Definition of Ergonomics

According to the International Ergonomics Association, ergonomics is:

“Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the
profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize
human well-being and overall system performance.”
The word ergonomics comes from the Greek word “ergon” which means work and
“nomos” which means laws. It’s essentially the “laws of work” or “science of work”. Good
ergonomic design removes incompatibilities between the work and the worker and
creates the optimal work environment.
Ergonomics draws on many disciplines to optimize the interaction between the work
environment and the worker:

 Anthropometry
 Biomechanics
 Mechanical engineering
 Industrial engineering
 Industrial design
 Information design
 Kinesiology
 Physiology
 Psychology
The profession is comprised of practicing and academic engineers, safety professionals,
industrial hygienists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, nurse practitioners,
chiropractors, and occupational medicine physicians.

While many individuals have obtained ergonomics training while pursuing a graduate
degree with an ergonomics concentration, colleges and universities around the world are
offering ergonomics or human factors courses and degrees. Some training also is available
through conferences and seminars.

The following points are among the purpose/goals of ergonomics:

 Occupational injury and illness reduction
 Workers' compensation costs containment
 Productivity improvement
 Work quality improvement
 Absenteeism reduction
  Government regulation compliance
The methods by which these goals are obtained involve:
 Evaluation and control of work site risk factors
 dentification and quantification of existing work site risk conditions
 Recommendation of engineering and administrative controls to reduce the
identified risk conditions
 Education of management and workers to risk conditions
Domains of Specialization of Ergonomics
According to the International Ergonomics Association, there are three broad domains of
ergonomics:
Physical Ergonomics:
“Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological
and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. “
(Relevant topics include working postures, materials handling, repetitive movements,
musculoskeletal disorders, workplace layout, safety and health.)
Cognitive Ergonomics:
“Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other
elements of a system.”
(Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-
computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to
human-system design.)
Organizational Ergonomics:
“Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems,
including their organizational structures, policies, and processes.”
(Relevant topics include communication, crew resource management, work design, design
of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative
work, new work paradigms, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.)
Applications of Ergonomics
The applications of ergonomics are everywhere and many books are written on the
subject, so I won’t try to cover them all in specific detail here.
But consider this.
The definition of work is an, “activity involving mental or physical effort done in order to
achieve a purpose or result.”
That sounds like just about everything we do, and when you consider that ergonomics is
about designing the work environment to optimize human well-being and overall system
performance, you begin to realize that ergonomics plays a major factor in our lives – at
work, at home and the places in between.

Ergonomic Considerations From Head to Toe

An ergonomics process systematically identifies and minimizes ergonomic risk factors.
Head / Neck
The nerves of the body enter the head through the neck.  With such sensitive wiring
passing through such a mobile structure, potential for problems is high.
Potential MSDs
thoracic outlet syndrome

 tension neck syndrome

 cervical disc disease
Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Allow for tallest workers
B.  Avoid forced forward head posture
C.  Natural posture is to look down slightly
D.  Avoid narrow viewing angles and visual obstructions
Shoulders
Shoulder MSDs are associated with postures that place heavy loads on its muscles and
tendons.   Since the arm provides a very long lever, holding even small loads in the hand
with the arm held away from the body will quickly result in shoulder fatigue and
discomfort, and place substantial stress on the tendons in the shoulder.
Potential MSDs

 rotator cuff tendonitis

 bicepital tenosynovitis
 frozen shoulder syndrome
 Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Place items and parts between shoulders and waist height
B.  Avoid reaches above shoulder and reduce any excessive reaching
C.  Avoid greater than 45o shoulder flexion and abduction
Elbows

The elbow is actually two different joints.  It raises and lowers the arm (flexion and
extension) and also acts as the pivot point for forearm rotation (pronation and
supination).  There are numerous vulnerable soft tissues (tendons, nerves, blood vessels)
that pass though the elbow to reach the forearm and hand.
Potential MSDs

 lateral and medial epicondylitis

 radial tunnel syndrome
 cubital tunnel syndrome
Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Normal work (medium weights) work surface designed to just below elbow height
B.  Precision work (light weights) raise surface above elbow height and provide upper
extremity weight bearing support when possible
C.  Heavy work place work surface 6-8” below elbow height
Wrist / Hand
The wrist is an incredibly mobile joint that contains numerous tendons, nerves, and blood
vessels, which service the hand and are vulnerable to MSD.
Potential MSDs

 tendonitis
 carpal tunnel syndrome
 ganglion cysts
 trigger finger
 DeQuervain’s
Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Maintain neutral posture
B.  Avoid repeated or sustained flexion and ulnar deviation
C.  Avoid repeated or sustained pinching and allow for small hands when designing
gripping tasks and selecting hand tools
D.  Allow plenty of access space for large hands
Lower Back
The back is a flexible curved column composed of a series of bones (vertebrae) separated
by shock absorbing discs.  The structure is held together by a large number of muscles and
ligaments.  Acting together, they give the spine the ability to bend and twist.  The spine
protects the spinal cord and acts as a distribution center for the nerves.
Potential MSDs

 degenerative disc disease

 fatigue strains (muscle or tendon) and sprains (ligaments)
Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Avoid repeated lifting that requires excessive forward bending
B.  Avoid sustained forward bending
Legs
Very little research exists on the relationship between work activities and lower extremity
MSDs.  However, there are some MSDs associated with the legs, and ergonomic design
principles that we should keep in mind.
Potential MSDs

 plantar fasciitis
 tarsal tunnel syndrome
 Tailor’s Bunion
Ergonomic Design Principles
A.  Avoid foot actuation if possible
B.  Avoid repeated walking up and down steps
C.  Avoid mechanical stress on the legs
D.  Allow for long legs
E.  Provide adjustments or footrests for shorter legs for prolonged sitting
How to Recognize Ergonomic Risk Factors in the Workplace
The most important factor that results in the formation of MSD is the balance between
local soft tissue fatigue and the individual’s ability to recover from this fatigue. Sufficient
blood supply is a critical factor in controlling local soft tissue fatigue.
If an adequate supply of blood flow is maintained to the soft tissues performing work,
metabolic balance can be sustained and excessive fatigue can be prevented.
One important key to maintaining this critical balance is the relationship between work
and human factors.
Ergonomic Risk Factors
Risk factors related to work activity and ergonomics can make it more difficult to maintain
this balance, and increase the probability that some individuals may develop a MSD.
The major workplace ergonomic risk factors to consider are:

 High Task Repetition

 Forceful Exertions
 Repetitive/Sustained Awkward Postures
1. High Task Repetition
Many work tasks and cycles are repetitive in nature, and are frequently controlled by
hourly or daily production targets and work processes. High task repetition, when
combined with other risks factors such high force and/or awkward postures, can
contribute to the formation of MSD. A job is considered highly repetitive if the cycle time
is 30 seconds or less.
Control methods to consider:

 Engineering Controls – Eliminating excessive force and awkward posture

requirements will reduce worker fatigue and allow high repetition tasks to be
performed without a significant increase in MSD risk for most workers.
 Work Practice Controls – Providing safe & effective procedures for completing
work tasks can reduce MSD risk. In addition, workers should be trained on proper
work technique and encouraged to accept their responsibilities for MSD
prevention.
 Job Rotation – Job task enlargement is a way to reduce duration, frequency and
severity of MSD risk factors. Workers can rotate between workstations and tasks
to avoid prolonged periods of performing a single task, thereby reducing fatigue
that can lead to MSD.
 Counteractive Stretch Breaks – Implement rest or stretch breaks to provide an
opportunity for increased circulation needed for recovery.
2. Forceful Exertions
Many work tasks require high force loads on the human body. Muscle effort increases in
response to high force requirements, increasing associated fatigue which can lead to MSD.
Control methods to consider:

 Engineering Controls – Eliminating excessive force requirements will reduce

worker fatigue and the risk of MSD formation in most workers. Using mechanical
assists, counter balance systems, adjustable height lift tables and workstations,
powered equipment and ergonomic tools will reduce work effort and muscle
exertions.
 Work Practice Controls – Work process improvements such as using carts and
dollies to reduce lifting and carrying demands, sliding objects instead of carrying or
lifting, and eliminating any reaching obstruction to reduce the lever arm required
to lift the object.
 Proper Body Mechanics – Workers should be trained to use proper lifting and work
techniques to reduce force requirements.

3. Repetitive/Sustained Awkward Postures

Awkward postures place excessive force on joints and overload the muscles and tendons
around the effected joint. Joints of the body are most efficient when they operate closest
to the mid-range motion of the joint. Risk of MSD is increased when joints are worked
outside of this mid-range repetitively or for sustained periods of time without adequate
recovery time.
Control methods to consider:

 Engineering Controls – Eliminate or reduce awkward postures with ergonomic

modifications that seek to maintain joint range of motion to accomplish work tasks
within the mid-range of motion positions for vulnerable joints. Proper ergonomic
tools should be utilized that allow workers to maintain optimal joint positions.
 Work Practice Controls – Work procedures that consider and reduce awkward
postures should be implemented. In addition, workers should be trained on proper
work technique and encouraged to accept their responsibility to use their body
properly and to avoid awkward postures whenever possible.
 Job Rotation – Job rotation and job task enlargement is a way to reduce repeated
and sustained awkward postures that can lead to MSD.
 Counteractive Stretch Breaks – Implement rest or stretch breaks to provide an
opportunity to counteract any repeated or sustained awkward postures and allow
for adequate recovery time.
  The Bottom LineSystematically recognizing and controlling ergonomic risk factors
is an important part of your company’s commitment to providing a safe place of
work for all team members.

8 Fundamental Ergonomic Principles for Better Work Performance

Principle 1. Maintain Neutral Posture
Neutral postures are postures where the body is aligned and balanced while either sitting
or standing, placing minimal stress on the body and keeping joints aligned.
Neutral postures minimize the stress applied to muscles, tendons, nerves and bones and
allows for maximum control and force production.
The opposite of a neutral posture is an “awkward posture.” Awkward postures move away
from the neutral posture toward the extremes in range of motion. This puts more stress
on the worker’s musculoskeletal system, is a contributing risk factor for Musculoskeletal
Disorders (MSDs), and should be avoided.
Following are examples of Neutral vs. Awkward postures for the wrist, elbow, shoulder
and back. When you put on your “ergo eyes”, you’ll immediately begin to notice when
workers are in awkward postures and when they are maintaining a neutral posture.
Principle 2. Work in the Power / Comfort Zone
This principle is very similar to maintaining a neutral posture, but is worth expounding
upon here.
The power zone for lifting is close to the body, between mi-thigh and mid-chest height.
This zone is where the arms and back can lift the most with the least amount of effort.
This can also be called the “hand shake zone” or “comfort zone.” The principle here is that
if you can “shake hands with your work”, you are minimizing excessive reach and
maintaining a neutral posture.
Working from the power / comfort / handshake zone ensures that you are working from
proper heights and reaches, which reduces MSD risk factors and allows for more efficient
and pain-free work.
Now when you notice workers who are working with extended reaches and at improper
heights, you’ll know they are outside their comfort zone and risk factors are present.

Principle 3. Allow for Movement and Stretching

The musculoskeletal system is often referred to as the human body’s movement system,
and it is designed to move.
Working for long periods of time in a static position will cause your body to fatigue. This is
what is known as static load.
For example:
Raise your hands over your head for the next 30 minutes
Remain standing in the same position for the next 8 hours
Write with a pencil for 60 minutes straight
If you do those things, you will experience static load. The first few seconds or minutes
don’t seem too bad, but the cumulative effect of holding these seemingly stress-free
positions over time will cause fatigue and discomfort.
Now, what is the first thing you will naturally do once you when you are finished with
these tasks?
You will stretch.
You’ll stretch out your shoulders and back. You’ll stretch out your legs and maybe do
some squats. You’ll stretch out your fingers and wrist.
Stretching reduces fatigue, improves muscular balance and posture and improves muscle
coordination. Everyone is an athlete in life, so you need to prepare your body for work by
warming up to improve performance and lower injury risk. A warm-up stretching regimen
is a great way to prepare your body for work.
It is also beneficial to take periodic stretch breaks over the course of your work day to get
your blood moving and restore your energy.
Principle 4. Reduce Excessive Force
Excessive force is one of the primary ergonomic risk factors. Many work tasks require high
force loads on the human body. Muscle effort increases in response to high force
requirements which increases fatigue and risk of an MSD.
There are numerous conditions that affect force, but the idea is to recognize when a job or
task requires excessive force and then find ways to reduce that force.
Eliminating excessive force requirements will reduce worker fatigue and the risk of MSD
formation in most workers. Using mechanical assists, counter balance systems, adjustable
height lift tables and workstations, powered equipment and ergonomic tools will reduce
work effort and muscle exertions.
Principle 5. Reduce Excessive Motions
Repetitive motion is another one of the primary ergonomic risk factors. Many work tasks
and cycles are repetitive in nature, and are frequently controlled by hourly or daily
production targets and work processes. High task repetition, when combined with other
risks factors such high force and/or awkward postures, can contribute to the formation of
MSD. A job is considered highly repetitive if the cycle time is 30 seconds or less.
Excessive or unnecessary motions should be reduced if at all possible. In situations where
this is not possible, it is important to eliminate excessive force requirements and awkward
postures.
Other control methods to consider are Job enlargement, job rotation and counteractive
stretch breaks.
Principle 6. Minimize Contact Stress
According to OSHA, contact stress results from continuous contact or rubbing between
hard or sharp objects/surfaces and sensitive body tissue, such as soft tissue of the fingers,
palms, thighs and feet. This contact creates localized pressure for a small area of the body,
which can inhibit blood, nerve function, or movement of tendons and muscles.
Examples of contact stress include resting wrists on the sharp edge of a desk or
workstation while performing tasks, pressing of tool handles into the palms, especially
when they cannot be put down, tasks that require hand hammering, and sitting without
adequate space for the knees.
Principle 7. Reduce Excessive Vibration
Multiple studies have shown that regular and frequent exposure to vibration can lead to
permanent adverse health effects, which are most likely to occur when contact with a
vibrating tool or work process is a regular and significant part of a person’s job.
Hand-arm vibration can cause a range of conditions collectively known as hand-arm
vibration syndrome (HAVS), as well as specific diseases such as white finger or Raynaud’s
syndrome, carpel tunnel syndrome and tendinitis. Vibration syndrome has adverse
circulatory and neural effects in the fingers. The signs and symptoms include numbness,
pain, and blanching (turning pale and ashen).
Principle 8. Provide Adequate Lighting
Poor lighting is a common problem in the workplace that can affect a worker’s comfort
level and performance. Too much or too little light makes work difficult – just imagine
trying to do your job without sight!
Dimly lit work areas and glare can cause eye fatigue and headaches and improperly lit
areas put workers at greater risk for all types of injuries.
Providing workers with adjustable task lighting is often a simple solution to lighting
problems. At a computer workstation, take steps to control screen glare, and make sure
that the monitor is not placed in front of a window or a bright background.
NIOSH Lifting Equation

The NIOSH Lifting Equation is a tool used by occupational health and safety professionals
to assess the manual material handling risks associated with lifting and lowering tasks in
the workplace. This equation considers job task variables to determine safe lifting
practices and guidelines.

The primary product of the NIOSH lifting equation is the Recommended Weight Limit
(RWL), which defines the maximum acceptable weight (load) that nearly all healthy
employees could lift over the course of an 8 hour shift without increasing the risk of
musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) to the lower back. In addition, a Lifting Index (LI) is
calculated to provide a relative estimate of the level of physical stress and MSD risk
associated with the manual lifting tasks evaluated.

NIOSH Lifting Equation: LC (51) x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM = RWL

Task variables needed to calculate the RWL:

 H = Horizontal location of the object relative to the body

 V = Vertical location of the object relative to the floor
 D = Distance the object is moved vertically
 A = Asymmetry angle or twisting requirement
 F = Frequency and duration of lifting activity
 C = Coupling or quality of the workers grip on the object

How to Use the NIOSH Lifting Equation

 Step 1: Determine Task Variables Needed

 Step 2: Measure Task Variables

1) Horizontal Location of the Hands (H)

2) Vertical Location of the Hands (V)
3) Vertical Travel Distance (D)
4) Asymmetric Angle (A)
5) Coupling (C)
6) Frequency (F)
7) Load (L)
8) Duration (Dur)
 Step 3: Enter Data and Calculate RWL and LI