263-247=16

S.G =43/16 =2.69

For trial 3

A=127g, B=393.0g, C=161.0g, D=413g

Weight of dry sample, E= C-A

=161-127=34

Weight of water occupying the same volume of the sample. F= (B-A)-(D-C)

F= (393-127)-(413-161)

=266-252=14

S.G =34/14 =2.43

Average specific gravity = (2.69+2.69+2.43/3)= 2.60

The procedure above was also used to determine the specific gravity of the coarse aggregates and

the results are shown in the table below;

TABLE 4.12

Results of specific gravity test

Aggregates Trials Specific Gravity Average Specific

Gravity
Fine Aggregate 1 2.69

57
 (Sand) 2 2.69 2.60

3 2.43
Angular Shape 1 2.81

Coarse Aggregate 2 2.73 2.75

3 2.71
Flaky Shape Coarse 1 2.74

Aggregate 2 2.63 2.71

3 2.77
Irregular Shape 1 2.69

Coarse Aggregate 2 2.52 2.62

3 2.65
Elongated Shape 1 2.84

Coarse Aggregate 2 2.74 2.83

3 2.92

4.1.3 Results of sieve analysis tests

Table 4.13(a)

Sieve analysis test of fine aggregate (sand)

B S Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

simple sample retained percentage percentage

retained(g) (%) retained (%) passing (%)

500mm 2.00 0.20 0.21 99.80
3.35mm 9.00 0.90 1.10 98.90
2.00mm 21.00 2.10 3.20 96.80

58
 1.18mm 40.00 4.01 7.21 92.79
850µm 47.00 4.71 11.92 88.08
600µm 79.00 7.92 19.84 80.16
425µm 199.00 19.94 39.78 60.22
300 µm 239.00 23.95 63.73 36.27
150 µm 279.00 27.96 91.69 8.31
75 µm 62.00 6.21 97.90 2.10
Pan 21.00 2.10 100.00 0.00
Total 998

Fineness modulus = 336.58/100 = 3.37

Table 4.13(b)

Sieve analysis of angular shape aggregate.

B S Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

simple sample retained percentage percentage
retained(g) (%) retained (%) passing (%)
28.00mm 227.00 22.70 22.70 77.30
20.0mm 681.00 68.10 90.80 9.20
14.0mm 90.00 9.90 99.80 0.20
10.00mm 2.00 0.20 100.00 0.00
6.30mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5.0mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1000

Table 4.13(c)

Sieve analysis of flaky shape aggregate.

B S Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

simple sample retained percentage percentage

59
 retained(g) (%) retained (%) passing (%)
28.00mm 292.00 29.20 29.20 70.80
20.0mm 453.00 45.30 74.50 25.50
14.0mm 208.00 20.80 95.30 4.70
10.00mm 47.00 4.70 100.00 0.00
6.30mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5.0mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 1000

Table 4.13(d)

Sieve analysis of elongated shape aggregate.

B S Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

simple sample retained percentage percentage
retained(g) (%) retained (%) passing (%)
28.00mm 383.10 38.31 38.31 61.70
20.0mm 355.00 35.50 73.8 26.20
14.0mm 248.00 24.80 98.60 1.40
10.00mm 13.00 1.30 99.90 0.10
6.30mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5.0mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 1000 100

Table 4.13(e)

Sieve analysis of irregular shape aggregate.

B S Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

simple sample retained percentage percentage
retained(g) (%) retained (%) passing (%)
28.00mm 319.00 31.90 31.90 68.10
20.0mm 455.00 45.50 77.40 22.60
14.0mm 196.00 19.60 97.80 3.00
10.00mm 21.00 2.20 99.10 0.90
6.30mm 9.00 0.90 100.00 0.00
5.0mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pan 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

60
 Total 1000

4.1.4 Results of bulk density test.

 Bulk density of fine aggregate

Following the procedure given in chapter three for calculating the bulk density of

aggregate, it was assumed that

Weight of sample divider = T

Length of sample divider = L

Breath of sample divider = B

Dept of sample divider = D

Weight of loose sample = V

Weight of compacted sample = W

Volume of sample divider = U

Weight of sample divider with sample = M

Volume of sample divider = L×B×D

L=18.3cm, B=8.9cm, D=11.3cm

U=18.3×8.9×11.3

U=1840.43cm3

Loose Bulk density of sand.

61
For Trial 1

T =1069g, U=1840.43cm3, M=3634g

Weight of loose sample = V= M- T

V =3634-1069

V =2565g

Loose bulk density of sample =X

X= V/U ---------------------- from equation 3a

X= 2565g/1840.43cm3 =1.394g/cm3

For Trial 2

T =1069g, U=1840.43cm3, M=3597g

Weight of loose sample = V= M- T

V =3597-1069

V =2528g

Loose bulk density of sample =X

X= V/U ---------------------- from equation 3a

X= 2528g/1840.43cm3 =1.374g/cm3

For Trial 3

T =1069g, U=1840.43cm3, M=3614g

Weight of loose sample = V= M- T

62
 V =3614-1069

V =2545g

Loose bulk density of sample =X

X= V/U ---------------------- from equation 3a

X= 2545g/1840.43cm3 =1.383g/cm3

Average loose bulk density

= (1394 + 1374 + 1383)/3

X= 4151/3 =1383.67g/cm3

Compacted bulk density of sand.

For trial 1

T= 1069g, U= 1840.43cm3, M=3805g.

Weight of compacted sample = W= M-T

W= 3805-1069 =2736g

Compacted bulk density of sample =Y

Y= W/U----------------------------from equation 3b

Y= 2736g/1840cm3 =1.487g/cm3

Y= 1487kg/m3

For trial 2

T= 1069g, U= 1840.43cm3, M=3844g.

63
Weight of compacted sample = W= M-T

W= 3844-1069 =2775g

Compacted bulk density of sample =Y

Y= W/U

Y= 2775g/1840cm3 =1.508g/cm3

Y= 1508kg/m3

For trial 3

T= 1069g, U= 1840.43cm3, M=3836g.

Weight of compacted sample = W= M-T

W= 3836-1069 =2767g

Compacted bulk density of sample =Y

Y= W/U

Y= 2767g/1840cm3 =1.503g/cm3

Y= 1503kg/m3

Average compacted sample = (1487+1508+1503)/3 =1499kg/m3

Compacted bulk density of sand= 1499kg/m3

The ratio of loose bulk density to compacted bulk density of sample =Z

Z=X/Y--------------------------from equation 3c

Z=1383.67kg/m3/1499kg/m3 =0.92

64
The above procedure was also used to determine the bulk density of the coarse aggregates

and the results are shown in table below,

TABLE 4.14

Results of bulk density test

Aggregates Trial Volume Loose Average Compacted Average Ratio of

of Bulk Loose Bulk Compacted Loose to
Sample Density Bulk Density Bulk Density Compacted
Divider (kg/m3) Density (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Bulk
(cm3) (kg/m3) Density
Fine 1 1840.43 1394.00 1383.67 1487.00 1499.00 0.96
Aggregate 2 1374.00 1508.00
(Sand) 3 1383.00 1503.00
Angular 1 1840.43 1393.69 1383.58 1486.96 1499.63 0.92
Shape 2 1373.91 1508.15
Coarse 3 1383.00 1503.80
Aggregate
Flaky Shape 1 1840.43 1223.91 1194.56 1453.80 1463.00 0.82
Coarse 2 1152.17 1444.57
Aggregate 3 1207.61 1490.76
Irregular 1 1840.43 1194.02 1207.07 1454.35 1490.22 0.81
Shape 2 1197.83 1197.83
Coarse 3 1229.35 1229.35
Aggregate
Elongated 1 1840.43 1202.29 1181.85 1492.84 1478.32 0.80
Shape 2 1167.34 1455.01
Coarse 3 1175.34 1487.11
Aggregate

65
4.1.5 Results of percentage porosity of aggregates

From the result of the Bulk density test, the percentage porosity in the aggregate can be

determined from the equation below,

Percentage Porosity = (1 – E/S) x 100%

Where E = Uncompacted Bulk Density

S = Compacted Bulk Density

* Percentage Porosity of Fine Aggregate.

1. % Porosity = (1 – 1383.67) x 100

1499

= (1 – 0.9231) x 100

= 0.0769 x 100 = 7.69%

* Percentage Porosity of Fine Aggregates

1. for Angular Shape

% porosity = (1 – 1383.58) x 100

1499.63

= 0.0774 x 100 = 7.74%

The same method was followed to obtain that of flaky, irregular and elongated shape.

Table 4.15

Percentage porosity of Aggregates.

66
 Aggregate % Porosity
Fine Aggregates (Sand) 7.69
Coarse
Angular Shape 7.74
Flaky Shape 18.35
Irregular Shape 20.05
Elongated Shape 18.96

4.1.6 Results of percentage of void in Aggregate

% of void = (1 -  ) x 100

Sg x w

Where  = Bulk density uncompacted Aggregate in kg/m3

Sg = Specific Gravity

w = Unit Weight of Water

* For Fine Aggregate

1. Sand

% Void = (1 - 1383.67) x 100

2.6 x 1000

= (1 – 0.5031) x 100

= 0.4969 x 100

= 49.69%

The above procedure was also used to determine the percentage of voids of the coarse

aggregates and the results are shown in the table below,

Table 4.16

67
The results of percentage void of aggregates,

Aggregate % of Void
Fine Aggregates (Sand) 46.8%
Coarse
Angular Shape 49.69%
Flaky Shape 55.92%
Irregular Shape 54.12%
Elongated Shape 54.89%

4.1.7 Slump test results

Table 4.17 Slump test result of concrete made with different shapes of coarse

aggregate.

Aggregate Water/cement Mix ratio Slump Type of slump Average

shape ratio (mm) slump(mm)

Angular 0.5 [Link] 25 True slump

0.5 [Link] 26 True slump 26.67

0.5 [Link] 29 True slump

Flaky 0.5 [Link] 25 True slump

0.5 [Link] 30 True slump 27.00

0.5 [Link] 26 True slump

Irregular 0.5 [Link] 25 True slump

0.5 [Link] 22 True slump 25.67

0.5 [Link] 30 True slump

Elongated 0.5 [Link] 20 True slump

0.5 [Link] 28 True slump 23.33

0.5 [Link] 25 True slump

4.1.8 Result of compacting factor test

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  For elongated

Weight of partially compacted concrete =11.4kg

Weight of fully compacted concrete =14.5kg

Compacting factor = 11.4/14.5 =0.7862

For angular

Weight of partially compacted concrete =12.61kg

Weight of fully compacted concrete = 14.42kg

Compacting factor = 12.61/14.42 =0.8745

For flaky

Weight of partially compacted concrete =12.61kg

Weight of fully compacted concrete = 14.44kg

Compacting factor = 12.61/14.44 =0.8733

For irregular shape

Weight of partially compacted concrete =[Link]

Weight of fully compacted concrete = 14.20kg

Compacting factor = 11.10/14.10 =0.7872

Table 4.18(a) compacting factor test results

Aggregate shape Compacting factor

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 Elongated 0.7862

Angular 0.8745

Flaky 0.8733

Irregular 0.7872

Table 4.18(b) Summary of slump test and compacting factor test

w/c =0.5 mix ratio =[Link]

Aggregate shape Slump(mm) Compacting factor Degree of

workability
Angular 27.67 0.8745 Low workability

Flaky 26.00 0.8733 Low workability

Irregular 24.69 0.7573 Very low

workability
Elongated 23.33 0.8085 Very low
workability

4.1.9 Results of water absorption test aggregates

Table 4.19 Results of water absorption test of aggregates

Sample Trials Weight of Weight of Increase Percentage of Average

saturated oven dry in water percentage

surface dry sample(g) weight(g) absorption water

Sample (g) (%) absorption

(%)
Fine A 84.00 81.00 3.00 3.70

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 aggregate B 86.00 84.00 2.00 2.38 2.81

C 87.00 85.00 2.00 2.35

Angular A1 129.00 128.00 1.00 0.78

shape coarse A2 109.00 108.00 1.00 0.93 0.84

aggregate A3 122.00 121.00 1.00 0.83

Flaky shape B1 107.00 106.00 1.00 0.94

coarse B2 125.00 124.00 1.00 0.81 0.87

aggregate B3 150.00 150.00 0.00 0.00

Irregular C1 152.00 151.00 1.00 0.66

shape coarse C2 138.00 137.00 1.00 0.73 0.88

aggregate C3 161.00 160.00 1.00 1.25

Elongated D1 107.00 106.00 1.00 0.94

shape coarse D2 118.00 117.00 1.00 0.86 0.91

aggregate D3 108.00 107.00 1.00 0.94

4.1.10 Results of aggregate impact value.

TABLE 4.110

Results of aggregate impact value

Aggregate Trial Mass of Mass of Fraction Aggregate Average

Surface Dried Passing the Sieve for Impact Value (%)

Sample (A) Separating the Fines = B/A x 100%

(g) (B) (g)

Angular 1 575.00 58.00 10.09

Shape Coarse 2 578.00 60.00 10.38 10.12

Aggregate 3 576.00 57.00 9.90

Flaky Shape 1 588.00 93.00 15.82

Coarse 2 586.00 90.00 15.36 15.59

Aggregate 3 590.00 97.00 15.57

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 Irregular 1 571.00 94.00 16.29

Shape Coarse 2 570.00 94.00 16.49 16.35

Aggregate 3 572.00 93.00 16.26

Elongated 1 470.00 81.00 17.23

Shape Coarse 2 468.00 82.00 17.52 17.30

Aggregate 3 472.00 81.00 17.16

4.1.11 Results of compressive strength tests

Table 4.111 compressive strength test results

Mix design ratio used=[Link], w/c=0.5

Curing Aggregate shape Average density (kg/m3) Average strength (N/mm2)

age(Days)
7 Angular 2402.96 14.73

Flaky 2401.98 9.78

Irregular 2344.69 14.02

Elongated 2322.96 14.63

14 Angular 2498.76 16.65

Flaky 2295.31 15.38

Irregular 2272.59 16.28

Elongated 2279.51 16.00

21 Angular 2346.67 18.13

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 Flaky 2287.41 15.05

Irregular 2390.12 17.75

Elongated 2415.80 17.59

28 Angular 2431.61 21.04

Flaky 2311.11 17.57

Irregular 2322.96 19.35

Elongated 2362.47 18.93

4.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The moisture content test of both fine and coarse aggregate of (Angular, Flaky, irregular

and elongated are given in table 4.11 as 1.11%, 0.62%, 0.64%, 0.91% and 0.74%

respectively. Since moisture content is the amount of water an aggregate contains, from the

result obtained, it shows that the aggregate contains some certain amount of water which will

result to low water absorption of each of the aggregate compare to when they contain no

moisture.

Table 4.50 shows the percentage porosity of fine and coarse aggregate of angular, flaky,

irregular and elongated shape as 7.69%, 7.74%, 18.35%, 18.96% and 20.05% respectively,

these lies within (0 – 50) % as specified (Neville 1990).Table 4.80 shows the result of water

absorption fine and coarse aggregate of angular, flaky, irregular and elongated shape as

0.85%, 0.88%, 0.88% and 0.91% respectively. Considering the coarse aggregate shapes, the

results shows that elongated shape coarse aggregate will absorb more water follow by

irregular, flaky, and singular shape, just as indicated by the percentage porosity results, i.e.

the higher the porosity of aggregate, the more the aggregate absorb water.

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 The bulk density of Aggregate depends on how densely the particles are packed and it

follows that for a material of a given specific gravity, the bulk density depends on the size

distribution and shape of the aggregate particles. The results of bulk density of both fine and

coarse aggregates are given in table 4.14 respectively with the following; For loose and

compacted bulk density for sand, Angular, Flaky, irregular and elongated are : 1383.67 and

1499, 1383.58 and 1499.63, 1194.56 and 1463.04, 1207.07 and 1490.02, 1181.85 and

1478.32 respectively. The ratios of loose bulk density to compacted bulk density of the

aggregates are 0.92 for sand and 0.92, 0.82, 0.81 and 0.80 for angular, flaky, irregular and

elongated respectively. The ratio of the loose bulk density to the compacted bulk density lies

between 0.87 – 0.96 (Neville P 128). Higher density in excess of this range shows that there

are fewer voids to be filled by cement paste and vice-versa. Only the result obtained for sand

and Angular shape coarse aggregate falls within the standard range as specified by A.M

Neville 1990, but the results of flaky, irregular and elongated falls below the range. However,

since bulk density depends on how densely the aggregate particles are packed together,

therefore, flaky, irregular and elongated shape lower bulk densities which means they cannot

be easily packed which also invariably means that they will require more cement paste to

make them workable.

Specific gravity is the ratio of weight of a given volume of material to that of an equal

volume of water. From the results obtained in table 4.12, the specific gravity of the sand and

coarse aggregate of (Angular, Flaky, Irregular, Elongated) are 2.6, 2.75, 2.71, 2.62 and 2.83

respectively, from the standard in some text it falls within 2.6 – 3.0 and 2.6 and 2.7 for coarse

and fine aggregate respectively. Angular shape aggregate has a higher value of specific

gravity from the result obtained followed by flaky, irregular and then elongated. The specific

gravity is of interest because it is used in the mix design of concrete.

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 Sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of

aggregate, which is called gradation. From the results of the sieve analysis obtained above,

the graph 4(a) shows a well graded fine aggregate which will produce a workable concrete.

The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate shows that the fine aggregate is coarse sand

(Shetty, 2004). The graph of the coarse aggregates, shown in fig. 4(b), 4(c), 4(d) and 4(e)

takes similar shape which indicates that they are relatively of the same size (i.e. most of their

particle lies between 14mm – 20mm).

Aggregate impact value gives relative measure of the aggregate resistance to sudden

shock or impact. Table 4.110 shows the result of aggregate impact value test for coarse

aggregate of Angular, flaky, irregular and elongated as 10.12%, 15.59%, 16.35% and 17.30%

respectively. The aggregate impact value should not be more than 45% by weight for

aggregate used for concrete other than wearing surfaces (Shetty, 2004). The result shows that

the aggregates have good resistance for sudden shock or impact, since they fall below the

maximum impact value of the 45%.

Slump test is used for the measurement of fresh concrete. The test is an empirical test

that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More specifically, it is used to determine the

consistency which indicates how much water has been used in the mix. Consistency is a

component of workability which indicates the mobility or flowability of a freshly mixed

concrete. Table 4.71 shows the results obtained for the mix of each coarse aggregate shape as

27.67mm, 26.00mm, 24.69mm and 23.33mm for Angular, Flaky, Irregular and Elongated

shape respectively. The values obtained falls within the following standard values as

described in British Road Note 4. (Wilby, 1991)

 0 – 25mm slump: - very low workability. Irregular and elongated shapes fall within

this range.

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  25 – 50mm: - Low workability. Angular and flaky shapes fall within this range. The

slump patterns were true slumps.

The low value of slump obtained is as a result of the mix design ratio used i.e. [Link] and w/c

of 0.5, if a design ratios containing lesser amount of coarse aggregate and higher w/c are used

e.g. [Link] ½ and w/c = 0.7 will give higher workability. However, the result shows that

angular shape aggregates have higher workability (i.e. consistency) than flaky, irregular and

elongated shape aggregate. This may be due to the following reasons;

i. Angular shape is closer to been spherical than the rest shapes (i.e. flaky, elongated

and irregular, since deviation from spherical shape requires more past volume to

enable particle interferences.

ii. Angular shape aggregate contains less percentage of void compare to other shapes

(i.e. flaky, irregular and elongated), hence less demand for cement paste which

depends on water.

iii. Contains lesser pores compare to other shapes, hence low absorption of water

during mix.

Compacting factor test (Power 1968; Neville 1981; Bartos, Sonebi and Tanmimi

2002) measures the degree of compaction resulting from the application of a standard amount

of work. Table 4.70 shows the result of compacting factor for Angular, flaky, irregular and

elongate shape coarse aggregate as 0.89, 0.87, 0.79 and 0.79 respectively. Irregular and

elongated shapes compactor factor test results lies within the standard range of 0.78 – 0.85

which indicate very low workability while angular and flaky shape compacting factor lies

within the standard range of 0.85 – 0.92 which indicate low workability as described in

British Road Note 4 (Wilby 1991). As mentioned earlier, the low values of workability is as a

result of the mix ratio and the w/c ratio used. The result shows that the mix of angular

76
particles is more easily compacted with a given little amount of energy, hence more

workable, followed by flaky, elongated and then irregular shape.

From the summary of comprehensive test results shown in table 4.10.1, 4.10.2, 4.10.3 and

4.10.4 shows that after 7 days of curing, the concrete gained appreciable strength. This is

more obvious with concrete made with angular shape aggregate with 14.73N/mm². After 28

days of curing, the Angular shape aggregate concrete was found to have higher strength with

21.04N/mm² followed by irregular, elongated and flaky shape aggregate concrete mix with

19.35N/mm², 19.22N/mm² and 17.57N/mm² respectively. The higher strength of Angular

shape aggregate concrete is due to the interlocking between the particles which makes good

bond.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

From the results obtained in this research work, it can be concluded that concrete

produced with Angular shape coarse aggregate of crushed granite rock are more workable (i.e

in terms of consistency and compatibility), followed by that of flaky, irregular and lastly

elongated shape for a given mix design ratio and w/c.

Summarily, it shows that aggregate shapes have significant effect on the workability of the

fresh concrete mix.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this research work, the following recommendation are made

i. The need for introducing shape of aggregate as a parameter for calculating water

demand in concrete. It is a well known fact that the shape of aggregate influences

the specific surface of concrete. The specific surface of concrete governs the water

demand of the concrete and water demand in turns determines the cement content.

All the existing design methods have an inherent limitation of not having particle

shape as an input parameter.

ii. Angular shape coarse aggregate should be used in concrete where high strength

concrete is required.

iii. Excessive flaky and elongated aggregate particles should be avoided in concrete

where high workability is needed.

iv. More detailed test should be carried out on the effect of aggregate shape on the

workability of fresh concrete.

78
 REFERENCES

Brookers J.J. (1980), “Concrete Technology”, Michigan Education Limited, London.

Dr. N. Suresh, Professor N.I.E Mysore (2004), “Workability of Concrete”

Neil Jackson and ravindra K. Dhir (1988), “Civil Engineering Materials”, 4th edition,

Macmillan education ltd, Hound mills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS, London.

Neville A.M (1995), “Properties of Concrete”, 4th Edition, Pitman publishing ltd, London.

Research report ICAR – 105 – 1, “Summary of concrete workability test methods”

Shetty M.S. (2004), “Concrete technology” [Link] and company ltd, Ram Nagar, New

Delhi.

U.S Army Engineer Centre, “Concrete Engineering”, Sub Course EN 5466

Ugwal Kunte, D. R. Gharpure (2000), “Aggregate Shapes – the missing link in concrete”

[Link]

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