POINT CALIMERE

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL (SENIOR

SECONDARY)
(Affiliated to CBSE- vide Approval No: 1930551)
KURAVAPULAM, VEDARANYAM

BIOLOGY
INVESTIGSTORY
PROJECT
TOPIC : EYE DISEASES
SUBMITED BY.
C.K.BHALAJI
CLASS: XII
ROLL NO.: _____________.
 C.K.BHALAJI
IThis is certify that above statement is correct.
hereby certify that work which is being presented in this project entitled EYE
Signature of Examiner
DISEASES in the
Signature practical exam of class XII is submitted in biology lab of POINT
of Principal
CALIMEREof
Signature INTERNATIONAL
Mr. M.N.Arjun SCHOOL is an authentic record of my own work co-
(Biology
saved outteacher)
under the supervision of Mr. M.N.Arjun. The matter presented in this
project has not been submitted for any award.
ACKNOWKEDGEMENT
In the accomplishment of this project
successfully, many people have best owned
upon me their blessings and the heart pledged
support, this time I am utilizing to thank all
the people who have been concerned with
project I would thank god for being able to
complete this project with success.
This I would like to think my Biology teacher
Mr.M.N.Arjun , whose valuable guidance has
been the once that helped me patch this project
and his suggestions and his instructions has
served as the major contributor towards the
completion of the project.
 Then I would like to thank my parents who
have helped me with their valuable suggestion
and guidance has been helpful in various
phases of the project. Last but not the least I
would like to thank my classmates who have
helped me a lot.
SL. Page
No. Table of Content No.
1. Abstract 5
2. Eye diseases 6
3. Types of Eye Disorders 7
4. Presbyopia 8
5. Near-Sightedness 9
6. Far-Sightedness 10
7. Cataract 11
8. Glaucoma 12
9. Diabetic Retinopathy 13
10. Macular Degeneration 13
11. Conclusions 15
12. Reference 16
Abstract
The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure. As a sense
organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Human eyes help provide a
three dimensional, moving image, normally colored in daylight. Rod and
cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision
including color differentiation and the perception of depth. The human
eye can differentiate between about 10 million colors and is possibly
capable of detecting a single photon. Similar to the eyes of other
mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion
cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size
of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and
entrainment of the body clock.
The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece
unit, composed of the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The
anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is
transparent and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior
segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white
shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in
diameter, and 1/2 mm (500 um) in thickness near its center. The
posterior chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is
typically about 24 mm. The cornea and sclera are connected by an area
termed the limbus. The iris is the pigmented circular structure
concentrically surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which
appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of
light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter
muscles Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the
pupil and then through the lens.
The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is
controlled by the ciliary muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-
sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are
converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the
optic nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.
Eye Diseases
There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related changes that may
affect the eyes and surrounding structures. As the eye ages, certain
changes occur that can be attributed solely to the aging process. Most of
these anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With
aging, the quality of vision worsens due to reasons independent of
diseases of the aging eye. While there are many changes of significance in
the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important changes seem to
be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing
capability (presbyopia).
The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can reach the
retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age, leading
to a substantial decrease in light received at the retina. In comparison to
younger people, it is as though older persons are constantly wearing
medium-density sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided
tasks on which performance varies with illumination, older persons
require extra lighting. Certain ocular diseases can come from sexually
transmitted diseases such as herpes and genital warts. If contact
between the eye and area of infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted
to the eye.
With aging, a prominent white ring develops in the periphery of the
cornea called arcussenilis. Aging causes laxity, downward shift of eyelid
tissues and atrophy of the orbital fat. These changes contribute to the
etiology of several eyelid disorders such as ectropion, entropion,
dermatochalasis, and ptosis. The vitreous gel undergoes liquefaction
(posterior vitreous detachment or PVD) and its opacities — visible as
floaters — gradually increase in number.
Various eye care professionals, including ophthalmologists, optometrists,
and opticians, are involved in the treatment and management of ocular
and vision disorders. A Snellen chart is one type of eye chart used to
measure visual acuity. At the conclusion of a complete eye examination,
the eye doctor might provide the patient with an eyeglass prescription
for corrective lenses. Some disorders of the eyes for which corrective
lenses are prescribed include myopia (near-sightedness) which affects
about one-third of the human population, hyperopia (far-sightedness)
which affects about one quarter of the population, astigmatism, and
presbyopia (the loss of focusing range during aging).

Types Of Eye Disorders

Visual Impairment
Visual impairment, also known as vision impairment or vision loss, is a
decreased ability to see to a degree that causes problems not fixable by
usual means, such as glasses. Some also include those who have a
decreased ability to see because they do not have access to glasses or
contact lenses. Visual impairment is often defined as a best corrected
visual acuity of worse than either 20/40 or 20/60. The term blindness is
used for complete or nearly complete vision loss. Visual impairment may
cause people difficulties with normal daily activities such as driving,
reading, socializing, and walking.
Amblyopia
Amblyopia, also called lazy eye, is a disorder of sight due to the eye and
brain not working well together. It results in decreased vision in an eye
that otherwise typically appears normal. It is the most common cause of
decreased vision in a single eye among children and younger adults.
The cause of amblyopia can be any condition that interferes with
focusing during early childhood. This can occur from poor alignment of
the eyes, an eye being irregularly shaped such that focusing is difficult,
one eye being more nearsighted or farsighted than the other, or clouding
of the lens of an eye. After the underlying cause is fixed, vision is not fully
restored as the mechanism also involves the brain. Amblyopia can be
difficult to detect and therefore vision testing is recommended for all
children around the ages of four to five.
Many people with amblyopia, especially those who only have a mild
form, are not aware they have the condition until tested at older ages,
since the vision in their stronger eye is normal. People typically have
poor stereo vision, however, since it requires both eyes. Those with
amblyopia further may have, on the affected eye, poor pattern
recognition, poor visual acuity, and low sensitivity to contrast and
motion

Amblyopia is characterized by several functional abnormalities in spatial

vision, including reductions in visual acuity (VA), contrast sensitivity
function (CSF), and vernier acuity as well as spatial distortion, abnormal
spatial interactions, and impaired contour detection. In addition,
individuals with amblyopia suffer from binocular abnormalities such as
impaired stereoacuity (stereoscopic acuity) and abnormal binocular
summation. Also, a crowding phenomenon is present. These deficits are
usually specific to the amblyopic eye. However, sub-clinical deficits of the
"better" eye have also been demonstrated.Treatment of strabismic or
anisometropic amblyopia consists of correcting the optical deficit
(wearing the necessary spectacle prescription) and often forcing use of
the amblyopic eye, by patching the good eye, or instilling topicalatropine
in the good eye, or both.

Presbyopia
Presbyopia is a natural occurrence where near vision becomes blurred,
making it hard to focus while doing things like reading, using a mobile
phone, or working on the computer. It is not a disease or illness; in fact, it
is very common with age.
In young people, the eye’s lens is soft and flexible, readily changing shape
to see images from different distances. As you age, the crystalline lens in
your eye hardens and loses elasticity. With this loss of flexibility, your
eyes are less able to adjust properly to focus near objects.
Symptoms of Presbyopia
People commonly mistake the symptoms of presbyopia for
longsightedness. However, the two conditions have different causes:
longsightedness is a result of a misshapen cornea, whereas presbyopia is
due to the loss of flexibility in the lens.
 The telltale symptom of presbyopia is blurred vision while reading,
sewing, using a mobile phone, or doing anything that requires near
vision.
Treatment for Presbyopia
There are many options for people with presbyopia, including contact
lenses. Recent technologies allow people who are entering into
presbyopia to continue wearing contact lenses, instead of having to
switch to bifocals, or reading glasses.
Common treatments for presbyopia include:
• Magnifiers
• Bifocal or varifocal spectacles
• Reading glasses

Near-Sightedness
Near-Sightedness, also known as short-sightedness and myopia, is a
condition of the eye where light focuses in front of, instead of on, the
retina. This causes distant objects to be blurry while close objects appear
normal. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. Severe
near-sightedness increases the risk of retinal detachment, cataracts, and
glaucoma.
The underlying cause is believed to be a combination of genetic and
environmental factors. Risk factors include doing work that involves
focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, and a family
history of the condition. It is also associated with a high socioeconomic
class. The underlying mechanism involves the length of the eyeball being
too long or less commonly the lens being too strong. It is a type of
refractive error. Diagnosis is by eye examination.

There is tentative evidence that near-sightedness can be prevented by

having young children spend more time outside. This may be related to
natural light exposure. Near-sightedness can be corrected with
eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery. Eyeglasses are the easiest and
safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider field of
vision; however are associated with a risk of infection. Refractive surgery
permanently changes the shape of the cornea.Myopia presents with
blurry distance vision, but generally gives good near vision. In high
myopia, even near vision is affected as objects must be extremely close to
the eyes to see clearly, and people with myopia cannot read without their
glasses prescribed for distance.

Far-Sightedness
Far-Sightedness, also known as long-sightedness and hyperopia, is a
condition of the eye in which light is focused behind, instead of on, the
retina. This causes close objects to be blurry, while far objects may
appear normal. As the condition worsens, objects at all distances may be
blurred.] Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. People
with hyperopia can also experience accommodative dysfunction,
binocular dysfunction, amblyopia, and strabismus.
The cause is an imperfection in the eye: often when the eyeball is too
short, or the lens cannot become round enough. It is a type of refractive
error .
Correction is usually achieved by the use of convex corrective lenses. For
near objects, the eye has to accommodate even more. Depending on the
degree of hyperopia and the age of the person, which directly relates to
the eye's accommodative ability, the symptoms can be different.

Far-sightedness primarily affects young children, with rates of 8% at 6

years and 1% at 15 years.The signs and symptoms of far-sightedness are
blurry vision, headaches, and eye strain. The common symptom is eye
strain. Difficulty seeing with both eyes (binocular vision) may occur, as
well as difficulty with depth perception.As hyperopia is the result of the
visual image being focused behind the retina, it has two main causes:
Low converging power of eye lens because of weak action of ciliary
muscles.Abnormal shape of the cornea.
Cataract
Cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye which leads to a decrease in
vision. Cataracts often develop slowly and can affect one or both eyes.
Symptoms may include faded colors, blurry vision, halos around light,
trouble with bright lights, and trouble seeing at night.This may result in
trouble driving, reading, or recognizing faces. Poor vision caused by
cataracts may also result in an increased risk of falling and
depression.Cataracts are the cause of half of blindness and 33% of visual
impairment worldwide.
Cataracts are most commonly due to aging but may also occur due to
trauma or radiation exposure, be present from birth, or occur following
eye surgery for other problems. Risk factors include diabetes, smoking
tobacco, prolonged exposure to sunlight, and alcohol. Either clumps of
protein or yellow-brown pigment may be deposited in the lens reducing
the transmission of light to the retina at the back of the eye. Diagnosis is
by an eye examination.

Prevention includes wearing sunglasses and not smoking. Early on the

symptoms may be improved with glasses. If this does not help, surgery to
remove the cloudy lens and replace it with an artificial lens is the only
effective treatment. Surgery is only needed if the cataracts are causing
problems and generally results in an improved quality of life. Cataract
surgery is not readily available in many countries, which is especially
true for women, those living in rural areas, and those who do not know
how to read.
About 20 million people are blind due to cataracts. It is the cause of
approximately 5% of blindness in the United States and nearly 60% of
blindness in parts of Africa and South America. Blindness from cataracts
occurs in about 10 to 40 per 100,000 children in the developing world,
and 1 to 4 per 100,000 children in the developed world. Cataracts
become more common with age. More than half the people in the United
States had cataracts by the age of 80.

Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases which result in damage to the optic
nerve and vision loss. The most common type is open-angle glaucoma
with less common types including closed-angle glaucoma and normal-
tension glaucoma. Open-angle glaucoma develops slowly over time and
there is no pain. Side vision may begin to decrease followed by central
vision resulting in blindness if not treated. Closed-angle glaucoma can
present gradually or suddenly. The sudden presentation may involve
severe eye pain, blurred vision, mid-dilated pupil, redness of the eye, and
nausea. Vision loss from glaucoma, once it has occurred, is permanent.
Risk factors for glaucoma include increased pressure in the eye, a family
history of the condition, migraines, high blood pressure, and obesity. For
eye pressures a value of greater than 21 mmHg or 2.8 kPa is often used
with higher pressures leading to a greater risk. However, some may have
high eye pressure for years and never develop damage. Conversely, optic
nerve damage may occur with normal pressure, known as normal-
tension glaucoma. The mechanism of open-angle glaucoma is believed to
be slow exit of aqueous humor through the trabecular meshwork while
in closed-angle glaucoma the iris blocks the trabecular meshwork.
Diagnosis is by a dilated eye examination. Often the optic nerve shows an
abnormal amount of cupping. If treated early it is possible to slow or stop
the progression of disease with medication, laser treatment, or surgery.
The goal of these treatments is to decrease eye pressure. A number of
different classes of glaucoma medication are available. Laser treatments
may be effective in both open-angle and closed-angle glaucoma. A
number of types of glaucoma surgeries may be used in people who do
not respond sufficiently to other measures. Treatment of closed-angle
glaucoma is a medical emergency.
About 11 to 67 million people have glaucoma globally. The disease
affects about 2 million people in the United States. It occurs more
commonly among older people. Closed-angle glaucoma is more common
in women. Glaucoma has been called the "silent thief of sight" because
the loss of vision usually occurs slowly over a long period of
time.Worldwide, glaucoma is the second-leading cause of blindness after
cataracts. The word "glaucoma" is from ancient Greek glaukos which
means blue, green, or gray. In English, the word was used as early as
1587 but did not become commonly used until after 1850, when the
development of the ophthalmoscope allowed people to see the optic
nerve damage.

Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic Retinopathy, also known as diabetic eye disease, is when
damage occurs to the retina due to diabetes. It can eventually lead to
blindness.It is an ocular manifestation of diabetes, a systemic disease,
which affects up to 80 percent of all patients who have had diabetes for
20 years or more. Despite these intimidating statistics, research indicates
that at least 90% of these new cases could be reduced if there were
proper and vigilant treatment and monitoring of the eyes. The longer a
person has diabetes, the higher his or her chances of developing diabetic
retinopathy.

Each year in the United States, diabetic retinopathy accounts for 12% of
all new cases of blindness. It is also the leading cause of blindness for
people aged 20 to 64 years.Diabetic retinopathy often has no early
warning signs. Even macular edema, which can cause rapid vision loss,
may not have any warning signs for some time. In general, however, a
person with macular edema is likely to have blurred vision, making it
hard to do things like read or drive. In some cases, the vision will get
better or worse during the day.

Macular Degeneration
Macular Degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration
(AMD or ARMD), is a medical condition which may result in blurred or
no vision in the center of the visual field. Early on there are often no
symptoms. Over time, however, some people experience a gradual
worsening of vision that may affect one or both eyes. While it does not
result in complete blindness, loss of central vision can make it hard to
recognize faces, drive, read, or perform other activities of daily life.
Visual hallucinations may also occur but these do not represent a mental
illness.
Macular degeneration typically occurs in older people. Genetic factors
and smoking also play a role. It is due to damage to the macula of the
retina. Diagnosis is by a complete eye exam. The severity is divided into
early, intermediate, and late types.[1] The late type is additionally
divided into "dry" and "wet" forms with the dry form making up 90% of
cases.
Prevention includes exercising, eating well, and not smoking. Antioxidant
vitamins and minerals do not appear to be useful for prevention. There is
no cure or treatment that returns vision already lost. In the wet form,
anti-VEGF medication injected into the eye or less commonly laser
coagulation or photodynamic therapy may slow worsening. Supplements
in those who already have the disease may slow progression.
In 2010 it affected 23.5 million people globally. In 2013 moderate to
severe disease affected 13.4 million and it is the fourth most common
cause of blindness after cataracts, preterm birth, and glaucoma.. It most
commonly occurs in people over the age of fifty and in the United States
is the most common cause of vision loss in this age group. About 0.4% of
people between 50 and 60 have the disease, while it occurs in 0.7% of
people 60 to 70, 2.3% of those 70 to 80, and nearly 12% of people over
80 years old
CONCLUSIONS
EYE DISORDER PIE CHART

7 out of 10 people were diagnosed with myopia according to

the survey taken. Although Myopia is not a very harmful
disorder for the eye can be treated easily but the number are
alerting and we should take preventive measures to avoid it.
A complete eye
checkup once every one to three years is very beneficial. Many
sight-threating diseases, if detected earlier, can be cured or
treated to prevent, or slow, the progression of any vision loss.
Eating green vegies, carrots, fishes, etc. are essential
for our eyes for functioning well.
Reference
 Google
 Scribd
 Slideshare
 Webmd
 Youtube
 World Health Organisation
 Kids Health
 The Human Body Book By Webster