RAINWATER HARVESTING
Submitted By: Namrata Kar
Roll No.: 192-065
Registration No.: 221-1211-0302-19
Department of Computer Science
Bethune College, Kolkata
Acknowledgement:
I would firstly like to express my special thanks of gratitude to
our ENVS teacher Ms. Seemanti Chatterjee, State Aided
College Teacher, Environmental Studies at Bethune College
for their able guidance and support throughout this project as
well as our principal Prof. Krishna Roy. They gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic of
Rainwater Harvesting, which also helped me in doing a lot of
research and I came to know about so many new things. I am
really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents, sister and
friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the
limited time frame.
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Content:
No. Topics Page No.
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Aims and Objectives 3-5
3. Study Area 6
4. Method and preparation 7-13
a. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting 7
b. Components 7-9
c. Basic Storage Design 10
d. Uses of rooftop harvesting 11-13
5. Observation & Data Collection 14-16
6. Result 17
7. Inference 18
8. References 19
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Introduction:
t is no news that water scarcity is one of the major problems that the world is
I facing today. There will be about 1 billion more mouths to feed worldwide by
2025 and global agriculture alone will require another 1 trillion cubic meters
of water per year.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a technique that is used for collection and
storage of rainwater into natural reservoirs or tanks or the infiltration of surface
water into subsurface aquifers before it is lost by running off. It is one of the
simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water. The most common method
of rainwater harvesting is rooftop harvesting. Rainwater is collected from a roof-
like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or
borehole), aquifer or a reservoir with percolation. Its uses include watering
gardens, livestock, irrigation and domestic use with proper treatment. The
harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater
recharge.
Over the years, rainwater harvesting has gained grounds especially in developing
countries where water scarcity is frequent making rainwater one of the major
sources of water for many. This has caused rainwater harvesting to move from
just an old farm cistern to a major source of water for households and businesses,
not only in developing countries but even in countries like Singapore, Australia,
Japan, China, and even America.
To make the process easier, it is advisable to build some sort of collection system.
But before delving into the various components of an RWH system, it is, first of
all important, to understand how useful rainwater harvesting is as well as the
benefits of rainwater harvesting.
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Aims & Objectives of Rainwater
Harvesting:
One of the main aim and objective of rain water harvesting is to increase crop
production and reduces the use of ground water thus increasing its levels. It
involves collecting, filtering and storing rainwater in tanks and reservoirs for
irrigation and other purposes like drinking. The other aims and objectives are:-
►Increase Availability of Water during Dry Season
A lot of ecosystems have
wet and dry seasons.
Moreover, seasonal rain
(alternate wet and dry
spells) can cause broken
grounds along river beds,
making the lands useless.
Because the dry seasons
can consist of weeks or
months of little to no rain
at all, it is very important to Dry Wastelands
capture during the rainy season
and have it available for use during the dry season. Rainwater harvesting enables
you to store rain when it is prevalent to be used when there is no rain.
►Reduce Flooding and Erosion
Soil Erosion Floods
By capturing and storing large amounts of rainwater in reservoirs, it is possible
to reduce the amount of runoff and limit the impact on the land of large rainfalls.
It basically reduces the amount of water that is flowing across the land, which
reduces flooding chances and the impact of erosion.
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►Prevent Overuse of Aquifers
Formation of cone of depression in the water table
As cities and towns grow the need for water increases. Many municipalities rely
upon aquifers deep below the ground for this water supply. The problem is it
takes a long time to replenish an aquifer if it is quickly drained. By harvesting
rainwater for later use, the demand on aquifers is reduced, which enables them
to remain full.
►Save Money
Pumping water up from underground
aquifers can be a fairly expensive
operation. It is estimated that for every
one meter rise in water level, there is a
reduction of 0.4 KWH of electricity
usage. So by having water closer to the
surface, or at the surface in reservoirs,
less electricity is needed to pump it so
less money is spent.
Some other basic aims are :-
● To save the water that falls down on earth in the form of rain.
● To eradicate "water shortage" during the summer season.
● If houses are constructed along with rainwater harvesting plan, it will
avoid the huge loss caused due to erosion which is caused by runoffs.
● The adverse effect caused by the flood can be reduced because improper storage
of rainwater is the first and foremost cause of flood during the "rainy season".
● It reduces the draining of available groundwater and increases the level
of groundwater.
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Study Area:
Hirbandh, the western most block of Bankura district running along the border
of Purulia district, is selected for the present study. On an average, the elevation
of the region ranges from180
- 120 m with average
gradient of 1:100.
Geographically the area is
situated on the wide
interfluve between the river
Shilabati and Knagsabati.
The said area represents the
undulating topography and
considerable gradient that
favors easy drainage and soil
erosion thus belongs to the Google Map of Bankura
soil and water source zone of
the Shilabati drainage basin. The hypsometric analysis also shows the younger
stage of erosion indicating huge potentiality of further erosion. The concerned
area falls in the drainage basin of an unnamed right hand tributary of the river
Silabati and the drainage systems are mainly composed of first order seasonal
streams. This region experiences sheet wash where rain drop impact and sheet
flow is active for displacement of matter.
The sharp increase of water demand due
to fast growth of population and improved
life style on one hand and no major water
storage facility, on the other essentially
created the acute crisis.
The increased tendency of concentration
of annual rainfall in the monsoon months
and reduction in the storage of soil water
by indiscriminate slope clearing intensify
the problem. The crisis becomes acute Women walking miles for water
during dry summer when maximum of the channels and ponds become dry. The
agriculture remains at the rudimentary level entirely depending on the natural
supply, without having any irrigation facility. People have to cover long distances
to collect water from remote sources. The social and economic processes are
disturbed as they have to spend a long time for water collection. During acute
crisis period, almost all the villagers are gathered at one or two alive but almost
dying ponds for bathing, drinking and other necessities.
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Method of Rainwater Harvesting:
■ Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof
becomes the catchment, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the
house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to an artificial recharge
system. This method is less expensive and very useful and, if implemented
correctly, helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.
■ Components of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
The system mainly constitutes of following sub-components:
Components of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
1. Catchment
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting
system. It may be a terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The
terrace may be a flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is
the area, which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.
2. Transportation
Rainwater from the rooftop should be carried through down to take water pipes
or drains to the storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant
(ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of the required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could
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be caught through gutters and down take the pipe. At terraces, the mouth of each
drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.
3. First Flush
The first flush is a device used to flush off the water received in the first shower.
The first shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating
storable/rechargeable water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and
the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited
on the roof during dry seasons. Provisions of first rain separators should be made
at the outlet of each drainpipe.
4. Filter
There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since
doubts are raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is a remote
possibility of this fear coming true if the proper filter mechanism is not adopted.
Secondly, all care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not
punctured, and no leakage is taking place in close vicinity.
Filters are used for the treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, color,
and microorganisms. After the first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through
filters. A gravel, sand, and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of
the storage tank. This filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the
storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves, and other organic matter from
entering the storage tank. The filter media should be cleaned daily after every
rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater from easily entering the storage
tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel media should be taken out
and washed before it is replaced in the filter.
Photograph of Typical Filter in Rainwater Harvesting
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There are different types of filters in practice, but the basic function is to purify
water. They are described in the following section:
(i) Sand Gravel Filter
These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted
by pebbles, gravel, and sand. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh.
(ii) Charcoal Filter
Charcoal filters can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand, and
charcoal should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated by
wire mesh. The thin layer of charcoal is used to absorb odor if any.
(iii) PVC –Pipe filter
This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe
depends on the area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft.
roof and 8 inches dia. pipe should be used for roofs more than 1500 Sq. Ft.
pipe is divided into three compartments by wire mesh.
Each component should be filled with gravel and sand alternatively as shown
in the figure. A layer of charcoal could also be inserted between two layers.
Both ends of the filter should have a reduction of the required size to connect
the inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed horizontally or vertically in
the system.
PVC-Pipe filter
(iv) Sponge Filter
It is a simple filter made from PVC drum
having a layer of sponge in the middle of
drum. It is the easiest and cheapest form
of filter, suitable for residential units. The
water flows through the porous sponge
while the debris and other particles are
stopped by it.
Sponge Filter
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■ Basic Storage Design:
The Potential:
The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is
called the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be
effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential.
Catchment Area Characteristics:
Runoff depends upon the area and type of the catchment over which it falls as
well as surface features.
All calculations relating to the performance of rainwater catchment systems
involve the use of runoff coefficient to account for losses due to spillage, leakage,
infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will all contribute
to reducing the amount of runoff. (Runoff coefficient for any catchment is the
ratio of the volume of water that runs off a surface to the volume of rainfall that
falls on the surface).
Runoff coefficients for various catchment surfaces:
Type of Catchment Coefficients
Roof Catchments
- Tiles 0.8- 0.9
- Corrugated metal sheets 0.7- 0.9
Ground surface coverings
- Concrete 0.6- 0.8
- Brick pavement 0.5- 0.6
Untreated ground catchments
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 0.0 - 0.3
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5 This data can be
used to calculate
Untreated ground catchments
- Soil on slopes less than 10 per cent 1.0 - 0.3
Water Harvesting
- Rocky natural catchments 0.2 - 0.5 Potential
Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of x Runoff
catchment coefficient
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■ Uses of Rainwater Harvesting:
Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in the
following section :-
1. Storage of Direct Use
In this method, rainwater collected
from the roof of the building is
diverted to a storage tank. The
storage tank has to be designed
according to the water
requirements, rainfall, and also the
catchment availability. Each
drainpipe should have a mesh
filter at the mouth and first flush
device followed by a filtration A storage tank on a platform
system before connecting to the
storage tank. Each tank should have an excess water overflow system. Excess
water could be diverted to the recharge system. Water from storage tanks can be
used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most
cost-effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and
using rainwater during the rainy season is not only to save water from
conventional sources but also to save energy incurred on transportation and
distribution of water at the doorstep. This also conserves groundwater, if it is
being extracted to meet the demand when rains are on.
2. Recharging of Bore Wells
Rainwater collected from the rooftop of the building is diverted through
drainpipes to settlement or filtration tank. After settlement, filtered water is
diverted to bore wells to recharge
deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells
can also be used for recharge.
Optimum capacity of the settlement
tank/filtration tank can be designed
based on the area of catchment,
intensity of rainfall, and also the
recharge rate. While recharging,
entry of floating matter and silt
should be restricted because it may Filtration Tank Recharging to Bore Well
clog the recharge structure. The first
one or two showers should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid
contamination.
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3. Recharge Pits
Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square, or circular
contracted with brick or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals.
Top of the pit can be covered with
perforated covers. The bottom of the pit
should be filled with filter media. The
capacity of the pit can be designed based
on the catchment area, rainfall intensity,
and recharge rate of the soil. Usually, the
dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m
width and 2 to 3 m deep, depending on the
depth of previous strata. These pits are
suitable for recharging of shallow aquifers,
and small house. Recharge Pits
4. Soak way or Recharge Shafts
Soak way, or recharge shafts are provided where the upper layer of soil is alluvial
or less porous. These are the bored hole
of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep,
depending on the depth of the pervious
layer. Bore should be lined with
slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to
prevent the collapse of the vertical
sides. At the top of the soak way, the
required size sump is constructed to
retain runoff before the filters through
the soak way. Sump should be filled
with filter media. Schematic Diagram of Recharge shaft
5. Recharging of Dug Wells
Dug wells can be used as a recharge
structure. Rainwater from the
rooftop is diverted to drilled wells
after passing it through the filtration
bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug
well should be done regularly to
enhance the recharge rate.
Schematic Diagram of Recharging
of Dug Well
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6. Recharge Trenches
The recharge trench is provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow.
The recharge trench excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like
pebbles, boulders, or brickbats. It is made for harvesting the surface runoff.
Bore-wells can also be provided
inside the trench as recharge
shafts to enhance percolation.
The length of the trench is
decided as per the amount of
runoff expected.
This method is suitable for small
houses, playgrounds, parks, and
roadside drains. The recharge
trench can be of size 0.50 to 1.0
m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m deep. Recharging Trenches
7. Percolation Tank
Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a
land area with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to
recharge the groundwater. These can be built on big campuses where land is
available, and topography is suitable.
Surface runoff and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water
accumulating in the tank percolates in the solid to augment the groundwater.
The stored water can be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation
tanks should be built in gardens, open spaces, and roadside greenbelts of urban
areas.
Percolation tank
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Observations:
Month-wise Average
Rainfall Distribution:
The analyses of rainfall data confirm
the concentric character of the
monsoonal rain. Daily rainfall data of
past 35 years available shows that
about 79% rain is received in the
monsoon months during June to
September. Some moderate amount
of rain is received in May (92mm) and
October (81mm) as pre and post-
monsoon rain respectively. The dry
period of six months (November -
April) receives very meagre amount
of rain. This seasonal concentration is
mainly responsible for water scarcity. Average monthly distribution of rain
Distribution of Rain during Storm Period:
The storm periods may last for 2 to even 18 days. The contiguous days with some
rain is considered as a storm
generated mainly by low pressure
situation. Almost all the rain of the
study area is of cyclonic nature.
Studies on the storm periods of 20
years show that, on an average,
16.44% of annual rain is received
within a single storm of 7-8 days’
duration. This concentrated rain
causes high percentage of surface
runoff in saturation condition and
this huge immediate runoff causes
extreme flood in the lower
catchment of the mighty Silabati.
Flood at the lower catchment in the
Silabati is thus an annual event.
This rain of concentrated duration is
neither retained in the soil, nor
infiltrated down to recharge ground Rain in Storm Period
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water and so no water is available in prolonged dry period. Rather, it causes
enormous soil erosion during this period of concentrated flow. The main
challenge is to arrest this concentrated flow of surface runoff due to storm-rains.
Construction of Mass Curve:
Mass curves are constructed by plotting cumulative demand of domestic water
for drinking and cooking (60 L/Household/Day) and cumulative supply from the
average roof top of 10m x 5m size
Mass Curve for Caculating Rational from average daily rain. As there is
70000 Reservoir Size continuity in inflow and outflow of
60000 water in the reservoir system by
50000 supply from rooftop and use for
40000 Cumulative domestic needs respectively,
Discharge
30000 From Rooftop cumulative of supply and demand is
Water
20000 Harvesting considered. One Mass Curve is drawn
10000
on the basis of the mean rainfall of 23
Cumulative
0
Demand per years (Table 1). The graph shows
Household
in L deficit of water in dry period and
surplus of it in rainy period. If the
Mass Curve on the Mean value of 23 maximum deficit amount is stored, it
can serve the purpose for rest of the
years of Rainfall
period.
Table 1: Maximum Deficit with Corresponding Dates:
Year Date(MM/DD/YY) Highest Deficit Year Date(MM/DD/YY) Highest Deficit
in L in L
1995 3/25/1995 3510 2008 2/18/2008 2940
1996 03/11/1996 2980 2009 3/13/2009 3396
1997 06/08/1997 5044 2010 05/07/2010 4360
1998 05/11/1998 5053 2011 4/21/2011 2355
1999 1/31/1999 1860 2012 4/13/2012 2594
2000 03/01/2000 3222 2013 4/24/2013 4257
2001 04/09/2001 3537 2014 05/02/2014 6079
2002 04/04/2002 4496 2015 05/02/2015 5777
2003 05/07/2003 2544 2016 4/27/2016 5385
2004 6/15/2004 5890 2017 04/04/2017 4628
2005 4/25/2005 5955 Mean 4196
2006 05/12/2006 2980 SD 1229.69
2007 5/13/2007 7206 Coefficient Of Variation 0.293
(Cv)
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Estimation of Reservoir Size:
In hydrology, the concept of average does not yield fruitful result. For that
purpose analysis is made on available daily rainfall data of each year (Table 1).
If the decision of reservoir size is taken based on the average deficit of the past
years the value becomes 4196 L. This amount will not serve the purpose for more
than half of the years. So Log Probability analysis is made to calculate the deficit
amount that may arise at recurrence interval of 2, 5, 20, 50 and 100 years using
the Eq. 1. The calculation shows that deficit may become 4025, 5130, 6445 and
7835 L at recurrence interval of 2, 5, 20, 50 & 100 years respectively (Table 2).
Xc= Mean (1+ Cv.K) ------- Eq. 1
Table 2: Rational Reservoir sizes for different recurrence interval
Year 1.01 2 5 20 100
(Recurrence Interval)
P (%) 99 50 20 5 1
K - - 0.76 1.83 2.96
1.738 0.139
Xc (Reservoir Size in L) 2059 4025 5130 6445 7835
Water demand per household:
Demand of water per household for drinking and cooking is estimated by survey
with structured questionnaire. The demand varies from village to village. On an
average, a household requires 63.3 L of water for the purpose of drinking and
cooking. The demand for washing and bathing could not be estimated as they
perform those activities in the ponds in a sharing basis. For the purpose of further
calculations, the demand of 60 L per household per day is considered.
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Result:
Diversified Livelihood:
Earlier, the farmers of the Bankura district relied on rain-fed agriculture and were
only able to cultivate in the rainy season (kharif). However, harvesting rainwater
and making it available in
the dry season had major
impact on agriculture and
livelihoods. It enabled the
farmers to grow another
crop in the winter (rabi)
season. The project was
designed to cover 5% of
the land and to provide
supplementary irrigation Use of Harvested Rainwater
in the kharif season and use
the preserved residual water to grow an additional rabi crop. Rainwater
Harvesting is not only used not only for agriculture but also for gardening,
livestock, domestic purposes and fish culture.
Higher Income for Farmers:
On average, the annual incomes farmers harvesting rainwater are higher than the
others in the study sample. This is significant as they were previously more likely
to be below the poverty line (BPL). The average additional net annual income
amounted to INR 6,918, generated from increased agricultural production (INR
5,792) and fish culture (INR 1,126). The income from agriculture alone was 34%
higher than previous incomes.
Percentage of Farmers
Farmer practicing
Rainwater Harvesting
Farmers not practicing
Rainwater Harvesting
Annual Income of Farmers
Social Benefit:
Of the households that harvesting rainwater, 69% say that they no longer
migrate in the dry season. As a result, more children are attending school.
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Inference:
The study reveals that in spite of receiving sufficient rainfall, the region suffers
from water scarcity due to lack of proper initiative of retention. Based on
decentralized participatory approach targeting at household units, roof top water
harvesting may be effective in building resilience against irregular and
concentrated rain and resulted water scarcity in the context of global climatic
change. Only a reservoir at domestic unit storing a portion of discharge (90%)
from the roof top may ensure the supply of total year-long domestic demand.
Reservoir may be built either of polythene tank or concrete. These may be set on
the open courtyard available at each domestic unit in the area under study. Excess
discharge from the reservoir may be directed to recharge underground water
table and proper care must be taken to avoid contamination. A recharge pit of
considerable size has to be constructed up to a depth of 6-8ft beyond lateritic hard
pan. For constructing recharge pit, an elevated place must be chosen away from
open toilet and a cemented dyke surrounding it has to be constructed to avoid
surface and seepage flow of contaminated water from toilet or waste water drain.
Over all, efficient water management in such drought-prone area must ensure
community participation; only initiatives from government may not yield any
success. The present practice of state’s responsibility of water management has
to be changed and community participation in water management must be
practiced. Roof-top water harvesting may be initiated as a pilot project at every
government school and office buildings to make people aware of the benefits and
necessity of it. Again financial assistance from government may be extended as
an attempt to encourage local people in adopting rooftop water harvesting as an
effective instrument for fighting climate change and water scarcity.
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Reference:
I am heavily grateful to a lot of useful educational sites in the net that
provided me with immense data and knowledge which were quite
accurate and precise. Some of them are listed below:
● Rain Water Harvesting in India: Need, Methods and other
Details Article shared at: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
● Rainwater Harvesting & How Article hosted at India Waterportal
(https://www.indiawaterportal.org/)
● Rainwater Harvesting and its Benefits in India
Article hosted at The Better India (https://www.thebetterindia.com/)
● Role of Roof top Water Harvesting to Manage Drought in
Bankura District of West Bengal PDF by Moumita Moitra Maiti
Dept. of Geography, Raja N.L. Khan Women’s College, Midnapore,
West Bengal, India.
● Rainwater-Harvesting-in-West-Bengal PDF by AG Water
Solutions. Article hosted at: http://awm-solutions.iwmi.org/
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