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Michael McDermott

The Changing Atom

In this assignment I will discuss the history of ‘the atom’. I will talk about
the work of the scientists that have had an impact on the visual depiction of the
atom and its functions.

Ancient times:

Early theories of the structure of matter were not based upon experiments.
Alchemists, searched for the Philosopher's Stone, which they believed had the
ability to transform base materials like copper or lead, into valuable substances,
like gold. The first person to come up with some sort of logical explanation was
Democritus. He stated that all matter is made up of atoms. He also stated that
atoms are eternal and invisible and so small that they can’t be divided, and they
entirely fill up the space they’re in.

18th century:

Development on the atom was not discussed as such till the late 1700’s.
As scientists began to study the relationship between several physical
phenomenon such as electricity, and magnetism they began to develop different
models about atomic structure.

John Dalton was one of the first to state the concept of the atom since
Democritus. Dalton formed the atomic theory, which states that all matter is
composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms that are all alike and
have the same atomic weight. Basically, Dalton just expanded on the Greek idea
of the atom. An atom is a small thing, and there are different masses with
different properties.

19th century:

There were a few scientists that developed the depiction of the atom after
Dalton. Michael Faraday studied the effect of electricity on solutions, coined
term "electrolysis" as a splitting of molecules with electricity, developed laws of
electrolysis. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements into 7 groups with similar
properties. He discovered that the properties of elements "were periodic
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functions of their atomic weights". This became known as the Periodic Law
and James Clerk Maxwell proposed electric and magnetic fields filled the void.

Until 1897, scientists believed atoms were indivisible; the ultimate particles of
matter, Until J.J Thomson proved them wrong when he discovered that atoms
contained particles known as electrons. Thomson discovered this through his
explorations on the properties of cathode rays. Thomson found that the rays
could be deflected by an electric field (in addition to magnetic fields, which was
already known). He concluded that these rays, rather than being waves, were
composed of very light negatively charged particles which he called
"corpuscles". (Later scientists preferred the name electron)

20th century:

The discovery of the electron revolutionised nuclear physics and during

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the 20 century there was a big era of atomic science.

To start of this revelation Max Plank originated the quantum theory followed by
Albert Einstein when he postulated that light was made up of different particles
that, in addition to wavelike behaviour, demonstrate certain properties unique to
particles. He also brought forth the theory of relativity in the same year (1905),
and published the famous equation ‘E =mc 2’(Energy and mass are
interchangeable).

After Robert Millikan discovered the electric charge of the electron (1908),

Ernest Rutherford, who is known for ‘splitting the atom’ conducted an
experiment by using alpha particles as atomic bullets, probed the atoms in a
piece of thin (0.00006 cm) gold foil. The results of his gold-foil experiment
stated that all the mass of an atom were in a small positively-charged ball at the
centre of the atom. He also assumed that the electrons were located outside the
nucleus.

A few years after Rutherford’s experiment, Neils Bohr stated that the electrons
moved around the nucleus in successively large orbits. He also presented the
Bohr atomic model which stated that atoms absorb or emit radiation only when
the electrons abruptly jump between allowed, or stationary, states. Further work
developed an explanation of atomic structure that underlies regularities of the
periodic table of elements. His atomic model had atoms built up of successive
orbital shells of electrons.
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Later on, Louis de Broglie discovered that electrons had a dual nature-similar to
both particles and waves (Wave-particle duality theory of matter). This was
based on the work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck on light.

Further on, the Schrödinger Equation was introduced, a wave equation that
describes the form of the probability waves that govern the motion of small
particles and how these waves are altered by external influences. He viewed
electrons as continuous clouds and introduced "wave mechanics" as a
mathematical model of the atom.

There is a key point about the Bohr model that is no longer accepted in current
models of the atom. In the Bohr model, the electrons are still thought to orbit
the nucleus just like planets orbit the sun. Actually, this is something that we
cannot say is true. The problem with atoms and electrons is that we humans
expect them to obey the same rules as things like baseballs and planets.
Actually, the rules are the same, but baseballs and planets follow the rules of
quantum mechanics without us humans even noticing.

In 1931 James Chadwick discovered a neutral atomic particle with a mass close
to a proton by using alpha particles. Thus the neutron was discovered.

Several years later (1938) Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner conducted experiments
verifying that heavy elements (such as uranium) capture neutrons and form
unstable products which undergo nuclear fission. This happens when the
nucleus of an atom breaks up into two separate nuclei. This process ejects more
neutrons continuing the fission chain reaction.

In 1951 Glen T. Seaborg isolated and identified elements heavier than uranium,
and in the process, added elements number 94 - 102, and 106 (ten trans-uranium
elements in total) and suggested a change in the layout of the periodic table.

When subatomic physics came, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig (1964)
brought forth the idea of "quarks", little bits of matter which when used kind of
like building blocks; serve to explain some complex chemical substances.

Modern nuclear physics:

Modern science today is inspired by this golden era of nuclear physics

that took part mainly in the late 19th century/ early 20th century. Current nuclear
physics happening are such projects as the LHC (Large Hadrons Collider), there
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object is to find the ‘Higgs Boson’, the ultimate god particle as most physicists
put it.

Modern technology and human civilisation is dependent on modern physics,

Scientists build models. When new evidence is collected, the models change.
That’s the beauty of nuclear physics, always improving human life and seeking
order through, logic, reason with rational thought out of a chaotic cosmos and
reality.

Michael McDermott 29/08/2010