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Final Report Satpura Landscape - Indicative Plan

SATPURA LANDSCAPE

CHAPTER 1: LANDSCAPE CONFIGURATION

1.1 Description of the Landscape

Based on a rapid recce, the inputs of the concerned forest and wildlife managers, a
few scientists and Non Government Organizations (NGO), as well as considering
the previous knowledge and experience of work done by the Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun and the Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization
(EPCO) based at Bhopal, the boundaries of the landscape were decided. The
boundaries are defined either by artificial features or by natural features both
mapped and recognized on the ground. The constitution of the landscape is
depicted under Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Constitution of the landscape

Area of the landscape 3149 sq.km.

Forest area within the landscape 2382 sq.km. (75.6%)
*Dense forest 1939 sq.km.
*Low density forest 435 sq.km.
*Open areas 8 sq.km.

Non forest area within the landscape 547 sq.km

Area under the Tawa reservoir 220 sq.km.
Number of villages 284
Number of households 28,478
Human population 1,52,570

Landscape (District wise)

District Area of LS in the

district (sq km)
Hoshangabad 2294
Chindwara 585
Betul 270

The northern boundary

The northern boundary is along the managed forests of the Hoshangabad forest
division, defined along a power line, running from west to east. A small section
runs along the railway line. The areas lying to the north and northwest of the
power line are densely inhabited and developed, there is no extension of wildlife
habitats worth consideration and the economy is almost independent of forest
based resources. The communities in this area have least pressure on the
forestlands and hence these are excluded. The areas to the south exhibit rapidly
increasing biological and ecological values with significant values in ecological
processes and functions.
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The eastern boundary

It is aligned through the managed forests of Hoshangabad partly and through the
managed forests of the West Chindwara forest division, in the Chindwara District.
The boundary starts from west of village Barkheri and runs along the road between
Barkheri to Bichpura village to meet the Anjan river west of Fatehpura village up to
Taldhana village. The boundary then turns east and runs along the road up to
Mahuljhir and Kohpani villages, then runs parallel to the metal road joining Jhirpa
and Ranikheda villages and then along the water divide till Jamandhar village. It
then turns east and runs for about 7.5 km along the road joining Singhodi village
taking thereafter a southwest direction along Gongohi nala for about 6 km. It then
turns south east along the boundary of Junnardev and Tamia blocks following
Kumbhadev, Karakheda, Sehradhana, and Makranohana villages, thereafter turns
west to run along the boundary of Pratapgarh badla Protected Forest to cross the
Delakhari-Tamia road about 1.5 km. south of Delakhari to meet a ridge on contour
line at 1040m. elevation. The alignment is based on a mix of biological, ecological
and economical values. On practical considerations it was intended not to include
too many habitations, at the same time there is attention on the dependency of
local communities on forest resources, and the pressures in multi use areas,
penumbral habitats serving the purpose of dispersal areas, some corridor
connectivity, mainly through riparian vegetation, and drainages with low
disturbance that would need to be addressed through the Project objectives and
strategies.

The southern boundary

On the same principles the southern boundary is aligned east to west, partially
through the managed forests of Chindwara and then through the Rampur- Bhatori
forests of erstwhile north Betul forest division in the Betul District transferred to
the Forest Development Corporation of Madhya Pradesh and abutting the southern
boundary of the Bori WLS. The boundary running along the 1040 contour line
parallel to Mohpani, Rajdhana, Brijidhana, Dagadiya, Muwasidhana, Churka,
Karmat, and Chindidhana villages. The boundary then turns north along the road
joining Mundoni, Kankri Bichua, Pathakkheda, Sionighat, Jamundhana, Mohgaon,
Temru and Ghogi villages and then west up to Rampur and Sikmandai hill. It then
joins with Rata nala till it joins Tawa river west of Khapa village. After this it
crosses the boundaries of Punji, Batka, Sataldehi, Banjaridhal, Dhapada and Chimti
villages. At the point where Bhimkund nala joins Tawa river the boundary follows
Tawa till the river enters the reservoir along Jamundongra, Kotmi, Devri Jhalai,
Khemda and Chunagarh villages. The western boundary starts at this point.

The area further south to this boundary has some steep topography, sparse and
fragmented forests, a number of villages, degraded forests and settlements of
displaced citizens of Bangladesh. Beyond this some good forests of Betul occur.
However there are too many problems in the intervening area with no gains from
either biodiversity point of view or opportunities for successfully addressing the
lively hood options of local communities. Further these villages do not have
dependency on the core or the dispersal areas identified.

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The mandate of the corporation is to raise economically valuable timber stands on

lines of a business principally on forest lands that have had natural stands of
commercially unimportant timber species. The current operations mainly address
tending of the plantations already raised. The project for the first time offers a
unique opportunity for addressing ecological and biological concerns within the
corporation-managed areas. Besides teak plantations the area includes patches of
natural forests, especially on hill slopes and tops and several other ecological
attributes such as catchment functions for soil and water security that are
important for the well being of the local communities. The agriculture fields in this
southern tract of the landscape are relatively larger and more productive. There
are increased employment opportunities in the corporation working but the tract
immediately south of the Bori WLS exerts biotic pressures on the sanctuary mainly
through livestock grazing, collection of fuel wood, non timber forest produce
(NTFP) and consequent incidents of forest fires that need to be addressed.

The western boundary

It goes through the managed forests partly through Betul district and Hoshangabad
district providing dispersal and multiuse areas. Further westward direction is
avoided as it entails another civil district. As it is portions of three districts are
included in the landscape. Coordination with and participation of civil
administration and its large number of government agencies, the non-government
agencies and other stakeholders in the implementation phase is important. The
number of stakeholders will go up exponentially with addition of each district. This
will prove to be a burden at some point on account of its magnitude rather than
providing any advantage in the matter of successfully attaining the project
objectives. Hence a practical view is taken in aligning the boundary. The following
Map 1.1 depicts the constitution of the landscape.

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Map 1.1: The Satpuda Landscape

(Source: Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun)

1.2 About the landscape

The following sub-sections deal with the various attributes of the Satpuda
landscape with respect to faunal, floral and habitat elements.

Vegetation Diversity

The forests represent remarkable vegetation diversity. As per Champion and Seth
the categories at the upper canopy levels are as follows:
• Group 3B – Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Subgroup 3B/C1 – South Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous
Teak Bearing Forests
Subgroup 3B/C2 – Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forests
• Group 4E – Tropical Riparian Fringing Forests
Subgroup 4E/R5 – Riparian Fringing Forests
• Group 5A – Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Subgroup 5A/C1 – Dry Teak Bearing Forests
Subgroup 5A/C1b – Dry Teak Forests
Subgroup 5A/C3 – Southern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forests
Subgroup 5B/C1(c) – Dry Peninsular Sal Forests
Subgroup 5A/E2 Boswellia Forests
• Group 6 - Southern Tropical Thorn Forests
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Subgroup 6A/c1 – Desert Thorn Forests

• Group 8A – Central Indian Subtropical Hill Forests

Other habitat types

Dry and moist grasslands; river courses with sandy banks, sand spits and grassy
patches; water holes; the Tawa reservoir; rocky outcrops with grasses or scrub;
cliffs and talus; village environs; lantana infested areas and plantations. There are
two significant geological formations in the landscape. Roughly, south of the higher
hills below the Pachmarhi plateau there are basaltic formations that support teak
and mixed forests while northeastwards the basalt has a sandstone cap with some
magnificent cliffs. This formation supports mixed forests of different tree associates
and teak is replaced by sal.

Species of conservation importance

Among the trees Hardwickia binata and Anogeissus spinosa are confined to the
Pachmarhi plateau, the former at lower elevations and then scattered population
exists in the forests of the West Chindwara forest division. Although sal makes its
appearance at lower elevations on sandstone formations within the Satpura NP it
attains the form of pure stands only on the Pachmarhi plateau. Since these sal
forests are developed on poorer soils the trees have not attained large diameters
and heights. There is a tract of excellent sal forests within the landscape along the
Delakheri-Matkuli axis in the West Chindwara forest division between an expanse
of teak dominated forests and mixed forests. There is an interesting ecological
association in that the Grey Jungle Fowl is confined to the teak bearing forests and
is replaced by its cousin the Red Jungle Fowl in the sal forests. Hybrids are known
to occur in small numbers but rare to find. The Central Indian Sub Tropical Forests
occur in a single small patch atop the highest peak, Dhoop Garh at an elevation of
1352 m. The higher elevation forests have some representatives of the northern
(Himalayan) genera such as Hypericum, Rubus, Berberis and Pteridium. This is
often cited as evidence in support of Sunderlal Hora’s ‘Satpura Hypothesis.’ The
lower plant taxa including Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and herbaceous angiospermic
plants constitute what is known as the carpet flora. Loss of carpet flora increases
soil erosion and run off.

Satpura landscape is rich in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes. There are various types
of ferns and fern allies. Graham (1915) listed 41 species, Rao & Narayanswamy
enumerated 20 species, Bir and Vasudev (1972-73) have recorded 73 species of
Pteridophytes in Pachmarhi hills. Pteridophytes such as Psilotum, Lycopodium,
Osmunda, Cyathea, Botrychium, Ophioglossum, Asplenium, Isoetes, Acrostichum
are in danger of extinction. Unregulated felling of trees lead to the decline of
epiphytic ferns such as those belonging to the Polypodiaceae, Devalliaceae,
Aspleniaceae, Vittariaceae, and Hymenophyllaceae families.

Although pteridophytes have no great medicinal significance, many of them are

used as folk remedies like spores of Isoetes that are used for cure of ulcers in the
mouth and Actinopteris, Adiantum are used by tribals as cure for various diseases.
Pteridophytes are also used variously as a source of food and fodder supplement,
as insect repellent, bio-fertilizer, as indicators in environmental monitoring and for
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ornamental purposes. Ferns are also used for adding flavour to food. Species like
Adiantum capillis-veneris possesses tannic acid, galic acid, and derivatives are
used mainly in the formation of syrups as flavor modifiers. Polypodium vulgare is
used for blending tobacco because its rhizomes taste like licoric.

Angiopteris evecta and Polypodium phymatodes yield aromatic oil and are used for
lending a kind of aroma to coconut oil. Psilotum, Isoetes, and Ophioglossum have
evolutionary significance. Currently the species that are at a risk of being
extirpated in the Satpura landscape are Psilotum nudum, Asplenium
inaewuilaterale, A. unilaterale, Polystichum amabile, Pteris erectica, Araiostegia
pulchra, Lygodium flexuosum, Botrychium lanuginosum, B.daucifolium, Isoetes
panchananii, Isoetes mahadevansis, Lycopodium cernua, Diplazium esculantum,
Athyrium schimperi and Hypodermatium crenatum.

The important habitats for the lower plants occur along the cold water streams with
vertical rocks as banks that allow some filtered sunlight such as Jalgali, Handi kho,
stretches of valleys along the Denwa river. These are regarded as hot spots of
plant species, especially the lower plants.

Species of orchids that have restricted distribution include Eulophia, Aerides,

Dendrobium, Nervilia, and Platanthera. Whereas the Blue Vanda Vanda corulea
listed under schedule VI of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 is widely distributed.
Two endangered insectivorous species- Drocera and Utricularia have small
populations as well as restricted distribution. A species of bamboo Bambusa
polymorpha is represented by only a few clumps. There undoubtedly are many
other species of plants that are threatened, and rare. Outside the PAs in the
managed forests some of the most commonly occurring species in these forests
have rapidly declined and are in severe danger of local extirpation. These are
Emblica officinalis, Buchanania lanzan, Terminalia chebula, and Madhuca latifolia
because of intensive collection of fruit by local communities for trade. The
population of Sterculia urens has declined because of illegal tapping of gum using
highly impactive methods. The regeneration of Dyospyros melanoxylon from seed
origin is rare, again because of heavy collection of fruit. Besides the severe impact
on the populations and status of these species, there would be cascading impacts
on the populations of frugivorous birds that have not been investigated.

Keystone species and keystone elements

There appears to be one genus, Ficus with several species representing a keystone
function relating to the community of frugivorous birds made up by a large number
of species and among mammals by the species of fruit bats. Snags, den trees and
large decomposing woody debris on the forest floor represent Keystone elements
within the landscape. The former two arbiter the distribution and abundance of
cavity excavating birds belonging to three groups viz parakeets, woodpeckers and
barbets. The secondary users of such cavities are made up by a large number of
other species of birds. Likewise den trees are most important as a shelter, a
habitat for breeding and for rearing the young for several species of reptiles, birds,
and mammals. These species in turn perform key ecological functions. Large size
down wood on the forest floor has critical function in support of the distribution of

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several species of rodents that in turn enable transport of the spores of

mycorrhyza that are host specific and arbiter the range of vegetation diversity.

Vegetation composition and structure

The two wildlife sanctuaries within the landscape have been worked for timber
prior to October 1991 i.e. before an amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act
(WPA) 1972 by virtue of which thereafter all forestry operations were stopped
within the wildlife sanctuaries. As for the Satpura national park all resource use by
people and forestry operations had been stopped since its declaration during
October 1981. The silvicultural systems in operation within the three PAs, prior to
their declaration, were Conversion to Uniform. During the year 1865, the Bori
reserve in the Hoshangabad forest division, is the first Reserve forest (RF) to be
notified in the country. Clear felling and raising teak plantations was also practiced
in part of the area. From the year 1869 till 1984, in all 108 plantations have been
raised over an area of 1779.49 hectares. The average size of the plantation is 16.5
hectares. Later during the 1970s a tract of the finest dry mixed deciduous forests
was handed over to the MP Forest Development Corporation for the purpose of
converting these forests to teak plantations under a project called Kesla Project.
From 1976 to 1983 thirty-two plantations were raised across 1834.03 hectares
(average size 57.3 ha.). Not all sites were suitable for raising teak plantations
leading to mixed results. Where the plantations have failed the sites have given
rise to either grass dominated open patches or bamboos have established some
good regeneration. The Betul and Chindwara forests have been worked under
several silvicultural systems as dictated by the nature and composition of forests
and the site quality. These are Conversion to Uniform, Selection cum
Improvement, Coppice with Reserves and Bamboo overlapping working circles. The
under story, especially in the Bori reserve is represented by the finest quality
bamboo in central India.

Thus it will be seen that habitat structure and canopy density are varied, and range
from the early to the late succession stages. There appears to be only one old
growth stand represented by the single remaining Preservation Plot (No. 3) in the
Bori WLS, Compartment 52, spread over 37ha. It was established during 1928, and
no fellings have taken place in the plot even during the several preceding years.
The forest composition and structure of tree stands have thus influenced the
occurrence and distribution of other vegetation communities and species, the
quality of habitats and consequently the distribution and abundance of wild
animals.

Wild animal diversity

There are 48 species of mammals, 258 species of birds, and 29 species of reptiles.
The inventories are by no means exhaustive. Surveys relating to amphibians,
fishes and invertebrates have not made much headway.

Among the principal species of carnivores are tiger, leopard, wild dog, hyena and
jackal. The sloth bear, the honey badger and the wild pig are the three important
omnivores. Small carnivores include the jungle cat, the palm civet and the small
Indian civet. There are two important arboreal mammals, the Indian Giant Squirrel
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and the Large Brown Flying Squirrel. The only record of the Horseshoe Bat
Rhinolopus luctus in central India is around the Pachmarhi plateau. The pangolin is
patchily distributed. The population of the Smooth Coated Otter is small and
disjunctive.

The ungulates include the gaur, sambar, spotted deer (in plain and rolling terrain
and valleys only), nilgai, barking deer, four horned antelope, wild pig and the
mouse deer.

Among the important reptiles are the fresh water crocodile, mostly confined to the
Tawa reservoir, the rock python, the monitor lizard and the Indian Soft-shelled
Turtle.

Reportedly, the population of dholes has rapidly increased in the last few years.
Packs of 20+ are not uncommon. The maximum recorded in a pack number 32.
These indeed are very large packs and are portent to population crash in near
future. Dholes typically exhibit such periodic population oscillations.

As per the population estimates undertaken in the Satpura tiger reserve during the
year 2004, there are 35 tigers 68 leopards, the population of sambar ranges
between 3500-3600, that of chital between 2300 to 2500, the gaur between 1900-
2100, the nilgai between 780-830, the four horned antelope from 110-130, the
barking deer between 275-300, the chinkara 35-40, black buck 25-30 and the
sloth bear between 210-235. An intensive exercise took place as a result of the
collaboration between the WII, Dehradun and the Directorate of Project Tiger,
Government of India, New Delhi from 16-21 January 2006 to estimate the
population of tiger, the co-predators, the prey species including livestock, by
employing an integrated technique that is also capable of registering and
calibrating biotic pressures, threats and providing classification of habitat quality.
This exercise is designed to cover all forested lands. A far better picture is likely to
emerge once the data is analyzed, evaluated and interpreted. This is an
unprecedented countrywide exercise across all ‘tiger bearing’ forests. The final
picture for the entire country is expected to emerge by the end of year 2007 (Jhala
and Quereshi 2004).

The several sandstone cliffs within the national park provide diverse habitats. The
ledges along the cliffs are significant nesting and roosting sites of the critically
endangered Long- billed vulture Gyps indicus. The White-rumped Vulture Gyps
bengalensis is sighted in the skies but the roosting and the nesting sites of this
tree roosting species are not known within the landscape. Several species of Eagles
included in Schedule I of the WLP Act 1972 roost and nest on cliffs (Ali and Ripley
1983). The vertical recesses along the cliff face provide platforms for hives of rock
bees that are among the important pollinators in the area. Likewise such large
cracks have colonies of several species of bats. Nine species occur in the
landscape. Of these the fruit bats, viz. the Flying Fox, the Fulvous Fruit Bat and the
Short-nosed Fruit Bat have emerged as significant dispersers of wild fruit seeds.
The smaller bats besides feeding on insects also perform the function of pollinators.
Cliff faces also offer substrates for colonies of birds such as the cliff Swallows, Crag
Martens and Swifts. Lower at the base there are rock shelters, overhangs, dens
and caves that are resting, breeding and rearing sites for species like the tiger,
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leopard, sloth bear, dhole, hyena. Periodic landslides create talus sites at the base
of the cliffs that are important resting, breeding and rearing habitats for smaller
mammals and reptiles.

The riparian areas constitute the most important habitat for the Indian giant
Squirrel. The large crowned tall trees with continuous canopy are ideal for
supporting their population, providing nesting sites and access to fruit trees. The
species occurs in valleys of Bori and Pachmarhi WLS and performs a significant
function of dispersal of wild fruit seeds.

As a result of raising an irrigation dam during 1976 across the confluence of the
Tawa and Denwa rivers, a large reservoir/ wetland over an expanse of 260 sq.km.
has been created. The year-to-year size is dependent on the rainfall, flooding and
the rate of release of water for irrigation purposes. The shallows have become
excellent waterfowl habitats for the resident as well as the migratory waterfowl.
The highly endangered fish-eating Osprey occurs in this wetland with a large
number of other species. The population of the fresh water crocodile has steadily
increased during the last several years. The population of the Smooth Coated otter
continues to be small.

To effectively address conservation of wild animals certain categories of species

need to be brought under focus. These categories include all threatened, endemic
and rare species; species that are habitat specialists; those that have restricted
geographic distribution, species that need separate seasonal habitats; those that
are solitary, territorial and wide ranging; species that use micro habitat elements
for their persistence; flagship and charismatic species; those that are culturally
respected; keystone species; management indicator species and species that
perform some key ecological functions.

Corridors

The riparian system in the landscape has a dendritic pattern that connects all kinds
of habitats across elevation gradients. Thus they form the most important corridors
for movement and dispersal of propegules of several species of plants, and the
movement and dispersal of wild animals. Though ideal but it is not essential to
have continuous riparian vegetation throughout for the purpose. Signs of tiger,
leopard, sloth bear, hyena, jungle cat, civets, otter, ratel, dhole etc. are found
throughout these natural drainage areas. The typical tree associates are Terminalia
arjuna, Syzigium cuminii, Mangifera indica and Manilcara hexandra. The tall trees
provide nesting platforms for eagles. The microclimate and presence of water
ensure abundance of beehives. The ratel, a schedule I species is heavily dependent
on the system for its habitat.

The people within the landscape, a socio-economic profile

Korkus, and Gonds mainly represent the ethnic groups. A few villages are inhabited
by gaolis. As per the census of 2001 the percentage of Schedule tribes is 52 % and
that of scheduled cast 34.4%. The economy is driven by seasonal rain fed
agriculture. On marginal lands millets of local variety such as Kodo and Kutki are
grown. Where some irrigation is available, such as within the proximity of the
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reservoir, wheat is raised in small plots, as well as some vegetables.

Undecomposed cow dung is used as manure. The other economic activities include
rearing and grazing cattle. These really are not milch cattle and provide more dung
than milk. Unlike the practices in south India where cow dung sale is a significant
business, here whatever dung is opportunistically collected is used in the field as a
manure. Grazing is free, the animals need very little looking after, and therefore
there is no control on the growth of livestock.

Collecting and selling fuel wood in the market has become a business for peripheral
villages that have access to roads and nearby townships such as Sohagpur and
Matkuli. NWFP collection and their bonafide use as food and medicine is part of the
rich tribal culture. The area with tribal dominance has a huge repository of
indigenous traditional knowledge about a range of medicinal plants for human as
well as livestock health.

Several families cultivate the draw down areas of the reservoir, keeping pace with
the receding waters despite legal hassles. The fisheries department has introduced
and encouraged fishing in the reservoir. A fishermen’s cooperative is established at
Kesla. Fish seeds and fingerlings were provided till recently. Sale prices of fish are
fixed. The economy adds up to several crores of rupees annually. Reportedly some
4000 families (this figure is to be verified) are dependent on this vocation.

1.3 Justifications

With a focus on biological diversity, the Bori- Satpura- Pachmarhi Tiger Reserve
(1488.67 sq.km.) with its three constituents, the Satpura National Park (NP)
585.17 sq.km., the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) 485.72 sq.km., and the
Pachmarhi wildlife sanctuary (417.78 sq.km.) represents the typical faunal and
floral diversity and richness of the central highlands., the Pachmarhi WLS was
established on 1st June 1977, the Bori WLS on 1st August 1977 and the Satpura NP
was created on 13th October 1981. In the national park all forestry activity
including concession granted to the local inhabitants were curtailed since the date
of its formation. However in the two sanctuaries these operations and concessions,
including the working of the Forest Development Corporation within the Kesla
Project Area continued till the amendment to the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972
during October 1991 brought about suspension of all forestry and corporate
operations and local concessions. Thus the wildlife habitats in these three PAs have
received varied degrees of protection from biotic pressures and as a result these
are richer in biological and ecological attributes. There are 65 enclaved forest
villages within the three PAs.

The Core Zone

Considering the distribution and densities of larger wild mammals that correlate
with habitat quality and diversity, the range and distribution of wild plant
assemblages, including populations and locations of endangered, threatened and
rare plants, significant wetland habitats, strategic protection needs and relatively
low level human use, an area of 1169 sq.km. (After rounding off the fractions)
carved out of the PAs is proposed to constitute the core area of the landscape. This
includes the entire 524.37 sq.km. of the national park, 346.87 sq.km. area of the
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Bori WLS and 297.97 sq.km. of Pachmarhi sanctuary. The concept of having a
compact in-violate area as the core zone is not feasible since villages are
distributed in a scatter across the landscape. The core area has 43 forest villages.

The Dispersal Zone

The total extent of the zone is 1980 sq.km. This includes 258.85 sq.km. area or
say 259 sq.km. from the PAs. Made up by 120 sq.km. of the Pachmarhi WLS, and
139 sq.km. of the Bori WLS. There are 241 villages in this zone. There is no clear-
cut distinction between the Dispersal Zone and the Multiple-use Zone except that
the habitats in the Dispersal Zone are of much better quality with higher densities
of larger mammals and more number of species. Villages are interspersed
throughout and forest based dependency in form of livestock grazing, fuel wood
collection, NWFP collection, access to water and travel routes is present in both the
zones and in fact also within the Core Zone, though there are certain legal
restrictions on human use of resources within the three PAs. Although this is
identified as the Dispersal zone it integrates the function of a Multiple-use zone

The Human Habitations Zone

These are individual village areas including the homesteads, the agriculture and
the community lands. Table 1.1.1 summarizes the inclusions

Table 1.1.1: A Summary of Inclusions

Area of the landscape 3149 sq.km.
The Satpura Tiger Reserve comprising 1488.67 sq.km.
3 PAs
*Satpura National Park 585.17 sq.km.
*Pachmarhi Sanctuary 417.78 sq.km.
*Bori Sanctuary 485.72 sq.km.
*Number of villages 65

Macro zoning of the landscape

*The Core zone 1169 sq.km.
Number of villages 43
*The Dispersal and 1980 sq.km.
Human Habitation zone
Number of villages 241

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CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

This chapter details the biological profile based on the biological assessment
undertaken for the landscape.

2.1 Introduction and approach

For setting up baselines and monitor changes over a period of time it is important
that an assessment of available resources and its diversity is done a priori. Such
assessments may not need to be intensive, but can be more extensive in collecting
available information from all possible sources and providing a brief outline of the
status of biological assets in the target area. For sub-topics about which there is
insufficient information, quick surveys were done in sampled areas to provide with
indicators and figures that could be taken forward to represent the baselines in the
future.

The assessment is approached in three ways:

(i) Sources of available secondary information

(ii) Outcome of the systematic field work undertaken by the forest department
of MP across all identified landscape spatial units during January 2006 to
record the distribution and abundance of tiger, their co-predators, and
sympatric prey species alongside sampling of vegetation and human
disturbance (Jhala and Qureshi 2004)
(iii) Random sampling of selected species of animals, plants of conservation
importance and Biologically Significant Areas (BSAs) in the field that are
unlikely to have featured in the survey of the forest department on account
of the sampling protocol and design that basically focuses on larger
mammals, vegetation structure and composition. This assessment has
followed the Project Preparation Guidelines (Anon 2006).

2.2.2 The Landscape

The landscape falls in ‘6 Deccan’ biogeographic zone, Province 6A (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988, Rodgers et.al. 2002)

2.2 The Physical Environment

2.2.1 The Climate

Due to variation in altitudes and aspects the climate is variable. There are three
distinct seasons; the monsoon season is marked with occasional short breaks, from
the middle of June till the middle of October. The winter is characterized from
about the middle of October till about the middle of February and the summer
spans between the middle of February and the middle of June.

Temperatures vary with altitude. The higher hills and the Pachmarhi plateau enjoy
almost equitable and pleasant climate throughout the year. The mean maximum
temperature is recorded as 32.5 degrees C., the mean minimum as 12.4 degrees
C. The maximum as 44 degrees C and the minimum 2.8 degrees C. The lowest
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temperature at Pachmarhi, the famous hill resort located within the landscape may
sometime touch almost approach subzero (Rao, 2003). Pachmarhi, in terms of
haphazard and unplanned development and crowding, today is probably the least
affected among the best-known hill stations of the country.

The annual rainfall varies greatly within the landscape from about 1000 mm to
3200 mm. Occasional showers are experienced during the months of December,
January and March.

2.2.2 Physical Features

Shaped over a period of millions of years by formation of the Satpura range of

mountains the landscape is part of what is known as India’s Central Highlands. The
salient features of the early natural history of the region are captured by two
legendary figures, separated by a few decades, viz. Forsyth (1889) and Brander
(1923). However it was the eminent Ichthyologist and zoogeographer Sunder Lal
Hora (1937, 1951) who has accorded the Satpuras an enduring place in the
ongoing scientific debate on evolutionary biogeography originating in the
Pleistocene epoch that arrived some 1.6 million years ago (Ray 1949). The
Hominids had already arrived earlier, almost 5 million years back (Tudge 1997).
The hypothesis suggests an evolutionary extension of Satpuras beyond its current
eastern terminus in the Rajmahal hills to Garo-Khasi- Mikir hills a gap of 250 km.
through which the Ganga and the Brahmaputra make their way to the Bay of
Bengal. He based the hypothesis on the distribution of several genera of torrential
cyprinoid fishes that occur in Himalayas and Southeast Asia (Swan 1993). The
hypothesis has since then been supported as well as challenged by several
scientists (Islam 1987).

The landscape represents elevation range from 300-1352m. above mean sea level
(msl). The elevation broadly rises from Southwest towards the Northeast. Tawa,
Denwa, Sonbhadra and Lohar are among the major rivers. The area being hilly,
there are numerous first and second order streams. There are several springs that
maintain flow of water over considerable stretches of channels that otherwise
would count towards ephemerals. Tawa, an irrigation dam has been built across
the confluence of the Tawa and Denwa rivers that became operational during 1976.
This dam has given rise to a reservoir extending over 220 sq km at full capacity.

While the major rock formation is basalt towards southwest, it is capped by

sandstone formation towards north and northeast, thus changing the distribution
and regime of water, the latter having the better of both. While this does not
significantly affect the distribution of wild animals in general, it does influence the
occurrence and distribution of a large number of plant species and aquatic flora
and fauna. The wide range of environmental gradients has given rise to rich
diversity of wildlife habitats. Steep ridges, narrow valleys and deep gorges with
many springs, characterize the central portion that also comprises the Satpura
National Park. The terrain is spectacularly hilly towards the easterly direction. The
diversity of terrain is matched by the diversity of geological formations. Phyllites
and Schists closely associated with sandstone are widely scattered. The extensive
sandstone formation with locally present clay represents the Damuda Series. Bagra
and Denwa conglomerates occur in the middle reaches while the Pachmarhi
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sandstone constituting the fragile Gondwanas predominates the higher hills.

Deccan trap with numerous dykes and sills form the major type in the lower tract
with alluvium along the banks of the rivers.

Soils are deep in proximity of rivers, well drained on lower slopes and shallow on
higher and steep slopes. The entire area lies in the catchment of Narmda River and
forms the watersheds of its important regional tributaries, the Tawa, Denwa,
Nagdwari, Malini, Koti, Bori and Sonbhadra (Gangopadhyay 1985, Sawarkar and
Panwar 1987)

2.3 The Ecological/ Biological Value of the Landscape

2.3.1The Habitats

The various sub-sections deal with the range of habitats in the landscape.

a) Vegetation structure, composition and habitats

The vegetation types, composition, structure and kinds of habitats have been
described under Chapter 1. To summarize, as per Champion and Seth (1968),
there are four groups and ten forest types represented in the landscape. While
vegetation composition, canopy density and layers, including the varied grasslands
such as those that are dry and at higher altitudes like Neemghan, those that are
moist and in the valleys along the draw down areas of the Tawa reservoir, together
with topography and distribution of water create varied habitats. The standing
dead and dying trees, the features associated with them, the large woody debris
on the ground provide the diverse and critical microhabitats for animals and plants.
The biotic features such as cliffs, large boulder aggregates, talus, caves, crevasses,
gorges and ravines constitute vital habitat components (Sawarkar 2005, Thomas
1979).

b) Wildlife habitats in managed forests: within the PAs

While legally no use of any resources is permitted within the Satpura National Park
since its constitution during October 1981, currently within the Bori and the
Pachmarhi wildlife sanctuaries controlled livestock grazing and some collection of
Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) takes place. Historically the forests within the
PAs were managed for timber, NTFPs, and other goods and services till October
1981. After this date, all harvest of resources ceased within the Satpura National
Park and in October 1991 when the amendment in the Wildlife (Protection) Act
1972 placed a ban on forestry operations in the wildlife sanctuaries within the
country. These erstwhile managed forests, now included in PAs extend over
1488.67 sq.km. Earlier, for those being groomed for careers in professional
forestry, management of teak in the Bori reserve was considered their Mecca
(reference????). Between the years 1869 to 1984, 108 plantations, mainly of teak
have been raised over an area of 1779.49 hectares. The average plantation size is
16.5 hectares. It would be seen that these were raised over a period of 105 years.
The locations are scattered or discontinuous. In effect they created a mosaic of
early succession stages within a matrix of high forest. This created some spatial
habitat diversity, though not by design.
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The rest of the forest area, depending on site and stand attributes, except areas
that were included under the Protection Working Circle, were worked under varied
silvicultural prescriptions such as Conversion to Uniform type of forest, Selection
cum Improvement of bamboos were worked under a cutting cycle of four years and
a number of NTFP were allowed to be harvested. Although the impact of forest
working on native wild animals and plants has not been monitored a broad
statement based on the recorded treatments and empirical findings can be made.
The forest working has created and held the forest between early to somewhat late
succession stages with the mid succession structures in dominance. These
structural stages traded sites with time during the period of 122 years of recorded
scientific forest management. In other words there has been a spatial ‘movement’
of the various structural stages that have been influential in creating habitat
diversity (Harris 1984, Hunter1990). Add to this the varied use of resources by the
resident human communities. It could be said that the generalist and hardy species
would have continued to hold ground and several in fact may have thrived.
Populations of the specialists could have been adversely affected as a result of
scattered and discontinuous habitats. However such habitats need to be considered
as refugia that would help in staging population and species recovery as
surrounding habitats and appropriate corridors recover (Sawarkar 2005, Thomas
1979, Hoover and Wills 1984, Morrison et.al 1998, Larsen 2001).

Three preservation plots were set up during the year 1928. The one protected as
such since then within the Compartment 52 in the Bori WLS (37 ha.) is a
representative old growth patch of forest and one of the BSAs in the landscape.
The structure and composition of this patch and even form and architecture of
trees at places is remarkably different than the surrounding forests. It is expected
that habitat use patterns by some species of smaller mammals, birds, reptiles and
amphibians could be interesting and different. Presence of epiphytic flora could be
significant (Kelly and Braasch 1988). With forestry operations given up in large
part of the landscape i.e. the Satpura Tiger Reserve, it would be very educating to
set up such ‘succession’ monitoring plots in different vegetation types.

Some forest area was leased to the Forest Development Corporation of Madhya
Pradesh. It was christened as the Kesla Project. Between the years 1976 to 1983,
the Corporation raised 32 plantations, mostly teak, very few of bamboo, over an
area of 1834.03 hectares. The average plantation size was 57.3 hectares. The
lease has since been commuted and the area now vests under the management of
the Bori WLS. These plantations are spatially different than those raised under the
territorial division activities. These are contiguous with hardly any patches of
natural forest between them. This situation comes closest to the popular concept of
monoculture, but not quite. To place situation in its perspective it is necessary to
consider the situation some twenty years back when the plantations were young.

Before the attempted conversion of these sites to teak plantations the area
represented some of the finest dry deciduous miscellaneous forests within the
Satpura range of mountains. Consequently, not all site factors were favourable to
raise teak plantations by clear felling the original forest. This therefore turned into
a mixed bag of results. At places the plantations showed good growth and in
patches the effort failed, giving rise to good size grassy patches. In places,
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especially on slopes, bamboo established natural regeneration. This created

conducive habitat for the larger ungulates such as gaur Bos gaurus, sambar Cervus
unicolor, chital Axis axis and nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus. It created fine
habitat for the sambar in central India. Sambars were seen in large herds.
Likewise, gaur were seen well distributed with herd size of 20 or more. Chital herds
were also conspicuous while four-horned antelope were often seen in the open
patches. Leopard tracks were common along the crisscrossing paths created for the
plantation activities. Frequent encounters also ensured the impression that there
were a large number of animals (Sawarkar and Panwar, 1987)

It needs to be appreciated however that the species which were oriented to late
succession stages including the frugivores were placed at a distinct disadvantage.
At this point the monoculture issue needs to be taken to a larger spatial format.
The Kesla Project area in this context can be viewed as a source area for the larger
ungulates or the prey species of the large predators, all of which, the current listing
for conservation status for each species notwithstanding, must be considered
currently as highly endangered. Viewed from the habitat needs of the specialist
species this area in most likelihood constituted a range of sink habitats (Decker
et.al. 1989, Norse et.al. 1986). Currently, on the better sites, within the
plantations there is good regeneration of several native tree and shrub species.
The tree species regeneration has at places reached pole size. The vegetation
being thick, visibility is poor. On poorer sites natural regeneration is sparse or at
places absent. The rich grassy patches seen during the initial stages of plantations
have reduced in diversity and are mostly occupied by Heteropogon contortus
today. This grass is palatable only in its early stage of growth, which becomes
unpalatable when the awns are set. Bamboo clumps are yet small and ecologically
constitute an interesting situation. Managers may find the need of retaining some
parts of this habitat in an ‘arrested secondary’ stage in order to maintain ungulate
prey abundance for major predators whose threatened status may justify such
action even in a national park. There are legal provisions under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972 that define the circumstances for undertaking such habitat
management. The methodology recommended by Sykes and Horrill (1977) that is
being successfully applied in the Melghat and Kanha tiger reserves since the year
1978 exemplifies the value of such rigorous ecological monitoring as a platform
over which management decisions such as the preceding being suggested could be
based.

There is one catch in the interpretation though. Because the Kesla Project is now
part of the relatively well protected habitat tract of the three PAs together, the
concept of its having been a source area some twenty years ago is relevant. The
same cannot be said about any such active Project Area located within a landscape
dominated by managed forests that currently, all over the country are
overburdened with human use, suffer from degradation, regeneration failure and
depauperated range of wildlife species and their populations (Anon1999, Lal 1989).
The inherent ecological productivity, the history of management and human use of
forest resources together therefore constitute the context. After the release of the
National Forest Policy, 1988 (Anon 1988) clear felling in better-stocked natural
forests has been stopped.

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A significant grassland habitat is recently created during the winter of 2005 as a

result of relocation of the Dhain village from the Bori WLS. This is where there is an
excellent opportunity to study the natural changes taking place in the habitat by
structure and species composition.

c) Wildlife habitats in managed forests: within the dispersal and multi-use zones

The forests in the managed forests lie partly in Hoshangabad, Chindwara and Betul
districts. The Rampur Bhatori Project Division situated south of the Bori WLS
constitutes the third unit on an area leased out of the North Betul Forest Division to
the Madhya Pradesh Forest Development Corporation. The total area under the
managed forests sums up to 1660 sq.km. The forests of Hoshangabad and West
Chindwara units are treated by various silvicultural practices. Recent working plans
have become increasingly sensitive to retention of some of the microhabitat
elements. Prescriptions include retention of fruit bearing tree species that are
known to be used by wild animals and birds, protection to riparian areas,
selectively reserving snags during the felling and tending operations, augmenting
sources of water, protecting caves from disturbance including retaining a no felling
zone in their proximity, and protecting salt licks (Gupta 2006, Rao 2003). The
Working Plan for Bori Sanctuary contains few of the first operational prescriptions
(Gangopadhyay 1985).

The Rampur- Bhatori Project division aims at converting miscellaneous forests to

teak plantations. The Project started in 1975 and the first plantation was raised
during 1977. With an annual plantation target of 700 ha., normally an area of
about 1200 ha. needs to be considered as suitable site. While final felling of
plantations is not undertaken, thinning and tending operations however continue.
The average annual outturn of teak is 6000 cmt. Among the conservation
prescriptions for habitats include protection and augmenting of sources of water
and protecting salt licks.

d) Wetlands

The Tawa reservoir system, canals, the Tawa, Denwa, Sonbhadra, Nagdwari,
Malini, Koti, Bori, Lohar along with other streams and pools constitute year round
as well as seasonal habitats for the wintering and resident waterfowl.

2.3.2 Wild Animals

Local extinction

The hard ground barasingha or the Central Indian swamp deer Cervus duvauceli
branderii is an example of recent extinction within the landscape. Forsyth (1889)
has mentioned having seen herds in the grassland-dominated sites on the
floodplains of Denwa. The precise period of disappearance of the species is
unknown though they seemed to have been around during the 1940s and have
never been reported thereafter. The main cause of extinction as recorded
elsewhere on other sites (Schaller 1967, Qureshi et. al. 1992), appears to be
habitat loss due to human settlements along its prime habitat, destruction of

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breeding cover together with hunting. Currently there is a single small world
population of this sub-species in the Kanha national park, M.P.

Small and fragmented populations: Critically endangered to vulnerable.

Tiger is one of the main indicator species of the forest eco systems in India
(Sankhla, XX).. As per the population estimates of 2004, there were 35 tigers
reported from the Satpura Tiger Reserve. Three tigers were tallied in the
Hoshangabad forest division and six in the West Chindwara Division. The results of
the January 2006 exercise are awaited and may present a comprehensive picture
within the landscape. It is also predicted that sink habitats outside the PAs are
extensive (Pant et.al., 2002).

Vultures: Four species of vultures, The Long-billed Gyps indicus, The White-
rumped Gyps bengalensis, the Egyptian Neophron percnopterus, and the
Redheaded Sacrogyps calvus are native to the landscape. Of these the Long- billed
and the Egyptian use cliffs for nesting whereas the remaining two build their nests
on trees. The Redheaded and the Egyptian vultures have always naturally occurred
in low densities. The Red-headed also has a very patchy distribution (Ali and Ripley
1983, Grimmett et.al. 1999, Kazmierczak 2000). In recent times, drastic declines
in the populations of the Long-billed and White-rumped vultures have been
observed changing their status to that of Critically Endangered (IUCN Red Data
Book). The other two species are not as threatened, and hence classified as
vulnerable. Estimates suggest as much as 97% loss of their population in Asia
during the last 10-15 years (Swan et.al. 2006).

The recorded roosting/nesting sites need to be monitored for their continued use.
Scanning skies for vultures on wing and identifying species can be attempted.
Monitoring usage of declofenac needs to be viewed across the whole landscape
including Hoshangabad, Chindwara, and Betul districts and a ring of other
additional districts surrounding these three on consideration that the home ranges
of the White-rumped and the Long Billed vultures are very large. Collecting vulture
mortality data by species across these landscapes can also be attempted while
analyzing the data to capture trends in vulture population and risks.

The leopard: The leopard it is felt should be on this list as a vulnerable species.
The population estimation undertaken during the year 2004 within the STR places
the population size at 68 individuals. The sites and frequency of leopard tracks
have reduced significantly in the Kesla Project area (Edgaonkar Pers. Comm. 2006)
where earlier these were common. The whole of West Chindwara division has
recorded 13 and only three within the whole of Hoshangabad division. Advait
Edgaonkar, a researcher at WII, Dehradun has recently completed his research on
leopard ecology within the STR. It would be sometime before his findings are
published. The leopard-human conflict in many places within the country suggests
that leopard population is far from facing any risk. However it probably is an
incorrect indication provided by leopards that are living on the edge (Corbett 1948,
Seidensticker and Lumpkin 1991, Daniel 1996, Edgaonkar and Chellam 1998,
Sawarkar 2004). Both tigers and leopards are under severe poaching pressure.
Apart from physical loss of habitat, there is loss of prey species over extensive
portions of their range. Consequently they have been dragged in a conflict situation
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with humans that have added a serious dimension to the already existing other
threats.

The Indian Giant Squirrel: The prime habitat of the Indian Giant Squirrel Ratufa
indica centralis is established by riparian forests, patches of late succession stage
forests and old growth. The sample survey conducted revealed several new sites.
The nests are excellent indicators of the presence of the animal. A detailed account
of the survey is placed elsewhere in the same chapter. It is apparent that the
population is scattered, and is confined to small patches. There is very little
evidence of presence of the species outside the STR within the landscape (Pant
et.al. 2002). The species performs a key ecological function of dispersing fruit and
seed of many species, thereby assisting regeneration of many native forest plant
species. Diurnal raptors are among the chief predators of the species (Prater 1980,
Datta 1993, 1998).

The Indian Giant Squirrel inhabits terrain ranging from deciduous to evergreen
forests of peninsular India. It is predominantly a fruigivorous and generalist
herbivore. The Indian Giant Squirrel feeds on seeds, young and mature leaves,
flowers, pith and bark on a regular basis (Borges, 1989, Dutta, 1993). Having a
wide dietary range, it is known to have partially overlapping home ranges although
individuals do show territoriality (Borges, 1989). Avoidance tactics are used more
avidly than total exclusion in spatial territories to minimize conflicts. Seasonal
availability of resources determines the usage patterns and overall distribution of
squirrels. In general, the Giant Squirrel is known to occupy riverine habitats,
mostly studded with stands of tall trees.

Invertebrates

There is very little information about this class. Between the years 1995 to 2000
there was a severe epidemic of sal borer Hoplocerambyx spinicornis. The insect is
endemic to sal forests and is host specific, sal being the host. The insect develops
eruptive populations at an interval of 35-40 years and spreads in an epidemic
proportions. The larvae bore into the heartwood and pupate inside before emerging
as winged adults. Millions of these insects extensively bore into live trees and can
affect the outturn of sal timber very severely since borer affected timber has hardly
any value in the market (Thakur 2000). The insect follows a pattern, mostly
affecting the 90 cm. and above GBH class of trees. The severity of epidemic is
more in tracts under heavy biotic pressures. Although from forestry point of view
the epidemic is a calamity, the insect performs a key ecological function. Sal has a
tendency for regenerating itself in pure stands, suppressing other vegetation
associates, a march towards a kind of nature’s monoculture! (Troup R.S. 1952).
The borer prevents this by periodically appearing in an epidemic form and takes
out a class of large trees in patches to open up the canopy and change the
overhead light conditions that favour regeneration of the native associates of sal.
Thus natural vegetation diversity is maintained that supports the faunal diversity
as well. Within the landscape the insect is endemic to the sal forests in West
Chindwara division and patches of sal forests in the Pachmarhi sanctuary and the
Satpura national park. There are standard control measures in forest management
to reduce the impacts of an epidemic. However since this is not relevant here, it is

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not discussed. The long-term measures to reduce impacts would be to maintain

mixed stands through silvicultural interventions.

During 1987 the forest department undertook a novel initiative within the
Panarpani valley of the Satpura national park to create the valley of butterflies.
Taking advantage of the natural presence of several species of butterflies an
attempt has been made to introduce on a limited scale a variety of flowering plants
to augment the range of butterfly species.

Amphibians

There have not been any detailed surveys therefore only four species are on
record. Rana tigrina and Rana cyanophlyctis occur in mesic sites along
watercourses, springs and perennial pools. Such conditions combined with groves
of large old trees such as come across in riparian forests constitute the best
habitats for the species. During dry months, especially the summer the species
aestivate. The slender tree frog Rhacophorus maculatus is patchily distributed
mostly along the moister localities. The common toad Bufo melanostictus is widely
distributed (Pant et.al. 2002)

Reptiles

There are 29 species of reptiles reported from the landscape. The Indian crocodile
Crocodilus palustris largely occurs along the Tawa reservoir with evidence of its
presence in the Tawa, Denwa, Sonbhadra rivers, in the Kakdi nala and some of the
other streams. Since these animals walk considerable distances on land, they
periodically occupy suitable seasonal pools. The status of the population is not
known. An attempt was made to survey nesting sites along stretches of banks of
the Tawa reservoir during the month of June 2006 that is reported later in the
chapter.

The Indian Pond Terrapin Melanochelys trijuga occurs in at least the Denwa and
Sonbhadra rivers. The Peninsular Mud Turtle Lissemys punctata occurs in tanks,
ponds, along the banks of the Tawa reservoir and suitable sites along streams.

There are four species of Geckos known from the area. The Bark Gecko is common
and lives within crannies of bark along boles of trees and branches. The Rock
Gecko is associated with rock formations and feeds on smaller geckos and insects.
The Termite Hill Gecko is commonly associated with termatoriums. The Brook’s
Gecko occurs in a variety of habitats such as on trees, rocks, under stones and on
buildings.

Among the Agamids the Fan Throated Lizard Sitana ponticeriana dwells on the
ground and occurs in open shrubby patches, and young plantations. It is widely
distributed. The Common Garden Lizard and the Forest Calotes are also widely
distributed.

The Indian Chameleon Chameleon zeylanicus occurs in woodlands and is arboreal.

It is patchily distributed and uncommon. It is also possible that due to its ability to
blend with a site and slow movement it is that much difficult to detect the species
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The common Indian Monitor Veranus bengalensis is widely distributed, probably

not as common as it was believed to be some decades ago. It is endangered. It is
persecuted and hunted for meat. The oily substance derived from its body is used
in traditional medicine to treat rheumatism. It features in trade for skins. It lives in
burrows, rock crannies and tree hollows. It is carnivorous and feeds on small
mammals, birds, fish, crabs, insects, arachnids and eggs of a variety of animals
including those of crocodiles and turtles.

Thirteen species of snakes are reported from the landscape. The Indian Python
Python molurus is the largest of these and occurs in the forests in low density. It is
endangered, has often appeared in illegal trade in wild animal skins. There are two
species of arboreal snakes, the Tree Snake and the Cat Snake. The Checkered
Keelback Xenochropis piscator is a fresh water dweller in tanks, paddy fields, pools
and rivers. It is most visible during the monsoon. It almost exclusively feeds on
toads, less commonly on other amphibians and lizards. The Common Green Whip
Snake lives in bushes, feeds on small mammals, birds, lizards and frogs. It is
mildly poisonous. The Rat Snake is among the most common snakes found in the
landscape. The Common Krait dwells in open forests, agriculture fields and near
habitations, mainly feeding on snakes. It is among the deadliest poisonous snake
in the world. The Banded krait favours moist sites and feeds mainly on snakes. It is
highly poisonous but less virulent than the Common Krait. The Indian Cobra is
widely distributed across all kinds of habitats. It is worshipped during the festival of
Nagpancmi. Within the Satpura national Park there is a shrine at Nagdwari that
attracts more than 100,000 pilgrims during the festival. However such sentiments
do not deter people from killing the snake. The Russell’s Viper is widely distributed.
It is a large snake, mainly nocturnal and its bite is often fatal. The small Saw
Scaled Viper is widely distributed in open forests and the Bamboo Pit Viper mainly
occurs in the hilly terrain with marked preference for bamboo bearing forests. The
greatest threat in general to snakes is the flourishing illegal trade in snake skins
(Pant et.al. 2002)

Birds

Many people have contributed to the checklist of birds for the landscape. Osmaston
(1919) and Bates (1922) were among the earliest to have surveyed bird life in part
of the landscape. In recent times the officers undergoing training in wildlife
management at the Wildlife Institute of India visited the STR for three years in
succession from 1987-89, each time undertaking field work for a period of one
month. WII researchers, mainly Prachi Mehta (1998), Raghuram Tata and Parikshit
Gautam (1992); M.Sc. students from WII working for their dissertation (Datta
1993, 1998, Pai 1993) and Jayson (1990) have conducted research on birds in the
region. Thus far there are 258 species on record that belong to 47 families and 145
genera (Pant.et.al. 2002)

At least six species of eagles occur in the landscape. The Crested Serpent eagle
and the Crested Hawk Eagle are the two widely distributed species. The other four,
Bonelli’s, Short- toed, the Tawny and the Black eagles are not common. The
Crested Honey Buzzard is widely but patchily distributed.

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Among the three falcons, Laggar, Peregrine and Saker (Shaheen), the last is
recorded as a rare winter visitor and is found in the landscape. Likewise species
that have been recorded as distribution uncertain, or those with isolated records
etc. (Grimmett et.al. 1998) and have been observed in the STR are the Lesser
Kestrel, the Eurasian Hobby and the Osprey. These are all wintering records (Pant
et.al. 2002).

An interesting ‘tension belt’ occurs along the ecotones between the sal and the
teak dominated forest communities. The Grey Jungle Fowl is confined to the Teak
zone while the Red jungle Fowl occurs only within the sal community. Hybrids
between the two species are known to occur though they are rare and do not
establish a population (Ali and Ripley 1983). The patches of lantana, grasses,
shrubs and bamboo constitute excellent habitat for the gallenacious birds. Besides
the peafowl and the two species of jungle fowl, two species of spur fowl, two
species of partridges, and eight species of quails occur in these habitats. These all
are very popular with poachers. A variety of snares are used to trap these birds.
Often quails and partridges are surreptitiously sold in the market by pardhis and
others.

Of the two species of Hornbills, the Indian Grey is common while the Malabar Pied
is patchily distributed. Among the six species of woodpeckers, the Black, the
Blackbacked, and the Browncrowned Pygmy are patchily distributed and not
common. The Black woodpecker is associated with late structural stages and old
growth. It is absent in forests under working. The Indian Pitta is a seasonally
occurring species between April to June.

The Crag Martin and swallows are seen along cliff faces. The Malabar Whistling
Thrush occurs along the natural drainages in riparian zones. The two species of
nuthatches, the Chestnut-bellied and the Velvet- fronted are found among large old
trees in shady mesic groves.

Possibilities for rediscovery of a species:

Forest Owlet Athene (Heteroglaux) blewitti prefers teak forests and is currently
found in dry deciduous teak forests of Maharashtra and South Madhya Pradesh.
Rediscovery of the Forest Owlet within the landscape is a possibility. The earlier
information available on the species was scanty from seven specimens collected
between 1872 and 1884 (Rasmussen and Collar, 1998). Only one of the specimens
was collected in eastern Madhya Pradesh, from Busnah Phuljar by F.R. Blewitt in
1872, which was the first collected specimen of this species. The species was never
reported or collected from central Satpura (Jathar and Rahmani, 2004). In 1997
the species was rediscovered in 1997 in Toranmal Reserve Forest (RF), Dhulia
district, in northwest Maharashtra (King and Rasmussen 1998). Later 25
individuals were discovered in Taloda RF, the Melghat Tiger Reserve and Khaknar
RF (Ishtiaq and Rahmani, 2000). There is every possibility of the species being
found in the landscape. Concerted surveys for the purpose are necessary.

Mammals
Forty-eight species occur within the landscape. Among the ungulates, the gaur,
and sambar are the principal prey of the tiger. Both these species occur in similar
kind of habitats of dense forests with patches of low-density woodlands, grassy
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openings, bamboo covered areas, both in plain country and hills (Prater 1980).
These species probably reached their highest densities within the landscape in the
erstwhile Kesla Project area some twenty years ago (Sawarkar and Panwar 1987).
The situation has now somewhat changed as has been mentioned earlier. Their
highest densities now appear to be in the Kamti Range in the STR that provides the
range of required habitat diversity alongside well-distributed sources of water. In
the early years of seasonal submergence of land by the backwaters of Tawa
reservoir the draw down stretches used to remain as barren exposed mud slopes.
Now during the past three decades of the process some excellent grasslands have
developed that create patches of different growth, structure and species as the
water recedes due to irrigation demands on the dam. The succession that begins
ends up in fully stocked grasslands in draw down stretches that are not accessible
to local communities for seasonal cultivation such as in the national park. This
appears to have created excellent habitat composition for sambar and gaur. The
highest density of sambar recorded in STR, in turn within the landscape is 15.6 per
sq.km. (Pant et.al. 2002) It is possible for the frontline staff of the forest
department to collect vital information on age and sex ratios, group/herd size and
composition, recruitment and mortality through well-structured and simple forms.
While doing this, the method of analysis of data should dictate the protocol and
design of data collection (Rodgers et.al. 1999).

Teak bark becomes an important source of food during the summer for gaur and
sambar. Growth classes from sapling to large diameter trees exhibit extensive
signs of debarking. The popular notion is that this leads to girdling and death of the
sapling, pole or tree, especially in the young plantations. However the ‘bite’ does
not reach the cambium and there is no damage other than a superficial scar.
During mid 1960s as well as early 1970s there were large-scale epidemics of the
Foot and the Mouth disease. There was considerable mortality of gaur and sambar
during these epidemics in central and south India Shaikh and Sawarkar (1973). For
the first time monitoring populations of wild animals for external indicators of
diseases became important. Currently there is a user-friendly field technique to
accomplish this (Anon 1992).

Nilgai inhabits open forests, scrub, plantations and areas along the margins of the
Tawa reservoir and backwaters, avoiding hilly terrain. Although the species has
unwittingly become an agricultural pest on several sites in many States, it is an
important prey of the large carnivores in the forests. The highest density attained
by the species in the landscape is 18.7 animals per sq.km. (Pant et.al. 2002).

The chital has a patchy distribution as it occurs in valleys, plains and gently rolling
terrain. The highest density attained by the species around Churna is 32 chital per
sq.km. It is a particularly important prey of the tiger, leopard and dhole.

The barking deer’s habitat requirement is similar to that of sambar. Occurring

singly or in pairs, the species exhibits much lower densities than the other deer
species but is widely distributed within the landscape. All the species of deer are
important prey of the tiger, leopard and the dhole (Karanth and Sunquist 1995,
2000)

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The four horned antelope is endemic to India and more visible in open forests and
scrub. It feeds extensively on fruits and therefore performs the key ecological
function of dispersal of seeds of many forest species of plants. Parties up to four
animals, a male, a female and young may be encountered. The species has a
scattered distribution and naturally occurs in medium to low densities. The mouse
deer Tragulus meminna represents the only species in the family Tragulidae in
India. It is shy, solitary, small with obliterative colouring and crepuscular in habit.
Thus it is difficult to detect. It is occasionally seen in the landscape. Rocky areas
and trees with hollows of appropriate size going up into the tree trunk are
important microhabitats as shelter and escape cover for the species. Very little is
known about the population status of the species within the landscape.

Wild pig is widely distributed in the landscape across all kinds of habitats and
terrain features. It is a serious and time-honoured agricultural pest. Though a
prolific breeder, it is vulnerable to several diseases as a result the population
exhibits considerable oscillations over time. Though a pest, it is an important prey
of the large carnivores in the forests. In areas that have pigs, nilgai and leopard
together as a problem, any strategy aimed at controlling the pig and the nilgai
population can aggravate the leopard problem (Sawarkar 2004). Although
considered an agriculture pest it is an important prey of the tiger and the leopard.

The family Leporidae is represented by a single species the Blacknaped hare Lepus
nigricollis in the landscape (Ghosh R.K. 1966, Prater 1980). It is widely distributed
and is a prey of the smaller carnivores, the larger diurnal and the nocturnal
raptors. The local inhabitants often snare them for pot.

Within the landscape nine species of the order Rodentia occur (Prater 1980, Ghose
and Chakraborthy 1976). The Bandicoot rat is mostly found in the village environs;
the Long- tailed Tree Mouse, the White Tailed Wood Rat, the Indian Bush Rat and
the Mole Rat are widely distributed. Other than this there is little information on
these species.

The Indian Porcupine is widely distributed but detection is rather poor because the
species is nocturnal. It is possible to chart the distribution of the species by their
burrows, characteristic droppings and signs of gnawing on tree roots and boles.
Local people for its meat often persecute the species. The most popular method is
to lay smoke into the burrows and then bludgeon to death the animals as they
emerge from the dens. The burrows are constructed as interconnecting system and
often shared with the Indian Python. Dholes and hyenas sometime enlarge these
sufficiently for the purpose of their shelter, breeding and rearing the young. It
appears that the porcupine population periodically undergoes change. The reasons
are not quite clear. Leopards often kill and eat porcupine. Tigers are known to
attempt it as well but unlike the leopard, tigers often suffer severe injuries from
the quills getting embedded in paws and fore legs (Corbett 1943, Sankhala 1981).

Among the squirrels the Five Striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus pennanti is widely
distributed, while the Three Striped Funambulus palmarum occurs in moister
localities at higher elevations like the Pachmarhi plateau and peaks. The situation
of the Indian Giant Squirrel is already described. The Large Brown Flying Squirrel
Petaurista petaurista phillippensis is widely distributed. It is shy, crepuscular and
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nocturnal and dwells in tree cavities therefore difficult to detect. More than one
individual may share a tree hollow. Cutting down hollow trees can adversely affect
the population status of the squirrel as in normal forestry operations. There are
several tree species of non timber interest that secrete hollows early in their life
like the Dalbergia paniculata but may get removed in favour of making space for
valuable timber species in the managed forests. However, silvicultural treatments
can be modified to retain such microhabitat elements well distributed across the
managed forests. The species performs a key ecological function of dispersing fruit
and seeds of many native forest plant species to support their natural regeneration
(Sawarkar 2005)

The Indian Pangolin represents the Old World anteaters and is widely distributed
but in low densities. It lives in burrows and is nocturnal therefore its presence is
difficult to detect. It feeds on termites and is known to climb trees to feed on tree
dwelling ants (Prater 1980). One tiger scat sample in the Melghat Tiger Reserve
was found to contain scales of the pangolin (Pant et.al. 2002).

Nine species of bats occur in the landscape. Among these the Leaf Nosed Bat
Hipposideros galeritus represents a single record in central India along the
Chikhaldhara ridge in the Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra (Bates and Harris
1997). Recently, on 30th January 2006 an individual was seen roosting below the
roof of Madhai forest rest house. It has been photographed (Sawarkar Pers. Obs.).
Evidently the species occurs at several more sites but seems to be rare. The
Horseshoe bat Rhinolopus luctus, essentially a forest dwelling species in
mountainous terrain is little studied on the Indian sub-continent. The only record in
central India is from the Pachmarhi wildlife sanctuary. The location is between R.
luctus population in Nepal and R. beddomi in the Western Ghats. The Indian False
Vampire Megaderma lyra though widely distributed from sea level to an elevation
of about 1000m. Recent studies in the Western Ghats indicates significant decline
of the population. The reasons are not known (Bates and Harris 1997). Of these
nine species of bats, three are frugivorous and perform the important function of
fruit dispersal. Depending on the species bats dwell in caves, cliff crevasses,
among boulders, tree cavities and roost on trees.

The family Tupaiidae is represented by a single species in the landscape, the Tree
Shrew Anathana ellioti (Shrivastava 1995). In appearance it resembles a squirrel.
It feeds on insects, small birds and mammals. Very little is known about the
species.

The family Herpestidae is represented by two species the Common Mongoose

Herpestes edwardsi and the Ruddy Mongoose H. smithi. The former dwells in open
forests, and scrub and the latter in well-wooded forests

Two species of Viverridae occur in the landscape. The Common Palm Civet is
distributed widely including in the village environs and sometimes in the townships,
living in the space between the roof and the false ceiling. The Small Indian Civet
Viverricula indica is mainly confined to the forests. Both species occur in low
densities, are omnivorous and nocturnal. They have a significant role in dispersal of
seeds of many plant species in the forest (Padel 2005)

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The Jackal is common and widely distributed. It has an important role in dispersing
seeds of several plant species

Among the smaller cats, the jungle cat is widely distributed but not often seen, as
it is nocturnal. Its footprints on forest paths and roads can help in charting its
distribution. If there are other species of small cats in the landscape nothing is
known about them.

Two species of non-human primates occur in the landscape the common langur
and the Rhesus macaque. Langurs are widely distributed in the forests while the
rhesus displays scattered distribution. The langur is a prey of the leopard.
Curiously although the rhesus is far less agile than the langur there are no records
of leopard having killed and eaten a rhesus.

The result of population estimation exercises conducted annually by the forest

department from the year 1982 to 2003 within the STR is reproduced below under
Table 2.1.

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Table 2. 1: Estimates of population of wild animals in STR

Spec 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 2004
ies 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2002 2003
1 Tiger 25 29 42 49 41 30 31 31 36 15 36-40 36-42 35
Leop 68
2 ard 48 54 64 67 67 39 48 45 52 20 55-60 -58-71
Chita 102 113 141 145 2300-2500
3 l 531 614 988 7 758 929 4 7 2 654 425-625 565-660
Sam 155 194 158 161 187 192 185 194 190 115 1150- 1160- 3500-3600
4 bhar 9 9 7 7 8 0 2 9 1 2 1200 1215
Nilga 780-830
5 i 106 312 398 445 205 269 236 371 358 281 280-300 280-310
Chau 110-130
singh
6 a 304 311 305 158 125 705 882 133 135 65 50-65 25-40
Chin 35-40
7 kara 142 145 113 454 31 73 67 - 45 - --25-35 --25-40
Black 25-30
8 buck 22 35 223 495 2 3 - 28 62 - 25-30 28-40
Barki 275-300
ng 100 128 421-
9 deer 528 701 9 2 924 498 - - 780 745 425 415-450
103 112 131 117 122 128 117 152 156 102 1040- 1140- 1900-1000
10 Gaur 5 4 9 2 0 1 8 6 3 9 1100 1110
Wild 287 358 465 430 241 283 316 482 320 -
11 Pig 6 7 1 2 4 2 2 - 0 5 - -
Sloth 210-235
12 Bear 178 157 201 152 82 99 - - 182 - 135-146 145-180
Dhol -
13 e 228 165 164 88 47 102 73 - 78 - - -
Lang 480 625 582 610 631 -
14 ur - - - - 1 5 62 2 0 2 - -
Croc -
15 odile - - - - - 10 15 20 18 35 - -
Source : Field Director's office Satpura Tiger Reserve, Hoshangabad

Population estimates for certain species across the managed forest units concerned
are indicated under Table 2.2 However these pertain to the entire area of the
respective territorial divisions. It is not possible to separate the data only for the
portions within the landscape. Information for Rampur Bhatori is not available.

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Table 2.2: Estimates of population of wild animals in managed forests

Species Hoshangabad Division West Chindwara Division
(2003) (2004)
Tiger 3 6
Leopard 3 13
Dhole 4 -
Sloth Bear 260 60
Hyena 34 -
Jackal 163 -
Gaur 20 -
Sambar 734 205
Nilgai 454 211
Chital 1140 698
Blackbuck 141 -
Barking Deer 1408 1440
Chausingha 62 -
Wild Pig 6100 3180
Source: The respective Working Plans

2.3.3 Vegetation: plant species and communities of conservation

importance

Vegetation of Satpura is unique because it shows an intermixture of both tropical

and temperate elements. The Pachmarhi region forms a meeting ground for certain
species of the Himalayas with other components of vegetation characteristic of the
dry deciduous forests of the Santhal paraganas in Bihar, Eastern Ghats in Orissa
and Andhra and the Indian peninsular mountain systems.

The floral features and range

The Satpura landscape is rich in floral diversity at all levels, from genetic diversity
to landscape and ecosystem diversity. India is one of the mega diversity countries
of the world and represents two out of the total 18 hot spots identified in the world
(Anon 2000) It is estimated that the country is the home of about 49000 species of
angiospermic and non flowering plants representing approximately 12.51% of
world’s recorded flora (Anon 2000)

Madhya Pradesh is placed at third position after Western Ghats and Eastern
Himalayas in the matter of richness of biodiversity. The forests in Madhya Pradesh
cover 30.5% of its geographical area (Anon 2000). It is estimated that some 1209
angiospermic plants occur in the State. As against this the Satpura landscape
represents 1190 species i.e. 98.42% of all the angiospermic plants occurring in the
State that represent 633 genera and 127 families. (Kushwah and Kumar 2000,
Oomachan and Masih 1992, Bajaj 1998, Bir and Kumari 1988, Buch 1991, Kapoor
and Yadav 1962, Joseph 1963, Saxena 1971). This clearly establishes the
significance of the landscape as a crucible of plant diversity.
Primitive plants: Within the landscape some tracts of Pachmarhi Sanctuary are
especially rich in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes. Fifty-seven species of Bryophytes

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belonging to 34 genera of 17 families are known to occur in these areas. Out of the
57 species 30 are common with western Himalayan region, 30 species are common
with eastern Himalayas, and 32 species are shared commonly with southern Indian
region (Singh V.P and Kaul A 2002, Bir and Vasudev 1973, 1973a, Dixit and Kale
1986, Dixit 1989, Gamble 1982, Kaul et.al. 1995). Further the Pachmarhi
sanctuary represents 94 species of Pteridophytes belonging to 46 genera, from 18
families. Some of these are highly threatened like Psilotum, Botrychium, Cythea,
Lycopodium, Lygodium, Isoetes, and Ophioglossum. These non flowering plants or
carpet flora provide nutrition and shelter to seeds and seedlings of flowering
plants. Some species of Bryophytes have biopesticide properties against certain
insects and fungi thus they provide protection to seeds of flowering plants. These
are among some of the key ecological functions.

Angiosperms: Satpura landscape having diversified climatic conditions represents

high degree of plant diversity of Angiospermic or Flowering plants. This landscape
sheltering about 1190 species belonging to 127 families and 633 genera have been
reported in the area as a result of the efforts of several botanists (Mukherjee
1984). The family Poacea has emerged the largest the largest within the monocots
while Asteraceae has pipped others among the Dicots. Other recorded dominant
families are Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, Cyperaceae, Orchidaceae,
Scrophulariaceae, and Lamiaceae & Rubiaceae. These 9 families represent about
50 % of all the species occurring in the landscape.

The Endemics: Some of the species among the recorded endemics are Melastoma
malabathricum, Murraya paniculata, Homskoldia sanguinea, Blumea lanceolaria,
Sophora interrupta and Ficus cupulata.

The Endangered & Threatened: Some of these are Psilotum nudum, Lycopodium
cernum, Cythea gigantea, Angiopteris evecta, Isoetes panchananii, Isoetes
mahadevansis, Ophioglossum nudicaul, Utricularia exoleta, Drosera burmanii, and
Drosera indica. The reasons for their current status are mainly attributed to human
activities and livestock grazing that directly lead to habitat loss. Some of these are
heavily collected during the botanical excursions of educational institutions.
Species like Chlorophytum spp, Gloriosa superba, Raulfia serpentina, and
Asparagus recemosus are in considerable demand for their medicinal value and
therefore there is over collection leading to their local disappearance from the
managed forests.

There are clear indications that the populations of some of the tree species that
are socio-economically important and among those that are the commonest in the
region like Embelica officinalis, Buchnania lanzan, Terminalia chebula, Madhuca
latifolia, are on a rapid decline in the managed forests. Their recruitment classes
are poorly represented and seed banks are almost non-existent. The population of
Diospyros melanoxylon indicates poor regeneration from seed origin (Pant et.al.
2002). Fortunately the PAs are a repository of their source populations, yet it is
hardly a comforting thought.

Insectivorous plants: Utricularia and the two species of Drosera occur

predominantly in the vicinity of Pachmarhi (1000m) within the PAs. These also
occur at lower elevations, chiefly along mesic sites. These plants are indicators of
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nitrogen deficient soils. Two species of Drosera, D. burmanii and D. indica occur on
Jambudweep (950m) among rocks along streams (Shrivastava R.C. 1983,
Mukherjee 1994). During the survey both species were found in Compartment 240
on a small patch of marshy land. The population size is very small and distribution
is scattered. The trampling herds of livestock particularly affect the occurrence and
distribution of Drosera. This patch of habitat needs strict protection.

Six species of Utricularia occur in the landscape. U.exoleta is aquatic and free
floating. The flowers display yellow corolla with pink striations. It occurs in
stagnant water pools and along streams in the outskirts of Pachmarhi & Kanji ghat
(1000m). It is a very rare species. U. graminifolia flowers have blue corolla and the
species occurs on little drier habitats along streams on the Pachmarhi plateau
(1000m), and Dhupgarh (1200-1300m). Its distribution is sparse. U. pubescens
has bluish purple flowers with reticulate seeds. It is sparsely distributed on
Jambudweep (900m). U.scandens and U.striatula are patchily and sparsely
distributed. While the former is on land the latter occurs on trees like an epiphyte.
U.scandens occurs along streams within the sal forests at an elevation of about
1000m on the Pachmarhi plateau, while U.striatula is found on the Mahadev hills
(1200m) on moist mossy tree trunks along hill slopes. U. uliginosa is an erect
terrestrial herb and common in its distribution. It occurs on mesic grassy sites
along the Pachmarhi plateau at an elevation of about 1000m within the sal forests.
(Mukharjee, 1994). Sites of such characteristics were visited and the occurrence is
confirmed. We also found a species of Utricularia on the bank of a stream on a
confined and shaded site of Pattharchatta. The species could not be confirmed.
Further study is needed.

The significant Pteridophytes: The landscape is rich in Pteridophytic flora that

constitutes an important component of terrestrial and epiphytic vegetation next to
the flowering plants. The plants of this group during the prehistoric times have
significantly contributed to the formation of coal deposits. Pteridophytes grow on
the floor of the forests in a continuous ‘weaving’ pattern, thereby constituting an
important layer of the vegetation, especially in the hills. The loss of such cover
increases soil erosion. Ferns for example also increase the humus in the soil and
provide enriched seedbeds, and shelter to young seedlings of forest trees. In
addition to their ecological importance, many of these plants species feature
variously as folk remedies and medicine for example Isoetes, Lycopodium ,
Angiopteris evecta etc. and medicine. They also feature in food, fodder, in crop
protection as insect repellent and in bio-fertilizers. They are useful indicators of
environmental health and monitoring and some have ornamental value. Adiantum
capillis-veneria and Polypodium vulgare are used as flavouring agents. Among the
chemical constituents of the former are tannic acid and gallic acid. Their derivatives
are used mainly in the preparation of syrups that are employed as flavour
modifiers. Polypodium vulgare produces rhizomes that have licorice like flavour and
therefore the rhizomes have been used as flavoring agents for blending tobacco.

The endangered fern Angiopteris evecta occurs in the Jalgali and Pattharchatta
area of Pachmarhi sanctuary. An extract from it is used for imparting fragrance to
oils in the South Sea Islands. Some ferns or fern allies like the Equisetum arvense
because of its affinity for gold is used as a source of the metal. The largest
concentration of the metal found on record is 4 ½ ounce of gold per ton of the
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plant. The highest tin concentration measured in plants from contaminated

substrate at a tin mine in Malaysia was found in the fern Gleichnia linearis.
Lycopodium constitutes one of the potential medicines in Homeopathy while
Isoetes spores are used for the treatment of oral ulcers and for increasing the yield
of milk in cattle.

Main habitats of Pteridophytes: Within the landscape the distribution of

pteridophytes is largely concentrated in the Pachmarhi Sanctuary and portions of
the Satpura National Park although some species from this group occur in few
localities in the Bori sanctuary. The ravines and deep shaded gorges constitute fern
centers such as Bindravan khud, Jambudweep, Asanna khud, Sangam, Tridhara,
Jalgaali (950m); Chhota Mahadeo, Handikhoh, Patthar Chatta (900m) (Vasudev
2002). In addition to these places some ferns occur near waterfalls along
downstream flows and along water pools like Little Fall, Bee Fall (950m), Down fall,
Duchess Fall (900m), Fairy pool, Pancy Pool, Saunder’s Pool, Ramyak Pool (900m);
and Twyanam Pool (1100m).

Parasitic species: Loranthus, Viscum album, Cuscuta reflexa and Orobronche are
the main parasitic species occurring in the landscape. Viscum album has anti
carcinogenic properties having Ribosome inactivating proteins that are stable at 65
degrees C. temperature and pH range 3-9. It also contains recombinant Mistletoe
Lectin (RML) that has been used to treat ovarian cancer. Birds are the agents of
seed dispersal. However in spite of the powerful mechanism of seed dispersal, it
appears that the species has a small and patchily distributed population since
during the survey, after covering a distance of some 400 km., only 15 plants were
detected near Dhasai barrier of Bori sanctuary and within compartment 480 of the
national park.

Bryophytes: Within the landscape Bryophytes are mainly found in the PAs.
Ninety-four species of bryophytes have been recorded including 37 species of
epiphytic and 13 species of terrestrial mosses (Jain and Kaul 1986, Jain 1994, Kaul
et. al. 1995, Kaul, 2000). Out of the 94 species some species show very restricted
distribution and are becoming rare like Exormotheca tuberifera, Marchantia
palmate, Reboulia hemisphaerica and Astrella khasiana.

Bryophytes grow in a pattern of compact cushions that serve as seedbeds on the

ground. The terrestrial species perform soil-binding functions through their
networked rhizoidal system. They also possess properties of repelling insects, thus
they also perform the function of protecting from insects the seeds of other plants
that have fallen on them. As pioneering colonizers, bryophytes grow on barren
lands. They can retain moisture approximately up to 20 times their dry weight.
This facilitates in maintaining moisture in the substrates. Bryophytes are
responsible for maximum carbon gain in any forest cover and after senescence
they add organic matter to the substrates.

Bryophytes are ombrotrophic in nature thereby they are able to absorbs nutrients
directly from the atmosphere and later enriching the soil after senescence.
Decomposition of the dead matter takes place slowly that helps development of
humus. Many bryophytes secrete humic acid that helps in breaking tough seed
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coats and in maintaining the pH slightly acidic that is a prerequisite for seed
germination and seedling establishment. Thus this group of species performs
several key ecological functions. Because of their high acclimatization potential, it
is easy to transplant bryophytes on denuded surfaces (Saxena, et al, 2005)

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2.4 The Biologically Significant Areas ( BSAs)

Areas with special biological significance were identified for long term monitoring of
changes, if any. Area with high biological richness as well as those which are
degraded were considered prima facie as BSAs for long term monitoring purpose.
Significance was assigned on the basis of secondary information as well as rapid
field surveys. Roughly 13 areas were identified as Biologically Significant Areas
using the aforementioned criterion.

Within the landscape these include Compartment 52 wherein an area of 37

hectares represents an example of an old growth forest patch with teak and
several associated species of trees defining the top and the second layer of canopy,
preponderance of epiphytes such as mosses and orchids, large size snags, den
trees and lianes, and large size down wood. Detailed investigations are needed on
differences in plant and animal associates between this stand and the surrounding
forest.

Patches of primary forests and secondary forests of natural growth of biological

significance include:
1. The forests in Kamti Range
2. The interface of sal and teak communities that is fluid and often difficult to
define but has plant associates of both teak and sal without teak and sal
being represented
3. The scattered patches of Hardwickia binata along lower elevations between
Pachmarhi and Matkuli and along the Matkuli- Zhirpa axis, on the basis that
this species is under great pressure from pastorals, in whatever form or
scale it is practiced,
4. Significant riparian areas and sites that support plant species of
conservation importance that have been listed individually
5. Dry and moist grasslands.
6. Jhirpa and Delakhani regions for their rich biodiversity (Working plan, XX)
7. Almod region adjoining Satpura National Park is rich in wildlife and reports
of frequent encounters between human and animal are common.
8. Bhatodi area is again adjacent to the Satpura National Park but highly
degraded. This area was marked as a BSA considering its great potential,
which, when properly managed, may yield improvement in the overall
condition of the forest.
9. Handikhoh, Jalgali, Patharchatta area comprise of a complex with presence
of some threatened, endemic as well as primitive plants which have been
detailed out in the preceding section.
10. Panarpani comprises one of the best riparian areas within the landscape and
is a haven for not only the Giant Squirrel, but also for insectivorous plants.
11. Areas North of Denwa river near Madai have rich floral diversity and despite
their proximity to many settlements, presence of Muntjac has been reported
from these areas regularly. For this reason, this section was also considered
as one of the BSAs
12. The zone between Churna and Bunglapura has high density of Lantana.
Since the area needs to be intervened, it has been classified as a BSA which
is degraded but has high potential.

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13. Anhoni region in the landscape has hot water springs and may have some
site specific life forms which are unexplored. This region is also classified as
one of the BSAs.

Apart from these areas mentioned above, the presence of tiger from the protected
area complex could be obtained. Using the data collected as a joint exercise by the
Forest department and Wildlife Institute of India on signs of presence of tigers,
areas with presence of tiger were marked on the map. This area is also considered
as a second level of BSA since evidence of presence of tigers ensure that there is a
wide range of resources available to the top predator.

2.5. The Baselines

Tiger population:

Using the available first phase data emerging from the ‘tiger estimation’ exercise
conducted in STR in 2006 during which 118 beats that were surveyed on three
consecutive days, 63 beats (53%) have reported presence of tiger. While some
sites may have had tigers and their signs which could not be detected, the three
days’ surveys are used here to estimate the detection probability (Royle and
Nichols, 2002). Accordingly the estimates regarding the occupancy of tiger in STR
is 0.544 (CV 8%) i.e. 54.4% (SE 4.7%) sites of Satpura Tiger Reserve report
presence of tigers. This method of analysis takes care of the risk of areas having
tigers but their signs being undetected. These site occupancies can also be used as
surrogate of density as well as benchmarks. Once the data for all four phases is
analyzed for the STR as well as the areas outside the STR within the landscape
boundaries the complete picture would emerge. Map 2 below indicates the physical
presence of the tigers from the Satpura Tiger Reserve.

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Map 2.1: Tiger occupancy in the landscape

The first phase data mapping that indicates priority areas for tiger conservation for
the landscape is indicated in Map 2.2

Map 2.2: Priority areas for tiger conservation

Source: Maps 2.1 and 2.2, the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

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Not just density or number of tigers but: (i) Identifying and keeping track of the
number of adult males occupying an area since the presence of siring males is
more important to ensure recruitment of tigers in a population (ii) Identifying and
keeping track of the number of adult females with cubs, especially the survivorship
of the cubs to adulthood. The higher the number of encumbered females, as well
as the numbers of cub survival to adult hood, better the indications for population
growth/stability (iii) Tracking spatial occupation by beats, mapping, analyzing and
interpreting such data on yearly basis (iv) Keeping track of emergence of new adult
individuals (result of likely dispersal) and disappearance of known individuals
(Would indicate likely mortality. Dead tigers are rarely and opportunistically
encountered, therefore physical evidence of carcass is hard to come by. Skins and
body part seizures in offence cases do provide evidence but it is very difficult to
determine the origins, whether the animals have been poached within the
landscape or from elsewhere). This all can be done by monitoring and recording
pugmarks on day to day basis, by whatever sightings that are recorded and by the
data emerging from camera traps. This also may be viewed cautiously against
poaching data, if any. This is not suggested as a replacement of the new tiger
estimation methodology which may continue as per the regime that might be set,
but as an additional exercise performed intensively to monitor project impacts. The
positive indications are generally inclusive of correlates to the well being of the
prey populations and containment/mitigation of factors of disturbance. The reverse
is true as well. The beat wise spatial data on tiger presence/absence is indicated in
Map 2.1 but the result of the tiger population assessment of January 2006 are not
available and these may also be used to set the benchmark/ baseline against which
monitoring needs to be performed using the indicators suggested.

As stated earlier the survey addressed three life forms, the Indian Giant
Squirrel (IGS), vultures and the crocodile. The details pertaining to the
IGS are presented under Table 2.3.

The Indian Giant Squirrel (IGS)

The survey

Available literature from the landscape on Giant Squirrel is scarce. Apart from
some sporadic and ad-libidinal sighting records and observations, a M.Sc.
dissertation on Indian Giant Squirrel by a student from Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun is available (Borges, 1989; Dutta, 1993). The previous study was
conducted mainly at two sites, viz. along Bhainsa Nala and along Churnagundi
Nala. Available literature and personal communication indicate a fragmented
distribution of the Indian Giant Squirrel in the landscape. A recent report from
Rampur Bhatodi area neighbouring the Satpura Tiger Reserve reports an increase
in the population of the Indian Giant Squirrel.

Since there was need to obtain information about their overall distribution and
general occupancy within the area of interest, a rapid survey was done by
traversing a total of about 350 km within the protected areas of the landscape and
locating nests and recording direct sightings of Giant Squirrels. Overall 125
compartments were visited for presence of the Indian Giant Squirrel covering 15 in
Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary, 69 in Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and 41 compartments
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in Satpura National Park. Direct sighting and nests were used as indicators of
presence within a surveyed area. Since Indian Giant Squirrel have small home
areas with their movements mostly confined within a short range of their nests
(Dutta, 1993), it is assumed that presence of nests in an area indicate presence of
Indian Giant Squirrel within the confines of at least that particular compartment.
One of the biggest assumptions during the exercise was that detection probability
was uniform across sites. This is a huge assumption for an area of interest spread
across hundreds of square kilometers. Its impact on overall abundance can be
substantial, though for site occupancy the detection probability can be safely
ignored.

The species and its characteristic nests are both eminently visible. The survey has
provided site particulars and compartment numbers. The numbers of individuals
and nests have also been recorded which are used to establish baselines. These
sites need to be visited once annually during the same week and month year after
year to record individuals as well as the nests seen. Besides the sites that have
been recorded, a systematically designed search needs to be conducted over an
enlarged tract over similar habitats to record change or to capture occupancy.

A total of 410 nests were located and 26 direct sightings obtained. Out of the 125
compartments surveyed, presence was detected in 34 compartments. Within the
protected areas, the occupancy of Giant Squirrel is estimated to be 0.27. Using
occupancy as a surrogate of abundance (e.g. Mackenzie and Nichols, 2004; Bailey
et. al. 2004), one can use these estimates as benchmark for monitoring their
population and status over a longer period of time.

Analysis of data from sites where the Indian Giant Squirrel or its nests were found
reveals that their numbers are particularly high in compartment number 21, 40,
52, 256 and 267. Further investigation needs to be done to understand the reason
behind such high abundance of Giant Squirrel in these areas. Using Hierarchal
Cluster Analysis, the nest abundance was classified into three indices, viz. high,
medium and low (fig. 2.1). Table 2.4 provides details of the compartments where
either the Indian Giant Squirrel, or its evidences were found. The table also
provides abundance indices within these nesting sites that can be used as a
benchmark.

Prima facie assessment suggests Indian Giant Squirrel mainly use Mango Mangifera
indica, Jamun Syzigium cumini, Arjun Terminalia arjuna, Harra Terminalia chebula,
Peepal Ficus religiosa, Gular Ficus glomerata and Bridelia retusa species of trees for
making nests whilst in some areas Teak Tectona grandis and Sal Shorea robusta
are also used though rarely. Within the compartments where the Giant Squirrel
was seen, it was found that their nests were detected more often in areas adjoining
human habitations. While there could be many variables resulting into high
detections from such ‘disturbed’ areas, that the squirrels have developed a certain
level of dependency on humans needs to be investigated. On the other hand, this
high encounter rate of nests in areas adjoining human habitations can also be a
confluence of habituation and resource availability.

Giant Squirrels are known for not caching food. This suggests that they need
continuous availability of food to survive in an area. Giant squirrels are
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predominantly arboreal thriving in high canopies and also need tall trees for
making their nests. With a wide range of predators, for its young ones to survive
and hence for the squirrel to have a viable recruitment rate, it is mandatory that
they have access to areas with thick canopy, tall trees and high resource
availability close to the nesting site. A combination of the two significant ecological
features of any species may lead towards a better understanding of the spatial use
of the available terrain by the Giant Squirrel in the landscape.

While only limited information is available on the distribution and abundance of

Giant Squirrels in the landscape as a baseline, it is important that the area be
monitored over a long period of time for changes in Giant Squirrel populations.

Table 2. 3: The distribution and abundance of the Indian Giant Squirrel in the STR
(2006)

S Date Time Compa Location No. of No. of

N rtment nests Giant
No. observed squirrels
observe
d
1 21 4.30 PM 269 Pachmarhi purana 11 3
May road
2 21 5.45PM Bariam village 9 -
May
3 22 7.30 AM 252 Mahadev & Gupt 4 -
May Mahadev
4 23 6.25AM 268 & Chilakdhar, along 11 2
May 269 the boundary line
of the two
compartments
5 23 7.15 AM 267 Just at the gate of 11 1
May STR At Panarpani
6 23 9.45 AM 267 Panarpani nala 15 1
May
7 23 10.25 266 Panarpani park 12 1
May AM
8 23 11.40 266 Coffee plantation 7 -
May AM Rapata
9 23 12.15 240 Along the 3 -
May Am boundary
10 23 12.30 239 Near Board of 5 -
May AM Phansi khud
11 23 1.05 AM 241 Along the 5 1
May boundary
12 24 5.35AM Just near the 11 3
May Check post of SNP
on Dhoopgarh -
Bori road

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13 24 6.45AM 256 Teak plantation at 26 3

May Rorighat
14 24 55 Along side the 3 -
May road
15 24 52 Preservation plot 25 -
May
16 24 52 Further south 7 -
May along the
boundary
17 24 15 Along the 3 -
May boundary
18 24 21 Bori to Khodri 21 -
May road
19 24 5.45 PM Khodri camp 14 2
May
20 24 6- 7 PM 40 Khodri to Dhain 34 -
May road
21 25 43 At the pond near 11 1
May Sonbhadra river
22 25 36 Tendumod 13 -
May
23 25 86 Along the 9 -
May boundary
24 25 96 & 97 Boundary of CN 9 1
May 96&97
25 97 Along the 8 -
boundary
26 27 6.15AM 29 & 30 Jholinala (Bori to 12 1
May Churna road)
27 27 30 Along the 13 1
May boundary
28 27 35 Along the 15 -
May boundary
29 27 37 Near a waterhole 10 -
May on a Ficus species
near Sonbhadra
river
30 26 5.15PM 5 Near Gular pani 8 -
May Jhira (Preservation
plot)
31 50 Along the 14 -
boundary
32 60 Along the 4 -
boundary
33 28 7-9 AM 217 Bhainsa nala 25 5
May & 2.45 Churna Rest house
to 4.50
PM
34 29 6.15 AM 228 Churna to Madhai 4 -

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May
35 29 268 Along the 9 -
May boundary
6 29 Topidev baba at 13 -
may the mile stone
indicating Kukra 6
Km (Madhai to
Eemghan road)
37 29 488 Near mile stone 8 -
May indicating
Pachmarhi 26 KM
+3 29 Near Ratilane stop 12 -
8 May dam between mile
stones indicating
Pachmarhi 15-16
Km
39 29 Near Badkachhar 10 -
May village
Total 410 26

Table 2.4: Giant Squirrel abundance indices

Comp Location Nest Giant Area Nest/Area Cluster

artme s Squirrel s
nt No. s
40 Khodari to 34 - 135.1 0.251535 High
Dhain road 7
21 Bori to 21 - 102.3 0.205118 High
khodari road 8
256 Teak 26 3 141.5 0.183668 High
plantation at 6
Rorighat
52 Preservation 32 - 184.9 0.173029 High
plot 4
267 Just at the 26 1 160.2 0.162246 High
gate of STR 5
At panarpani
gate
30 CN-30 13 1 108.8 0.119485 Medium
29 Jholinala 12 1 113.3 0.105904 Medium
(Bori to 1
Churna road)
36 Tendumod 13 - 130 0.1 Medium
43 Pond Near 11 1 118.0 0.093157 Medium
sonbhadra 8
river
35 CN-35 15 - 168.7 0.088889 Medium
5
266 Panarpani 19 1 222.1 0.08552 Medium

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park 7
217 Bhainsa 25 5 297.8 0.083935 Medium
nala Churna 5
Rest house
37 Near a 10 - 127.0 0.078697 Medium
waterhole 7
having ficus
species near
sonbhadra
river
50 CN-50 14 - 224.6 0.062333 Low
5 Near Gular 8 - 128.6 0.062165 Low
pani Jhira 9
(preservation
plot)
97 CN96 8 - 150 0.053333 Low
96 Boundary of 9 1 182.5 0.049312 Low
CN 96&97 1
86 CN-86 9 - 191.0 0.047118 Low
1
268SN CN-268 9 - 200.7 0.044839 Low
P 2
268Pc Chilakdhar, 19 2 447.1 0.042489 Low
h Boundary line 7
of
269 Pachmarhi 11 3 352.0 0.031243 Low
purana road 8
60 CN-60 4 - 135.1 0.029592 Low
7
15 CN-15 3 - 142.4 0.021061 Low
4
55 CN-55 3 - 152.9 0.019612 Low
7
239 Near Board 5 - 273.5 0.018278 Low
of Phansi 6
khud
240 CN-240 3 - 165.0 0.01818 Low
2
241 CN-241 5 1 331.0 0.015104 Low
3
228 Churna to 4 - 300.6 0.013303 Low
Madhai 8
252 Mahadev & 4 - 619.6 0.006455 Low
gupt 4
mahadev

Vulture population

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The rapid sampling conducted within the landscape during April-May 2006 resulted
in locating 18 sites along cliffs that were found marked conspicuously by droppings
of vultures. These presumably are the roosting and/or nesting sites, though no
nesting sites could be confirmed. On nine different sites vultures were sighted
flying at great height. In all 33 birds were sighted out of which two were identified
as the Red-headed, one as Egyptian and the rest were thought to be the White–
rumped (Range 1-16, n=9). Since the vultures were flying at considerable height
there is a possibility of misidentification. No roosting or nesting sites of the White-
rumped vultures have been reported from the landscape in the recent times as well
as during the survey. However, since the species has very large home ranges
(approximately 30,000 sq km) it is difficult to locate the remaining few of their
nests across the landscape. One independent observer has reported to have
sighted 50+ vultures flying above cliffs near the village Pattan within the STR. One
of the staff members reported having seen two Red-headed, two Egyptian and
several White-rumped Vultures on a peafowl carcass, though the report could not
be confirmed. The major cause of the dramatic decline of the vulture population is
attributed to the wide use of veterinary drug Declofenac to treat sick livestock
(Ricebrough et. al. XX; Prakash et. al. XX; Swan et.al. 2006).
The result of field sampling undertaken for assessment of population of vultures is
placed under Table 2.5

Table 2. 5: Assessment of Vulture population in the Satpura landscape (2006)

S.No. Date Location Dropping Nesting Species Sighting

sites sites of points
Vulture
1 21May Dhoopgarh 1 - - Cliff
range
2. 22 May Flying over New - - White- New Hotel
Hotel rumped
3. 22 May CN-251 (near 1 - 1-King Chauragarh
Chauragarh). vulture hill
and 7
white-
rumped
sighted
4. 22 May Boundary of 2 - 14 white On the way
CN-251 & 252 -rumped of Nandia
(Nandia Hills) and 1
near Forest scavenger
Rest House
5. 22 May Apsara Vihar 2 - ? Apsara
water fall
6. 24 May On the way to 2 - -
Rorighat from
Pachmarhi
7. 24 May Rorighat (Sidh 2 - 3 white - Rorighat
baba hills) rumped camp
8. 24 May Donia dev 2 - -
pahar
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9. 24 May Bel Khandar 2 - 3 white - Bori rest

pahar rumped house
10. 25 May On the way 2 - - CN-86
from Bori to
Churna CN-86
11. 26 May Cliff opposite to 1 - 2 white - Rest house
Churna rest rumped
house
12. 27 CN- 35 1 - - CN-35
may
13. 29 May Cliffs near - - 2 white - Madhai rest
Madhai rest rumped & house
house 1king
vulture

(a) It was difficult to clearly distinguish the species of vultures because they were
flying at great height.

(b) A field person reported having sighted on 19th May 2006, two scavenger
vultures, two king vultures and a number of white-rumped vultures near a dead
peahen. The site and the report are unconfirmed.

The Base line survey for crocodiles

Crocodiles are long living aquatic reptiles that have survived on the face of earth
for over hundreds of millions of years. They are believed to have changed little
since the time of dinosaurs. The crocodilians are found throughout the tropics in
Africa, Asia, America and Australia. Crocodiles mostly inhabit slow moving rivers
and lakes and feed mainly on mammals and fish. Crocodiles move fast for short
distance inside as well as outside water. They are known to travel long distances in
search of water and have at times been sighted kilometers away from nearest
waterholes. Crocodiles are ambush hunters, waiting for fish or land animals to
come close, then rushing out to attack. As cold-blooded predators, they can
survive long periods without food, and rarely need to actively go hunting.

In Satpura region, the Mugger or Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustrisis is found in

good number (Forest Dept. Census report 2003). The forest department staff, local
villagers and tourists report sighting of the crocodile from various regions adjoining
the river as well as in waterholes far from it. Since crocodiles are long living
creatures, it is important to estimate the population structure and other
demographic details of the crocodile population from the area to investigate the
actual level of threats.

Madhai region of Satpura Landscape was surveyed for presence of crocodile nests.
Tributaries of the Denwa river, the river stretch and waterholes within the Madhai
range were surveyed for nest/burrow presence. Sandbanks and ridges adjoining
waterlogged areas are potential sites used by the crocodiles for nesting. Since the
temperature in the survey area exceeds 40oC during the hot seasons, chances of
seeing crocodiles are negligible during the summer. In fact the objective of the
survey was to find stretches of banks with nesting sites that represent not only the
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presence of crocodiles but also such stretches could be benchmarked for future
monitoring. An extensive survey in jeep and on foot covering about 80 km was
done with help of forest department staff. A boat survey from Madhai, westwards
for a stretch of 10 km, was also done in order to locate crocodile nests.

Most areas with nest sites, sighting information and other indirect evidences were
surveyed based on leads provided by the forest department staff.

A preliminary analysis leads to an understanding that there are few sand banks
along the Denwa river, and wherever there are some, they are heavily disturbed.

Of the six sites with evidences of crocodiles, only one site had some dried
eggshells. It was found that on all other sites, there were no signs of eggs. These
‘nests’ looked more like burrows than shallow nests and were mostly made in soft
sandy soil with a thick tree cover on the top. It is known that crocodiles aestivate
in some areas. The burrowing tendency of crocodiles is a common phenomenon in
areas where water is stagnant. In habitats like the Chambal, such burrowing of
crocodiles is never observed (R. J. Rao, pers. comm.). It was observed that these
burrows were made at elevations just above the Full Reservoir Level (FRL). Few of
the burrows were detected at sites that were far from the actual level of water.

Whether these burrows are used only for aestivation or as nesting sites as well is
not known. But considering the distance of these sites from water at the time when
the eggs would hatch, it seems unlikely that the young ones would have a high
probability of survival. In fact these could be den sites.

The burrows are made on banks with steep contour, soft soil and dense tree cover
on the top. The fact that these burrows are extensive, long and often deep dug
suggests that the burrows/nests are made just below thick tree cover. A site where
one burrow had crumbled had fewer trees and vegetation cover on the top.
Breeding behaviour of the crocodiles of Satpura region needs to be studied in
greater detail. A survey along with age classification is also needed to assess the
recruitment rate of crocodiles. While there is a dearth of sandbanks that crocodiles
may use for nesting, use of burrows as nesting sites needs to be investigated. It is
known that where sand banks are absent crocodiles use mudbanks for nesting. A
thorough survey of the area for presence of more nesting/burrowing sites is also
required. The outcome can be used for developing a predictive model for site
occupancy.

: While it has not been possible based on rapid survey for us to set a bench mark
or a baseline, (i) It would be necessary to conduct night time surveys over pre
determined stretches of reservoir waters equipped with powerful searchlights.
During winters in dark hours the crocodiles will be in water. Their eyes shine
brilliantly in the searchlight beam over the water surface. Crocodiles would tend to
submerge at the sound of the boat engine therefore after reaching a certain
distance the engine would need to be switched off and after about twenty minutes
the surrounding water stretch should be searched for observing and recording pair
of eyes. The position of the boat could be recorded by a GPS. Such sampling effort
needs to be adequately spread out over the stretch of the reservoir. The exercise
may be conducted over days and repeated once a year over the same period and
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time. Since crocodiles walk considerable distances over land in search of water
pools the inland pools need to be searched likewise. During the winter mornings as
the sun rises crocodiles would be seen basking on the edge of water therefore a
combination of nighttime surveys over the reservoir and morning scanning of pools
may be employed. The sites and spatial occupancy of habitats may be mapped.

Setting baselines for RET species of plants : It is difficult to set baseline for
plant populations. However some of the critical sites have been listed in section
2.3. Species like Psilotum nudum, Lycopodium cernum, Cythea gigantea,
Angiopteris evecta, Isoetes panchananii, Isoetes mahadevansis, Ophioglossum
nudicaul, Utricularia exoleta, Drosera burmanii, and Drosera indica have small and
scattered populations, they also are habitat specialists and endangered because of
anthropogenic activities. Species like Chlorophytum spp, Gloriosa superba, Raulfia
serpentina, and Asparagus recemosus are in considerable demand for their
medicinal value and therefore there is over collection leading to their local
disappearance from the managed forests. These threats hold good for all species of
pteridophytes and bryophytes.

Populations of some of the tree species that are socio-economically important and
also among those that are the commonest in the region like Embelica officinalis,
Buchnania lanzan, Terminalia chebula, Madhuca latifolia, are on a rapid decline in
the managed forests. Their recruitment classes are poorly represented and seed
banks are almost non-existent. The population of Diospyros melanoxylon indicates
poor regeneration from seed origin (Pant et.al. 2002).

The sites described by landmarks can easily be located. Indicators by which the
populations and their distribution can be monitored are by actually visiting the
sites, locating the plant population, taking photographs and assessing the degree
of control or the absence of factors of disturbance such as (i) Livestock pressure
(ii) Activities of plant collectors (iii) Trade (iii) Disposal of solid waste (iv) Toxic
effluents. Such monitoring needs to be done at least once a year.

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CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL AND LIVELIHOOD ASSESSMENT

3.1 The Context: Highlands of central India, in which the Satpuda LS is located is
a remarkable region of extensive forested lands with a number of tribal
communities inhabiting these forests.

This chapter deals with the outcome of the social assessment. Details of the
assessment with respect to social profile, livelihood profile and biodiversity
dependencies of the people are discussed in the chapter so as to provide a social
overview of the landscape.

3.2 The Process & Methodology

For the social assessment, data collection was done from both secondary and
primary sources. The secondary sources included census records, records of
various departments viz. Forests, Revenue, Animal Husbandry, Pachmari Biosphere
Reserve etc. For primary data collection, survey was undertaken of the villages of
the landscape. For the survey, stratified sampling was employed with 5% sampling
intensity. The following criteria were employed for developing the strata:

1. Distance from the core of protected areas

2. Ethnicity
3. Legal status

Nai Dhai, in Hoshangabad district is the first village to be relocated out of the Bori
Sanctuary. This also formed part of the sample.

For arriving at the final list of villages to be sampled, continuous discussions were
held with an array of stakeholders. First, secondary data was collected from census
and other departmental records of Forest Department, Veterinary and Pachmari
Biosphere Reserve. Following secondary data collection, discussions were held with
State Forest Department officials. Discussions with field forest department
personnel and traders of minor forest produce to shortlist the villages. Consultation
with forest department officials and project consultants followed to finalize the
criteria and develop the final list of villages to be sampled. In all, data collection
was done in 12 selected villages. List of the sampled villages is given in Annex I.
During the consultation, a checklist of parameters on which data is to be collected
was finalized. The checklist was tested in two villages (Kursikhapa and Paraaspaani
in Hoshangabad district) before initiating the process of intensive data collection.
This tested checklist served as the guideline for local level data collection.

Participatory methods were employed for village level data collection. The methods
included, transact walks, Focus Group Discussions (FGD), social and resource
mapping, ranking and interviews of key informants. Stakeholder groups with which
FGDs were done included caste based groups, economic stratification, Self Help
Group (SHG) members, Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) members and
village youths. Key informants included Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI)
representatives, Field level forest department personnel, Teachers, Shopkeepers,
moneylenders, Aanganwadi worker, Auxiliary Nurse cum Midwife (ANM), local level
functionaries of Veterinary department, fisheries department etc., Pardhans of the
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villages and functionaries of Non-Government Organizations (NGO) working in the

area.

Following the primary assessment, the clusters were identified in the landscape
based on parameters defined after the primary assessment, including core/non
core area, distance from the core and ethnicity. Stakeholder consultations were
held in each of the clusters with field staff, community representatives and PRI
representatives to develop cluster profiles identify and prioritize issues; and
develop strategies for conservation and development. Action plan for translating
these strategies into specific interventions was then developed.

Limitations

The assessment of the landscape was more of a rapid assessment done as per the
guidelines circulated detailing the broad methodology, sample size and duration.
Further, a checklist was developed that served as the basis of data collection rather
than a structured schedule. Also, village level data collection was done employing
participatory methods. Though the sampling intensity was on the lower side,
however following first round of primary assessment in 12 villages, cluster level
consultations were carried out to reinforce the finding form village level
assessment in the first round.

3.3 Social Profile (including baselines)

The following sub-sections describe the social profile of the landscape with respect
to various assessment components.

3.2.1 Area and composition

The total area of the landscape is 3149 sq kms spread over Hoshangabad, Betul
and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh state. The landscape houses 284
villages and a population of 1.52 lakhs is resident in these villages. As regards
location, 43 of these villages are in the delineated Core Area of the landscape and
241 are in the Dispersal Zone of the landscape. A snapshot view of the above is
given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Households and population of Satpuda landscape

S. No. Area No. of villages No. of Population

households
1. Core 43 2439 12924
2. Dispersal 241 26039 139646
Total 284 28478 152570
Source: Census 2001

As regards the caste composition of the population, 52.9 % of the total population
belongs to Scheduled Tribes, the Gonds and the Korkus. Population of 11.7 % is of
Scheduled Castes and the rest belongs to other castes. The caste composition is
detailed in the table 3.2. The core areas have very high ethnicity i.e. 75.5%
compared to 50.9% in the Dispersal areas.
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Table 3.2: Caste composition in landscape

Area Total population Population SC Population ST

Core 12924 724 9770
Dispersal 139646 17186 71080
Total 152570 17910 80850
Source: Census 2001

3.2.2 Nature of habitation

In the majority of the villages of the landscape, the residential settlement

comprises of clearly defined hamlets called Tolas. The number of residential
hamlets ranges from two to five depending upon the size of the villages. Both
linearly situated and nucleated hamlets are found. The size of the villages in the
landscape has huge variation from six households to 1150 households. Six villages
in the landscape are un-inhabitated.

3.2.3 Occupation profile

Of the total population of the landscape, approximately 43% is working population

(define working/non-working/marginal). Out of these, 60% is the main working
population while the rest is marginal. The details with respect to Core and
Dispersal area are given in table 3.3

Table 3.3: Occupation profile of the landscape

Area Total working Main working Marginal working Non working

population population population population
Core 5925 2833 3092 6999
Dispersal 60407 36672 23735 79239
Total 66332 39505 26827 86238
(Source: Census 2001)

Agriculture is the mainstay of the occupations that the people of the landscape are
involved in. Along with this, agriculture related wage labour is another significant
activity. The agriculture and allied labour activities are supported by forest based
activities the
primary being Fig 3.1: Food Security in the Landscape
Non-Wood 13%
Forest
Produce 40%
(NWFP)
collection and
trade. A small
share is of
other wage
employment 47% Fully Secure
Partially secure
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and animal husbandry. Similar is the case of employment in organized sector

including government jobs.

3.2.4 Food security

Ranking exercise was undertaken in the sample villages to ascertain the relative
food security status of the households. On the basis of relative food security,
households were classified as food secure (sufficient food available across the year
from all sources within the village), partially secure (Food available across the year
from all sources within the landscape) and food insecure (Have to necessary
migrate in distress so as to meet the annual food requirement). Food security is
this context is a critical issue for around 40 % of the households of the landscape
(Figure 3.1). The landless and marginal farmers constitute the population along
with a large proportion of small farmers. The majority of the households can meet
their requirement from the resources of the landscape while a small proportion can
suffice with the resources in particular villages.

3.2.5 Infrastructure & Services

For majority of the villages, approach is through a Kuccha road, motorable in dry
season. All the villages are electrified though number of hours regular power
supply is available is a critical issue. Irrigation facilities are mainstay of the
infrastructure that reflects in as high as 41% of the total cultivable area being
irrigated. Canal irrigation (47% area), wells (20% area) and tubewells (20%) are
the prime constituents of the irrigation sources. Drinking water facilities are
adequate in the villages and some of the villages even have tap water supply
schemes (under the Nal Jal Scheme of the government). Health facilities in the
villages are restricted to ANM. In terms of education facilities, there are 237
Primary schools, 35 middle schools, 12 secondary schools, 8 senior secondary
schools and just two colleges. Literacy rate in the landscape is around 42%. The
details of some of the infrastructure facilities are detailed in table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Infrastructure in the landscape

Infrastructure Core Dispersal Total

facilities
All Medical Facilities 68 408 476
Primary schools 30 207 237
Middle Schools 2 33 35
Secondary Schools 1 11 12
Senior Secondary 1 7 8
Schools
Colleges 0 2 2
Drinking Water
Tap Water Supply 2 12 14
Wells 24 189 213
Tank 1 18 19

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Tubewell 1 18 19
Handpump 37 228 265
Canal 0 7 7
P&T Facilities 71 369 440
Bank Facilities 79 457 536
Commercial Banks 1 4 5
Cooperative Banks 1 5 6
Source: Census 2001

As regards agricultural products and NWFPs, Jhirpa, Sangakheda and Dhelakhari

(in Chindwara District); Piparia, Rampur, Sohagpur, Bawai, Shobhapur, Semri and
Tawanagar (in Hoshangabad District); and Shahpur and Betul (in Betul district) are
the major market hubs and trade centres.

3.2.6 Credit sources

Of all the sources of credit; credit from local money lenders, relatives or from SHGs
are the primary sources. Formal institutional credit did not find a mention in the
village study. Also, there are five commercial banks and 6 cooperative banks in the
entire landscape that reflect upon the availability of formal institutional credit. The
purpose for which loans are usually taken are agriculture, marriage, health,
meeting household expenses and for other ceremonies. The rate of interest for
loans from local money lender is 5% and 10% per month (60% and 120% per
annum). The higher rate is for loans without collateral. The major share of these
loans is for agricultural inputs. Another form of agricultural loan is in kind and is
paid back in kind. These are fixed duration loans and are paid back upon harvest
and are mostly for seeds. The repayment is 1.5 times of the loan taken. These can
be from relatives, villagers or from the moneylender both. Monetary loans taken
from relatives are usually interest free. With respect to the SHGs, credit is only
available to the SHG members. The usual rate of interest is 3% per month i.e.
36% per annum. In very few of the villages near large townships, farmers were
also seen using the Kissan Credit Cards as part of the formal institutional credit.

3.2.7 Institutional presence and functioning

Institutional presence of both traditional institutions and neo-institutions is found in

the villages of the landscape. Along with the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), the
Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) is the omnipresent neo-institution.
Along with these, Self-Help Groups of women are found in majority of the villages;
these being formed by various government departments as well as Non-
Government Organizations (NGO). In traditional institutions, Jaat Panchayat and
Ramayan Mandal are the institutions. Headed by the Pardhan or Patel, Jaat
Panchayat still remains a powerful social institution in tribal dominated villages.
Ramayan Mandals has more of religious and cultural functions. The traditional
institution of agricultural exchange labour called Ponda or Alta Palti is also found in
the villages. Another significant institution found in some villages is the Jajmani
system. The system deals with remuneration in kind to caste-based service

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providers (Carpenters, Blacksmiths, Barbers etc) for services rendered across the
year.

Apart from these institutions, presence of various government departments

involved in development functions is also there. Primary among these are the
Revenue, Forest, Veterinary, Education, Agriculture and Health department.
Various developmental schemes of these departments have been operationalised in
a large number of villages. Of the various institutions/departments associated with
the villages of the landscape, Forest, Health and Education Department are
ascribed maximum importance.

Apart from these developmental initiatives, a few initiatives by NGOs also are there
but with a very limited scale. PRADAN and Adivasi Kissan Sangh in Kesla block,
Hoshangabad, BAIF, and Madhya Pradesh Vigyan Sabha in Tamia Block, Chindwara
are the leading names. Tawa Matsya Sangh in one of the Community Based
Organization (CBO) having significant presence in a cluster of villages in
Hoshangabad district. No externally aided projects are operational in the area apart
from the Food for Work Programme (FWP) being implemented by the Forest
Department which also happens to be the sole development agency responsible for
the forest villages in the landscape. The various institutions present in the
landscape and their mandate are detailed in Annex II.

While the functioning of the departments is driven by the departmental structures

and schemes, the same is true for the other neo-institutions apart from SHGs. With
no direct sources of revenue generation, both the PRIs and the JFMCs have a very
high dependence on the parent department. The same gets reflected in the
functioning of these institutions with their role being restricted to that for
facilitating implementation of various schemes. Transparency and participation are
the two critical factors absence of which is marks functioning of these institutions.
With an entirely different mandate of thrift and credit activity, the SHGs are the
only institutions functioning of which is highlighted by participation and
transparency. However, the traditional institution of Jaat Panchayat exhibits high
participation, adherence and acceptance. This is also a conflict resolution forum at
the local level.

3.2.8 Decision-making structures and voices

As discussed in the preceding section, the functioning of the institutions by far is

non participatory and thus the decision-making. The decision-making is restricted
to a few and only the functionaries have any voice. For example, the Panch and
Sarpanch are the people making decisions in the PRI; and not all but a few
members of the Executive Committee of the JFMCs are the decision-makers.
People at large do not find a voice in these institutions and the role is restricted to
being recipients. However, in around 50 villages Bori Sanctuary, there is some
level of political participation due to the presence of Adivasi Kissan Sangh.

3.3 Livelihood Profile (including Baselines)

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The livelihood portfolio of the people of landscape is accented by agricultural and

forest based activities. Summary of the livelihood portfolio of the landscape is
given in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Livelihood portfolio of the landscape

S.No. Activity Percent of
Households
Agri and allied
1. Farming 85
2. Agri labour (in village) 55
3. Agri labour (migration) 30
4. Trade 1
Forest and allied
5. Forest labour 65
6. NWFP collection 90
7. Forest produce trade 2
Animal Husbandry and allied
8. Milch cattle 90
9. Poultry 55
10. Goat rearing 10
11. Fishing 1
Artisan <1
Other labour
12. Mining 1
13. Civil constructions 25
Services
14. Govt. service 2
15. Petty shop owners/trading <1
16. Others <1

Along with direct involvement in Agriculture and Forestry sectors, wage

employment in these two sectors is a significant livelihood activity. Almost 90% of
the households are involved in cattle rearing and more than half also raise poultry
as a livelihood activity. The share of other activities in the overall livelihood profile
is on a relatively lower scale. The various livelihood activities are discussed in
details in the following sub-sections.

3.3.1 Agriculture Fig 3.2: Farming community in the Landscape

6% 5%
Agriculture forms the
16%
mainstay of the
livelihood activities 35%
in the landscape. The
share of area under
single cropping to
that under double Marginal
cropping is almost Small
equal because of 38% Medium
Large
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presence of adequate irrigation facilities. Almost 46% of the total area of the
landscape is irrigated with canal irrigation and wells being the largest sources. As
regards the farming community, the largest share is of medium farmers followed
by small farmers with 6% of the households being landless (Figure 3.2). Large
farmers constitute 16% of the community and another 5% are in the marginal
farmer category.

Kharif is the major cropping season and Maize and Paddy are the most cultivated
crops followed by Tuwar, Urad. Minor millets viz Kodo, Kutki and Sama are also
grown however, the area under these crops is continuously decreasing. Maize and
Paddy together has major contribution towards food security in the tribal
dominated villages. Wheat and Gram are the two major Rabi crops where two
crops are taken. Soyabean is also grown in a few areas as a cash crop. External
inputs in the form of seeds of High Yielding Varieties and chemical fertilizers mark
the agriculture practices where irrigation is available.

Although, almost half of the agricultural area of the landscape is irrigated, this
does not reflect the true picture of agriculture in the area. For a very large
proportion of the rain fed area, agriculture is subsistence marked by low
agricultural productivity. The hilly terrain with high degree of slopes, soil erosion
and consequent low soil fertility, and no investment for soil and water conservation
are the main contributing factors.

3.3.2 Forest-based activities

Collection and trade of NWFPs is another significant forest-based livelihood activity

with a scale almost equal to that of agriculture. This also is true for the share of
income where agriculture is small holding and rain fed. The major NWFPs collected
their seasonality is given in Table 3.6. Mahua seeds and Tendu Patta account for
the major share compared to other NWFPs. Along with these NWFPs, many herbs,
shrubs and tubers are extracted from the forests as food items and are significant
contributors towards the overall food security profile of the landscape. Fuelwood
head loading and collection and trade of medicinal plants as livelihood activities
find limited mention with the activity being undertaken in roadside villages and
those near towns, around 15% of total number of villages in the landscape.

Table 3.6: Seasonality of NWFPs

S.No. NWFP Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1. Mahua
flowers
2. Mahua
Seeds
3. Tendu
Leaves
4. Achar
fruits
5. Bel fruits
6. Harra
7. Baheda
8. Bhilma
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9. Bechandi
10. Baibidang
11. Honey

Premature harvest and destructive harvest are the two major issues that affect
NWFP based livelihood activities. The problem is compounded by weak governance
structures to regulate harvest. The same gets translated into continuously
decreasing yields and therefore lower income levels. Further, with no post harvest
processing and value addition, the net income remains on the lower side. Fuelwood
head loading is another critical issue though being a practice in roadside villages
and those near town or trade centres.

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3.3.3 Wage employment

Wage employment plays a very important livelihood activity and both agriculture
and forest based wage employment forms the large proportion of the portfolio.
Agriculture in the same village does not provide any wage employment
opportunities. This is because, apart from working on own fields, the system of
exchange labour called Ponda or Alta Palti is there. However, migration as
agricultural labour is a widely practiced livelihood activity. This is for during the
month of April and is for Wheat and Soyabean harvesting. For Wheat harvesting,
both cash and kind payment systems are in practice. For cutting 20 bundles of
Wheat, one bundle (approximately 8-10 kilograms) is paid as wages. Where cash
payment system is found, payment wages range from Rs. 50/- to Rs. 60/-. For
Soyabean harvesting, the cash system is in place with equal wage rate to that of
Wheat. tract agriculture labour is also a prevalent agricultural wage employment.
Forest based wage employment comprises of labour in road construction and
repairing, Lantana removal and soil & water conservation activities. Wage
employment in city centres is also an activity though with a relatively lower scale.

3.3.4 Animal Husbandry

Animal Husbandry as an income generation activity apart from backyard poultry

and goat rearing finds limited mention in the landscape although almost 80% of
the households have 2-4 cattle heads. Though there is a large cattle population,
trade in milk products is negligible. Cattle are reared mainly for use in agricultural
operations. Other reason for owning large number of cattle is because of this being
considered as status symbol. Also, very low productivity of the cattle further
restricts the scope of activity. Inaccessibility of the villages due to poor
communication infrastructure also is a significant factor that limits access to
market centres.

3.3.5 Artisans

Artisan based livelihood again are very few in numbers and include vocations like
those of carpenter, blacksmiths, barbers, masons and cobblers. In some of the
villages, Jajmaani system for payment of services provided across the year by
these artisans is also seen. However, the practitioners of these activities also get
involved in agriculture and forest based activities.

3.3.6 Services and other

As is the case of animal husbandry and artisan activities, service based activities
are also found on a very low scale. Petty shop owners and those employed in
government departments constitute this population.

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3.4 Biodiversity Dependencies ( including baselines)

The dependency of the resident population of the landscape on the bio-diverse

resources of the landscape is discussed in the following subsections.

3.4.1 For food security

For a large proportion of the populace of the landscape, agriculture is subsistence

and rain fed. And therefore, agriculture becomes the main source contributing
towards food security. The Kharif crops of Maize and Paddy are the primary
ingredients for food followed by pulses like Tuwar and Urad. While the traditional
varieties are fast depleting, agro-biodiversity of minor millets is still has a fair
share in food security. However, the area under cultivation of minor millets is also
fast decreasing. As was seen in the
preceding section on food security Tawa Matsya Sangh
profile, a high proportion of the
population is food insecure and The construction of Tawa reservoir in the 70s
agriculture has the largest contribution displaced 44 tribal villages. Over the last 20 years,
people living on the banks of the reservoir have
in providing whatever security these reconstructed their livelihoods and from primarily being
households have. agrarian shifted to become fisher folks. These villages,
along with the original inhabitants have organized
Along with agriculture, wild- themselves into 38 primary fishing cooperatives and
biodiversity is another major the federation of these, the Tawa Matsya Sangh. Over
contributor towards food security of the years, the federation has been ensuring
sustainable livelihoods to these displaced people. TMS
the households. Various fruits, herbs, is now recognized as an model for participatory
shrubs, tubers and mushrooms are management of large water-bodies. However, the
collected from the forests and current fishing lease is coming to end in December
consumed as food items. Apart from a 2006.
variety of wild fruits like Mahua,
Achar, Aam, Imli, Tendu, Bel, Aonla, Gullar, Ber, Kosum, Jungle Jalebi, Khirni,
Sitafal shrubs viz Koelari, Lipti, Chirota, Kinwanch, Bhat, Bhatri, Chana, Bathua,
Naunia, Tikdi, Patharchata, Chameli, Poi, Rajgira are few of the examples that are
consumed as green leafy vegetables. Jungli Ghuiyan, Karla, Balhar, Dedebal, Louki,
Chovra, Kumhda, Gilki, Turai are more such examples of vegetables collected from
the forests. Bechandi, Kevkand are examples some of the tubers that are part of
the diet along with Bamboo shoots, honey and Bhamodi (Mushroom) extracted
from the wild. A variety fishes,
Fig 3.3: Sources of cash income crabs and prawns found in the
19% water-bodies also contribute
towards the food security of the
43% people. The dependency on
forest products is high for the
ethnic population.

Agriculture
38%
Forest
Other

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3.4.2 For cash income

Along with agriculture, forest biodiversity is the largest contributor towards cash
income of the households and collection and trade of NWFPs is the main activity.
Further of all the activities, collection and sale of Mahua seeds, Tendu patta and
Achar are the largest contributors. Where double cropping is practiced; the
Soyabean and surplus production of Wheat are the two primary sources of cash. As
discussed in sections on livelihood portfolio, wage labour is the other largest
contributor after forest based cash income. Again, the major share of wage
employment is from agricultural and forest-based labour opportunities. Thus, the
dependency for cash income from both bio-diverse agricultural and forest
resources is very high in the landscape.

3.4.3 For shelter

The common practice found across the landscape for house construction is of
extracting timber from the adjoining forests areas. Teak and Bamboo are the main
ingredients of the house construction material. A typical house would require 5-6
beams, 10 poles and around 100 bamboos. While every 10-12 years 50% of the
Bamboos are replaced, beams and poles last for 25-30 years. This all requirement
is met from forests along with that for agricultural implements (5 poles every 4-5
years). This reflects of the high dependency on forests for the purpose.

3.4.4 For livelihood activity support

As discussed earlier, agriculture is the mainstay of the livelihood activities. The

requirement of small timber for making agriculture implements is met from the
forests only. Particular among this is the yearly requirement of making Hal-Bakhar.
Cattle-rearing is done on a very limited scale, though there is a very high total
cattle population in the landscape. And all the grazing is done in the forest area.
On an average, there are 4 cattle heads per family and the ranges is from 2 to 10
cattle heads. For both the activities discussed above are dependent on the forests
of the landscape.

3.4.5 For household energy requirement

As regards meeting requirement of domestic energy, again forests are the primary
source contributing to almost 95% of the requirement. For a typical household in
the cluster, the annual requirement of fuelwood is about 22 quintals per year and
Saj and Dhokda are the most preferred species. The daily consumption of fuelwood
is around 5 kilograms that peaks during the winter months to 10-15 kg per day.
Also, during the entire agricultural season, farmers stay on the field during the
night for protecting the crops from animals and fire is put up at almost all the
fields. This adds up to the total requirement by another 5 quintals. Thus the
average annual consumptions becomes 27 quintals per household. The share of
other sources for meeting domestic energy requirement i.e. agricultural residue
and cow dung is very low. Further, it is not only the population of the landscape
but of adjoining villages that also meets their household energy requirements from
the forests of the landscape augmenting the pressure on forest resources. .

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3.4.6 For insurance needs

Poultry and goats are the two common forms of insurance as well as assets with
high liquidity for the households as is common practice in poor households.
Another form of insurance is seen in the form of stocking of Mahua flowers.
Relatively better off households that have retention capacity, keep aside a part of
the total collection and sell it as and when there is a need of cash income.
However, the practice has a very limited scale.

3.4.7 For culture

Of the total population of the landscape, 46% belong to the Gond and Korku tribes.
These tribes also have cultural interface with the forests that gets reflected in
totems, beliefs, customs and practices. The Korkus have trees as totems whereas
the Gonds and animals as totems for various clans. Also, the Saja tree is
considered as god, the Bada dev. There are festivals like Bidri related with agro-
biodiversity, and Haryali related with wild-biodiversity that are celebrated by these
tribes. Being essentially forest dwelling communities, these tribes have a high
cultural dependency on the biodiversity. In other communities, the cultural
interface with biological diversity is not very eminent and therefore the
dependency.

3.5 Formation of Clusters

As is evident from the proceeding section on biodiversity dependency, the major

factors impacting the dependency are location and ethnicity. Further, dependence
for food, cash income and culture are the major contributors towards this
dependency. On the basis of this, six clusters can be formed with respect to
location and ethnicity. The number of villages in each of the cluster is given in
table 3.7. The list of villages in each of the cluster is given at Annex III and
detailed profile of select clusters is given in Annex IV. A snapshot view of three of
the clusters is given in following sub-sections so as to accent distinction between
the clusters. The distinctness of the clusters requires cluster specific strategies to
be adopted for conservation and development.
Table 3.7: Villages in clusters
Area No. of Name of the cluster No. of villages
Clusters
Core 1 Pagara 43
Dispersal 5 Sangakheda 46
Moharikhurd 54
Sohagpur 65
Dhapada 52
Churna 22

3.5.1 Pagara cluster

Pagara cluster has 43 villages with total population of 18534, out of which 79 of
the population belongs to Scheduled Tribes. Agriculture and agricultural labour are
the mainstay of the livelihood profile with household involvement of 85% and
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100% respectively. Forest labour seeks engagement of around half of the populace
while 90% of the households are involved in NWFP collection. Other livelihood
activities in the cluster are of a very low scale and a small population (10%) has to
migrate in distress and this also constitutes the food insecure population of the
cluster. As regards the farming community, more than half are medium farmers
and another 35% are large farmers. Only 10% fall in the category of small farmers
and the landless, both with equal share. This is the category that is food insecure
and migrates in distress.

Of the agricultural crops grown, Towar, Wheat and Gram are the main agricultural
crops. Most of the agriculture is subsistence with Tilli and Alsi primarily being the
cash crops. Part sale of Towar and Gram also contributes towards cash income.
Almost one-fourth of the total cultivated area is irrigated. Checking soil erosion is
the biggest livelihood issue with almost three fourth of the area being undulating.
Crop raiding is another critical issue along with investment and occupational
impacts of crop protection during the entire agricultural season.

3.5.2 Sangakheda cluster

Sangakheda cluster is of very high ethnicity with almost 82% of the total
population belonging to scheduled tribes. The cluster has 46 villages and is home
to a population of 22792. In Sangakheda cluster, food security is a critical concern
with almost half the households falling in food insecure category. As regards
livelihood portfolio, NWFP collection is the activity that seeks engagement of
almost all the households of the cluster with farming following suit and involving
90% of the households. Forest labour is the next significant activity (75%
households) whereas only 10% households find employment as agricultural
labourers. Almost half of the households have to migrate outside the cluster for
want of livelihood opportunities.

Of the farming community, 85% fall in the category of small and medium farmers.
Almost one-fourth of the total cultivated area is under irrigation with Tank
irrigation and irrigation from Bagai Dam accounting for almost 90% of the irrigated
area with equal share. Maize, Jowar, Towar and Rice are the food crops along with
Wheat and Gram in the Rabi season. Jagni, minor millet grown on a large scale has
significant contribution towards food security. Soyabean is also grown in the area
on a limited scale and is the mainstay of cash crop. Almost 40% of the total
agricultural area is undulating and requires soil conservation measures. Crop
raiding losses amount to almost one fourth of the total production thereby
contributing towards low agricultural production.

Almost three-fourth of the domestic energy requirement is met from the forest and
this along with almost all the cattle grazing in the forest are other critical
biodiversity dependencies. The grazing problem is compounded by migratory herds
of Goats and Sheep coming from Rajasthan, each with 400-500 animals.

3.5.3 Moharikhurd cluster

Moharikhurd cluster is of relatively low ethnicity with around 35% of the total
population belonging to scheduled tribes. The cluster houses 54 villages and a
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population of 27309 in 5333 households. Food security is also a critical issue in the
cluster and almost 40% of the households in the cluster have to migrate in distress
to areas outside the cluster.

As regards the farming community, almost half the farmers are small farmers,
10% of the farmers are marginal farmers and around 5% are landless. Almost 45%
of the cultivable area in the cluster is under irrigation and almost all the area is
under external input use in terms of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Around half of
the agricultural area is under Soyabean cultivation that is the major cash crop.
Around 25% of the cropped area is undulating and needs soil conservation
measures. Apart from agriculture that is a livelihood activity for 80-90% of the
households of the cluster, forest labour (50%) and NWFP collection (75%) are the
other activities that seeks significant engagement. However, for around 40% of the
households migrant agricultural labour is option pursued in distress.

Biodiversity dependency on agro-biodiversity is very high in the cluster both for

food and for cash income. Income from forest biodiversity constitutes around one-
fourth of the annual cash income for households in the cluster. However,
dependency on forests for domestic energy requirement is very high with almost
98% being met from forests. Grazing is another issue with 95% of the households
having 2-4 cattle heads, the dependency augmented by that of migratory cattle
herds.

3.6 Prioritized Settlements /Villages The spread of the landscape, the

population of the landscape and specific issues in different area require
prioritization so as to ensure optimum utilization of the limited project resources.
As is seen, there are 43 villages in the delineated core and 241 in the dispersal
area of the landscape. Covering the entire landscape with the project resources
would lead to thinning out these resources. Therefore, the direct project
interventions can be limited to priority villages. In the other area, resource
mobilization from existing development programmes would be the key strategy
though the same will also be adopted in the priority villages also.

As regards the direct intervention villages, the 43 villages in the core would be
targeted along with select 100 villages in the dispersal area. The selection of
these100 villages have to be done after developing a detailed baseline of the
landscape villages, the same to be undertaken in the first year of the project. The
broad criteria for selection of these villages can be:

ƒ Ethnicity
ƒ No. of families below poverty line
ƒ Substantial forest area
ƒ High percentage of landless and marginal farmers
ƒ Very low irrigated area

These criteria need be refined and detailed list of indicators be developed during
the baseline for arriving at the target villages. A first list of 85 target villages
arrived at using the criteria of more than 60% ethnicity and minimum 50 ha of
forest area is given as annex 5 along with the 43 PA villages.

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As regards, targeting the households in the villages, well-being ranking need be

taken-up in the villages. The participatory exercise would facilitate the local
communities to develop their own criteria for well -being and rank all the villagers
in order of their well-being and categorize into three or four categorized. Outcomes
of the exercise would facilitate identification of households in the lowest category
of well-being as defined by the local actors. Project interventions can then be
directed at this target group. However, the first lists of prioritized villages have
total 9270 households. Target households will be subset of these households after
the well being ranking along with the results of well being ranking in other selected
villages.

Further, as regards project activities, there has to be distinct distinction between

the PA villages, prioritized outside PA area and other villages of the landscape. In
the PA area, the activities have to take cognizance of the legal provisions and the
results of problem analysis. Here, mainstay of the interventions has to be for
agriculture development and reduction of crop raiding. A carefully chalked out
Ecotourism program holds good potential, so is the casual employment in PA
management works. Backyard poultry, Sericulture/ericulture would be other
options to be explored along with other non-farm activities.

On the non-PA prioritized villages, the activities would focus on Agriculture and
NWFPs both along with other interventions based on the resource profile. Non-
land-based activities here would augment the livelihood portfolio. In the other
villages of the landscape, convergence of the on-going programmes and schemes
as well as mainstreaming would be the main strategy. However, there will be direct
project activities that have to be taken up across the landscape. These would be
for capacity building of the local level institutions, developing a local resource pool
of service providers with managerial capacities to support these institutions and
competency enhancement of the forest and other line departments. Along with
these awareness generation/education would be an activity that have to be taken-
up across the landscape for targeting different stakeholders in general.

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CHAPTER 4: LAW, POLICY AND GUIDELINES REVIEW

The legal and policy mapping of the landscape under BCRLIP needs an extensive
and liberal approach without which it may not be possible to understand how the
existing regime could impact conservation and livelihoods in the landscape in
varied ways and forms. Generally speaking, the major areas of law and policy that
could be identified in this regard across all the landscapes include Forest and
Wildlife Laws and Policies, the Panchayats/local Self Governance Laws and Policies,
the Land Revenue Code and Rules/Notifications, the Agricultural and Water Laws
and Polices and the Employment Guarantee and related laws. There is a deliberate
need for casting a ‘wider net’ to capture the provisions in law and policy for two
reasons: (a) The Projects’ territorial expanse goes much beyond the Protected
Areas and thus cannot be restricted to merely examining the Forest and Wildlife
laws (b) The concerns on enabling convergence of all government line departments
under BCRLIP means that working of these departments under their own/specific
laws and policies also deserve to be understood.

With the above approach a review of the laws and policies that potentially impact
the Satpura landscape in the State of Madhya Pradesh has been carried out and
this is presented below.

Legal Policy Issues in PA Management, JFM and Lok Vaniki

The Operational Management Plan of the Satpura Protected Area (2000-05) points
out “the area remained under some sort of wildlife management from 1931
onwards but the real attention was paid from 1977. Notification of Bori Sanctuary
came in 1975, of Pachmari Sanctuary in 1977 and Satpura National Park was
formed in 1981. Harvesting of wood, bamboo and NTFP were stopped from 1991,
following amendment in Wild Life Protection Act 1972.For the purpose of the legal
mapping of the landscape suffice it to say here that the Sanctuary and the National
Park in the landscape is notified and governed under the provisions of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972. However, the appendices attached to the Operational
Management Plan shows that the State government only issued an intention
notification for the National Park under Section 35(1) of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act 1972 which implies that the settlement of Rights of the local people as
envisaged under the provisions of the 1972 Act has not yet been carried out.

As regards Joint Forest Management in the State and in the Satpura landscape the
Government of M.P. issued the first resolution in this regard in 1991. Learning from
experiences, the State Government revised JFM resolution in 1995,2000 and 2001.
The 2001 Resolution makes provision for three kinds of committees i.e. Forest
Protection Committees (FPC) for protection of well-stocked forests, Village Forest
Committees (VFC) for rehabilitating the degraded forest areas and Eco-
development Committees (EDC) in and around Protected Areas (PAs). The
Committees are to be constituted with in a radius of 5 km from the periphery of
forest. 1Unlike the National Parks and Sanctuaries which is a legal category of

1
So far 14,073 JFM Committees have been constituted, of which 9,035 are VFCs, 4,201 are FPCs and
785are EDCs A total of about 60,000 sq. km of forest area is under JFM, which is about 63% of the total
forest area of the State. More than 17 lakh families are involved in the programme.
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forests under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 the other two categories of well-
stocked/dense forests and degraded forest areas are demarcated on the basis of
their ecological status and geographical boundaries. Some of the principles and
practices relating to JFM are discussed in more details in a later section. It may
however be noted here that Forest Development Authority has been established in
the State as a confederation of selected JFM committees. 2 The operational parts of
FDA include components like awareness, micro planning, entry point activities, soil
and water conservation, plantation, monitoring and evaluation, and social fencing
ensuring active participation of forest committees. 3

When it comes to private forest in the landscape a most important recent initiative
of the State government namely, Lok Vaniki deserves mention. The Government of
M.P. launched the scheme in April 1999 on a pilot basis that essentially envisages
that felling of trees in private forests of willing owners, will take place as per a duly
approved management plan. Such management plans would prescribe multi-tier
scientific management of privately held forests. The Management Plan is to be
prepared for each private holding to ensure continuity of management and
improvement of the area. As the Lok Vaniki scheme is being implemented in all 45
districts of the state it also applies to the Satpura Landscape. 4

The state of Madhya Pradesh has recently enacted The M.P. Lok Vaniki Act 2001 to
give a boost to scientific management of privately owned 'forests' and other 'tree
clad areas' in the state. The Act provides an opportunity to the willing landholders
to take up management of their tree-clad holdings for optimizing economic returns
to themselves and simultaneously ensuring environmental benefits to the society.
Commenting on the unique features of the Act the Forest Department maintains
that – (a) It is an enabling law intending to encourage the owners of private forests
and other tree clad areas to suo motto manage their natural resource on scientific
lines for optimizing both economic as well as environmental returns. (b) It is
voluntary in nature and is applicable only to such areas, which are brought under
scientific management by the owners themselves by preparing a management
plan. (c) It discourages clearing and conversion of area for non-forestry purposes
by providing a mechanism for long-term management of forestry crop freely like
agricultural crops, and (d) It provides for active involvement of Village Panchayats
and Gram Sabhas in the process of preparation, implementation and monitoring of

2
As per the Forest Department of the State the FDAs are working on participatory project management
approach with an aim to holistic development of the ecosystem, which includes the forest and
inhabitations under the forest committees.. See
http://www.forest.mp.gov.in/jointforestmanagement.html
3
Madhya Pradesh has constituted 25 FDAs with 856Joint Forest Management Committees and
Government of India has released an amount of Rs. 27.53 crores so far. Further proposals to constitute
FDA in more Territorial divisions are in the process.
4
More than 749 management plans have so far been prepared in the state in which 613 management
plans are sanctioned by the Competent Authority (Divisional Forest Officer). Management plans of tree
clad area of More than 10 ha. are being sent to Govt. of India for sanctioning in which 23 management
plans are conditionally sanctioned by the Govt. of India. Many more management plans are under
preparation. Further, In 143 cases Rs. 132.61 Crores is being distributed among land owners as
implementation of their Lokvaniki management plan. See http://www.forest.mp.gov.in/lokvaniki.html
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management plans prepared for private areas - a great shift from government
control to local peoples' control. 5

On realization of the fact that the private owners of the forests / tree clad areas
are not organised so as to reap full potential of this resource, Kisan sangh were
constituted by the farmers in Sidhi, Damoh, Hoshangabad and Dewas. It was
realized that several common issues are emerging in different Kisan sanghs and a
control coordinating body is needed to take up the issues at the state level. It led
to creation of M.P. Lok Vaniki Kisan Samiti. The Madhya Pradesh Forest Produce
Growers Society, established in 1999 and registered in 1999 as Lok Vaniki Kisan
Samiti, (LVKS) under M.P. Societies Registration Act in 2000) is a non-
government, voluntary co-operation organization of farmers for private forestry in
Madhya Pradesh. The Forest Department maintains that LVKS is engaged in
promoting sustainable and multiple-valued tending and use of private forests. The
primary task of the LVKS is to encourage farmers' productive cooperation in the
interests of forestry. The members of the LVKS represent broadly the owners of
private forests or tree-clad areas (Bhumiswamis), agro- and farm- forestry
practicing farmers and small, unorganized rural entrepreneurs and artisans in
forestry sector in M.P. The members of LVKS are represented as members in a
State level Lok Vaniki Coordination Committee headed by the Chief Minister. This
opens up a critical policy space where the farmers get a direct opportunity to act as
an active partner in formulation of policies being developed to promote private
forestry in the state. 6 There is thus an elaborate legal and institutional framework
to facilitate scientific management of private forests and development of other
private wastelands through plantations that needs to be utilized optimally for
initiatives under BCRLIP.

Specific laws and policies on Access to forest produce

Specific laws and policies relating to forest produce are also important for the
present purpose. A major forest produce in the landscape is the Tendu leaves and
the State Government took over the trade in Tendu Leaves through M.P.Tendu
Patta (Vyapar Viniyaman) Adhiniyam, 1964. In order to give more benefits to
forest dwellers in collection and trade of Tendu Leaves, the Madhya Pradesh State
Minor Forest Produce (Trading & Development) Co-operative Federation Limited
was formed in 1984. In 1988, the State Government decided to involve co-
operative societies in the trade of Tendu Leaves. For this, a three tier Co-operative
structure was designed. M.P.State Minor Forest Produce Federation was placed at
the apex level of this structure. At the primary level, Primary Forest Produce Co-
operative Societies were constituted. At the secondary level, District Forest

5
These points are taken from the Forest Department’s website
http://www.forest.mp.gov.in/lokvaniki.html

6
Vide the Govt. of M.P., Forest Department circular no. F-4267/289/05/10-3 dated 5 November 2005, a
provision has been made for the benefit of the Bhumiswami (land owner) and the Lok Vaniki
beneficiaries that they can have a separate lot of the timber grown on their land at the time of sale of the
same through the Forest Department.

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Produce Co-operative Unions were formed. Collection of Tendu Leaves is done by

the Primary Co-operative Societies of actual pluckers of Tendu Leaves.

Another important legislation that governs trade in forest produce is the M.P Van
Upaj (Vyapar Viniyaman) Adhiniyam, 1969. The Act aims at regulating the trade of
certain forest produce in public interest by creation of state monopoly in such
trade. Under this Act any person may transport the produce in prescribed quantity
for bonafide domestic use or for consumption within a unit. Any person having the
right of nistar in any forest in respect to any specified forest produce can transport
such produce for his domestic consumption but according to the prescribed terms
and conditions. 7 The M.P Van Upaj (Vyapar Viniyaman) Niyam, 1969 applies to all
specified forest produce other than timber. 8 Unlike other rules for collection of
forest produce the government or any other body assigned by the government is
not authorized for collection of forest produce. Participation of the local people has
been encouraged under the rules as applications are invited from anybody
interested in being appointed as an agent. The rules also allow transportation for
bonafide domestic consumption from the place of purchase to the place where it is
required. Person having right of nistar can transport the produce for domestic use
or consumption in a specified quantity. The MP Van Upaj (Vyapar viniyaman)
Adhiniyam, 1969 also talks of constitution of committee for advising the
government in the matter of fixation of prices that includes members amongst the
traders and growers of forest produce. 9

Regime on Gram Panchayats and Forestry

In addition to the above laws on forest produce there is also the MP Transit (Forest
Produce) Rules, 2000 that aims at regulating the transit of timber along with other
forest produce. 10 Under these rules no transit pass is required when the forest
produce is removed for bonafide domestic consumption within the limits of a village
where it is produced. Notably under the rules for any forest produce owned by any
person the DFO or the Gram Panchayat have the power to issue passes. Gram
panchayat have the power to issue passes for timber like Babul, Neem, Beautia,
etc. For any transit of forest produce within the district, the gram panchayat have
power to issue passes 11. The Forest Department maintains that on forest produces
as result of the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution, Gram Sabhas have been
given ownership rights on Minor Forest Produces. The State Government has
decided that the net income from the trade of MFPs will be distributed as-under:

a.50% to the actual gatherers.

b.20% for development of the resources.

7
For purchase and trade in specified forest produce agents are appointed who are either the officers of
the state government or agents appointed by the state government. A transit pass is required for any
person purchasing any specified forest produce for manufacturing goods within the State.
8
Rules formed under the MP Van Upaj (Vyapar Viniyaman) Adhiniyam.
9
See Section 6 of the Adhiniyam.
10
rules framed under section 41 and 42 along with section 76 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
11
See Rule 4 of the MP Transit (Forest Produce) Rules, 2000.
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c. The rest can be utilised for infrastructure development of the village or again
distributed to the gatherers. 12

Following the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution the MP Panchayat Raj

Adhiniyam, 1993 was enacted that vested a clear mandate on Panchayats for
forestry and forest management. The Act specifically said, "Subject to such
conditions as may be specified by special and general orders issued by the State
government, Panchayat at appropriate level shall have the powers and authority as
may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self government in
relation to matters listed in Schedule IV", the matters listed in Schedule-IV
includes; social forestry, farm forestry, minor forest produces and fuel and
fodder. 13 While the Gram Panchayat was made responsible for the "plantation" and
"preservation" of "Panchayat forests" – this being replaced by the term "village
forests" through a 2001 Amendment - the same was subject to the availability of
funds with the Gram Panchayat. Similarly the Janpad Panchayat's duty to provide
for social forestry was made subject to the rules framed by the State Government
from time to time. However a 1999 Amendment to the Act generally entrusted the
gram sabha with the management of natural resources including water, land and
forests. 14

Further the 2001 JFM resolution has a provision that the rights of the JFMCs over
MFPs shall be in accordance with the decisions of the State Government under
Provisions of Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act1996. The said
legislation applies only to scheduled areas, it provides for ownership of MFPs to
vest in any tier of the Panchayat and the Gram Sabha. However the Sate of
Madhya Pradesh while adopting the provision extended it to even non scheduled
areas but instead of granting ‘ownership of MFPs’ used the following words: Gram
Sabha shall “ manage natural resources including land, water, forests within the
area of the village in accordance with provisions of the Constitution and other
relevant laws for the time being in force” 15

The brief points made above should suggest that the mandate on Panchayats for
forestry precipitated by the73rd Amendment to the Constitution is still mandate in
principle and not as much in operation. This is partly because of the vague and
feeble formulation of the law and partly owing to the fact that whatever functions
have come their way through recent rules and Amendments are yet to be fully
translated in practice. Land Revenue Code and the Role of the Collector

Some provisions of the MP Land Revenue Code 1956 - that are often not well
known but nevertheless important for BCRLIP - also deserve notice. There are
provisions under the Code intended to prevent theft of timber from Government
forest. The provision enables the Government to regulate the felling and removal of
timber in the villages comprised in any area adjoining Government forest. The
legislative purpose is sought to be achieved by requiring every owner of trees to

12
See http://www.mfpfederation.com/content/federation.html
13
See Section 53 of the Act read with Schedule IV.
14
MP Act 5 of 1999
15
See Section 7 of the Panchayat Raj Avam Gram Swaraj Adhiniyam, 1993.
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fell trees only in accordance with Rules. 16 The Rules made under the above
provision will be applicable in regard to areas where Government has passed
appropriate orders. Rules require that when an order has been proclaimed in any
village under the above provision of the Land Revenue Code any person desirous of
felling any timber trees in his holding for sale or for purposes of trade or business
shall apply in writing to the Collector who shall in turn grant or refuse to grant
permission. 17 However in the case of a Bhumiswami belonging to a tribe which has
been declared to be aboriginal tribe, the Collector shall grant such permission if he
is satisfied that the provisions of the M. P. Protection of Aboriginal Tribes (Interest
in Trees) Act, 1999, have been duly complied with. 18 The Madhya Pradesh High
Court has clarified that the purpose of the proviso above is not protection of public
interest or prevention of erosion of soil but protection of the interest of the
aboriginal tribes. 19 In this context it may also be noted that the M. P. Protection of
Aboriginal Tribes (Interest in Trees) Act, 1999 has been enacted to protect
aboriginal tribes from exploitation in the matter of transfer of their interest in
specified trees. A tribal may apply to the Collector for permission and the Collector
shall not grant such permission unless he is satisfied that the consideration for the
contract is adequate and unless the amount of consideration is paid in full to the
tenure-holder in his presence. The above discussion should show that the role of
Collector both for forest protection and for safeguarding the interest of tribes in
trees has been definitively envisaged by the legal regime. However, from provision
of law to actual practice has led to gradual lack of intersect in trees on the farm
lands by the aborginals, as they have to go through the procedural maze well
beyond their capacity, thus being left to the mercy of a cadre of middle men, who
are out their to procure permissions and charge hefty amounts for such service.

Legal Frame for marketing and sale of agricultural produce

Apart from concerns on access to forest produce, better procurement, marketing

and sale of agricultural produce is critical in terms of augmenting livelihood sources
in the landscape and here the provisions of The Madhya Pradesh Krishi Upaj Mandi
Abhiniyam, 1972 are important. This 1972 Act says that ‘upon a representation
made by local authority or by the growers or any agricultural produce within the
area for which a market is proposed to be established… the State Government
may, by notification… declare its intention to establish a market for regulating the
purchase and sale of agricultural produce in such area’. The local authority under
the Act shall be a Marketing Committee that is directly elected by the local people
where the market is to be established and thus the Committee is constituted
through specially held elections in this regard. Under this 1972 Act a market
committee shall, amongst other things: construct, maintain and manage the
market yards and sub-market yards and promote development of Hat Bazars in the
market area; provide the necessary facilities for the marketing of agricultural

16
See Section 241 of the MP Land Revenue Code, 1956.
17
The rules were framed on 6-1-1960.
18
Such declaration of an aboriginal tribe shall be under sub-section (6) of Section 165 of the M. P. Land
Revenue Code, 1959.
19
See Dayaram Premlal Pradhan and Ors. Vs. State of Madhya Pradesh and Ors, 1995(0)MPLJ913 The
observation was made by the High Court in respect of M. P. Protection of Aboriginal Tribes (Interest in
Trees) Act, 1956 which can be said to the precursor of the 1999 Act.
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produce in the market yard; grant or refuse licenses to the market functionaries
and renew, suspend or cancel such licenses and supervise the conduct of the
market functionaries. 20

In an important Amendment in 2003 with potentially far reaching implications The

Madhya Pradesh Krishi Upaj Mandi Abhiniyam, 1972 now provides for regulation of
marketing of notified agricultural produce under contract farming. The Amendment
lays down that “The contract farming shall be performed only under a written
agreement between producer and buyer of produce of contract farming in such
manner and in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed in the bye-
laws.” 21 The explanation appended to this provision clarifies that “producer and
buyer” means the persons who respectively produce and buy agricultural produce
under a written agreement of contract farming. The potential of contract farming
for a more rewarding sale of agricultural produce and hence surer livelihoods needs
to be understood now that a legal regime for that has been initiated in the state
that applies to the Satpura landscape.

Emerging Policy and Legal Spaces

Earlier this year the National Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 has also come into
force and although at present it extends to Betul district and not to Hoshangabad
and Chindwara it is to extend to other districts in the State too. The State of
Madhya Pradesh has come up with enabling Schemes under the Act this year. The
coming of the National Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 could mark an era of
right based approach to livelihoods and it is important that the potential of the
legislation is fully utilized in the years ahead. The implications of the Schedule
Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act equally applicable to Madhya Pradesh
also need to be understood. Once the rules under the Forest Rights Act are
notified it may also require revisiting the entire gamut of forest laws. 22

KEY ISSUES IN LAW AND POLICY: Orange Areas, Encroachment, Nistar

and Grazing Rights

There are some larger concerns in law and policy that needs to be addressed for
both sustainability and livelihoods in the landscape. A raging issue in this regard
relates to the confusion over what is called ‘Orange Areas’ all across the State.
There are huge areas of lands that have been doubly entered in both revenue and
forest records across the State which has been a result of a faulty and non
inclusive land settlement processes especially after the enactment of Zamindari
Abolition Act in 1950. There have been ‘paper transfers’ of land from forest
department to revenue department, (which have not been found fit to be reserved)
as this has not been followed by action on the ground. On several such disputed

20
See Section 17 of the Madhya Pradesh Krishi Upaj Mandi Abhiniyam, 1972.
21
The agreement to be executed for contract farming shall be in such form containing such particulars,
terms and conditions as may be prescribed by bye-laws. See Section 37 A of the Madhya Pradesh Krishi
Upaj Mandi Abhiniyam, 1972.
22
How extensive that exercise may be would depend on the final provisions that get through under the
Bill and it may be premature and hazardous to try and determine the scope of it at present.
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lands valid leases have been given by revenue department through various
schemes. This has also meant that an ‘encroacher’ on forests land becomes difficult
to define. The issue merits urgent attention today especially as both the Supreme
Court and the MP High Court has of late strongly suggested that that encroachment
in forest and forest areas are not be tolerated. While the Supreme Court has
aggressively pursued this issue 23 there have been time bound orders for removal of
encroachments from the Reserved Forest from MP High Court too. 24

There is also an overriding concern on Nistar Rights in the landscape. The MP Land
Revenue Code, 1959 casts a duty on the revenue officer to prepare a nistar patrak
for the unoccupied land in a village falling under the revenue department. Such
nistar patrak should be prepared for every village giving details of the unoccupied
land present in a village. The Patrak should provide for free grazing of the cattle
used for agriculture and removal of forest produce for bonafide domestic
consumption, amongst other things. Under the MP Disposal of Timber and Forest
produce Rules, 1974, nistar has been defined to include – dry wood fit only for fuel,
dry bamboos, grass, thorns, leaves and bakkal. In protected forest areas the term
Nistar also includes timber of unreserved trees, or reserved trees where, expressly
sanctioned in that behalf, for agricultural implements, building new houses or
repairing houses and cattle sheds of the agriculturists, and surface boulders,
muram, sand, chhui and clay 25.

Under the new Nistar Policy of M.P Government the facility of nistar shall be
available only to such villages lying within the periphery of 5 KM from the forest 26.
Under the new Nistar Policy no concessions are to be given to people living outside
periphery of 5 KM from forest and forest produce to such villages will be made
available on market rates through Gram Panchayat. This new policy is in line with
the 2001 JFM resolution that is confined to the villages within the periphery of 5
KM from the forests, and gives entitlement to nistar to the members of JFM
committees, constituted within the said area. Thus the Nistar Policy makes clear
that for villages lying within periphery of 5 KM, the forest produce would be made
available to the villagers “through” the Forest Protection Committee (FPC) and
Village Forest Committee (VFC) subject to the availability of the material. Under
the present JFM resolution the access to nistar has made subject to the satisfaction
of the DFO, and the availability of forest produce which opens up the critical
question of the status of nistar rights during non-availability of forest produce. 27
The progressive watering down of nistari rights has virtually reduced the right into
a concession and as an assured access to nistar becomes a thing of the past the
support of nistar rights in livelihoods and lives of the local people would also
progressively diminish.

23
This is through a series of orders of the Apex Court in TN Godavarman v. Union of India WP. 202/95
24
See the judgment of the High Court in Patiram Chandel v. State of M.P. 2003 (4) M.P.L.J. 424.
25
Under the MP Protected Forest Rules, 1960.
26
M.P. Govt. amended the nistar Policy of 1975, vide notification-dated 26.12.1994 that came into force
from 1st of July 1996.
27
Resolution no. F16/4/91/10-2 Bhopal Dt. 22.10.2001
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It has been noted above that the Nistar Patraks should provide for free grazing of
the cattle used for agriculture. In fact access to grazing and grazing rights is also a
key concern under BCRLIP. Notably, under the Protected Forest Rules, 1960,
artisans, labourers or agriculturists residing or owning land in a village allotted to a
particular protected forest shall be permitted to graze their cattle in that forest
area. Further as per the M.P Grazing Rules, 1986, grazing unit has to be
constituted in both reserve forest and protected forest areas and a minimum
number of ‘grazing’ cattle are fixed per unit.28 A grazing license is mandatory for all
cattle even if allowed free grazing. Grazing is also allowed to cattles in transit
passing through RF or PF area. Despite this legal mandate it is notable that the
2001 JFM resolution is silent on grazing rights even as it details the access to forest
and forest produce for the Joint Forest Management Committees constituted under
it.

REVIEW FOR DEVELOPING GUIDELINES

The discussion for assessment of the Guidelines has been carried out in four broad
heads including (a) Inclusive Collaboration in Management and Decision Making,
(b) Participatory Micro planning and Benefits reaching out to the Marginalized, (c)
Sustainable Fund Flow to The Village and (d) Conflict Resolution and is presented
below.

Inclusive Collaboration in Management and Decision Making

One of the first areas of concern in developing Guidelines for the BCRLIP is to
explore for each of the landscapes possible opportunities for collaboration between
different sectors and Institutions. Such collaboration is a critical need to meet both
the objectives of conservation and aspirations of the local people. It also needs
emphasis that there are multiple constituencies within a landscape and
reconciliation of different interests is possible only through a transparent and
inclusive decision making process. This is also needed to meet specific objectives of
both (a) Intégration of Regional rural development considérations into forestry
operations and conservation efforts and (b) Integration of Biological and
environmental considerations in livelihood development programmes.

Apart from convergence of Departments, Institutions and of planning there is also

a need of convergence of resources and here specifically the Project needs to tap
opportunities for channeling regional and local resources for conservation and local
livelihoods. The field visits in Satpura were an affirmation of the most important
consideration from a policy standpoint as far the BRCIP is concerned. They served
to highlight that Inter departmental Coordination is a critical need to meet
aspirations of the local people. Thus in one relocated village there was a demand
from the local people to bring in water from the nearby canal of a major irrigation
project (just one KM away from it) while in another village the check dam built by
the Public Health and Engineering Department had severe problems in its structure
and was thus of no use to the village badly needing water from it or where the sale
of agricultural produce needed better regulation it was clear that things would not
move ahead unless the issues are taken up with the Irrigation Department, the

28
These Grazing Rules were framed under section 26, 32 and 76 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
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Public Health and Engineering Department and the Agricultural Department

respectively. This has obvious implications for law and policy – that the Project
would need to develop facilitative frameworks and forums that enable these
departments to come together.

Besides the coming together of the departments, local institutions also need to
complement each other for the purpose of conservation and improving livelihoods
in the local contexts. In fact this has to be one of the focal areas from a policy and
legal standpoint in the project period. Thus the interrelationships - and possible
complementarities - between formally constituted local entities like the Joint Forest
Management Committees (JFMCs) with the Gram Sabha and the Gram Panchayats
is an area requiring close scrutiny in the Satpura Landscape. A few words o this
last aspect is in order here.

As per the 2001 JFM Resolution the Gram Sabha plays an important role in the
establishment of the JFM committees as it comprises the general body of the
JFMCs. In fact the general body of the Joint Forest Management Committees
(JFMCs) has been progressively made inclusive. While in 1991 one member from
each family could be nominated as a member, in 1995 this was changed to one
male and one female member from each family and the present resolution includes
all village people eligible to vote as constituting the general body of the JFMCs.
Thus understood the gram Sabha of the village constitutes JFMCs. 29 While this is
the position under the resolution, the position on the ground is liable to be different
given the way the Forest Department has enjoyed control historically in formation
of the JFMCs.

The executive of the JFMCs also has wide membership base now under the 2001
Resolution. It includes members from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and
backward classes to the extent possible in proportion to their numbers in the Gram
Sabha, at least two members from landless families, one representative each from
the self-help groups in the village, one representative each from the beneficiary
groups of the Village Watershed Committee and all the panchs and Sarpanch
residing in the village where the JFMCs is constituted. The resolution also provides
that 33% of the executive shall consist of women and either the chairman or vice-
chairman of the committees shall be a woman. 30 Here again one needs to be
cautious as opening up of legal space doesn’t necessarily mean that social spaces
have responded to it.

29
These committees are formed by convening a meeting of gram Sabha as per the Panchayat laws. The
general body of the committees comprises the Gram Sabha of the village. This general body meets every
six months. Further the chairman/vice-chairman and the executive of the committee is also elected in a
Gram Sabha meeting duly convened under the law. Further the panchs/ sarpanchs residing in the village
act as ex-officio members of the committee.
30
A unique feature of the 2001 resolution is that apart from the secretary, who is the beat guard or the
forester-in-charge, it also provides for an Assistant Secretary who will take over as the member secretary
after two years. During these two years he/she works with the Secretary to gain proficiency in the work.

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The findings from the landscape suggest that the JFMCs “are working under the
influence of forest department and that there are problems in its supposedly
democratic orientation as “decision making is still largely controlled by the forest
dept”. Having said that it also needs to be added that across the landscape as an
Institution the JFMCs ‘have great presence’ especially ‘as many labour oriented
activities are done by JFMCs and JFMCs have been instrumental in making forest
protection far more effective at a good number of places ’.

The 2001 Resolution also advocates that a District Level Coordination Committee
be constituted under the chairmanship of the President of the Forest Standing
Committee of the Zilla Parishad, with DFO as convener and other district level
officers as members. 31 This provision again opens up a very useful space for
convergence of departments at the district level although how exactly this forum
could be used for initiatives under BCRLIP may need to be thought through. The
JFM resolution also provides for obtaining funds from other developmental
departments, including Panchayats for the works included in the micro-plan but
fails to give any more guidance on how this could be achieved.

It is also worth noting that as per the 2001 Resolution a forest official is
empowered to disband a JFMC if the JFMC is deemed to be not discharging its
duties and functions under the Resolution. This creates an anomalous situation
where the JFMCs as an executive body of the Gram Sabha is not accountable to the
body that constitutes it but to another Forest Officer!

Finally, when it comes to SHGs across the landscape it can be generally said that
they are differently placed especially as they are formed at different time spans.
While some SHGs are working well and have been linked with banks, income
generation activities through these SHGs are ‘yet to takeoff.’ However, matching
grant is being given from banks or from programmes for sustainability of SHGs.

Participatory Micro planning and Benefits reaching out to the Marginalized

For the management of JFM areas, Micro-plans are prepared. The views and
aspirations of the villagers are incorporated in the preparation of these plans. The
2001 resolution maintains that the villagers, with the participation of the Forest
Department and ‘other development departments’, shall prepare the micro-plan
although it does not specify these departments. These other development
departments are also to be accessed for raising funds for developmental activities
enumerated in the micro-plans although again the resolution does not specify how
to go about doing this. Besides, as noted above there is a provision for a district
level co-ordination committee for the co-ordination of the activities to be executed
through the micro-plan. While the other departments role is recognized it is the
Forest Department that finally approves the micro plan.

The benefit sharing under the 2001 Resolution may be prefaced by the observation
that in words similar to the National Forest Policy 1988 the 1990 JFM Resolution of
the central government emphasized that that "the requirements of fuel-wood,
fodder and small timber such as house-building material of the tribals and other

31
See Provision 8.6 of the 2001 Resolution.
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villagers living in and near the forests, are to be treated as first charge on forest
produce". The 2001 Resolution requires that FPC, VFCs and the EDCs shall have (a)
Royalty-free Nistar, subject to availability and on payment of extraction costs, and
(b) 100% share of the produce obtained from the thinning of timber coupes and
clearing of clumps in degraded bamboo forests. Further the VFCs can have 100%
of the value of forest produce obtained from plantation/rehabilitation of degraded
forests/pasture development work/final felling of planted area after deduction of
harvesting costs. As far as the EDC goes the amount to be paid to the EDCs (Inside
PA) shall be equivalent to forest produce given to the FPC situated in the area
adjoining the PA. EDCS outside PAs- benefits on the basis of density of the forests
allotted to them. Besides out of the amount received by the EDCs from the final
felling, 50% to the members in cash, 30% on village development and 20% on
forest development. Notably the committees can't claim these benefits as rights as
they are subject to the discretion of the DFO - including an assessment on
availability - and this discretion even extends to the bonafide claims of the people
to nistar requirements.

Sustainable Fund Flow to the Village

The Panchayat laws open up space for direct release of fund to Panchayats and for
schemes such as rural water supply the funds are directly released from CEO at the
Zila Parishad to the Gram Panchayats’ account. However, funds flow to the
Panchayats need to be complemented with rigorous social audit and separate and
elaborate rules have indeed been framed under the Panchayat Raj Avam Garm
Saraj Adhinyam 1993 in this regard. While under the 1993 Adhinyam Gram Sabha
should have social audit of all work done in its area this is something that is not
found in practice.

Conflict Resolution

Conflicts, both latent and manifest, in the landscape can be various levels and
between various actors and institutions. For example there could be conflict,
amongst the JFMC members, between JFMCs and forest department as also
between village level institutions like Panchayats, user groups and JFMCs. Some
aspects of conflict resolution deserve immediate comment for the present
purposes.

As per the 2001 JFM Resolution one of the powers of the forest officers is to assist
the JFMCs in resolving the disputes. Aside from this vague formulation the
Resolution doesn’t throw light on how this could be achieved. Further the conflicts
beyond the JFMC members themselves including say between different institutions
like Panchayats and JFMCs or between two JFMCs would not come under the
purview of the provision above. However in regard to a dispute between the Forest
officials and committee members over termination of an individual's membership,
there is a provision for appeal to the Range Officer against any order of termination
of membership passed by the Divisional Forest Officer. Nevertheless one feels that
on conflict resolution the 2001 Resolution has a feeble provision apart from the fact
that to expect all sort of problems mentioned above to be resolved by the forest
department officials is unrealistic. There are examples and models from across the
country as in Himachal Pradesh of a more inclusive and better thought out ‘conflict
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resolution group’ and this can be adopted in the state with necessary variations to
suit the local conditions.

On the other hand the M.P Gram Nyayalaya Adhiniyam, 1996, which came into
force in 2002, provides for the constitution of Gram Nyayalaya (Village Courts)
having jurisdiction to try simple cases under the formal law, such as Indian Penal
Code, Cattle Trespass Act, Madhya Pradesh Land Revenue Code. The Gram
Nyayalaya Adhiniyam has been enacted to provide for the disposal of simple cases
in Rural Areas. A Gram Nyayalaya may be established in any area of 10 or more
Gram Panchayat constituting a circle for the purpose of this Act. 32. While the Act
doesn’t apply to scheduled areas of the state 33, in such areas gram sabha has been
vested with the power to give effect to the customary modes of dispute
resolution 34. The Gram Nyayalaya were constituted so that village people can
themselves dispose off the simple cases in rural areas and so that it can help
establish a mechanism of dispute resolution that is easier for the villagers to
understand and handle. The potential of Gram Nyayalaya in resolving local conflicts
and disputes need to be realized within the landscape.

Finally, as can be gathered from the aforementioned, some of the above discussion
is not conclusive and one may add that this so by design and not by default. At this
stage an effort has been made to identify issues and themes which can lead to
further discussions and brainstorming leading to agreements over the issues
framed herein. Attempts have been made at annex 6 to further distill the issues for
evolving the guidelines..

Guidelines Review (to help development of guidelines and procedure for

implementation of participatory conservation management activities)

1.1 Landscape planning and management including opportunities for

collaboration amongst different sectors and institutions in the LS to ensure
common vision and outcomes

1.2 Improving PA management that integrates regional rural development

considerations, promotes participation and collaboration with key
stakeholders in decision making and management of the PAs and improves
opportunity for channelising regional and local revenues for conservation
and local livelihood support.

ƒ Lessons from IEDP Experience:

Shared vision and outcomes at the regional level/ district level through
cross sectoral institutions were attempted as afterthought (eg regional
committees to be chaired by district collectors) and remained weak,

32
The Gram Nayayalaya is deemed to be a Civil Court with a pecuniary jurisdiction with one thousand
rupees where it may try offences under Indian Penal Code, Cattle Trespass Act, Madhya Pradesh Land
Revenue Code etc. It is also required to make every endeavor to bring about reconciliation between
parties before proceeding to hear any case. See section 19 of M.P Act No.26 of 1997.
33
Notification dated 11.1.2001, published in M.P Government Gazette, Extraprdinary12-1-2001, page 9.
34
Section 129 of the MP Panchayat Raj Avam Gram Swaraj Adhiniyam, 1993
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resulting into rather weak convergence in general. It is therefore important

that cross sectoral institutional space is provided to the key players of the
landscape and shared vision and goals permeate across the key players in
the landscape. This will help in larger ownership and synergy building and
thus create opportunity for chanellising regional and local revenue for
conservation and livelihood support

ƒ Provisions in existing guidelines

The existing guidelines applicable to landscape have provision for cross

sectoral institutional spaces for interagency coordination.

- The district level coordination committee under chairmanship of president

of the forest standing committee of Zila Parishad with DFO as convenor and
other line agency head as member (MP JFM resolution 2001)

- A cross sectoral District level Biodiversity Support Group under

chairmanship of district collector (MP Biodiversity Rules 2004) with a
mandate to seek engagement of cross sectoral partners to facilitate
biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood across district.

- PA level (for sanctuaries) Advisory Committee with CWLW or his nominee

as chair, MLAs of the area, PRI representatives, NGO representatives, line
agency reps (veterinary and home) with officer in-charge as member
secretary having mandate to render advice for measures to be taken for
conservation and management of the sanctuary including participation of
the people living with in and around sanctuary

- The Biosphere Reserve Committee; Under the chairmanship of the district

collector with Program Officer Biosphere Reserve ( Environmental Planning
and Coordination Organization) as member secretary and having a cross
sectoral membership of the committee with a mandate to seek convergence
and synergy for biosphere reserve.
- District Planning Committee: A constitutionally mandated committee with
cross sectoral representation approves district development plan annually
before it is sent to State Planning Board. As one of its mandate, the
committee is required to ensure that the development plan of the district
conforms to environmental considerations.

ƒ The limitations:

- While space in policy and legal provisions have been made to bring an
array of stakeholders to use institutional spaces at district level, however
due to inadequacy of processes and power asymmetry, generally, it has
not been possible to move towards a shared vision , goals and outcomes.
As a result the intersectoral ownership has remained weak and integration
of PA in regional development has not been adequately addressed.

PA level advisory bodies for 2 sanctuaries in the landscape are yet to be set
up.
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ƒ Addressing the limitations:

The institutional structure proposed for the BCRLIP project is seized of the
limitation outlined above. The landscape level autonomous body provides to
get the sectoral players at the level of landscape on board, with strong
emphasis on the processes that help to build shared vision across sector, of
"development", which is routed in conservation of biodiversity and
sustainable livelihoods for the people. The institutional mechanism for
cross sectoral convergence at district level propose to use existing spaces,
rather then creating new structures. This will help to improve working of the
such institutions. The project will use innovative approaches to mainstream
biodiversity conservation concerns in developmental planning, by setting in
processes to integrate biodiversity concerns in district plans. A larger
ownership of the sectoral agencies aimed through institutional spaces and
process innovation will help in securing integration of PAs in regional
development planning as well in leveraging resources through convergence
and synergy.

The project will build on and further seek such enabling policy interventions
which help in mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in larger
development planning for the landscape.

Setting up of statutory bodies like PA level advisory bodies to get the buy in
from key stakeholders in improving PA management could go a long way,
however before it is done it is necessary to sort out contentious issue of
chair of the committee. Presently it is Conservator of forests ( as CWLW
nominee) who is to chair the committee while one of the member of the
committee is MLA of the area. This has not gone well with the peoples
representatives and therefore needs to be reviewed and amendments
made.

2.1 Improving micro-planning to ensure participation and benefit

sharing amongst the communities , landless people , tribal and
women and better integration with line agencies with a stake in
biodiversity conservation and rural development.

ƒ Lessons from IEDP Experience:-

- Barring a few sites ( GHNP, KMTR, and Periyar) the general experience
has been that the institutions created as part of the project i.e EDC and FPC
continue to mirror the same power equation that prevail in the village. 35
Participation of weakest section of the village community has been found to
be a cause of concern. The same has been the case of women's
engagement with the process. However, in sites like GHNP, women
participation could be secured by using the SHG route.

ƒ Provisions in existing Guidelines

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Lessons learnt from Ecodevelopment in India,2004 ; PEACE Institute
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- The existing guidelines make it imperative that Micro-planning will

commence following constitutions of the JFMCs. The executive of the JFMCs
has wide membership base under the 2001 Resolution. 36 It includes
members from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes
to the extent possible in proportion to their numbers in the Gram Sabha, at
least two members from landless families, one representative each from the
self-help groups in the village, one representative each from the beneficiary
groups of the Village Watershed Committee and all the Panchs and
Sarpanch residing in the village where the JFMCs are constituted. The
resolution provides that 33% of the executive shall consist of women and
either the chairman or vice-chairman of the committees shall be a woman.

-The resolution provides for gradual passing on of the role of secretary of

the JFMC (presently the forest guard/or forester) to one of the community
person, who in-turn is required to work as assistant secretary for 2 years to
begin with.( MP JFM resolution 2001).

The resolution also provides that for such works provided in microplan
which improve forests and reduce people’s dependence on forest resources,
the FD and the JFMC will work in tandem to leverage financial resources
from PRIs and other departments and will also solicit at least 25%
contribution from the JFMC members.

The limitations:

For micro-plan to be high on participation of most vulnerable section of villages

require gradual empowerment of these people. As of now though spaces in policy
have provided wider representation of this section in decision making body, the
social spaces are yet to adequately respond to it.
Little or weak emphasis on "process" has not allowed the existing space to be
effectively tapped. The guidelines also do not specify role of NGO/CBOs who could
play a crucial role in allowing the participatory processes to build up, thereby
making it easy for the weakest section of the village to seek meaningful
engagement in the planning process. The crucial challenge for micro-planning and
the grass root level institutions is to create conditions so that the people , and
particularly the excluded one are able to work on the dreams that they have
cherished for so long.

ƒ Addressing the limitations

The guidelines need to bring in role of local NGO/CBOs to facilitate

participator and inclusive micro-planning processes. Infact, one of the key
role of these facilitatory organsiations should be to help identification of
change agents/ the potential leaders from with in the village community and
progressively build their capacities during micro planning phase. Not only
this, in the implementation phase of the microplan the facilitatory
organizations should provide hand-holding support to such change agents.
It is through these community based change agents, it is possible to have

36
Revised Govt of MP Resolution on JFM ; 2001
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local level processes that are inclusive enough and seek engagement of
marginalized and most vulnerable group in the village. Once the leadership
issue is addressed at the village level, it will be easy to find that the
community is able to take informed decisions, which secures both
conservation and livelihood security, through a process that is inclusive as
well as equitous. Only when such leaders are nurtured and build at the local
level that it will be possible to fully harness existing legal and policy spaces,
including the one that pertains to progressive take over of the role of the
secretary by one of the village person.

3.1 Improving management, operation and sustainability of village

revolving funds and Self Help Groups

ƒ Lessons from IEDP

Village Revolving fund under IEDP was created out of mandatory community
contribution (25%) coming out of the village/ household investments. It
was meant for sustaining post project benefits. However, the very purpose
and operation of the fund could not be adequately communicated to staff
and the communities. While the mandatory nature of contribution did not go
well in all cases, due to inadequate communication and management of
fund (larger control by FD in decision making) , the communities ownership
of the funds remained weak. Notwithstanding with such limitations, the
communities have found the fund of great relevance, to extend loans for
meeting micro credit needs of needy households and in developing and
maintaining the common assets. The loan recovery however remains poor.
The management of fund also needs improvement from the point of view
of decision making, and transparency.

Experience from IEDP has proved that SHGs can have a pivotal role in
shaping the VCF where saving and credit lending is Group's own activity to
begin with, rather then mandatory cuts from wages, for building the funds.

ƒ Provisions in existing Guidelines

State Govt of MP circular on JFM provide for such funds with the JFMCs.
There is a provision of community contribution to the tune of 25% of the
cost of the investment made on such works that are beneficial to
community livelihoods as well as to forest conservation. Such works should
be listed in the microplans.

A significant contribution to the village revolving fund accrue primarily on

account of protection money passed on to the JFMCs by the FD in lieu of
protection afforded by JFMCs to the forest /PA area assigned to them. The
department has issued circulars for effective use of such funds. Fine on
petty forest offences apprehended by committees, interest on deposits,
interest on loans etc are meant to augment the common funds. The JFMCs
can make use of this fund following a resolution passed in the general
assembly of the JFMC. 37

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ƒ The limitations:

A key problem with VCF relates to inadequate understanding of the very

purpose of the fund by field staff and the community and the way to go
about building and utilising the fund. As a result, people had difficulty in
relating to fund as their own money, pooled to support their needs and
priorities, the community ownership and decision making over the funds has
remained rather weak in general. The FD has continued to regulate use of
this fund, and some time to the extent that such regulations have not
allowed fund use at local level.

ƒ Addressing the limitations:

The guidelines will need to incorporate following concerns:

There is need to communicate the purpose and process of generating and

management of VCF. The decision to use VCF for supporting and sustaining
community actions for meeting development of community assets or to
meet micro-credit needs of the household/SHGs be made in the general
body of the JFMC.

Of the total funds generated under VCF with the local level institutions,
50% need to be extended as loans for micro-financing preferably through
SHGs ( for better financial discipline and development of social capital) and
remaining 50% will be for investment for other village development
investment prioritized by the community, but the one on which returns are
assured.

The accounts need to be maintained in prescribed formats and presented to

the general body of the institution at regular interval, as well as displayed
prominently at public places in the village.

4 Improving Fund flow and Transparency of village level investments

ƒ Lessons from IEDP

One of the key lessons emerging from IEDP relate to the need to ensure
that some of the critical steps need to fall in place so as to enable the
communities to plan, implement and monitor the investments. Awareness
about the project and its various components, community’s role and
responsibility and their progressive capacity enhancement to plan and
manage the village investment are some of such steps. In absence of such
inputs in the early phase of the project, the capacity of communities at
different IEDP sites to absorb and manage village level investments
remained limited for considerable time. Following the MTR, it therefore

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meant scaling down investment on village eco-development in favor of park

management works, which were seen to have better absorption capacity. 38

The other aspect to fund flow pertains to ease and timeliness of the funds
reaching community. The project being implemented through regular
channels of the state got, did affect the timely flow of funds.

Transparency in utilization of funds is affected by awareness about the

project details at the grass-root level and increased capacity of community
to join local level decision making and ask questions.

ƒ Provisions in existing guidelines

The FDA guidelines meant to chanelise NAP funds to JFMCs via their
federation at the district level ( as registered society) have provision to
route the funds for implementation of microplans directly to JFMCs. Based
on the microplans of the JFMCs selected to implement NAP schemes, the
funds from MoEF are disbursed t o to the CEO of FDA (division level) with a
mandatory provisions that with in 15 days it should be transferred to the
village level JFMCs for implementing provisions of microplan. 39 This is
meant to provide for smooth flow of the funds, overcoming bottlenecks.

The JFM 2001 GR , Govt of MP also provides that the state government shall
provide funds for implementation of forestry works put up in microplan,
while the for works related to village development, the FD and JFMCs will
try to leverage funds from line agencies ( clause 8.1 of GR).

A series of departmental circulars have been issued to ensure transparency

in the use of funds at the level of JFMCs

The Limitations

The sectoral approach to enhance funds flows has met with limited/meager
success only. The micro-plans are still seen by other line agencies as
departmental micro-plans.

Use of FDA route to transfer NAP funds have considerably eased flow of
funds to JFMCs ,wherever NAP is being implemented , however the problem
relates to the capacity of the JFMCs to manage funds at local level with
transparent functioning. This has remained a grey area as the decision
making at the JFMC level continues to be dominated by the FD or by the
office bearers of the JFMCs in general. The field functionaries of FD have
often been apprehensive of the accountability factor vis a vis such funds, as
a result of which control and sanction regime is put in place, many a times
to the detriment to the very purpose.

Addressing the limitations:

38
Lessons Learnt India Ecodevelopment Project PEACE Institute 2004
39
NAP Guidelines 2004
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The BCRLP project will benefit by using a fund flow mechanism on the line
of FDA, where flow of fund from the MoEF could be affected to landscape
level body and then to the local level institutions mandated to implement
livelihood improvement component of the project.

The process as well and endorsements of micro-planning must have buy-in

from the line agencies. This needs to be ensured at the planning stage it
self.

Awareness and capacity building of the communities, with focus on local

level leadership development is essential to improve transparency of fund
utilisation. Caveats must be put that the decision making at the level of
grass root level institutions must be open and inclusive. There is need to
bring out clear and non ambiguous guidelines detailing out roles and
responsibilities (including accountability) of different partners vis a vis the
funds for village level investments.

5.0 Eco tourism and Financial benefit flow to communities

ƒ Lessons from IEDP

Community Youths can be organised and trained to provide ecotourism

products to the satisfaction of tourists (Periyar). Such products vary
from being trekkers and tourist guides to running handicraft/ forest
product based souvenir shops and housing visitors and many other
innovations in between. Orgnaisation of such community youths and
their capacity building is critical. FD or other service providers have a
big role in helping community youths to acquire new capacities to run
ecotourism products and increase benefits from it.

ƒ Provisions in existing guidelines

Madhya Pradesh State Forest Policy 2005 provides for partnership of

communities in benefits of ecotourism, along with conservation of
natural resources, environmental protection and social adaptability.
National Wildlife Action Plan ( 2002-2016) underscores involvement and
benefits to the local communities and states that the first benefit of the
tourism activity should flow to the local people .

ƒ The Limitations

The guidelines are equivocal in supporting community stakes in the

ecotourism, however given the nature of the product and overall legal
frame work governing the natural area including wilderness area like PA,
unless clear cut guidelines elaborating destination development and
other product development details including community stakes in it are
brought out, its wider application in different landscapes will remain
problematic. Some of the state govt have taken lead in it and have

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brought out state policy on wilderness tourism. 40 The policy qualifies

Wilderness tourism, as a key constituent of ecotourism, and therefore
promotes it as conservation tool in PAs and forest areas.

ƒ Addressing the limitations:

Building capacity of communities in running ecotourism products require

gradual capacity building and hand holding support. The forest
department needs to develop partnership with NGO/ private sector to
help communities become proficient in running the products. There is a
need to bring in such MOUs/agreements between the interested parties.
The MOU must specify the roles, responsibility and benefits to partners.

Identification of eco-tourism products that can harness the traditional

knowledge and skills (of course with necessary honing and value
addition done) could go a long way in instilling pride and confidence in
communities.

Ecotourism destination development needs clarity in policy guidelines.

The early lead taken by some of the state govt. like Karnataka and
Sikkim need to be looked in to.

40
Wilderness tourism policy in National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests and other forests of
Karnataka,2004
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CHAPTER 5: INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS

In this chapter, the various institutions, formal and non-formal are analyzed with
respect to presence and mandate so as to seek convergence in actions. Based on
the analysis and in congruence with multiplicity of actors at various levels, the
institutional arrangement for project implementation is proposed.

5.1 Formal institutions

The following sub-sections give an overview of the various institutions having

presence in the landscape. Their mandate and areas for collaborations are also
analyzed.

5.1.1 Forest Department

a. Satpura Tiger Reserve: With an area of 1488.77 sq km of the landscape,

the Tiger Reserve has an overall mandate of wildlife conservation with in
the reserve. Protection of wildlife, habitat management, eco-tourism and
eco-development of villages in the reserve are some of the key functions of
the STR. In the last financial year (2005-06), the total financial allocation to
STR has been 6.19 crores. Out of this, the state government allocation has
been 3.62 crores and the allocation from central government has been
around 2.56 crores under various schemes.

The STR mandate will be significantly augmented by the project outputs and
the activities and vice versa.

b. Hoshangabad and West Chindwara territorial forest divisions, house much

of the multiple use forests of the landscape. The key mandate include,
Protection, conservation and development of forests and wildlife so as to
obtain the sustainable yield of Timber, NWFPs, fuelwood and fodder, along
with environmental services to cater to needs of the society at large, and
local rural households in particular. National Afforestation Program operated
through Forest Development Agency (FDA), forest development schemes as
per working plan prescriptions funded through state plan funds, forest
protection schemes, forest village development project under central
assistance, Joint Forest Management (JFM) program, management of
Tendu-patta and NWFPs, particularly medicinal plants under district Laghu
Vanopaj Union are some of the key functions of the territorial forest
divisions of the landscape. 6 Ranges in Hoshangabad; and 4 in West
Chindwara along with sub-ranges (forester circles) and beats will have
project intervention in their territories.

Programs and schemes of the territorial divisions have great deal of

convergence with the project outputs and activities. The project activities will
seek leverage with the ongoing schemes of the divisions. The project also
provides opportunity for bringing in biodiversity and livelihood concerns
integrated in the working plans of the territorial divisions.

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c. Forest Development Corporation (Rampur Bhatodi Project) is working on

the south western region of the landscape and falls in Betul district. The
mandate of the corporation is to raise economically valuable timber stands
on lines of a business, principally on forest lands that have had natural
stands of commercially unimportant timber species. The current operations
mainly address tending of the plantations already raised. The project for the
first time offers a unique opportunity for addressing ecological and
biological concerns within the corporation-managed areas.

5.1.2 Revenue Department

About 25% of the area of the landscape is with the revenue department of
Hoshangabad and Betul. The department has the mandate to maintain the land
records, supervision of the lands, oversee land transfer, and effect revenue
collection from lands under private ownership. Computerization of the land records
in phases and distribution of ceiling lands are some of the ongoing programs of the
department. The department assumes importance, in the context of productive
asset ownership of the households in the landscape, particularly the revenue
villages.

5.1.3 Agriculture Department

Agriculture along with the forest produce constitutes the predominant livelihood
strategy for the landscape households. Production enhancement though HYV seeds
and external inputs of irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides along with improved
agronomic practice has been the main concern of the department for improved
production. The extension program of the department is geared to meet such goals
though a range of schemes. While the landscape villages falling in the command
area can seek better convergence with existing mainstream schemes of the
department; for the majority of villages in the uplands in landscape, schemes like
biogas promotion and organic farming, integrated pest management and water
harvesting provide opportunity for direct convergence. The project will provide
support to such activities with focus to improve production from existing bio-
diverse farming practices developed on organic regime. Deputy Director
Agriculture in 3 landscape districts along with their field officers (ADOs) and
extension agents are responsible to extend above outlined services to the
landscape farmers.

5.1.4 Veterinary Department

Livestock form an important constituent for people's livelihood in the landscape.

Livestock heath, cattle breed improvement using exotic semen, and dairy
development form the key plank of the mandate of the veterinary department in
the landscape. Gow-sewaks for cluster of villages work as extension agent for
program outreach in villages. The project activities addressing livestock
improvement will have direct convergence with the ongoing schemes of the
department with emphasis tilted in favor of breed improvement by using Artificial
Insemination or service bull of Desi descript breeds .The use of diclofinac, a
controversial drug for livestock health program has direct impact for vulture

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population with in the landscape, the project will have opportunity to address the
issue.

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5.1.5 Department of sericulture and department of Horticulture

Horticultural crops and sericulture have shown good potential for land based
livelihood improvements, in the landscape area. Department of sericulture with
assistant director sericulture in districts and deputy director horticulture at district
level are primarily responsible to extend the area and increase benefits from such
allied activities to the household. Silk worm rearing on Mulberry, raising of Tassar
cocoon on Terminalia tomenstosa and castor plants as host for Eri silk form the key
plank of sericulture departments strategy. Similarly, raising of plantation of fruit
bearing trees and fruit processing form the key plank of horticulture department's
strategy and schemes. The program of horticulture department is currently being
boosted through National Horticulture Mission. The project provides opportunity for
convergence with schemes of these departments.

5.1.6 Department of Health

Relative inaccessibility of some of the villages of the landscape and given the over
all food security situations, role of health sector become quite important. The
health services are coordinated at district level through Chief Medical Officer (civil
surgeon) and are organized through District Hospital, Primary Health Centers, and
sub health centers. Currently augmented under National Rural Health Mission, the
department runs a number of schemes to cater to health needs in the landscape.
The project under Rural Livelihood Improvement component will seek convergence
with the ongoing schemes of health department. A rich repository of Indigenous
traditional knowledge based on herbal formulation exists in the interior villages
with in the landscape. The project will try and seek complementarities of these two
system to address heath issue, which otherwise becomes a huge drain on
livelihood incomes of the people.

5.1.7 Department of Education

About 60 middle schools dot the landscape villages, in addition to 6 colleges. Given
the overall stated goal of the project of improved livelihoods and quality of life
achieved through conservation route, inculcation of conservation values in children
and making them future torch bearers of landscape wide conservation movement
can be hardly overemphasized. In addition to running the mainstream education
program, a good number of schools in the landscape run eco-clubs under National
Green Corps and Nature Clubs under World Wildlife Fund India. The project
provides opportunity for innovations in both formal and non formal education.

5.1.8 Public Health Engineering Department

The department served through Superintendent Engineers and other field officers
in 3 landscape districts, has crucial role in maintaining the safe rural drinking water
and control of fluorosis in the landscape villages, thereby in creating conditions for
the landscape households to enhance their livelihoods. Microplanning to be done at
the village level will seek convergence of PHED services in the project districts.

5.1.9 Women and Child Development Department

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Mandated to ensure healthy development of rural women and children, the

department runs a good number of schemes for target population which combines
health, education and employment opportunities. Rural livelihood improvement
activities under village microplan can seek convergence with WCD's ongoing
program of similar nature.

5.1.10 Panchayat Raj Institution: The Zila, Janpad and Gram Panchayats

As component of decentralized governance, Zila, Janpad and Gram Panchyats form

the critical axis of Panchayat Raj Institutions at 3 different levels. The landscape
has coverage of 3 district Panchyats and 10 Janpad Panchyats. Zila Panchayat (ZP)
has subsumed the role of erstwhile District Rural Development Agency at district
level. At state level it is Panchayat and Grameen Vikas Department which
coordinates various activities of the ZP. Some of the key schemes of the ZP include
SGSY (for self help group driven employment programs for BPL households) and
SGRY (rural employment through infrastructure development; Food for Work,
Rajeev Gandhi Watershed Mission and mid day meal scheme. In Betul district,
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is also being implemented as part of first
phase of piloting at national level. The schemes and the program of ZP are
implemented by the Gram Panchayats with support from Janpad Panchayat; while
support in construction works comes from Rural Engineering Services at ZP and
Janpad level. The project components namely, Rural Livelihood Improvement and
improved governance would have huge opportunity to seek convergence with the
programs and schemes at ZP, Janpad and Village Panchayat level.

5.2 Institutions at Village level in the landscape (formal and non formal)

The Gram Panchayats and the Gram Sabhas constitute institutions of democratic
and decentralized governance, constitutionally mandated, at the village level (or
may be group of villages in case of gram panchayat). They are mandated for local
level developmental planning and implementation for such subjects (MP Gram
Swaraj Act 2000) that are devolved to them by different departments. A good
number of public utility and infrastructure development and SHGs/household
oriented livelihood programs are implemented by them.

In terms of effectiveness of service delivery, it is a mixed bag as felt by

respondents in the sampled villages. The leadership holds the key to effectiveness
of the institutions. The space provided to the women through reservation has
opened up huge opportunity to seek women participation in governance of natural
resources, though till date due to limitation of leadership and adequate capacity,
the space remains to be effectively utilized. Both of these institutions at local level
provide good deal of opportunity of project convergence for rural livelihood
activities and effective governance for biodiversity conservation and sustainable
community livelihoods.

Given the fact that these are constitutionally mandated bodies of decentralized
governance, their role in the project implementation phase can not be over
emphasized, however a good deal of focus will be required for capacity building in
the area of leadership, conflict management and overall knowledge and awareness
building.
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5.2.1 Self Help Groups

Hundreds of SHGs have come into existence over a period o f time in the
landscape. Most of these groups are presently engaged in micro financing by
getting the group to develop saving habit and leverage revolving funds (grant) to
enhance the kitty. The money from the kitty is used for socio cultural, health,
education, for agricultural inputs and to take up local level income enhancement
opportunities. Only a miniscule of them has graduated to some sort of enterprise
development after accessing institutional finance.

The effectiveness of such groups varies considerably in the landscape. However, it

is pertinent to note that the wherever the group organizers have shown leadership,
the groups have started to have their impact on social relations and some inroads
into livelihood improvement as well. A good number of these groups could
therefore be further supported under capacity building component of the project to
play a crucial role in project implementation.

5.2.2 Joint Forest Management Committees

A majority of villages in the landscape have Joint Forest Management Committees

(JFMCs) either a Eco-Development Committee (in and around PAs), Forest
Protection Committee (FPC, in well stocked non PA areas) and Village Forest
Committee (VFC, in degraded forests). Formation of such committees varies from
mid nineties to as recent as 2002-2003. A bulk of such committees came into
existence in the late nineties. These committees are mandated to partner FD in
forest protection and development in order to reap commensurate benefits as per
government resolution. Though the committees have met variable degree of
success, the fact that they have come to stay can hardly be overemphasized. While
the respondents during the field survey were equivocal of contribution of JFMCs in
improved protection, their impacts in addressing livelihood concerns varies
considerably. Concerns about their functioning were also raised. The decision
making continues to be tilted in favor of the department. Lack of awareness on
provisions under JFM, leadership, role clarity, conflict management, and skill
development including regulated harvesting, value addition and marketing of
NWFPs to make inroads into sustainable livelihoods are some of the key areas that
need to be addressed to strengthen the JFMCs. The revamped JFMCs could be
counted upon to play a crucial role in BCRLI project implementation.

5.2.3 Informal institutions

Jaat Panchayat and Ramayan Mandal are two key community institutions. Headed
by the Pardhan or Patel, Jaat Panchayat still remains a powerful social institution in
tribal dominated villages. Ramayan Mandals has more of religious and cultural
functions. The tribal villages continue to lend great deal of significance to Bhomka
(in Korku villages) or Biaga (in Gond villages) who hold center stage in whole lot of
customary practices and rituals. Often, he also renders services of traditional
healer. He continues to command respect and say in decision making.

The traditional institution of agricultural exchange labour called Ponda or Alta Palti
is also found in the villages. Another significant institution found in some villages is
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the Jajmani system. The system deals with remuneration in kind to caste-based
service providers (Carpenters, Blacksmiths, Barbers etc) for services rendered
across the year. Though functioning of informal institutions can hardly be termed
democratic, nevertheless they exhibit high participation, adherence and
acceptance. This is also a conflict resolution forum at the local level. The project
will have opportunity to have close look at these institutions and possibly seek
their engagement in conflict resolution mechanism at local level.

5.3 The NGOs in the landscape

Professional Action for Development (PRADAN) and Adivasi Kissan Sangh in Kesla
block, Hoshangabad, BAIF, and Madhya Pradesh Vigyan Sabha in Tamia Block,
Chindwara are the leading names. Tawa Matsya Sangh in one of the Community
Based Organization

PRADAN (poultry, mushroom cultivation, sericulture); BAIF (dairy development

through livestock improvement, food processing); MPVS (NWFP processing,
biodiversity documentation and agriculture development); Tawa Matsya Sangh
(fisheries management in Tawa reservoir); JATAN (medicinal plant cultivation);
PRAYAS (natural resource management) are some of the leading NGOs in the
landscape in the field of livelihood improvement. However there are equally good
numbers of NGOs in the field of tribal rights, community mobilization, education
and awareness, health, environmental awareness. Adivasi Kishan Sanghtan, Disha
Sambad, Life force, Eklavya, MPVGVS, CARE, SHRUB, Dalit Sangh are some of the
leading names. Presence of good number of NGOs in and adjoining landscape
provides good opportunity to the project to forge partnerships with the NGOs
having commensurate mandate as that of the project.

5.4 Institutional requirement for Landscape conservation project

Biodiversity Conservation and Livelihood Project at the landscape level will have to
reckon with the challenges on the institutional front. These being:

a. Landscape are marked with multiple land use and multiple agencies
which are given to work with in sectoral confines, much at the cost of
shared vision and goals, which may often lead to program incongruities –
some programs /schemes being at the cross purpose to the others. Lack
of adequate communication, inflated egos, interdepartmental rivalries and
the inability to see the larger picture; all contribute to such sectoral
blinds. The landscape approach to BD conservation and livelihood
enhancement on the other hand strongly underscores the need to move
towards collaborative partnerships wherein multiple agencies fulfill their
respective mandate (win- win), which is governed by a common frame of
reference. It requires convergence of thoughts, attitudes and practices
amongst various govt. and non govt. players towards shared goals and
vision.
b. As of now there are no natural administrative units conforming to such a
geographical area (landscape).

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c.The challenge is to avoid BCRLP being bracketed as yet another wildlife

project (with resulting sectoral biases, alliances, attitudes – for an against
– and territoriality playing itself out) notwithstanding the fact that BD is all
encompassing and not restricted to readily identifiable physical boundaries

Learning from earlier project experience

Project based interventions in general ( more so in externally aided projects) create
institutional structures which run almost parallel to existing institutions, with provision of
horizontal linkages through coordination committees at various levels. Many a such
projects in NRM sectors have been able to make significant dent in the situation through
project interventions, however, long term sustainability of such interventions beyond project
period has remained doubtful. Project learning are often lost on existing line agencies
which continue to function in routine fashion. (Watershed and livelihood projects supported
by various agencies)

Project interventions in NRM sector, when routed through line agencies, were required to
necessarily reckon with cumbersome procedural delays and lack of flexibility, thus affecting
the project outcome. (Externally aided forestry projects in many states)

BCRIP project will therefore need to build on experience of projects in the NRM sectors
taken up in the recent past, and innovate accordingly so as to overcome the limitations of
earlier interventions.

Institutional framework in a given landscape therefore

ƒ Should provide for space/forum for orchestrating harmonic notes from

multiple players, and the theme song/tune of such an orchestra ought to be
“development through conservation route.

ƒ It must facilitate processes that help multiple agencies to develop and

implement shared vision, goals, objectives and action plans

ƒ It must provide for participatory planning, implementation and monitoring.

ƒ It should facilitate affirmative state actions (policy directives/ legislations/

enabling GO) in favor of vulnerable sections of people including women in
landscapes, so as to help them secure/enhance livelihood opportunities in a
dignified manner. It must similarly secure state actions to ensure ecological
security and integrity of the landscape.

ƒ It must provide for smooth and timely fund flow , accounting and
monitoring

ƒ Must provide for flexibility of operation and decision making

ƒ Should bring out clear designation of accountability at all levels

5.5 Proposed Institutional Arrangement for the Project

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The concerns outlined above can be addressed by an institutional structure for the
project as shown in Fig below.

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Fig : Proposed Institutional Structure for the Project

Executive/Working
State Level Satpuranchal Biodiversity Committee of SBCRLC
Conservation and Rural Livelihood ( BCRLS) Chair : Principal Secretary
of Forests
Society ( General Body) Members ( to be
Chair Ex officio : Hon CM or Forest Minister constituted from GB)
Members :Principal Secretary /HODs of the relevant Member Secretary: The
departments /Institutions; Representative of CEO of society ( CCF rank
Academia and NGOs, nominated members from officer)
community/PRIs
Member Secretary: The CEO of society ( CCF rank
officer
State level

Project Facilitation Unit

CEO cum Project facilitator & a
team of 6-8 professionals

District level

District Level DBCRLC District Level DBCRLC District Level DBCRLC

(Hoshangabad) (Chhindwra) (Betul)
chair : Collector Chair Collector Chair Collector
Member: Concerned line agencies Members: Concerned line Members: Concerned line
heads, Academia reps, NGO reps, agencies heads, Academia reps, agencies heads, Academia
PRI representative NGO reps, PRI representative reps, NGO reps, PRI
Member Secy: Dy Director STR Member Secy: DFO West representative
Chindwara Member Secy: DFO Betul
Local level

Gram Sabhas to Gram Sabhas to Gram Sabhas to

authorise authorise authorise
FPCs/EDCs/ BMC FPCs/EDCs/ BMC FPCs/EDCs/ BMC

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I. At landscape Level
a. Satpura Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Livelihood Society (
SBCRLS) at State level

There would be a statutory body, a society, set up for smooth implementation of

the project. Such a body must secure representation of all the key players . The
Society would help develop shared vision and goals across multiple agencies of LS,
seek convergence of programs at LS level, facilitate mainstreaming of BD
conservation in district planning, build capacity of project partners to help them
achieve agreed goals and objectives and provide fiscal and technical support to
district level partner agencies/organizations to meaningfully implement project
activities. The Society can attract and leverage funds from various sources even
during the life of current project so as to further reinforce and disseminate best
practices.

The General Body of the Society would be chaired by the Hon'ble CM or the
Minister Forests and will have following members :
Principal Secretaries of Forest, Rural Development, Animal Husbandary, Tribal
Development, Agriculture, Public health, Environment & Housing, PCCF, PCCF WL,
MD MFP Fed, MD Forest Development Corporation, Representative of Director
Project Tiger, Govt. of India, Director Agriculture, Commissioner Sericulture,
Director Horticulture, Director Zila Panchayat and Social Justice, Commissioner
Tribal Welfare, Biodiversity experts (2), Chairperson of ZP Hoshangabad, Betul &
Chindwara, , MD urja Vikas Nigam, CEO of Eco-tourism Board, CEO Biodiversity
Board, Program officer
Pachmari Biosphere The PFU…
Reserve, NGO
Representatives (2) and 9 Facilitates development of shared vision and goals and a
larger ownership of the project across multiple agencies of
Community
landscape
Representatives (2).
9 Sets in processes that foster culture of collaboration among
project partners
CEO/ Program Director of
the Society will be the 9 Builds capacity of landscape partners (GOs, NGOs and
CBOs) and provide them with technical and financial
Member Secretary of the support to help them achieve their goals / objectives
General Body of the
society 9 Sets up stage for community action and empowerment,
though project partners

The Society will have an 9 Builds strong communication & liaison with both at micro
and macro level players to ensure ownership of partners
Executive Committee and ease of operations.
under the Chairmanship of
Principal Secretary Forests
9 Supports MIS for the project based on sound information
base using state of art technology and blending it with
, other members of the participatory tools for monitoring.
executive committee will
9 Networks with projects and partners at state and country
be from amongst the level for continuous learning
member of the General
Body. The Secretary of
9 Works on principle of adaptive management i.e Karo-
Sekho – Karo.
the General Body will be
the Secretary of the
Executive Committee as well.. .

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b. Project Facilitation Unit (PFU) of the Society

The society (SBCRLS) will be serviced by PFU. The PFU will have a Chief Executive
and a small team of professionals (6-8), having wide range of expertise covering
area of biodiversity, livelihood , social mobilization, information management,
management of finances, along with secretarial staff.

One of the key role of the PFU will be to help develop shared vision and goals
across different players (govt. agencies, NGOs and others) having presence in
landscape and build their capacities to help them achieve agreed project goals and
objectives. PFU will identify project partners particularly NGOs in project districts,
capable of facilitating community processes. It will work with such identified
partners, further building up their capacities so that they effectively mobilize
communities to secure project objectives.

Staffing the PFU with “right personnel”, having not only the requisite knowledge
and skill, but also having an attitude which help a small number of professionals to
gel as team, would go a long way in fostering collaborative culture, so critical to
success of landscape project. Team of professionals as staff would be recruited
from open market on contract or taken on deputations. The PFU can be headed on
deputation by a forest officer of sufficient seniority (of CCF rank) as the Chief
Executive. The PFU CEO shall also be the member secretary of the SBCRLS Society
and Executive Body.

III. District level:

PFU will work through existing line agencies at district level under the chairman
ship of district collector, and will provide the line agencies and the project partners
with the professional support as well as fiscal resources to help implementation of
project activities. District level committee for each of the district (3) have a DCF
rank officer as the Member Secretary. Dy Director Satpura Tiger reserve will be
the secretary to the District project facilitation unit (DPFU) Hoshangabad district.
The secretary for the unit of Chinaware district will be DFO (west Chinaware) and
Divisional Manager Rampur Bhatodi Project for Betul district.
A small support team can be constituted to support DPFU, particularly
Hoshangabad DPFU which will have about two third of the project area.
IV. At local level
At village level it will be for the Gram Sabha to decide the most appropriate body
to lead the charge. Eco Development Committees, Forest protection Committees
could be authorized by the Gram Sabha accordingly.
Biodiversity Management Committees mandated under National Biodiversity Act
2002 and respective State Rules are to be constituted at the level of local body.
Gram Panchayats / Gram Sabhas can therefore constitute BMCs. The National Acts
mandates such BMCs to take action for conservation, sustainable use and
documentation of biodiversity including preservation of habitats, conservation o f
landraces, domestic stocks and breed of animals and microorganisms (Sec 41 of
Act). MP Biodiversity Rules 2004 provides that the local body can pass a resolution
either for constituting the BMC afresh or authorizing any of the existing committee
at the level of local body to discharge mandate of BMC (possibility of EDCs / FPCs
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or any other committee at village level being authorized by Panchayat/Gram Sabha

exist). The Act and rules also provide setting up of Biodiversity Management Fund
at the level of local body to help it discharge its mandate. The project can as well
make use of such institutional space at local level. In the landscape the BMCs are
yet to be constituted, the project can therefore legitimately promote setting of
such institution and through participatory processes ensure that right people are
able to make it to such bodies.
The local level institutions of Gram Sabha/ BMC/FPC or EDC can gain further
impetus if it works through User Groups or Common Interest Groups (based on
primary livelihoods). Such User Groups can easily become a hub of socio economic
and conservation action. Chance of most vulnerable households and women in
particular coming to fore by using institutional space of User groups is very high.
The institutional structure suggested above is meant to serve the project goals and
objectives, being piloted at landscape level. Therefore the structure so proposed
would be of specified duration. Subject to the project outcomes and impacts, the
state govt. may decide to scale up institutional space by setting up an Authority,
which can see up scaling of work to other identified landscapes with in the state.

5.6 Flow of fund

Funds from MOEF (using FDA modality) as Bank draft would be received in the
account of the Society to be operated by the Member Secretary. The amount
required for the District Facilitation Unit will be passed on to the DFU and the
amount required by the local agencies (like EDC / JFMC etc) for implementation of
all micro plan based activities will be directly passed on to these units.

PFU of the society shall retain money for office establishment and for running
capacity building processes with landscape partners, for baseline assessments, and
for setting up the monitoring protocols. The funds meant for community livelihood
promotions need to be passed on directly by the Society to the village level
institution/s to facilitate such institutions to implement approved micro-plans. The
grass root organisations shall solicit the assistance of other line agencies in
accordance with the needs of the implementation of the micro plan works and
reimburse them for the services so provided.

5.7 Merits and limitations of the proposed institutional structure

The proposed institutional framework for project implementation has following key
strengths:

ƒ The society, with representation secured from peoples representatives, the

sectoral heads, NGOs, Academia and community representatives can bring
engagement, support and ownership of key interest groups for the
landscape project.
ƒ It creates space for multiple cross sectoral agencies to be on board, with
out running the danger of creating a parallel institutional structure. In fact it
helps line agencies, NGOs and community organizations to be project
partner at district or at local level.

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ƒ Given the relative autonomy of the society, it can use flexibility to good
effect, which often becomes serious limitation in the line agency driven
projects.
ƒ The society based on its successes can access additional resources for
maintaining sustainability of its activities from non project sources even
during the life of the project itself.

However, the proposed institutional framework rests on the critical assumption that
it will be able to find right personnel for the PFU more so the Chief Executive. The
PFU is meant to lead the charge on setting up culture of collaboration and seeking
ownership of project partners. Should the project fail to get the right mix of
personnel for leading PFU, the proposed institutional framework might not be much
of use.

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CHAPTER 6: PLANNING FRAMEWORK

Based on the findings of biological assessment and social assessment, the

problems associated with biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihoods are
analyzed in this chapter. This analysis of the problems then leads to devising the
strategies capable of compatibly integrating conservation and development in the
discussion that follows.

6.1 Problem Analysis including threats

Increasing threats to charismatic species including tiger and leopard, thanks to

ever booming illegal trade and international market demands; decline in population
of some critically endangered, and endemic species; decline in habitats and their
quality outside PAs including decline of some of the most commonly traded plant
species for their parts/products; competitive use of riparian areas, are some of the
obvious manifestations of the deep rooted problem. Equally important is the issue
of livelihood and overall quality of life of the communities inhabiting the villages in
the landscape. Vulnerability of a significant population of landscape on account of
food security continues to be a serious cause of concern.

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Box a) Summary of Threats

For wild animals
(a) Three species, tiger, leopard and the sloth bear have been targeted countrywide by
gangs of organized criminals for international illegal trade in skins and body parts. So far
no poaching cases by such poachers have been detected in this region. However, with
presence of such species in the landscape such events always wait to happen. What has
happened during the last couple of years is a testament to such grave risks (Anon 2005).

(b) There are four species of vultures in the landscape, two of which, the White Rumped
and the Long billed are critically endangered. Their fate depends on how successfully the
drug Diclofenac is taken off the shelves.

(c) The status of crocodile is not adequately known. There are a few perceived threats.
Fishing done by gill nets entangles crocodiles and causes mortality. This has been widely
reported (Chaudhury Pers. Comm.). Fishing is widely practiced in the Tawa reservoir and
use of gill nets is common, but there is lack of data, however such threat always needs to
be in contention. This needs further investigation. Secondly, Tawa is primarily an irrigation
reservoir. The demand for irrigation increases with the advancement of the dry season.
Normally nest digging and egg laying commences before the onset of rains. There is
considerable exploration by crocodile for suitable sites and digging of trial nests before the
animals are ready for egg laying. Maximum rate of release of water for irrigation from the
reservoir takes place during this time and therefore if the water level recedes to levels
much below the nests then either the eggs will not be laid or even if the eggs hatch the
hatchlings will have very poor chance of reaching the water, or the adults may simply
prefer to denning. Thirdly, the nesting habitat is reduced considerably due to cultivation in
draw down areas, sites of boat landings etc. There is not much that can be done to
regulate the rate of release of water but it would help immensely to undertake a detailed
year round investigation to understand the status of the population and breeding ecology.

(d) The population and distribution of the otter seem to have declined considerably as
compared to what was observed during 1986. Unfortunately there is no data to establish
this at this point in time. Large-scale fishing is known to negatively affect the status and
distribution of otter. Otter is affected by chemically contaminated fish. Sewage and other
effluents from the Pachmarhi plateau are entering some of the streams in the PAs. These
aspects would need to be further looked into.

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Box b) Summary of threats For wild plants & Habitats

(a) Species like Psilotum nudum, Lycopodium cernum, Cythea gigantea, Angiopteris
evecta, Isoetes panchananii, Isoetes mahadevansis, Ophioglossum nudicaul,
Utricularia exoleta, Drosera burmanii, and Drosera indica have small and scattered
populations, they also are habitat specialists and endangered because of human
activities like construction of roads in the forest, expansion of human habitations,
increasing tourism and road traffic, visitors dumping solid waste on prime sites like,
Bee Fall, Duchess Fall, Little Fall, Handi Khoh, trampling by livestock, over collection
by botany students for study, and by those engaged in the trade of ornamental
plants directly lead to habitat loss. Some of these are heavily collected during the
botanical excursions of educational institutions. Species like Chlorophytum spp,
Gloriosa superba, Raulfia serpentina, and Asparagus recemosus are in considerable
demand for their medicinal value and therefore there is over collection leading to
their local disappearance from the managed forests. These threats hold good for all
species of pteridophytes and bryophytes.

(b) Populations of some of the tree species that are socio-economically important and
also among those that are the commonest in the region like Embelica officinalis,
Buchnania lanzan, Terminalia chebula, Madhuca latifolia, are on a rapid decline in the
managed forests. Their recruitment classes are poorly represented and seed banks
are almost non-existent.

Habitats
(a) Among the invasive species lantana is the most widespread. While the managed
forests outside STR are most vulnerable, even portions of STR, e.g. the surrounds of
Rorighat village and adjoining valleys are heavily infested. Lantana also occurs along
the few dry grassland habitats and along some of the riparian habitats. It is very
difficult to eradicate lantana, it might happen naturally through a slow process
following protection from fire and grazing and developing top canopy shading it out in
patches. However critical habitats like riparian and dry grasslands are a matter of
concern. It is to be remembered though that in some tracts of managed forests,
what is threat elsewhere could be a significant advantage to nurse the regeneration
of species mentioned at (f) above (Pant et.al. 2002). Extensive livestock grazing and
fires that constitute separate serious threats by themselves and need no further
qualification also support spread of lantana.

(b) In traditional forestry snags and den trees have no place in timber stands and
therefore they are felled and removed in felling and tending operations. They also are
lost by default since they are considered useful as firewood for which there is always
a great demand. A large number of animal species are dependent on these elements.
Such species perform key ecological functions in maintaining the forests as a vibrant
and resilient system. Their consistent removal threatens some of the vital ecological
processes, functions and the integrity of forests as habitats of wild plants and
animals, as well as the regenerating capacity of the forests (Sawarkar 2005)

(c) Riparian habitats are critically important and their ecological functions are well
established. Among these the ‘corridor’ function needs to be especially stressed
whether the drainages are well vegetated or not. These ecological entities are being
impacted and fragmented by a variety of human activities (Sawarkar 2005).

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Problem analysis for conservation and development in the landscape has to take
cognizance of the biodiversity and livelihoods interface. As is seen in the earlier
chapters, biodiversity dependency for livelihoods of the people of the landscape is
on the relatively higher side. However these interrelationships are not strictly
linear and cross-linkages do exist. It is in this broad context that the problem
analysis has been done. The problem tree is schematically represented in figure
5.1.

Poor to modest management capabilities

Inadequate management plans (as a key instrument), inadequate communication

infrastructure for addressing main threats, low to modest human resource
capacity to deal with the challenges, inadequate information management system
using state of the art technology are some of causes affecting PA management.
Similarly, lack of mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns in sectoral planning for
areas outside PAs has a serious bearing on wild as well as domesticated
biodiversity.

Non inclusive governance

Lack of adequate institutional spaces (both formal and non-formal) and inadequate
capacities of such institutions in resolving competing demands and conflicting
interests over bio-resources leads to serious adverse impacts, both on the resource
and on the livelihood interests of people. Lack of adequate information to the key
players continues to seriously affect functioning of such institutions. Weak
governance structures compound the problems that have ramifications in terms of
inability to regulate open grazing, encroachments or harvesting practices.

Poor economic returns to people

In general the upland agriculture in the landscape continues to be non-

remunerative for a host of reasons. While poor availability of water is a key
constraint, the farmers require to invest heavily (mainly in terms of time) to ward
off crop raiding by wild animals. Crop raiding, cattle lifting and retaliatory killings
are issues that are interrelated and have connotations both for biodiversity as well
as livelihoods. Open unregulated grazing in the forests is one of the key factors
that impact biodiversity and its habitats and is also the main reason for the
prevailing low livestock productivity. The market forces in the absence of well
defined tenure security and regulations, lead to destructive harvesting of
commonly traded NWFP species like Achar, Aonla etc. In the current trade-
community relationships lacking in concern for the wellbeing of the latter, the
emphasis is on quantities of raw NWFP rather than better economic returns by
ensuring timely collection, using the traditionally right and proven techniques,
grading to ensure better quality and further to add value to the product by
processing continues to rule the scenario. This situation is much to the detriment
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of both the resource and the livelihood interests. While fisheries is a critical
livelihood strategy for villages in the vicinity of Tawa reservoir, limited legal space
available to such a crucial livelihood avenue undermines the scope for compatible
livelihoods.

A general lack of alternative livelihood options arising from less than adequate and
appropriate development inputs from other line departments and inadequate
resource management aggravate the problems and have implications both for
biodiversity habitats and bio-resource productivity and dependent livelihoods. Ever-
rising demand for fuel wood and small timber from the larger human populations
continues to impact forests, more so in the multiple use zone of the landscape.
Unable to get remunerative returns from agriculture and allied activities, a good
number of households get into a vicious cycle of indebtedness leading to further
drain on household incomes from agricultural as well as NWFP eaten into by the
trader/ moneylender.

Policy and Legal Concerns

Further, the inadequacy of policy prescriptions for addressing integrated

biodiversity and livelihood concerns is an area that needs to be looked at. This also
needs analysis with a view to mainstreaming biodiversity as well as livelihood
concerns in existing prescriptions and instruments.

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Figure 6.1: Problem tree for the Satpura landscape

Sub-optimal biodiversity management and other

general development regimes in the landscape

Low management efficacy of PAs and Poor economic returns from livelihood Weak institutional mechanisms and governance Lacunae in overall
forests outside as well as in the plans activities spanning agriculture, livestock for bio-resource management and livelihoods policies and
and activities of other line departments rearing and NWFP aspects regulatory
in the LS in mainstreaming BD and LH framework
ƒ Suboptimum PA plans and ƒ Low economic productivity of ƒ Inadequate capacities of structures for ƒ Low research
mechanisms to compatibly support agriculture, especially upland dry democratic governance and management of priority for
livelihoods in PA management farming bio-resources analyzing policy
ƒ Lack of upgraded technological and ƒ Inadequate inputs in soil ƒ Lack of avenues for multi-stakeholder and legal aspects
physical communication conservation, water harvesting and participation of mainstreaming
infrastructure for optimum PA value addition by measures like ƒ Low awareness of biodiversity conservation and biodiversity and
protection organic farming livelihood issues livelihoods
ƒ Low human resource capacities of PA ƒ Crop raiding losses ƒ Lack of appropriate institutional structure for ƒ Inadequate
personnel ƒ Lack of sustainable harvesting integrated management of the landscape reflection of
ƒ Inadequate information management regimes, value addition and ƒ Inadequate inputs that are insensitive to contribution of
with inadequate spatial interface processing of NWFPs biodiversity and ecological services functions of biodiversity in
ƒ Forest working plans in forest areas ƒ Poor animal husbandry inputs as well natural areas leading to decline in productivity State / District
outside PAs are deficient in as in forage and pasture management of farm and livestock productivity particularly in Gross Domestic
mainstreaming BD and LH concerns leading to low productivity of livestock the uplands Product
ƒ Lack of plan instruments ƒ Limited activity profile and lack of ƒ Rural development and tribal welfare inputs fail
mainstreaming BD in sectoral livelihood options due to deficient line to account for exploitative regimes of traders/
programmes agency plans moneylenders
ƒ Lack of integrated information ƒ Lack of alternatives for domestic
management for production systems energy
ƒ Inaccessibility to health services
Lack of instruments seeking
convergence in livelihood enhancement
actions

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As is evident from the problem analysis, there are areas and issues which are intricately related both with biodiversity
conservation and livelihood. Initiatives for conservation and development therefore have to take cognizance of these
interrelationships.

ƒ It would set strong information base to help setting benchmarks/baselines for biological and socioeconomic
parameters, gauze health of ecosystems/ areas and monitor their recovery; monitor quality of life indicators and provide
information to a range of players to help negotiation and tradeoffs.
ƒ It would promote livelihood strategies that are ecologically and economically sustainable and socially just; for
instance community based eco-tourism, organic and biodiverse agriculture, viable community enterprises based on
sustainable harvesting of bio-resources incl.
ƒ It would seek convergence of best practices: be it eco-friendly farming practices, soil/water conservation,
participatory forestry practices including JFM and Eco-development, PA management, participatory irrigation
management, “Green School program, health services based on blending of traditional knowledge and modern medicine;
and governance structures and processes which empower people.
ƒ It would provide space for multiple agencies and their developmental program, but with a shared frame of
reference.
ƒ It has big role for regulatory role of FD and other agencies, but the people have opportunity to participate in
framing of such regulations. They also invoke social sanctions and mobilize support for application of agreed regulations.
Thus policy and law making and the enforcement process become inclusive enough.
ƒ The project would promotes diversity of institutions, including Gram Sabha, and its myriad committees including
FPCs, EDCs, BMCs and User groups, all however mean to promote decentralized decision making and community
leadership . It would use and strengthen institutional spaces so as to enable marginalized resource users, and
particularly women, to participate in decision-making and planning, and to influence policy making
ƒ It would provide for a range of tenurial arrangements and matching institutions, as one move from core to
Multiple Use Zone with in the landscape. Such tenurial arrangements would have a mix of ownership pattern incl. state
owned to community and private ownership, and the opportunity for collaboration of partners in each case so as to
achieve project goals and outputs.

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Box-b) The guiding principles for landscape biodiversity conservation and livelihood
enhancement

The project should improve quality of life of people of the landscape through biodiversity conservation
route. Sustainable livelihoods and lifestyles, underscore such an endeavor. Ecological, economic and
cultural justification for inviolate spaces (core areas) with in the landscapes will need to be
communicated with people and their engagement sought for its preservation. It is for realization of
myriad values of biodiversity that its conservation and sustainable use is called for. Therefore the
larger goal is “enhancing the quality of life of people” and to have such quality of life, biodiversity
conservation becomes so critical. Hence biodiversity becomes mean to achieve a higher goal.

Given the context as above the project will be guided by the following principles:
ƒ It would challenge the dominant paradigm of both “development” (meaning big and
homogeneous, monocultures, high external input driven, production systems) and
“conservation” as hands off approach. The developmental and conservation goals would be
achieved by using strategies which are ecologically and economically sustainable and
socially just. The goals and objectives are achieved in a manner which empower people and
strengthen their institutions.

ƒ The project would care for values that promote conservation ethos across landscape
residents; promote tolerance, accommodation and respect to divergent view points.

ƒ It would set in processes and structures which help the landscape partners to move towards
shared vision , goals and outputs . Such vision and goals should inform sectoral plans arrived
at by inclusive processes.

ƒ It would promote culture of collaboration and partnerships rather then confrontation and
isolation. Would foster a vocabulary and grammar that foster collaboration.

6.2 Strategies and Approaches

On the basis of the problem analysis, it becomes evident that the resident
populace of the landscape exhibits a high degree of dependence on the
biological resources existing in the landscape for livelihoods and there are cross
cutting issues for biodiversity conservation that highlight the role of
mainstreaming biodiversity in all sectoral plans and activities. Based on the
analysis, the strategies to be adopted for biodiversity conservation and
livelihood enhancement in the landscape are discussed in the following sub-
sections.

6.2.1 Enhancing managerial effectiveness in PAs

As is evident from the biological assessment, strengthening of PA management

is a prerequisite to conservation action. Here strengthening has to be in terms
of developing instruments, improving information base and using appropriate
technology besides human resource development. Firstly, instruments in the
form of Management plans have to be upgraded so as to map in GIS domain
Biodiversity Significant Areas and habitats, populations of critically endangered,
endemic and rare species and their distribution. Building up on the base lines

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will be one of the key activity in year one of the project. WII guidelines for
updating/revision of PA plans and providing for biodiversity concerns in forest
working plans can be used to good effect. One of the key concerns would be to
review the boundaries of the PA and propose corrections wherever required and
plot the same on a GIS platform including the area outside the PAs included in
the landscape and critical corridors beyond if identified.

Livelihoods concerns consistent with the legal provisions will need to be worked
out in the PA and forest management plan so as to address villages which will
continue to inhabit the two sanctuaries. For such villages it will be useful to
carve out Traditional Use Zones, within which responsible and ecologically
tenable practices could be allowed. These communities should as well be
accorded the first charge on all economic activities and benefits based on non
consumptive use of forest based resources as well as remunerated participation
in general and fire protection.

Communication effectiveness is vital to protection function in the PA. Here,

technology up-gradation would be required to provide state-of-the-art
communication infrastructure with geographical interfaces. Along with this,
mobility of the personnel to facilitate protection would also have to be
considered here. Further, the most critical concern for management is the
personnel and their capacities. Knowledge, attitude, behavior and practices all
have to be targeted so that optimum efficiency levels are reached. Investments
in capability enhancement including in facilitating conservation compatible
livelihoods targeting different levels through different strategies would be
required.

Strengthening communication infrastructure in the Non PA area of Satpura Tiger

Reserve is no less important. The project needs to build on/further reinforce the
ongoing up-gradation of communication infrastructure taken up by the
Protection and IT wing of MP FD.

6.2.22 Managing Non PA forests for biodiversity conservation and Sustainable

Livelihoods

Available guidelines from Wildlife Institute of India (Wildlife in Managed Forests)

and the guidelines for working plans should be used to build up context specific,
easy to use guidelines for the landscape managers and the field staff so as to
address biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood concerns in the
managed forests. Working plan prescriptions and implementation in West-
Chhindwara, Hoshangabad will need to be reviewed and revised from the point
of view of addressing biodiversity and livelihood concerns, by using the
guidelines so developed. Deviation statement if any will need to be prepared
and it should be got approved as per the laid out process. Provision for hiring
services of experts to conduct the review has been made. Similarly, the
management plan for the FDC area (Rampur Bhatodi unit) will need to be
reviewed and amendments if any need to be incorporated in the plan.

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6.2.3 Mainstreaming biodiversity concerns in sectoral planning and regional

development

One of the key outcomes for the project is to ensure that overall developmental
planning in the landscape uses conservation route to development. What it
necessarily means is that, the sectoral planning (key land use and rural
development sectors) must integrate biodiversity conservation and sustainable
livelihood concerns in its plans and schemes within the landscape. Guidelines for
sectoral analysis will need to be developed to help the key line agencies to take
up sectoral analysis of the program and schemes in the landscape area, and
assess its adequacy vis a vis BD conservation and sustainable livelihoods. This
will be part of larger capacity building program for the landscape partners. The
agencies should be able to critically examine their schemes and take corrective
steps wherever required. It is in this way that optimum convergence in the
different line agency programmes and activities can be brought about so as to
meaningfully and compatibly integrate conservation and livelihood concerns.
This resulting change should get integrated in the district development plan.

Mainstreaming BD concerns:
District Plan, Seoni 2003-2004

District development plan of Seoni for year 2003-2004 has been instrumental in trying
sectoral analysis to assess as to how schemes of different sectors support / undermine
or are scale neutral vis a vis BD conservation concerns. The analysis brought out
interesting figures. Given the understanding of the district partners on biodiversity
impacts, they found that the plan has schemes worth 7 crores which will supposedly
lead to positive impact, schemes worth 1.5 crores may have negative impacts and
schemes totally about 35 crores were seen as scale neutral. The plan also laid out
sectoral strategy to reinforce and enhance BD supporting activities and to minimize the
activities that could have undermined biodiversity. The plan was well received by the
State Planning Board to the extent that 50 copies of district plans were summoned for
dissemination in other districts.

6.2.4 Prioritization for optimal resource utilization

The spread of the landscape, the population of the landscape and the specific
issues in the different areas require prioritization so as to ensure optimum
utilization of the limited project resources. The parameters for priortisation and
the indicative list of priortised villages have been discussed in chapter 3.

From strategy point of view, there has to be a clear distinction between the PA
villages, prioritized villages outside PAs and other villages of the landscape. In
the PA area, the activities have to take cognizance of the legal provisions and
the results of problem analysis. Here, mainstay of the interventions has to be
for agriculture development and reduction of crop raiding. A carefully chalked
out ecotourism program holds good potential, so is the casual employment in PA
management works. Backyard poultry, sericulture/apiculture would be other
options to be explored along with other non-farm activities.

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In the non-PA prioritized villages, the activities would focus on agriculture and
NWFPs along with other interventions based on the resource profile. Non-land-
based activities here would augment the livelihood portfolio. In the other
villages of the landscape, convergence of the ongoing programmes and schemes
as well as mainstreaming would be the main strategy. However, there will be
direct project activities that have to be taken up across the landscape. These
would be for capacity building of the local level institutions, developing a local
resource pool of service providers with managerial capacities to support these
institutions and competency enhancement of the forest and other line
departments. Along with these awareness generation/education would be an
activity that has to be taken-up across the landscape targeting different
stakeholders.

6.2.5 Internalizing capacity building

Capacity building again has to be looked at as a process rather than an activity

and the focus has to be on development of institutional capacities. Thus,
capacity building would be an integral part of all the project interventions and
the definition of capacity building would go beyond training contrary to the usual
practice. Also, these would target at instruments, technology and the human
resources. Development of learning resources and mechanisms for knowledge
sharing and exchange would also be part of the interventions.

6.2.6 Bridging 'either-or' divide for sustainable livelihoods

The biodiversity and livelihood concerns in the landscape reflect the inter
relationships that exists between the two and their intricacy. This would
therefore require innovations rather than the conventional approaches. Also,
livelihood augmentation imperatives have to target productivity enhancement in
agriculture, livestock and bio-resource domains, enhancement in value of output
as well as reduction in costs. While biodiversity concerns have to be
accommodated in livelihood issues, livelihood interventions also have to be
internalized in conservation. Thus, the project interventions for livelihood
promotion in the landscape would focus on livelihood enhancement following the
biodiversity route. The specific strategies building on such innovative and
diverse strengths would be:

A. Agriculture productivity enhancement

In situ soil & moisture conservation and harvesting of water

A large part of the landscape practices rain fed agriculture with productivity
levels ranging as low as from 0.3 to 0.9 tons per hectare. The major factor
contributing to this is the poor attention to upland rain fed agriculture that fails
to account for nature of the terrain and propensity to soil erosion, which
together with little help in crop selection lead to low productivity. Investment
has to be made in land development works as well as soil and water
conservation measures as the first step toward livelihood augmentation
targeting increased primary level productivity. Water harvesting has to be the
key plank of the strategy. Use of micro watersheds as units for soil and moisture
conservation (SMC) work could go a long way. Tapping of surface water though
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a network of tanks and tapping of ground water through wells is a time tested
method in the landscape.

Towards organic farming

Further, soil improvement works have to supplement these activities and

promotion of organic agriculture can thus be the mainstay of the programme.
Promotion of improved agricultural practices can supplement the interventions.
The large cattle population resident to the landscape is indicative of the
potential of organic farming. In the present day agricultural context, community
certification would be a critical issue that need be addressed with a view to
enhancing the potential marketability and better economic returns from certified
organic agricultural products.

Enhancement of agricultural productivity contributes to the cascading effect

even for marginal farmers and landless households, as more employment
opportunity becomes available from farmlands.

B. Protection from crop raiding

Crop raiding is another critical issue that needs to be taken care of, along with
productivity enhancement initiatives. Although the crop raiding losses range
between 10-25% in different clusters, this is after intensive crop protection by
the farmers. During the entire agricultural season, almost all the farmers stay in
fields during the nights in their makeshift machans. Reverberation of beating of
drums and human shouts can be heard all the nights as a means of scaring
away the crop raiding wild animals. Also, the fuel wood consumption in open
hearths in the fields, all across the season has significant impact on the forests.
With these considerations, investment and interventions in protection from crop
raiding is very much necessary. As fencing is a high investment option, cattle
proof wall and solar fencing can prove to be appropriate interventions. When
required on larger scale it is solar powered barriers may prove more cost
effective.

C. Forest based livelihoods

C1: NWFP and medicinal plant based enterprises

The richness of the biological resources of the landscape provides tremendous

opportunities for livelihood enhancement. As discussed earlier, already the share
of forest-based activity is quite substantial in the net household cash flows and
there is a diverse product mix with distinct seasonal variations. A two pronged
strategy is required. Firstly there is need to revamp peoples institutions to build
agreements over regulated harvesting (incorporating both the time and method
of harvesting) of major NWFP species. Such regulations developed by people will
need to be supplemented with some progressive regulatory instruments to be
developed and promulgated. Implementation of recently enacted Rules under
Indian Forest Act, "Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Harvesting Rules
2005, could go a long way in supporting community efforts to bring in element
of sustainable resource use practices. Some encouraging results are already
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available from district Seoni (adjoining district) where actions on similar lines
were initiated by a cluster of villages in Chhapara Range to good effect. (MP
Biodiversity Board, 2005 in Jaiv Vividhata ki Pustika). Secondly, development of
enterprises tied around these diverse NWFPs focusing on processing and value-
addition would be a key activity for livelihood augmentation in the landscape. A
large number of SHGs are already there in the villages and these SHGs can be
the entry point for the enterprise development activity. Business development
centres for supporting these enterprises can be the next step. Further, there
have been initiatives in the region for developing appropriate technologies and
technology transfer for processing and value addition. The enterprise
development imperatives have to draw upon and build-upon these initiatives.

C2 Management of Degraded Forests

Village Forest Committees falling in the landscape under Chhindwara west and
Hoshangabad division have large chunks as degraded forest area (Forest area
allocated under Rehabilitation Working Circle). Such areas present immense
opportunity for forest regeneration leading to livelihood enhancement.
Development and management of such area using participatory silviculture
(Rathore & Campbell, 1995) methods will need to be accorded high priority.

C3 Ecotourism:

The landscape has huge potential for making best practice case in ecotourism. A
comprehensive ecotourism plan should make an integral part of the PA and non-
PA forest management plans. Ecotourism Board at the State level has been
mandated to facilitate development of such potential areas into popular
destinations. In addition to the village youths from the PA, Pardhi community
youths (village Tura Khapa and Barua Dhana) with tremendous skills in jungle
craft can be taken into confidence and be developed as eco-tourist guides and
trekkers as has happened in case of Vaniya Bark Collectors in Periyar.

D. Livestock productivity enhancement

There a huge population on unproductive cattle in the landscape, and to a large
extent all of this is dependent on the forest resources for grazing. Enhanced
productivity of livestock would lead to additional cash inflows for the households
thereby enhancing livelihoods. Cattle breed improvement programme in the
upland area of the landscape will be based on using gene pool from the local
Breeds viz “Gaoli” and Nimari breed from Vidarbha and Nimar respectively
(primarily for the draught purpose) Malwi (for both draught and milk); rather
than exotic gene pool as has been the case so far. Breed improvement, animal
husbandry directed at smaller numbers of more productive livestock
accompanied by regulation of open grazing and opportunity to raise grass and
fodder would gradually help the farmers to progressively move towards stall
feeding. These efforts will need to be matched with improved marketing of
surplus milk.

E. Allied activities for livelihood incomes

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Along with on-farm activities, there is a huge potential for allied activities to
support agriculture and forest produce based incomes. Poultry farming in this
regard can be an option as a large proportion of households in the landscape are
already involved in the activity. The existing skill set for the activity can be
augmented both for backyard poultry with indigenous breeds as well as poultry
farming. Activities of similar nature can be explored and feasibilities carried out
for initiating various enterprises. There also exists potential for undertaking
sericulture and eri-culture; and there have been pilot interventions in the
landscape. Similarly, apiculture has immense potential for the villages in the
core area. Organisations like MP Vigyan Sabha have been building community
skills in apiculture activity. Non consumptive nature of livelihood activities has to
be kept in mind in consonance with the PA legislation while dealing with villages
with in PA.

Building on these interventions, up-scaling would facilitate diversification of

livelihood portfolio. Fishery development also has tremendous potential in the
landscape. The activity is already a major livelihood option of a substantial
section of populace in the vicinity of the Tawa reservoir. Many a water streams
and water harvesting structures provide scope for enhancing fisheries as
livelihood support activities for up land farmers.

F. Development of alternate energy sources

For the villages in the landscape, forests are the primary source for meeting the
household energy requirement contributing for as much as 80% of the total
consumption. Investment has to be made in development of alternate energy
sources so as to reduce the pressure on forests on one hand while the drudgery
and time spent on long distance collection of fuel wood in peripheral villages of
the landscape. In fact a two pronged strategy will be used by the project; one it
will support dissemination of renewable alternative energy sources like biogas
(with its commensurate benefits) in villages that have to cover significant
distance and invest time to procure fuel wood. Secondly, it will support energy
conservation devices for the villages in the interior forests so as to overcome
profligate use of wood.

G. Promotion of indigenous system of medicine

Tribal and rural households of the landscape are required to dish off about 15-
20 % of the livelihood incomes on health care notwithstanding the fact that the
people of the landscape are a rich repository of traditional knowledge associated
with biological resources related to health care. However, there is a progressive
decline of this knowledge on account of lack of recognition, and undermining by
the mainstream system of health care. As a consequence, there is a gradual
shift of people to mainstream allopathic system, even for common aliments,
with corresponding drain on livelihood incomes. The project will support
revitalization of traditional system and seek its integration with allopathic
system for referral cases. It will also support documentation of the knowledge
and promotion of the same in the prioritized villages of the landscape.

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H. Micro-planning for Sustainable livelihoods

A whole range of sustainable livelihoods support strategies outlined above give a

pivotal role to micro-planning. The micro-planning process should ensure
functional participation of the key players. It has to be a process of facilitation to
help the communities develop their own micro-plans. Here, development of a
local pool of managerial service providers would be required. Potential leaders
among local youth can be trained as Animators for facilitating these processes
which will also contribute towards institutionalizing capacities. These animators
at a later date can become self-employed change agents that would ensure
sustainability of the intervention with continuous support. In order to develop
such a cadre of potential leaders as change agents, services of committed local
NGO/CBO will need to be hired by the project.

Process of micro-planning should as well solicit engagement of line agencies,

built around specific livelihood support activities. It would be necessary to
ensure that the micro-plan brings in ownership of other line departments
brought about through informed demand from the villagers. In fact, the
concerned line agency personnel at appropriate level will need to okay the plan
activities for technical correctness. Further, all the micro-plans can be collated
with respect to activity heads incident to various line departments.

6.2.7 Communicating biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods across key players

in their own language)

An effective communication strategy would greatly contribute in seeking

participation of the actors as well as building partnerships. Thus,
communicating conservation and livelihood concerns to the target audience in
an appropriate manner would be the project strategy. This would also be a
consideration in development of learning resources for capacity building
initiatives. Along with mainstreaming biodiversity and convergence concerns,
communication has to be a key strategy. Details of communication strategy
have been furnished in the section on capacity building. Of special interest
would be targeting of about 65 schools and 2 colleges in the landscape for
inculcating conservation values in the younger minds. This will go a long way in
building future leaders with conservation ethics. The project will support
teachers training including development of interactive learning resources and
development of School Biodiversity Registers (SBRs). The SBRs will help the
children to actively engage with the nature and biodiversity related activities.

6.2.8 Enabling technology solutions

State-of-art technology enabled solutions would have to be integrated in the

project interventions so as to facilitate the project objectives. These would be
adopted for strengthening communication and information management with
geographical interface. Especially for information systems, integration would be
from local to state level and the project activities would support development of
necessary infrastructure both the hardware and the software. Lessons from the
experiments like Gyandoot and e-choupal can be looked and built upon for
providing state-of-art information and communication technology based
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solutions. Also, experiments viz. Bio-villages by M.S. Swaminathan trust also

show the light towards conservation of biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods.
The same can be adapted to the landscape situation and implemented on pilot
basis before replicating and up-scaling.

6.2.9 Improving governance for livelihood enhancement through conservation

route

As is evident from the situation analysis, biodiversity conservation and livelihood

augmentation seeks participation of a range of actors from various sectors.
Functional participation of an array of actors starting from communities, line
departments, civil society organizations, scientific institutions etc would be
required for achieving livelihood enhancement though biodiversity conservation
route. Therefore, the project has to proactively solicit participation of these
actors cutting across sectors. Also, as discussed in the preceding sub-section,
the paucity of the resource also mandates the strategy. At the same time,
landscape as a planning unit is a new vocabulary and perspective as well. It is
therefore, rather than PAs, non PA areas or districts, the whole landscape is
looked at as an integrated unit for development with shared vision and goals for
conservation and development in the landscape.

All inclusive institution for project implementation in the form of Satpura

Landscape Society, utilizing existing cross sectoral institutions with similar
mandate at district level for coordination, and promotion of informal knowledge
forums bring in institutional space for inclusive governance. The project would
also provide support to setting-up advisory boards for 2 PAs (sanctuaries) as per
the provision of amended WPA.

6.2.10 Research and analysis of policy and legal frameworks

There are limited spaces as of now that provide for mainstreaming of

biodiversity and livelihood concerns in sectoral programmes and policies. The
same holds true for biodiversity and forest related policy framework. These need
to be analyzed and action research initiated for advocacy.

As regards, sectoral programmes and policies, some of the prescriptions may be

in conflict with biodiversity conservation concerns. An attempt has been made
by MP State Biodiversity Board in collaboration with State Planning Board for
sectoral analysis of District Plans of six select districts. The sectoral analysis is
to assess various plan prescriptions for favorable and negative implications for
biodiversity concerns. Following the analysis, attempts were made to enhance
the positive aspects and mitigate the negative implications. The same can serve
as starting point for more detailed approach in the landscape districts.

Similarly with respect to other legislations related with wildlife and forests, the
limited spaces provided for mainstreaming livelihood concerns is sometimes in
conflict as exemplified by the case of fishing in Tawa reservoir. There thus is an
urgent need to analyze the policy and regulatory framework for these conflicts
as well as avenues for mainstreaming.

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6.3 PROJECT RESULTS, ACTIVITIES AND TASKS

In the aforesaid context, the overarching consideration for the project would be
“improved quality of life for people, achieved through biodiversity conservation
route in Satpura landscapes”. It goes without saying that this shall have to be
backstopped by maximizing compatibly improved farm and livestock incomes as
well as innovative non-bio-resource dependent livelihoods inter alia
strengthened by meaningful convergence of different line agency activities. In
this respect, the purpose of the project would be "Improved management of
bio-resources of the Satpura landscape for sustainable livelihoods of the
resident communities"

The following results would be required for achievement of the purpose:

1. Participatory management of the PA and surrounding areas in the LS

addresses biodiversity and livelihood concerns and is effectively
implemented
2. Sustainable economic returns to people from agriculture, associated
activities, non-land-based activities increased.
3. Institutional mechanisms and governance for improved natural resources
management and livelihoods promotion at community and landscape
level are effectively strengthened
4. The policy and regulatory framework is analysed and realistic proposals
for improvement are documented and put up to government

Result 1: Participatory management of the PA and surrounding areas in

the landscape addresses biodiversity and livelihood concerns
and is effectively implemented

Activity 1.1: Upgradation of the 3 PA management plan for

strengthening BDC and mainstreaming livelihood concern
Tasks:
o Development/Review of existing guidelines for strengthening
biodiversity conservation and mainstreaming livelihood concerns
in PA management plans
o Review of Boundaries of the PAs
o Identification of BSAs and their mapping, development of
biological baselines
o Assessment of PA management plans with respect to guidelines
and revision of PA management plans as per the guidelines

Activity 1.2: Strengthening of protection measures against key threats

to the PAs

Tasks:
o Technology upgradation of the existing communication
equipments
o Improvement in physical communication infrastructure

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o Development of comprehensive participatory PA protection plan

(as an integral part of revised management plan)

Activity 1.3: Capacity development of PA staff for effective

implementation of the upgraded mgmt plans

Tasks
o Conduct a thorough Training Need Assessment for PA/FD
personnel at different levels and develop/revise on the job
Competence Based Training/ orientation module in field craft and
other identified areas.
o Review training curricula at Biodiversity Conservation Training
Center (BCTC), Tala and develop learning resources including field
manuals, data formats
o For front line staff, use BCTC, Tala (including review and revision
of space provided at biodiversity courses at Tala center)
o Conduct largely field based orientation of PA personnel at the
landscape
o For specialized skill not available in the country and to broaden
managerial horizon, undertake selective study tours overseas
preferably in the neighbouring countries
o For middle level field managers, use customized training program
of WII
o For sharing managerial experiences and best practices in PA
management and participatory NRM, plan and provide in country
field visits, participation in workshops/seminars etc

Activity 1.4: Development of comprehensive MIS including GIS module

for efficient PA mgmt

Tasks
o Training of personnel in operationalizing the MI system
o Analysis of information gaps and initiating research in
collaboration with academic and research institutions
o Design and integration of GIS module
o Training of personnel in operationalizing system

Activity 1.5: Implementation support to upgraded management plan for

the three PAs

Task
o Secure budgetary support for the implementation of the PA
management plans
o Implement protection in participation with key stakeholders and
motivated Pardhi youth based on strategically located patrol
camps
o Involve key stakeholders in well conceived and innovative
ecotourism activities with elements of adventure (rock climbing),
culture (rock paintings) and wildlife viewing from vehicles and
boats in Tawa reservoir.
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Activity 1.6: Upgrading forest Working Plans for mainstreaming

biodiversity and livelihood concerns in the three Working
Plans in the dispersal areas

Tasks
o Organise participatory general protection and fire protection
o Organise and implement SHG based NWFP collection in allocated
area with reciprocal commitment for protection and disciplined
collection
o Implement main and subsidiary forestry operations with due
concern for biodiversity habitats and movement corridors
o Budgetary support for implementation of upgraded WPs
o Training of territorial FD staff at BCTC, Tala

Activity 1.7: Mainstreaming biodiversity concerns in district plans of the

3 districts

Tasks
o Develop guidelines for sectoral analysis in order to scope and find
space for mainstreaming biodiversity and livelihoods in villages
close to or within forested areas
o Sectoral analysis of three district plans for

Result 2: Sustainable economic returns to people from agriculture,

associated activities and non-land based activities are
increased

Activity 2.1: Sustainable Returns are increased from

a. Agriculture

o Promote agriculture through soil/moisture conservation measures,

water harvesting, improved seeds and post harvesting value addition
measures
o Reinforce and develop organic and bio-diverse agro production system
in upland agriculture
o Put up effective measures against crop raiding in place e.g Rubble Wall,
solar fencing etc.

b. Animal Husbandry

o Promote livestock improvement/ animal husbandry based on

indigenous descript breeds
o Lay emphasis on steady reduction in numbers of scrub livestock and
promote smaller numbers of healthy and productive animals of local
descript breeds
o Undertake pasture development in village commons and nearby forests
made available for grazing

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o Explore scope of and establish fodder supplementing from agricultural

residues
o Provide for at least partial but steady shift to stall feeding
o Secure marketing linkages for livestock products

c. Horticulture

o Promote Badi system for horticulture crops including nutrition garden,

vegetables and fruits

d. Sericulture
o Promote further extension of Sericulture both Tassar & Mulberry
o Seek conservation of eco-races of tassar silk worm
o Promote castor plant based Eri-culture

e. Pisciculture/Fisheries
o Develop/strengthen fisheries in existing village ponds and newly
created water harvesting structures
o Facilitate fishing in rationally zoned Tawa reservoir by disciplined and
prioritized selected SHGs favouring economically weaker sections
among villagers whose enhanced incomes can reduce other pressures
on Satpura National Park (SNP).
o Tawa reservoir zoning should be such that at least 33% retains core
status marked on water by anchored floating buoys extending as much
as possible along Tawa and Denwa courses downstream side so as to
retain at least a third of the ‘dead water storage’. These core status
river recesses upstream should also go back well into forested valleys
of the two rivers. It is this way that the long standing contentious
dispute with the fishermen and their ‘champions’ can be resolved. All
should be clearly informed that as per terms of the grant of permission
to construct Tawa dam, whole of the reservoir at FRL was to be a part
of the SNP and this management adjustment is to be permitted to
facilitate local livelihoods in the true BCRLIP spirit. This concession will
bind all selected SHGs (who alone will have exclusive permission to fish
and their assigned sections) by reciprocal commitment to abide by law
and regulations and participate in other park protection measures.

f. Forest based
o Involve key stakeholder groups in SHG based remunerated
participation in anti-poaching and fire protection.
o Support village institutions (VFCs) to develop and manage degraded
forests for a range of livelihoods products including small timber, fuel
wood, fodder.
o Enable VFCs or SHGs under them to develop pastures and observe
disciplined grazing (rotational) in allocated segments.
o Enable such SHGs to keep from their farms or buy from other
farmers, crop residues to supplement forage in the lean season.
o Involve Animal Husbandry Department with these SHGs to support
gradual but steady shift to smaller number of healthy and more

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productive livestock heads of local descript breeds as a reciprocal

commitment to above livelihood enhancement help.
o Develop SHG based NWFP enterprises based on duly regulated
harvesting, value addition and improved marketing.

Activities 2.2: Non-land-based income generating activities

o Similarly involve key stakeholder SHGs (including from Pardhi
community) in capacity enhancement followed by their participation in
innovatively devised ecotourism products.
o Develop NWFP & Agro-processing and value addition enterprises
o Expand Poultry farming program in villages on south/western side
of landscape.
o Develop apiculture (both though apiary and collection from wild) on
scientific and sustainable basis
o Develop traditional skill/new skill based off farm enterprises for
livelihoods and income enhancement and for time saving

Activity 2.3: Promote renewable energy sources (biogas in

peripheral and other energy saving devices in interior villages)

o Carry out survey domestic and farm energy needs in the project
villages
o Develop a participatory portfolio of options (including biogas, solar
power, wind energy, bio-fuel, gassifiers, improved stoves etc) to meet
the energy requirements, governed by the environmental and
biodiversity conservation concerns

Activity 2.4: Promote integrated health system based on

indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK), while using allopathic
system as referral

o Support development of home herbal gardens

o Support documentation dissemination and recognition to traditional
health system and knowledge holders
o Seek convergence of ITK and allopathic (as referral system)

Activity 2.5: Develop baselines of landscape villages and selection

of 100 intervention villages outside PA along with 43 PA
villages

o Review indicative list of prioritised villages to finalise the list of

project villages
o Develop baselines as a first step towards micro-planning

Activity 2.6: Participatory micro-planning in the project villages

o Identify partners from NGOs/CBOs to facilitate participatory

micro-planning by the community in the project village

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o Review and revise guidelines as specific to Satpura villages

keeping in mind the Guidelines for micro-planning furnished
in the Operations Manual of BCRLIP
o Use these new Guidelines to take up participatory micro-

planning in the target villages

o Organise training of the identified partners to facilitate
micro-planning by the community

Result 3: Institutional mechanisms and governance for improved

natural resources management and livelihoods promotion at
community and landscape level are effectively strengthened.

Activity 3.1: All inclusive project management implementation

mechanism is made functional

o Constitute state level committee and carry out registration of

the landscape level society
o Recruit PMU personnel: Project Director (PD), 1 System
Manager, 1 Administration and finance 1 Capacity Building 1,
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) and 2 support staff
o Equip PMU with needed office and mobility equipment
o Set-up of Monitoring cell at the PMU and project monitoring
o Initiating the Small Grant program

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Activity 3.2: Structures for democratic governance and management of

NR are strengthened through capacity building programmes
(PRI/CBO/JFMC etc).

o Assess training needs and develop curricula and learning resources

o Training of Trainers (ToT) for developing resource pool of
prospective trainers
o Facilitate exchange visits/ exposure visits of community leaders to
other project sites for cross learning Study tours of community
leaders to learning centres across the country

Activity 3.3: Effective multi-stakeholder forums are put in place for

seeking convergence

o Support District Biodiversity Support Group (DBSG)

o Constitute Advisory Board in the two Sanctuaries and make it
functional
o Conduct workshop/ seminars for inter-agency sharing and learning

Activity 3.4: Key actors in the Landscape are made aware/ educated on
biodiversity and livelihoods issues and values.

o Design and carry out a mass awareness campaigns across the

landscape
o Develop and disseminate communication material among
community institutions for their awareness of the critical need of
biodiversity conservation
o Develop and disseminate communication material among target
institutional actors
o Take measures to strengthen biodiversity curricula in school and
college education (SBRs in 65 schools and PBR in 2 college)

RESULT 4: The policy and regulatory framework is studied and analysed

and realistic proposals for improvement are devised and proposed to
government

Activity 4.1: Take up research and analysis on policy and legal aspects
for mainstreaming biodiversity and livelihood concerns and initiate
advocacy for changes

o Take up research and analysis on sectoral policy and legal aspects

for mainstreaming biodiversity and livelihood concerns
o Identify policy and regulatory constraints to effective biodiversity
conservation and livelihoods promotion are identified.
o Carry out case studies of the effects of conflicts and constraints and
develop analytical reports
o Undertake action research into potential impacts of changes
o Document findings and recommendations and present at state and
national forums.
o Prepare proposals for change and discuss with government
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Activity 4.2: Account for and communicate PA values so as to be made a

part of the State Gross Domestic Product (SGDP)/ District GDP

o Assess PA values in collaboration with research institutions as

contribution to GDP
o Communicate at state and national forums
o Undertake advocacy with government for desired changes

6.3 Suggested Measures for Capacity Enhancement

In the multi-actor project implementation scenario, capacities have to be

developed of the key stakeholders so as to facilitate achievement of the project
results. This chapter deals with specific capacity building needs of the key actors
in the landscape and strategies to be adopted for capacity enhancement.

6.3.1 Capacity building Needs of key stakeholders

A. Line agencies (other then Forest Department & Park Management)
S. Name of Key strength for BCRLI Identified area for
No. the Agency project awareness & capacity
building
1 Agriculture Technical Know how for Bio-diverse cropping
Dept mainstream production systems on organic regime
systems; organic farming; in uplands for higher
IPM; soil testing program; productivity, organic
percolation tank and produce certification and
watershed development marketing, farmers field
scheme; national biogas school
program
2 Veterinary Dairy development Livestock improvement
Deptt program incl livestock using indigenous local breed
improvement primarily for upland farmers in the
through exotic semen, landscape; Further
fodder development; augmentation of skills to
Vaccination of livestock deal with wildlife health
against contagious issues
diseases
3 Fisheries Fresh water fish production Cultivation of diversity of
corporation system based on major fishes
carps including minor carps for
upland farmers; legal
provisions under Wild life
Protection Act
4 Sericulture Cocoon production and silk Conservation of eco races of
Dept. rearing; mulberry, and Tassar silk worm in wild;
tassar based production diversification of production
system. system and inclusion of Eri
silk
5 Horticulture Augmentation of livelihood Conservation of landraces of
Deptt income by combing cultivated horticultural crops
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horticulture crops in home including mango.

stead

6 Revenue Maintenance of Land Management of revenue

Dept. records and appropriation forests falling with in the
of ceiling lands in favor of landscape; EIA for projects
landless seeking change of land use
in the landscape
7 PHED Provision of safe drinking Maintenance services of
water to the landscape infrastructure through
villages development of cadre of
unemployed youth
8 Tribal Education of tribal children Development of context
Welfare Dept including tribal hostels and specific innovative training
scholarships material for teachers
thereby inculcating sense of
pride and conservation
values
9 Women and Health, education and Minor millet and wild food
Child limited employment based nutritional meals for
Development opportunities for the target the target group
group (pregnant women,
lactating mothers and
children up to 5 years age)
10 Gramodyog Support to organic and bio- Market support to select
Dept diverse production in production items from range
marketing; product of bio-diverse and organic
development and market food.
support to bio-resource
based handicraft
11 Army and Owns about 1000 ha of Awareness about
Cantonment land on the Pachmari environmentally sound
Board Plateau and has important conservation oriented
role in the affairs of practices in cantonment
Pachmari town area

B. NGOs
S. No. Name of the Key strengths for Identified area for
organisation BCRLI project Awareness & Capacity
building
1 PRADAN Self help groups driven Biodiversity conservation
Sukhtawa Bio-resource based and livelihood linkages
livelihood enterprises
incl. poultry, sericulture
and mushroom
cultivation
2 Jatan Demonstration center on In-situ conservation of
cultivation of medicinal medicinal plants and
plants peoples biodiversity

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registers
3 Disha Communication for Agro biodiversity
Sambad sustainable agriculture documentation ; production
and marketing of agro-
diverse produce

4 MPVS NTFP based enterprises, Marketing of sustainably

biodiversity harvested and processed
documentation NTFPs
5 BAIF Livestock improvement Livestock improvement
using exotic semen, using indigenous local
veterinary services and breed for upland farmers in
food processing by SHGs the landscape
6 Dalit Sangh Socio economic Alternative livelihoods for
upliftment of pardhi Pardhi community
communities; schooling
of Pardhi community
children.
7 Tawa Matsya Fisheries production and Biodiversity conservation
Sangh community mobilisation and livelihood linkages
8 Life Force Environmental awareness Biodiversity conservation
and livelihood linkages
9 SHRUB NRM and Awareness over --do-
environmental issues

C. Community Institutions including PRI and Non formal institutions

S. No. Name of the Key strengths for Id area for awareness &
organisaion BCRLI project Capacity building
1 Zila & Janpad Rural Livelihood activities; Mainstreaming of
Panchyats institutional framework for biodiversity conservation
decentralised governance concerns in rural
development planning ;
leadership development for
effective democratic
decentralised governance,
2 Special Area Water & Sanitation, Pilgrimage management,
Development pilgrimage management; environmental awareness;
Agency development planning for conservation oriented
(SADA) Pachmari town and 22 development planning
Pachmari villages; governance
3 Gram Rural livelihood activities, Bioresource and Indigenous
Panchyats & governance Technical Knowledge (ITK)
Gram Sabha based micro-planning
(Biodiversity Registers);
leadership development,
conflict management
4 JFMCs, Bio resource protection Sustainable harvesting and
VFCs,EDC, and management value addition to NWFP and

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BMC medicinal plants; Bio-

resource based Sustainable
Livelihood programs;
Biodiversity Registers
based microplanning,
leadership development,
conflict management,
Financial Management

5 Watershed Soil and moisture Integration of bio-diverse

Committees conservation, water production system.
harvesting
6 SHGs/CIGs key instrument for RLI Planning for Bio-resource
through micro-financing and land based micro
and enterprise Enterprises.
development
7 Ramayan, Awareness building on Awareness on the BD
Bhajan mandali biodiversity and conservation and
sustainable livelihood sustainable livelihood
issues issues on the landscape
8 Jat Panchayat Conflict Resolution Democratic processes

D. Academic and training institution

S. No. Name of the Key strengths Id area for awareness &
institutions Capacity building
1 Middle and Higher Environmental Learning for life; nature
Secondary Schools content of the based fun way of learning;
and Colleges in formal School biodiversity registers
landscape curriculum,
spaces for non
formal education
2 Sanjay Gandhi training of PRI education and awareness on
Institute of Panchayat functionaries of biodiversity and livelihood
Raja Training the landscape linkages; mainstreaming BD
Pachmari in decentralised planning by
Pries

E. Forest Department including Park Management, territorial divisions Forest

Corporation

S. No. Name of the Key strengths Id area for awareness &

institutions Capacity building
1 Field staff of the Monitoring wildlife 1.Identifying, recording,
tiger reserve evidences on daily measuring and monitoring
basis, protection, wildlife evidences in the
village eco- field
development 2. Communication, laws

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and legal provisions,

intelligence gathering,
detection and investigation
of wildlife crimes,
processing cases and law
enforcement.
3. Eco-development of
villages in and around PAs.
2 Managerial Management 1. Participatory Protection
personnel of Tiger planning , and Management Planning
Reserve implementation and PA in the landscape
monitoring context, using state of art
technology
2. Management
Information System
including GIS and RS
application to monitor
populations and habitats
3. Eco-development
Planning for villages with
in PAs.
4. Governance for PAs in
overall landscape context
landscape
3. Field staff of Participatory NTFP based sustainable
territorial divisions Protection, and harvesting and value
management of addition for BD
forests, provisions conservation and livelihood
of nistar supplies to support
villagers of the
landscape, NTFP Communication,
management, Coordination, and
forest village collaboration across
development and sectors for BD
village resource conservation and
development under sustainable livelihoods
JFM
Facilitate planning and
implementation of
microplans of JFMCs
including participatory
silviculture of rehabilitated
forests ; facilitate planning
and implementation of
Livelihood activities
4..Identifying, recording,
measuring and monitoring
wildlife evidences in the
field
5. Laws and legal
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provisions, intelligence
gathering, detection and
investigation of wildlife
crimes, processing cases
and law enforcement.
4 Managerial staff of Management 1. Participatory Protection
territorial divisions planning , and Management Planning
implementation and for forest areas in the
monitoring of forest landscape, using state of
conservation and art technology as well as
development of ITK
villages in and 2. Management
around forests Information System
(including GIS and RS
application) to monitor
populations and forest
cover/ regeneration
3.Communication,
Coordination, and
collaboration across
sectors for BD
conservation and
sustainable livelihoods
4.. Facilitate micro-
planning for villages with
in the landscape (outside
PAs)
5. Governance for forest
conservation and
sustainable livelihoods in
overall landscape context.
5 FDC unit Rampur Raising of Forest Mainstreaming of BD
Bhatodi Plantations and its conservation concerns in
management planning and management
of FDC areas

6.3.2 Key elements of the strategy for capacity building

The following would be the key elements of project strategy for capacity
development:

1. Revisit the needs assessed during stakeholders consultations of the project

formulation stage, this can at best done through inter stakeholders
workshops. This will help in plugging the gaps and in preparing a realistic
training plan.

2. Service delivery agencies/ organization including Govt line agencies, the

NGOs, PRIs, Training and Academic institutions at different levels be
targeted for developing shared vision and understanding on biodiversity
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and livelihood values of landscape. And agreement is built over biodiversity

conservation route to development across sectors having presence in the
landscape. This can be best achieved though series of workshops and
follow up support.

3. Sectoral requirement of capacity building and information needs be then

targeted as per specific training plan developed in consultation with such
sectors by using a range of training methods including training workshops,
case studies, leading discussions, and exchange visits to field based
learning centers viz farmers field schools , staff field schools and successful
field models.

4. The communities in the landscape are targeted separately for such a

shared visioning and understanding by taking community leadership (the
potential change agents) in the confidence.

5. The capacity building at the community level in identified competencies can

be best addressed by engaging NGOs/CBOS preferably from the landscape
districts having experience and capability to address the required
competencies. Selection of NGOs for capacity building needs to be done in
a manner that allows the NGOs with proven track record and having
experience of similar work to come on board. However it is now well
understood that building capacities is not a one shot affair. It requires a
long term commitment and handholding support. It also requires that
potential community leaders (including youths) be identified and targeted
for knowledge and skill upgradation and be allowed to lead the charge
under guidance and supervision from the facilitating NGO/CBO. In addition
to discussions and cases, exchange visits would be an important plank of
capacity building endeavor.

6. The capacity of such identified NGO/CBOs in turn needs to be built on BD

conservation and livelihood linkages and the BD conservation route to
development. Such capacity enhancement can be handled by the
landscape FMU in collaboration with state /national level resource
organizations.

6.3.3 Strategies for capacity building

In consonance with the project purpose and results, and in context of the
training need assessment, specific strategies have to be adopted for different
stakeholder groups. It must be borne in mind that as a part of this project
preparation assignment very comprehensive and result oriented Guidelines have
been developed and made a part of the Operations Manual forming part of the
Final Report. These must be referred to in carrying out Satpura landscape
specific training needs assessment and in the development of the package of
training and capacity enhancement measures including the places where these
can be availed or the manner in which these can be organized in situ. The
following sub-sections deal with the specific strategies with respect to the
diverse target audience.

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a) For Forest Department

Capacity building here would not restrict itself to trainings alone and would
encompass creation of conditions for optimal management efficiency. Therefore,
here it would mean development of instruments for facilitating conservation and
development, and upgrading technology along with training and exposure. First
and foremost, the capacity among managers needs to be enhanced by availing
regular and special course modules offered by the WII for upgrading PA
management plans and orienting forestry operations in the managed forests.
This is essential for strengthening biodiversity component with compatible
livelihood enhancement. These plans being the primary instrument for
management action, up-gradation would seek congruence with the envisioned
objectives. Further, upgrading skills for effective protection using modern
communication infrastructure along side participatory protection should be
learnt by visits to Field Learning Centres like Kanha and Periyar. Here it would
mean employing state-of-art technological options for communication.

As targeted interventions different approaches and tools would be required for

different levels. For augmenting basic skills of the field functionaries of both PA
and non-PA department personnel, existing facilities at Biodiversity
Conservation & Training Center, Tala can be employed. The ongoing
competency-based training programme for the front line staff may be reviewed
and the learning resources upgraded first before imparting trainings. Further,
these trainings have to be augmented by local level field orientation
programmes of one to two days for on-site and on-job learning. These along
with the cross-learning platforms developed as part of the project activity would
augment the learnings. Similarly for the supervisory and middle-level managers,
existing learning resources at the Wildlife Institute of India can be utilized. And
also, for specialized skills learning centres outside the country preferably in the
neighboring countries may be explored.

b) For Line Departments

As is the consideration with the capacity development of Forest department, the

first intervention has to be for development of instruments that facilitate
conservation and development action. Here, the micro-plans at local level and
the District plans are the instruments. Therefore along with development of
microplans, district planning will need to incorporate biodiversity conservation
concerns along with livelihood concerns.

Focused workshops with district line agencies and NGOs to develop shared
vision and understanding on the landscape approach will be crucial. Similarly,
workshops to assist mainstreaming biodiversity conservation and livelihood
concerns in sectoral planning could go a long way in assisting the line agencies
to move towards shared goals and action plan.

Exposure visits to learning centres across the country that is models or

examples of best practices for conservation and development planning can
greatly augment the learnings. For example for agro biodiversity conservation,
initiatives of Deccan Development Society, Medak district (Andhra Pradesh) or
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Beej Bachao Andolan in Uttaranchal can be the centre. Similarly, water

harvesting and conservation work by Tarun Bharat Sangh at Alwar Sariska,
Watershed and integrated conservation and development at Ralegaon Shiddi
could be useful learning centers. Rather than structured trainings, exposure
visits are the key tools here, because here opportunities are more for
interactions between the participants and thus for relationship building and peer
learning, both necessary to seek convergence and development of collaborative
work culture. Here also, the cross-learning mechanisms of the project would
augment the learnings.

c) Communities

At the community-level, the initiatives have to be for institutional capability

development. Thus, along with strengthening of these institutions it would also
be required to develop a local resource pool for continuous management
support. Local youth, trained as managerial service providers would be the
resource pool that the community level institutions can draw upon. Along with
this, as has been the case for line departments, exposure visits to established
centres for excellence for governance (Mendha Lekha village in Gadchiroli
District, Maharashtra) would be the key strategy.

As regards, technical skills related with specific livelihood interventions, the

existing resources at the landscape and the intervention agency for the activity
can impart training. For example, resources with PRADAN may be utilized for
trainings on poultry and sericulture. However, agriculture being most critical
livelihood activity, these have to be augment by other interventions. With
sustainability and outreach considerations, Farmers-Field Schools are now
established as a most effective strategy for technology transfer related with
land-based activities. Establishment of these schools would also be the project
strategy for developing capabilities.

d) Non-Government Organizations

Along with being partners of the interventions in general, capacities have to be

developed of the NGOs for facilitating local level documentation of biodiversity
through PBRs. Structured modules would initiate the process along with
continuous handholding. Further, the knowledge sharing avenues of the project
would also facilitate the process.

e) Academic and training institutions

Academic institutions in the context of the project are the target schools and
colleges. Here capacity development is for strengthening biodiversity component
in the curricula as well as for inculcating conservation ethics in the young minds.
Documentation of biodiversity in and around the school/college campus is being
envisioned as tools for the specific objectives. For facilitating the process,
structured training programmes designed for documentation along with
handholding support would be the strategy. However, the first and foremost
step in this regard would be of developing interactive learning resources that
would facilitate active engagement with natural environment and biodiversity
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therein for joyful learning and learning by doing. As regards training institutions;
review of the curricula, identification of avenues for incorporating biodiversity
and livelihood concerns, development of customized learning resources and
orientation of the personnel for delivery would be the key strategy.

f) Building Awareness across sectors and key players

While there would be interventions with respect to specific actors, people of the
landscape at large have to be made aware of the conservations concerns. This
would be for inculcating conservation ethics and promotion of conservation
friendly lifestyles. Mass awareness campaigns would be strategy for the same.
However, the media for these campaigns have to be diversified. Along with
conventional Audio-Visual Media, print and tools like rallies; Yatra's across the
landscape, utilization of space provided by traditional fairs would be the tools.
Further, the key communications strategy here would be to blend the message
in local language, media and accepted form (e.f. folklore) so as to have effective
communication.

CHAPTER 7: PROJECT RISKS AND KEY ASSUMPTIONS

7.1 Project Risks

Conflict between legal framework and livelihood interest

The only critical risk to the project is from the conflict between legal provisions
of the Wildlife Conservation Act and the livelihood interests of the section of
population in the landscape.

Tawa Reservoir on Tawa River was constructed during the early 1970s. Of the
total area of the reservoir, almost 70% of the area is in the PA, Bori Sanctuary
and the rest outside the delineated boundary. 44 tribal villages were relocated
for construction of the reservoir and after the relocation the slow process of
rebuilding of livelihoods started. These villages were awarded lease for fishing in
the reservoir by the State Fisheries Department in 1996. And this was after a
massive people’s movement. The villagers organized themselves into 38 fishing
cooperatives and a feredeation of these societies called the Tawa Matsya Sangh.
Since last decade, they have been managing the fish resources in the reservoir.
The activity has provided livelihood to around 4000 families in the area.
Concurrently, the management efficacy adjudges this as a best practice for
common property resource management. However, the lease for the same is
coming to close in December 2006.

With respect to the Supreme Court ruling on activities inside a PA, the legal
provisions are in conflict with the livelihood interests. The legal framework
provides limited space for fishing in PAs. Thus, given the present day state of
affairs, the fishing activities governed by the existing lease may suffer set back
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w.e.f January 2007. The State Fisheries Corporation is planning to take the
issue with the Supreme Court for continuance of the activity and therefore
extending the lease.

This being a critical issue for a substantial section of the populace, an amicable
and acceptable solution is necessary. As has been the case in the past where
this section of population has initiated a peoples' movement, the same may
happen in absence of an agreeable solution. In this context, given the law of the
land as on date, this thus is the key risk that can affect project implementation
and thereby the envisioned results.

7.2 Key Assumptions :

Key assumptions at the level of each of 4 key results are shown below. These
assumptions need to be managed so that the project purpose of improved
management of biodiversity/ bioresources of the Satpura landscape is
achieved.

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Project Results Assumptions

Result.1 Participatory Adequate resources are available to sustain
management of the PA and implementation of the management plan
forests in the LS addresses after the end of the project .
biodiversity and livelihood
concerns and is effectively
implemented
Result.2 Sustainable economic -Increased returns from agriculture and
returns for people living in the LS allied activities do not lead to increased
from agriculture, allied activities pressure on the natural resources
and non-land based activities are -Significant Immigration into the LS does
increased. not increase pressure on the NR base.

Result.3 Institutional - Strengthened PRIs and CBOs are willing

mechanisms and governance for to support sustainable management and
improved natural resources biodiversity conservation objectives.
management and livelihoods - Line agencies are able to support project
promotion at community and objectives through their own schemes and
Landscape level are effectively programmes.
strengthened.

Result 4The policy and regulatory - The policy and regulatory framework
framework is analysed and provides space to incorporate project
realistic proposals for learning.
improvement are documented and
put to government.

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