ASME_Ch25_p253-322.

qxd 5/22/09 2:42 PM Page 253

CHAPTER

25
FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC
PRESSURE VESSELS AND
ASME RTP-1–REINFORCED
THERMOSET PLASTIC
CORROSION-RESISTANCE EQUIPMENT
Peter Conlisk

25.1 INTRODUCTION Section 25.2 discusses the basics of FRP technology, particularly
aspects that might be foreign to metal-vessel engineers.
This chapter is intended primarily for engineers and designers
whose experience with vessels is primarily with metal equip-
ment. Those having experience with fiberglass equipment but not 25.2 FRP TECHNOLOGY
with Section X [1] or RTP-1 [2] will also find this chapter useful, The purpose of this section is to discuss technology used in
but they may want to skim over the following sections on FRP1 Section X and RTP-1 that may not be familiar to engineers and
technology. designers of metal vessels. This section describes the resins and
Section X is part of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel reinforcing fibers included in RTP-1 and Section X. The docu-
(B&PV) Code and has been enacted into law in 37 jurisdictions in ments govern vessels built of epoxy, vinyl ester, polyester, furan
the United States and Canada. Although the authors of RTP-1 and phenolic resins reinforced with glass, and carbon and aramid
wrote it so that it could be used as a Code, RTP-1 has not been fibers. It also describes the following processes used to manufac-
enacted into law anywhere; therefore, it is at present a voluntary ture RTP-1 and Section X vessels: contact molding, bag molding,
standard. Both standards govern vessels constructed of thermoset- centrifugal casting, and filament winding. The joining of vessel
ting resin reinforced with glass fibers. In addition to glass fibers, parts made by these methods is also discussed.
Section X also provides for vessels reinforced with carbon or Stress analysis of FRP equipment involves lamination theory
aramid fibers. The pressure scope of Section X is 15 psig internal and plate-and-shell theory. Plate-and-shell theory is widely used
pressure and above, of which the upper limit depends on the size by metal-vessel designers and is therefore not discussed except
and construction of the vessel. RTP-1 covers tanks and vessels where it forms part of the bases for design examples. Lamination
with design pressures 0–15 psig. Both standards have provisions theory is a branch of mechanics concerned with plates and shells
for vessels with external pressure from 0–15 psig. made of layered material, where the layers are bonded together,
Neither RTP-1 nor Section X makes a good handbook or text- but have different elastic properties. Lamination theory is essen-
book on FRP vessel design. This chapter is intended to serve as a tial to the engineering of FRP tanks and vessels but is not needed
manual on the use of the documents. An engineer who specifies an to design and analyze metal equipment. Engineers familiar with
FRP vessel does not need to have the under-standing of FRP that metal-vessel design are usually unacquainted with lamination the-
the vessel designer possesses. However, in specifying the vessel, ory; therefore its rudiments are discussed. This chapter presents
the engineer necessarily makes many design choices, for which rea- the physical, intuitive basis for lamination theory and examples of
son he or she should understand the rudiments of FRP technology. its application, but not its mathematical development. Lamination
theory is used in both RTP-1 and Section X.
Acoustic-emission (AE) examination is another technology
1
FRP is an acronym that stands for fiber-reinforced plastic; RTP is an acronym that widely applied to both new and in-service FRP tanks and vessels,
stands for reinforced -thermoset resin. Herein, FRP, RTP, and fiberglass are all used although not as widely to metal equipment. It is required for some
as synonyms. Section X vessels and is optional for RTP-1.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/22/09 2:42 PM Page 254

254 • Chapter 25

25.2.1 FRP-Composite Materials

FRP-composite materials governed by Section X and RTP-1
consist of thermosetting plastic that is reinforced by glass, aramid,
or carbon fibers. The vast majority of FRP-composite tanks and
vessels use glass fibers. Thermosetting resins are viscous liquids
that can be cured to form rigid solids. The curing process is initi-
ated by the addition of a hardening agent, the use of catalysts and
initiators, the use of heat, or the use of a combination of chemical
agents and heat. Once cured, the now-rigid plastic cannot be melt-
ed and rehardened, for which reason the vessel parts built of com-
posites made with thermosetting resins cannot be welded together
but must instead be assembled by adhesive joints. Vessel parts are
built up layer by layer with glass fibers bound together with the
thermosetting resin. The layers are applied to molds or mandrels
by many processes that are described in this chapter.
The fiber reinforcement contributes structural performance
required of the vessel or tank. The fibers are the primary contribu-
tor of strength and stiffness of the vessel parts. Section X covers
FRP reinforced by E-glass, S-glass, or aramid and carbon fibers,
whereas RTP-1 covers FRP reinforced by either E-glass or S- FIG. 25.1 FIBERGLASS-REINFORCING MAT
glass. The average diameter of a glass fiber is approximately
0.0005 in.; the diameter varies from 0.00025 in. to 0.00075 in.
Table 25.1 summarizes fiber properties.
Section X provides for five kinds of resin, each described as
follows: other resins and have good chemical resistance. They are usually
cured with heat.
Isophthalic Polyester This is the lowest cost system governed RTP-1 governs FRP made with isophthalic polyester, vinyl
by the ASME standards. Isophthalic polyester has good strength ester, and chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate resins; it does not
and corrosion resistance and is therefore widely used for FRP cover phenolic or epoxy laminates.
chemical-process equipment. It is cured at room temperature. The resin and glass are combined and applied to the vessel-part
mold in thin layers called laminae. Many laminae combine to form
Vinyl Ester These resins combine both epoxy and polyester the full-part thickness, and this “stack-up” or sequence of laminae is
technology. They have excellent corrosion resistance, strength, and called a laminate. Laminae can be classified by the form of reinforc-
toughness, but they are more expensive than isophthalic poly- ing glass they contain. The common lamina types are as follows:
esters. They can be cured at room temperature.
Mat Lamina Figure 25.1 shows a magnified view of this prod-
Chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate These resins are used for uct form. The mat commonly used in tanks and vessels weighs
more exotic systems to improve corrosion resistance and high- either 0.75 oz/ft2 or 1.5 oz/ft2 and is supplied in rolls of various
temperature service and are therefore more expensive than vinyl widths. When it is combined with resin, applied to a mold, and
ester. They are cured at room temperature. cured, a 1.5 oz/ft2 mat ply is typically 0.43 in. thick and is by
weight about 35% glass fiber.
Phenolic These resins have better flammability properties (e.g.,
higher flame retardance and lower smoke emissivity) than the Woven-Roving Lamina Figure 25.2 shows woven-roving rein-
other four families of resin. Phenolic composites are more brittle forcing glass. There are five fiber bundles per inch in the vertical
than composites built with the other resins, and phenolic resins are direction and four in the horizontal direction. The woven-roving
harder to process than the others. Phenolics are cured at room tem- lamina weighs 24 oz/yd2 (2.7 oz/ft2).2 A typical specimen is 0.33 in.
perature. thick and is by weight 50%–60% glass fiber.

Epoxy There is wide range of epoxy resins available. Epoxy 2

For reasons unknown to the author, it is an industry practice to quote mat
composites typically are stronger than composites made with the weight in oz/ft2 and woven-roving weight in oz/yd2.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 255

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 255

FIG. 25.2 WOVEN-ROVING REINFORCING GLASS

Filament-Wound Lamina The following brief description of

filament winding is taken from an article on the Composite
Fabricators Association Web site [3].
What is filament winding? Filament winding has been com-
pared to “wrapping a whole bunch of string around a spool and
then taking the spool out late.” That’s a fairly simple analogy, but
it’s close to the mark. The spool essentially is the internal part,
referred to as the mandrel that forms the shape of the filament
wound structure. The string is the reinforcing fiber that is system-
atically wound around the mandrel until it totally covers the sur-
face area to a depth desired by the designer. In order to keep the
string in the place, the fiber reinforcement is saturated with the
glue, or resin, which eventually cures and binds the fibers in place.
A filament-wound lamina has all the fibers running in the same
direction. The fibers are continuous and are precisely placed by
the winding process. Therefore, they are more tightly packed than
the fibers in mat and woven-roving laminae. Filament-wound
laminae have a higher glass content than the other types—
FIG. 25.3 SPOOLS OF CONTINUOUS ROVING
60%–70% by weight. Figure 25.3 shows spools of glass-roving
laminae (bundles of individual fibers) that are used for filament
winding. About 5,000 individual fibers make up a strand that is The glass content is approximately 10% by weight. In a nexus
wound on the spool. The fibers are about 0.005 in. in diameter. lamina, the C-glass veil is replaced by a thin, feltlike sheet made
The roving bundles are applied at various wind angles, which are from polyester fibers. Veil made from carbon fiber is also used,
the angles between the fiber and a line on the surface of the part and occasionally double C-veil or nexus layers are used.
that is parallel to the axis of the cylinder being constructed. Mat and veil-reinforced laminae are isotropic in the plane of the
laminate, whereas woven-roving and filament-wound piles are
C-veil, Carbon-Fiber Veil, and Nexus Lamina The corrosion orthotropic in both stiffness and strength. Tables 25.2, 25.3, and 25.4
resistance of the process surface of a laminate is often enhanced by each summarize the properties of the laminae discussed pre-viously.
applying a corrosion barrier. Typically, the innermost surface con- Table 25.2 provides reinforcement weight, lamina thick-ness, and
sists of a C-veil, carbon-fiber veil, or nexus ply followed by two or glass content by weight of the six types. Table 25.3 lists the elastic
three mat plies. A C-veil ply is a resin-rich layer about 0.01 in. thick properties of the laminae; Table 25.4, the strength properties.
and reinforced with a C-glass veil. Veil is a gauzy sheet of random- The principal direction of a lamina is the direction of the
ly oriented C-glass fibers weighing about 0.1 oz/yd3. fibers. For woven-roving laminae, the principal direction is either
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 256

256 • Chapter 25

fiber direction; in isotropic laminae, the principal direction is 45 deg. to the principal direction than the assumed isotropic
arbitrary. In Tables 25.3 and 25.4, X refers to the principal direc- model. Some woven-roving laminae have the same Young’s modu-
tion and Y refers to the direction in the plane of the lamina per- lus in the principal directions; however, because of their low shear
pendicular to X. Tables 25.3 and 25.4 provide room-temperature modulus, they should be treated as orthotropic materials in the
properties for laminae made with Derakane 470 resin and with stress analysis. A common example of this kind of behavior is a
the glass contents listed. Properties of laminae made with other cloth handkerchief. It is much stiffer in the thread directions than
resins or glass content vary somewhat from those listed. At first in the bias direction. Even though the tensile moduli in the thread
glance, it would seem that the woven-roving lamina is only directions are roughly equal, the cloth is highly anisotropic.
slightly anisotropic, as the moduli in the X and Y directions are
The values in Table 25.4 are for the same laminae as in Table
not too different. However, in isotropic material the shear modu-
25.3; laminae made with other resins and glass contents have
lus G is related to Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio v by
somewhat different strength properties. However, most other fea-
the following equation:
tures of Table 25.4, including mat lamina having higher tensile-
strength than compressive-strength properties, are common to all
E the laminae allowed by Section X and RTP-1. Nonetheless, the
G = (25.1)
2(1 + v) strength behavior is very different and more complicated than that
of ductile metals used in tanks and vessels. Strengths may or may
Suppose for simplicity that we wished to treat the woven- not be different in different directions. For example, the tensile
roving lamina as an isotropic material and decided to set E as the strength of mat laminae is the same in both directions, whereas
average of the two Young’s moduli in the table and use the listed the tensile strength of filament-wound laminae is 32 times greater
value of Poisson’s ratio. Then, in the fiber direction than it is in the cross-fiber direction. In some
laminae (such as mat or woven-roving), the compressive strength
2.71 * 106 in a given direction is less than the tensile strength. In filament-
G = = 1.18 * 106 psi (25.2)
2(1 + 0.15) wound plies, the compressive strength is less than the tensile
strength in the fiber direction, but it is greater than the tensile
This value for G is 3.06 times the actual value. The actual strength in the cross-fiber direction. There is no obvious general
woven-roving lamina is much more compliant for tensile strain at relationship between shear strength and the other strength values.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 257

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 257

Complicated elastic and strength properties make stress analy- symbols that specify the sequences. The assumptions made in
sis of FRP equipment more difficult and time-consuming than these tables are that veil plies are 0.01 in. thick, mat plies are
analysis of metal equipment of similar complexity. Finite-element 0.043 in. thick, and woven-roving plies are 0.033 in. thick. The
methods make such stress analysis practical. Many commercially glass fiber in the mat plies weighs 1.5 oz/ft2, whereas the fiber in
available finite-element codes have layered composite-plate ele- the woven-roving plies weighs 24 oz/yd2.
ments that employ lamination theory (to be described in Section The “E” plies in Table 25.5 are exotherm plies. Resin curing is
25.9.1) to form the stiffness matrices of the elements and also an exothermic reaction that generates enough heat to damage the
provide lamina-by-lamina stress- and strain-field output. The laminate if the laminate thickness is built too fast. To prevent this
codes usually include failure criteria suitable for use with FRP occurrence, the laminator pauses after the corrosion barrier is laid
laminates, one of which—the Tsai-Wu Tensor Interaction down until the peak of the exothermic reaction occurs, after which
Criterion (to be discussed)—is used by both RTP-1 and Section the laminate begins to cool. The laminator resumes activity until
X. If an FRP tank or vessel can be validly modeled by plate ele- the first E ply is reached; then waits again for the peak exotherm.
ments, finite-element analysis is somewhat more expensive than (The E plies are ordinary mat plies.) Fabrication continues in this
analysis of a comparable metal vessel, but not prohibitively so. manner, with a pause at each exotherm ply. To build thicker
mat–woven-roving parts, the laminator simply adds more 3(MR),
25.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously, M sequences, giving proper attention to the exotherm plies.
a laminate is composed of a sequence of laminae. This paragraph The ply thicknesses assumed in the foregoing paragraph are
explains the common notations used for specifying a laminate typical of industry practice, but Fabricators may not use precisely
sequence or stack-up. “V ” designates a corrosion-veil lamina; “M,”
a mat lamina; “WR,” a woven-roving lamina; and “FW  á,” or
“FWá,” a filament-wound lamina in which a is the wind angle.
A stack-up is described by combining these symbols; for example,
a laminate consisting of a veil ply, two mat plies, and three sets of
alternate mat and woven-roving plies —finished by a mat ply—is
designated by “V, MM, 3(M, WR), M.” A filament-wound laminate
0.46 in. thick, with a wind angle of 55 deg. and a standard corro-
sion barrier, is designated by V, 2M, 9(FW  55 deg.). The lami-
nate has a veil and two mat plies for a corrosion barrier, followed
by eighteen plies of 0.02 in. thick filament-wound layers with
alternate plies at 55 deg. and 55 deg.
Table 25.5 lists the lamination sequences commonly used for
mat–woven-roving laminates, and Table 25.6 gives the drafting
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/25/09 11:04 AM Page 258

258 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHOPPER GUN

these values. Instead, they may use the values that their shops placed on the mold and wetted with catalyzed and promoted resin.
actually produce. Because of these minor variations among (Catalyst and promoter are added to all resins except epoxy so that
Fabricators, it is better to specify the laminate in a vessel part by they will cure and become solids. A hardener may be added to the
drafting symbols such as those in Table 25.6 rather than simply epoxy, or it may be heat-cured.) The resin-wetted reinforcing mate-
giving the thickness and type of laminate. For example, an engi- rial is compacted and pressed to the mold by hand with a roller to
neer who wants to specify a mat–woven-roving laminate 38 in. squeeze out excess resin and to remove air bubbles. Rollers resem-
thick would specify a V, 2M, 3(MR)M stack-up in addition to ble paint rollers, except that the type used in this application is
specifying the reinforcing glass weights. metal with deep grooves about 18 in. wide and 41 in. deep, with a 41 in.
pitch. Rollers vary from 2 or 3 in. to 43 in. in diameter and from 3 in.
to 12 in. in width. After the first lamina is applied, the second and
25.3 FABRICATION METHODS3 subsequent plies are added the same way. Veil, mat, and woven-
roving plies are all applied by the hand lay-up method.
Pressure-containing parts for RTP-1 and Section X, Class II In the spray-up method, resin and reinforcing glass are applied to
vessels are made by contact molding and filament winding. Parts the mold with a chopper gun. Figure 25.4 shows a schematic depic-
for Section X, Class I vessels are made by those two processes as tion of a chopper gun. Four hoses carry fluids to the gun: an air
well, but also by bag molding and centrifugal casting. Each of hose that powers the chopper and provides a stream of air for carry-
these methods is discussed in the following paragraphs. ing the chopped glass and resin to the mold; a resin hose; a hose
25.3.1 Contact Molding that conveys the catalyst and promoter to the gun; and a solvent
hose. A glass strand, which (as mentioned previously) contains
The following definition is from the glossary of Section X [1]:
about 5,000 individual glass fibers, also enters the gun. In the gun,
the resin, promoter, and catalyst are mixed and then sprayed onto
Contact molding—a process for molding reinforced plastic in
the mold surface. At the same time, the roving strand enters the gun
which reinforcement and resin are placed on a mold—cure is
and is chopped into lengths that vary from 34 to 2 in., and the
either at room temperature using a catalyst–promoter system
chopped glass is also sprayed onto the mold at the same place as
or by heat in an oven, and no additional pressure is used.
the resin. The result is that a layer of resin-wetted glass fibers is
Contact molding includes two processes: the hand lay-up and the deposited on the mold. The mass of chopped glass fiber and cat-
spray-up. In the hand lay-up method, the mold is first prepared with alyzed and promoted resin is compacted with a roller, as in the
a parting agent so that the resin does not adhere to the mold as it hand lay-up process. A lamina made this way is generally consid-
cures. On head molds, wax-parting agents or a liquid such as ered equivalent to a mat ply of the same thickness. When the opera-
polyvinyl alcohol is used; on cylindrical mold, Mylar film is usually tor pauses, even for a short time, he or she pumps solvent through
used. A sheet of reinforcing material, such as a C-glass veil, is then the gun to remove the resin. If this is not done, the resin—being
catalyzed and promoted—would rapidly solidify and clog the gun.
Contact molding is used to make all pressure-containing parts,
3
In the FRP tank and vessel industry, the term Fabricator is used the same way
including nozzles with flanges. It is versatile and requires only
as Manufacturer is in the metal vessel industry. The term Manufacturer is usual- inexpensive, simple tooling. However, it is also labor-intensive,
ly reserved for those who manufacture resin, reinforcing glass, and other compo- involving so much handwork that quality control is more difficult
nents supplied to the Fabricator. than with more automatic processes.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 259

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 259

FIG. 25.5 FILAMENT WINDING

25.3.2 Filament Winding as are winders on which the mandrel is mounted so that it can be
Figure 25.5 is a schematic diagram of filament winding. A band rotated about more than one axis. These winders can produce ves-
of glass or other fiber roving is pulled from the creel through a resin sels complete with heads.
bath and wound onto the mandrel. For winding a cylindrical shell,
Mylar film is ordinarily used as the parting agent. The roving band 25.3.3 Bag Molding
is 2–6 in. or more wide, depending on the diameter of the part being Only Section X, Class I provides for bag molding. Qualification
wound. Consider winding an 8 ft diameter vessel shell with a of a Class I design is by destructive testing of a prototype. If the
55 deg. wind angle. The roving band would be about 5 in. wide and prototype satisfies Section X requirements, vessels identical to the
consist of 45 strands. (Nine strands per in. of width is typical.) Each prototype may be built and receive an ASME RP Stamp. Design
strand has about 5,000 individual fibers; thus the 5 in. band consists qualification of Class II vessels is by mandatory design rules and
of 225,000 fibers. The creel would hold 45 spools of roving. The nondestructive acceptance testing. Class I rules are suitable for
carriage feeding the band onto the mandrel moves axially along the mass-produced vessels, whereas Class II rules are used for one-of-
mandrel to maintain the proper wind angle. When the carriage a-kind or limited-production equipment. The two classes are dis-
reaches the end of the mandrel, it reverses direction, laying down a cussed more thoroughly later in this chapter.
band with the opposite slope of the band put down on the first pass. Figure 25.6 sketches the bag-molding concept. The catalyzed
With a 55 deg. wind angle, the bands would form a helix on the resin–glass mixture is applied to the inside of the mold, the bag is
shell, with a pitch of 211.2 in.; therefore, the bands are widely inserted and pressurized, and the resin is cured either at room
spaced. The carriage is carefully controlled so that on the third pass
(the second pass in the original direction), the band is next to the
band made on the first pass. Eventually this process results in the
covering of the mandrel with two plies of material: one with a wind
angle of 55 deg.; the other, 55 deg. The process continues until
the desired thickness is built up. Laminate thickness increases quickly
enough during winding so that the process must be paused to let the
peak exotherm occur, just as in contact molding. After the exotherm
but before the winding is resumed, the laminator usually applies a mat
bedding ply, either by using the hand lay-up method or by using a
chopper gun. The laminate laid down at the ends while the carriage is
reversing has a variable wind angle (from 55 deg. to 0 deg.) as well as
variable thickness, for which reason the laminate is called the turn-
around zone. This portion is usually cut off and scrapped.
Filament-wound laminates have of a 60%–70% glass content
by weight, considerably higher than mat or mat–woven-roving
laminates. Consequently, filament-wound laminates are stronger
and stiffer than the others. Because the process is more automated
than contact molding, the quality is more predictable. Once a
winding setup is working properly, the quality is more repeatable
and the quality control is easier than with contact molding.
Cylinders as small as 1 in. and as large as 80 ft are filament-
wound. Mandrels with either horizontal or vertical axes are used, FIG. 25.6 BAG-MOLDING CONCEPT
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 260

260 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

temperature or by the application of heat. The resin–glass mixture girth joints. Bonders apply the structural overlay—also called
may be applied by contact molding; otherwise, the reinforcing strap-ping—to the outside of the vessel, which is usually covered
fibers may be a preform, a reinforcement that is preshaped to the with a film of wax. Air inhibits the cure of most resins used for
general geometry of the intended molded part, usually by light vessels, so the common practice is to coat the outside surface of a
pressing or by distribution of chopped fibers of a perforated for- part with resin that contains a small fraction of wax. The wax
mer. It is used on more complex or deep-draw moldings to opti- floats to the surface, preventing the contact of air with the curing
mize the distribution and orientation of the fibers [4]. The resin and producing a wax film on the outside of the vessel. This
Fabricator may also apply the resin and glass onto the bag and film would interfere with bonding to the surface, so it is therefore
then insert the bag into the mold. Bag molding can produce parts removed before a structural joint is applied. The bonder first sands
with a higher glass content than contact molding, as the reinforce- the surface to which the joint is to be applied with a coarse abra-
ment–resin mass is compacted more during bag molding than dur- sive until the wax is removed and the glass fiber is exposed. The
ing the rolling step of contact molding. Thus bag-molded parts are joint plies are then applied by the use of hand lay-up methods.
stronger and stiffer than contact-molded parts. In addition, bag
molding can produce vessels with integral heads.

25.3.4 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Figure 25.7 is a schematic depiction of centrifugal casting.
Resin, resin catalyst and promoter, and glass fiber are all con-
veyed to a device that chops the glass and blends the ingredients;
sprays them onto the inside of the mold. The mold rotates at a
high enough speed for the centrifugal force to press the
resin–glass mass against the mold. Either room- or elevated-
temperature curing may be used. Centrifugal casting produces
hollow cylindrical parts, such as vessel shells.

25.3.5 Joining Vessel Parts

The aforementioned processes produce vessel parts: shells,
heads, nozzles, and so on. Because the resins governed by the
ASME documents are all thermosets, once cured they will not melt
and solidify into good material. Thus vessel parts cannot be joined
by welding. The industry has developed adhesive-joint techniques
for assembling parts; these are discussed in this section.
Figure 25.8 shows the steps for making the type of butt joint
required by RTP-1 for making head-to-shell or shell-to-shell FIG. 25.8 RTP-1–STYLE BUTT JOINT
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 261

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 261

The joint may be of all-mat-ply construction or of alternate plies

of mat and woven-roving. If the joint is all mat, each ply overlaps
5
the preceding ply by 16 in. If the joint is alternating mat and woven-
roving, the woven-roving plies are of the same width as the mat ply
underneath them, and each mat ply extends 21 in. beyond the ply
beneath it. Steps (2) and (3) in Fig. 25.8 illustrate the application of
the structural strapping. Peak exotherms are accommodated the
same way as in making laminates, as discussed previously. The
design rules in RTP-1 govern the thickness of the joint overlay;
their intention is for the joint laminate to be at least as strong as the
stronger of the laminates in the parts being joined and for the over-
lay to be wide enough to provide adequate shear strength to carry
the load from the part to the joint overlay to the second part.
The final step (4) of Fig. 25.8 is to make a corrosion seal for the
joint. This seal is made on the inner (process) surface, as shown in
Fig. 25.8, and the seal is a minimum of two plies of 112 mat with an
additional C-veil or nexus veil on the inside. The innermost mat play
is at least 3 in. wide, the next ply extends at least 21 in. beyond the
first, and the veil ply extends at least 12 in. beyond the mat plies. FIG. 25.10 SECTION X–STYLE BUTT JOINT
The joint is applied to cured FRP parts. Therefore, the bond
between the joint and the parts is adhesive; it is not the molecular
bond that forms when the parts are cured. Adhesive bonds are not Figure 25.10 illustrates a Section X, Class II butt joint—a vari-
as strong as molecular bonds, but they are strong enough to pro- ation on the RTP-1 butt joint shown in Fig. 25.8 —that constitutes
vide safe joints as long as the requirements of the applicable a head-to-shell joint, although the detail also applies to shell-girth
ASME Standard are satisfied. joints. The difference between the RTP-1 joint and the Section X
Figure 25.9 illustrates the bell-and-spigot joint, another design joint is that the parts to be joined are scarfed first, as in steel weld-
detail provided by RTP-1. This joint is used to assemble shell seg- ing, and then the structural overlay is applied. Rules for dimen-
ments or to join the head and shell. The first step in making the sions of the joint are given in Section X, Article RD-1175 [1].
joint is to fit and hold the parts, which is ordinarily done with fix- Both RTP-1 and Section X use the same styles of joints for
tures. The next step is to apply the resin putty as shown in Fig. attaching nozzles to shells or heads. Figure 25.11 shows one type
25.9. The resin putty is made of the same resin as the parts being of joint —a penetrating nozzle —in which the nozzle neck pro-
joined and is thickened with particulate-mineral filler. Recall that trudes inside the shell or head to which it is attached. The nozzle
the strapping is put in place and then compacted with a roller. The neck–flange assembly is first attached to the head or shell with
resin putty serves as a foundation for the application of the struc- fixtures or with a few dabs of hot-melt adhesive to hold the nozzle
tural strapping—that is, something to press the roller against. in place while the attachment laminate is applied. Next, the resin
Finally, the corrosion seal is installed. putty is placed as shown in Fig. 25.11 to provide a base for the
structural attachment layers. Finally, the structural overlay is
installed. Either RTP-1 or Section X, whichever applies, governs
the dimensions of the overlay. Flanges are attached to nozzle
necks by similar joints, and the reinforcing pad is added to mini-
mize stress intensification caused by cutting the hole in the shell
or head on which the nozzle in installed. Reinforcing-pad dimen-
sions are given in Section X or RTP-1, as applicable.

25.4 STRESS ANALYSIS OF FRP VESSELS

Simpler RTP-1 or Section X, Class II vessels can be designed
by using design rules found in the ASME Standards, although
many configurations are not governed by these rules. Both
Section X and RTP-1 provide for design-by-stress analysis, which
covers such configurations. Two factors complicate the stress
analysis of FRP vessels compared to metal vessels:
(1) Vessel parts are made of layered composites, in which the
layers have different elastic and strength properties, causing
each layer to have its own stress distribution.
(2) Each type of layer has five distinct strength properties,
which complicates the failure criterion.
This section discusses how these complications are treated.
Lamination analysis provides a way of dealing with the first
FIG. 25.9 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT complication of the preceding list. Most tanks and vessels have
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 262

262 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.11 PENETRATING-NOZZLE-INSTALLATION-LAMINATE OVERLAYS

FIG. 25.12 PLANE SECTIONS REMAINING PLANE

geometries that allow for valid analysis by the plate-and-shell the- each lamina has a linear stress–strain law, but each type of lamina
ory, which is true of both FRP and metal equipment. A fundamen- has different elastic properties and therefore a different linear
tal assumption in the theory is that the variation of strain through stress–strain law, although the lamina stresses can be computed
the thickness of a part is linear, or that the “plane sections remain from the strain. Lamination theory, a branch of mechanics that
plane”—an idea that Fig. 25.12 illustrates. Sketch (1) of Fig. treats this situation, is used to formulate the relationship between
25.12 depicts an undeformed cross section of a laminate with the strain in a plate or shell and the force and moment resultants
eight laminae. The vertical lines represent the edge view of planes in the solid.
in the laminate. If an in-plane force were applied to the laminate, As an example of the results of lamination theory, consider the
it would deform as shown in sketch (2): stretching in the load stress distribution in a 7-ply mat–woven-roving laminate 0.271 in.
direction and contracting in the other two directions. The vertical thick subjected to a tensile force resultant of 500 lb/in. in the princi-
planes would move apart but still remain parallel. If pure bending pal direction of the woven-roving plies. The laminate construction
were applied, the situation would be as shown in sketch (3): the is given in Table 25.7. In a homogeneous plate, the stress would be
vertical planes would rotate, but remain in plane. Strain in the 500/0.271  1,845 psi, but because the two types of ply in the lam-
cross section therefore varies linearly in the direction normal to inate have different elastic properties, the stress is not constant
the plane of the laminate. The same two kinds of deformation can through the thickness. (Note: please see Table 25.3 for the lamina
occur simultaneously from loading normal to the page and also as properties used in this example.) Figure 25.13 plots the normal
a result of twisting; however, the variation of the strain is still lin- stress in the load direction. Figure 25.14 graphs normal stress in the
ear in the normal direction. direction perpendicular to the load. The strain constitutes the uni-
The foregoing assumption about strain is called the Kirchoff form extension in the load direction and the Poisson’s ratio contrac-
hypothesis and is fundamental to plate-and-shell theory. It is as tions in the perpendicular direction. Figure 25.13 shows that the
true when applied to FRP laminates as when it is applied to plates stress in the 4-mat plies is the same (1,235 psi) and that the stresses
made of homogeneous, isotropic material. In an FRP laminate, in the woven-roving plies are equal at 2,904 psi but higher than the
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 263

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 263

FIG. 25.13 NORMAL STRESS IN LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN

FIG. 25.14 NORMAL STRESS PERPENDICULAR TO LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 264

264 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.15 NORMAL STRESS FROM BENDING LOAD IN BENDING DIRECTION

stress in the mat plies. Stress in the woven-roving plies, although The stress in lamina 4 vanishes, whereas the stress in laminae 5,
higher because they are stiffer than the mat plies, are under the 6, and 7 are symmetric to laminae 3, 2, and 1, respectively, but are
same strain. Both stresses are considerably different from the stress tensile instead of compressive. Note that the maximum bending
that would occur in a homogeneous laminate—1,845 psi. stress is not in the extreme fiber. Figure 25.16 gives the ply stress-
In a homogeneous laminate, stress would vanish in the cross- es in the cross-load direction. In this case, the neutral bending
load direction. However, again because of different elastic proper- plane is at the middle plane, but that is only because this laminate
ties, the Poisson’s contraction induces stress in the cross-fiber is symmetric about the middle plane.
direction, as shown in Fig. 25.14. Stress in the mat plies is 175 psi If a veil and 2-mat corrosion barrier were added, the laminate
tension; in the woven-roving plies, it is 303.4 psi compression. would no longer be symmetric and the neutral bending surface
The force resultant from these stresses is 0. would not coincide with the middle surface. Furthermore, there
As a second example, consider the same laminate subjected to a are laminates where the neutral plane for bending in one direction
22.58 in.-lb/in. bending moment. In a homogeneous laminate, the does not coincide with the neutral bending plane for bending in
maximum bending stress is given by the following familiar equation: the perpendicular direction. Fortunately, modern engineering soft-
ware provides practical ways of treating these complexities.
6M 6 * 22.58 Engineers analyzing structures built of ductile metals often use
s = 2
= = 1,845 (25.3) either the von Mises or the Tresca criterion to decide whether a
t 0.2712
state of stress is excessive. But in general, an FRP lamina has five
Figure 25.15 shows that the stresses for laminae 1, 2, and 3 are independent strength properites, as discussed in Section 25.2.1.
1171.4 psi, 1860.2 psi, and 391.5, respectively, all in compression. The Tsai-Wu quadratic interaction criterion is in general use for

FIG. 25.16 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO BENDING

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 265

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 265

layered-composite materials; it represents a generalization of the through the stress distribution in each lamina. For example, if a
von Mises criterion [5] and provides a strength criterion for FRP. vessel shell consists of twelve plies of material, the analyst must
Both RTP-1 (in paragraph M5-530) and Section X (in para- check the stress distribution in every ply instead of one bending
graph RD-188.5) use the same form of the Tsai-Wu quadratic and one membrane stress distribution for the entire part.
interaction criterion. The purpose of the criterion is to distinguish Modern finite-element software makes stress-distribution
between stress states that overload any lamina and stress states checking a practical task. The analyst can set up a set of material
that are acceptable. Both standards employ strength ratios for this constants for each lamina type in the vessel and then refer to the
purpose. The equations that state the quadratic interaction criteri- property set when he or she inputs data that defines the lamination
on in terms of a strength ratio may be written as follows: sequence. Many software systems that have a capability for
layered-composite plate elements provide efficient ways for speci-
R2(FxxS 2xx + 2FxySxxSyy + FyyS 2yy + FssS 2xy) fying stack-ups and also provide ways of finding the most highly
stressed lamina without the analyst having to view the stress dis-
+ R(FxSxx + FySyy) - 1 = 0 (25.4) tribution in every lamina. The Algor post-processor, for example,
produces a “worst-ply” plot. The program makes color-contour
plots of the reciprocal of the strength ratio, where the value plot-
where ted is the worst 1/R for any lamina at that point on the vessel.
Sxx  the normal stress in a principal direction of the lamina in Using this plot, the analyst can quickly isolate areas (if there are
question any) where the strength criterion is violated; then, he or she looks
Syy  the normal stress in the other principal direction at individual ply plots in those areas to isolate the locations and
Sxy  the shear stress in the plane of the lamina plies where stress is excessive. Other software systems have other
R  the strength ratio ways of filtering the voluminous stress output produced by
The other parameters are defined in terms of the five lamina composite-element calculations.
ultimate strengths, as follows: A simpler strength criterion is being introduced into the current
edition of RTP-1, ASME RTP-1-2007. The criterion is intended
1 1 1 for details of design and construction for which no rule is provid-
Fxx = Fyy = Fss = 2 ed in Subpart 3A, but for which other recognized engineering for-
XXc YYc Su
mulas exist. They may be accepted by comparing calculated
1 1 1 stress with ultimate laminate strength to establish a minimum
Fxy = - 2FxxFyy Fx = -
2 X Xc design factor. Other recognized formulas include stress calcula-
1 1 tions presented in various sections of the ASME pressure vessel
Fy = - (25.5) codes, formulas included in the non-mandatory appendices of
Y Yc
RTP-1, and well documented formulas presented elsewhere.
Combined flexural and membrane stress must comply with the
where following inequalities:
X and Xc  the tensile and compressive strengths in the x
direction, respectively smc sfc 1
Y, Yc  the tensile and compressive strengths in the y direc- + … (25.6)
St Sf F10
tion, respectively
Su  the shear strength and
Given the five strength values and a stress state, that is, a set of smi sfi 1
values for Sx, Sy, and Sxy, equation (25.4) can be solved for R. + … (25.7)
This equation is quadratic in R and therefore has two roots for R: St Sf F5
one positive, the other negative. If the positive root is greater than
a value stipulated in Section X or RTP-1 for the layer in question, Where
the stress state in the layer is acceptable; however, if the positive smc  calculated maximum sustained membrane stress
root is less than the stipulated value, the stress state is excessive sfc  calculated maximum sustained flexural stress
and not allowed. smi  calculated maximum combined intermittent and
The physical meaning of R is that if all three stresses are multi- sustained membrane stress
plied by R, the ply is just at the point of failure. Thus R is like a sfi  calculated maximum combined intermittent and
safety factor; the greater R, the farther from failure the lamina is. sustained flexural stress
Because the five lamina strength values are different for different St  ultimate tensile strength
lamina types, and also because the stress varies from lamina to Sf  ultimate flexural strength
lamina, the criterion is applied to each layer separately. F10  design factor for sustained loads  10
Finite-element stress analysis of FRP tanks and vessels take F5  design factor for sustained loads  5
more time than analysis of metal equipment of comparable con-
figuration. Instead of inputting one or two sets of isotropic materi- Examples of sustained stress are hydrostatic stress and design
al property values for the entire vessel, the analyst must input a pressure stress. Examples of loads that induce intermittent stress
set of orthotropic values for each type of laminate in the vessel. are wind, earthquake and loads from personnel standing on a ves-
Furthermore, instead of simply inputting a plate thickness for sel. In the two inequalities, maximum stress means the stress
each vessel part of different thickness, the analyst must input an with the largest absolute value. Absolute values of stress are used
entire lamination sequence for each part and must also sift in the inequalities.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 266

266 • Chapter 25

Quadratic Interaction Damage Criterion Section X, in the Table 25.8 gives the pressure scope for Class I vessels.
current edition, I introduced a new strength criterion based on Vessels with only polar-boss openings must satisfy the follow-
acoustic emission measurements of FRP samples which define the ing requirements to be eligible for the higher pressure scope:
lowest stress at which significant damage occurs. The required
tests are defined by Article RT-8 in Section X. For contact mold- (1) openings shall be centered on the axis of rotation;
ed laminates, flexural and shear tests are required. For filament (2) openings shall be of the polar-boss type wound in place on
wound laminates, a sample filament wound cylinder must be test- the axis of revolution;
ed. The values upon which the criterion is based are: (3) the boss diameter shall not exceed half the vessel inside
diameter; and
Rd  damage criterion stress ratio  1.25 (4) the filaments shall not be cut.
Sd  damaged based design value with respect to shear stress in
the plane of the laminate. The pressure scope for Class II vessels is more complicated,
Xd  tensile and compressive damage based design value in the depending on the size of the vessel. As is discussed below,
x (strong) direction Section X vessels must be between 6 in. and 192 in. in diameter.
Yd  tensile and compressive damaged based design value in There are two methods for design calculations: Method A that
the y (weak) direction uses design rules like Section VIII, Division 1, and Method B that
°  damage criterion design factor  0.75 provides for design by stress analysis. Vessels designed by
sx  stress in the lamina material direction x at the point and Method A are limited to 100 psi internal design pressure and 144 in.
lamina under investigation diameter.
sy  stress in the lamina material direction y at the point and Vessels designed by Method B rules shall have pressure and
lamina under investigation diameter restrictions as follows:
ss  in-plane shear stress at the point and lamina under inves-
1. The algebraic product of the internal pressure in psig and the
tigation
diameter in inches shall not exceed 14,400 lb/in (Equation
The Quadratic Interaction Design Criterion is: 25.9)
2. The maximum internal pressure shall not exceed 250 psig.
R 2d sxsy sy 2 3. The maximum inside diameter shall not exceed 192 in.
ca b - + a b + a b d … 1
sx 2 ss 2
(25.8)
°2 Xd XdYd Yd Sd Vessels may be designed using a combination of Methods A
and B. For such vessels the maximum design pressure is limited
This criterion is scientifically better than the others in the two
to 100 psig with a maximum inside diameter of 144 in. Vessels
standards, but it is just now being introduced into use.
designed by either Methods A or B are limited to a maximum
external pressure of 15 psig.
25.5 SCOPES OF SECTION X AND RTP-1
14400
This section discusses the scope of both Section X and RTP-1. P = (25.9)
D
The scope of Section X is discussed first, followed by that of
RTP-1. where
P  is the design pressure in psi and
25.5.1 Scope of Section X D  is the diameter in in. These rules are expressed by Figure
Section X has two classes of vessels: I and II, both of which 25.17
differ in scope. In brief, the classes are distinguished as follows:
The maximum external design pressure for Class II vessels is 15
(1) Class I vessel designs are qualified through possibly psig.
destructive fatigue and pressure testing of a prototype. The design temperature of Section X vessels must not exceed
Vessels similar to the prototype may then be built and the 250ºF or 35ºF less than the maximum-use temperature of the
ASME Code Symbol RP applied, but the prototype itself, resin, whichever is less. The maximum-use temperature of a resin
however, may not receive the Code Symbol RP. is either the glass-transition temperature (TG) or the heat-
(2) Class II vessel design is qualified through mandatory design deflection (also called heat-distortion) temperature, whichever the
rules and nondestructive acceptance testing, which includes Fabricator and resin supplier prefer. When a polymer is cooler
an acoustic-emission (AE) examination. than its TG, it is rigid and hard; when it is hotter than TG, it is
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 267

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 267

FIG. 25.17 INTERNAL PRESSURE SCOPE FOR SECTION X VESSELS

rubbery. The Section X resins are used below the TG, whereas (4) Vessels that have any part of their shells, heads, nozzles, fit-
other resins (such as tire rubber) are used above it. The elastic tings, or support laminates heated above the aforementioned
modulus of Section X resins drops orders of magnitude at and maximum temperature allowable.
above the TG [6]. The heat-deflection temperature is the tempera- (5) Vessels having an inside diameter or maximum internal
ture at which a specified bar specimen deflects 0.01 in. when cross-sectional dimension not exceeding 6 in. without any
loaded as a simple beam to a constant 264 psi (see ASTM D 648, limitation of the length of the vessel or pressure.
Test Method for Deflection Temperature of Plastics under (6) Pressure vessels for human occupancy.
Flexural Load, for details). It is usually measured for resin cast- (7) Vessels intended to store, handle, transport, or process
ings, not laminates [7]. For the resin used in Section X, the TG lethal fluids.
and heat-deflection temperatures are approximately equal. The
temperature scope applies to both Class I and Class II vessels. The jurisdiction of Section X vessels includes only the vessel
Vessels fabricated under Section X intended for Section IV and integral communication chambers; it terminates where
potable-water use are limited to applications permitted herein. (1) the external piping is connected to the vessel at the thread-
The vessels are limited to internal pressure only with a maximum ed first joint, the first circumferential adhesive-bonded joint,
allowable working pressure (MAWP) of 160 psig. The maximum and the face of the first flange in bolted flanged connections;
allowable temperature used shall be 210ºF [8]. or where
The following classes of vessels are exempted from the scope (2) the lugs, skirts, and other supporting structures are joined
of Section X [9]. directly to a vessel at the first joint or connection beyond the
(1) Pressure containers, which are integral parts of rotating or vessel, but the attachment of the supporting structure to the
reciprocating mechanical devices (e.g., pumps, compres- vessel is included in the scope.
sors, turbines, generators, engines, and hydraulic or pneu- Section X vessels are limited to those constructed of thermoset-
matic cylinders) where the primary design considerations ting epoxy, polyester–vinyl ester, furan or phenolic resins rein-
andor the stresses are derived from the functional require- forced by glass, or carbon or aramid fibers.
ments of the device.
(2) Piping systems in which the primary function is to transport 25.5.2 Scope of RTP-1
fluids from one location to another within a system of which The pressure scope of RTP-1 is simpler than that of Section X
it is an integral part. and applies to stationary vessels used for the storage, accumula-
(3) Piping components, such as pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, tion, or processing of corrosive and other substances at pressures
valves, expansion joints, fittings, and pressure-containing not exceeding 15 psig external and/or 15 psig internal above any
parts of other components (e.g., strainers) and devices that hydrostatic head. The maximum temperature within the scope of
are used for mixing, separating, snubbing, distributing and RTP-1 is not defined. RTP-1, Article 1-130 states only that
metering, or controlling the flow, provided the pressure-
containing parts are generally recognized as piping compo- applications above 180F require that the designer recognizes
nents or accessories. and accounts for possible reduced mechanical properties at
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 268

268 • Chapter 25

the elevated temperature and possibly decreasing mechanical RTP-1 vessels are limited to those constructed of thermosetting
properties with time as a consequence of thermal and chemi- polyester or vinyl ester, each reinforced by glass fibers.
cal exposure. Such elevated temperature applications require
special design attention, and consultation with the Resin
Manufacturer is essential.
25.6 DESIGN QUALIFICATIONS OF
In this connection, it should be noted that RTP-1 requires a SECTION X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
Registered Professional Engineer experienced in the design of RTP-
1 vessels to certify the design, including the design temperature(s). This section discusses design qualification of Section X and
Certain types of FRP equipment are excluded from the scope of RTP-1 vessels. Design qualification of Section X, Class I vessels
RTP-1. They are as follows: is by destructive testing. Qualification for Class II vessels requires
design calculations and a successful AE examination. RTP-1 ves-
(1) vessels with an internal design pressure in excess of 15 psig; sel designs are qualified by design computations and, in some
(2) hoods, ducts, and stacks; cases, by proof testing.
(3) fans and blowers;
(4) vessel internals, such as entrainment separators and 25.6.1 Section X, Class I Design Qualifications
packing-support plates; No design calculations are required for Section X, Class I ves-
(5) pumps; sels. Section X does contain Nonmandatory Appendix AA
(6) piping; and (Suggested Methods of Preliminary Design for Class I Vessels), but
(7) underground, fully buried closed vessels the Fabricator is not obligated to use it. The Fabricator must build a
The geometric jurisdiction is similar to Section X. RTP-1 prototype of a new design and subject it to a cyclic and a qualifica-
includes the following: tion pressure test. Table 25.9 summarizes these requirements.
The pressure qualification test is a type of hydrostatic pressure
(1) Where external piping is to be connected to the vessel, test. Filament-wound vessels and pipes tend to “weep” at pres-
(a) the first threaded joint for screwed connections; sures considerably less than their burst pressures, that is, test liq-
(b) the face of the first flange for bolted connections; and uid oozes through the laminate and beads on its surface, possibly
(c) the vessel side sealing surface for proprietary connections at pressures well below bursting. When this occurs, it is some-
or fittings. times difficult to pump the liquid into the test piece quickly
(2) The vessel attachment joint when an attachment is made to enough to attain the desired test pressure, for which reason
either the external or the internal surface of the vessel. Section X permits the use of a flexible bladder inside the vessels
(3) Covers for vessel openings such as manholes and hand- during the pressure qualification test to attain the qualification
holes. pressure. No leakage may occur during cyclic testing, nor may a
(4) The vessel side sealing surface for proprietary fittings liner or bladder be used that is not part of the vessel design.
attached to the vessels for which rules are not provided by When a prototype vessel satisfies these requirements, a vessel
RTP-1, such as gages and instruments. identical to it may be built and marked with the ASME RP Code
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 269

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 269

Symbol. It may not, however, receive a Code Stamp. Section X

provides a thorough set of quality assurance requirements to
ensure that production vessels are essentially identical to the suc-
cessful prototype vessel. These requirements are discussed in the
forthcoming paragraphs.

25.6.2 Section X, Class II Design Qualifications

Class II requirements are more similar to those of other sections
of the Code. Section X, Class II requires design computations and
a hydrostatic test, the latter part of an AE examination that is
required for all Class II vessels. Unlike other Code sections, the
Fabricator is required to develop materials’ data for his or her
design calculations. A Registered Professional Engineer must cer-
tify that the design calculations satisfy Section X. FIG. 25.18 SECTION X, CLASS II, METHOD
Manufacturers of metal vessels build them of plate and other B COMPONENTS
metal-product forms that are made of standardized alloys.
Therefore, it is possible to make a compilation of materials’ data,
such as from Section II, Part D of the Code, and use it as input for
Section X, Nonmandatory Appendix AC (Discontinuity
design calculations. However, that approach is not useful for FRP
Stresses for Class II Method B Vessels) discusses discontinuity
vessels. Fabricators combine resin and fiber reinforcement to pro-
stress analysis, although very few engineers today use discontinu-
duce vessel components, with results that differ among them.
ity analysis, for it has been largely supplanted by finite-element
Neither the Resin Manufacturer nor the Fiber Manufacturer has
analysis—the way most method B calculations are done. The
control of these differences and therefore cannot certify any par-
Code does not provide rules for deciding whether a given analysis
ticular set of properties for a cured laminate. Section X requires
is valid; that is the responsibility of the Registered Professional
Fabricators to measure mechanical properties of the laminates
Engineer.
that they produce for use in design computations.
No vessel can be designed entirely by method A; every vessel
Section X provides two kinds of design calculation: method A
contains supports, for which method A lacks rules. (The same
and method B. Method A is design-by-rule analysis, in which the
comment is true of Section VIII, Division 1.) Article RD-1150
thicknesses of the pressure-containing parts are given by simple
requires that design calculations be provided for internal and
mathematical expressions in terms of design pressure, dimensions
external attachments such as supports. Using a combination of
of the part, and elastic constants of the laminate of which the part is
methods A and B is allowed. There is a very important paragraph
made. The properties used in method A are effective elastic con-
in the preface that states,
stants of the laminate taken as a unit, not the elastic properties of
the individual laminae comprising the laminate. To provide material
The Code contains mandatory requirements, specific prohibi-
data for a particular design, the Fabricator must measure the elastic
tions, and nonmandatory guidance for construction4 activi-
properties of each type of lamina he or she intends to use in the ves-
ties. For the Code does not address all aspects of these activ-
sel. The design-basis lamina must be composed of the same resin
ities and those aspects which are not specifically addressed
and reinforcing fiber that will be used as well as the same catalyst,
should not be considered prohibited. The Code is not a hand-
promoter, and other additives. Based on the lamina properties, the
book and cannot replace education, experience, and engineer-
design engineer uses lamination theory to calculate the elastic con-
ing judgment. The phrase engineering judgment refers to
stants of the laminate. Section X, Article RD-12 contains the lami-
technical judgments made by knowledgeable designers expe-
nation theory equations that are used, which are usually volumi-
rienced in the application of the Code. Engineering
nous and possible to perform with a pencil, some paper, and a slide
judgments must be consistent with Code philosophy and such
rule, although ordinarily commercial software is used. It is the
judgments must never be used to overrule mandatory require-
responsibility of the Registered Professional Engineer who certifies
ments or specific prohibitions of the Code.
the design to establish that the software used in the design gives
identical results to the equations in Section X. Figure 25.18 shows In the spirit of this paragraph, Article RD-1186 on attachments
the components for which method A rules exist and indicates the states that the effect of local structural discontinuities from small
article giving the rule for a particular component. attachments need not be included in the stress analysis of the ves-
Method B governs design-by-stress analysis. A set of thick- sel if, in the opinion of the registered Professional Engineer, they
nesses for vessel parts is chosen and the stress fields are calculat- are insignificant. Thus the engineer may design as many compo-
ed throughout the vessel for that choice as well as for all relevant nents as possible with the simple rules of method A and supple-
load combinations. The strength criterion specified by Section X ment these calculations with method B stress analysis, as needed.
is applied to determine whether the computed stresses satisfy the He or she may use this experience and informed judgment to
criterion. Section X, Article RD-1188 uses a form of the Tsai-Wu accept some design details without analysis. Section X, Class II
criterion. Given the strain fields in a vessel for a particular load provides a practical, reliable way to design FRP vessels. The AE
combination, Section X lays out a procedure for calculating the examination demonstrates the structural integrity of the vessel.
strength ratios, but it does not specify how the analysis to deter- Section 25.7 presents a design example that has all the compo-
mine the strain fields should be implemented. nents shown in Fig. 25.18.

4
The term construction, as used in this Foreword, is an all-inclusive term that comprises materials, design, fabrication, examination, inspection, testing, certification, and pres-
sure relief.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 270

270 • Chapter 25

That means that RTP-1 may be satisfied by using the component

design in the NM article, although the provision is not compulsory.
RTP-1 introduced a new pressure containing component: flat
sandwich plates with balsa cores. Non-mandatory Appendix NM-
15 “Flat Cored Plate Design”. Mandatory Appendix M-13 “Balsa
Wood Receiving and Inspection Procedures” provide quality
assurance requirements for the balsa.
RTP-1 defines the footprint load as a 250 lb vertically down-
ward load that is distributed uniformly over a 16 in.2 compact
area, an area with an aspect ratio close to 1.0 (e.g., a circle or
square). The footprint-load requirement is intended to prevent
damage to the vessel if someone stands on it, such as the time
when the piping is connected to a nozzle on the top head. Because
RTP-1 vessels may have very low design pressures, the footprint-
load requirement may dictate the thickness of a top head.
Although the collection of components covered by Subpart 3A is
more complete than the method A collection in Section X, neither
has the variety available in Section VIII, Division 1.
Material properties for design are treated differently in Subpart
3A than they are in Section X. RTP-1 requires the results of
FIG. 25.19 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A mechanical properties tests on samples cut from complete lami-
COMPONENTS (CHART 1 OF 2) nates, as opposed to tests on individual laminae. The property
tests must be run on all types of laminates used.
The strength criterion required by Subpart 3B rules, like
25.6.3 Design Qualifications of RTP-1 Vessels method B in Section X, is based on the Tsai-Wu quadratic
Design qualifications of RTP-1 vessels resemble those for interaction criterion. However, there are differences in the way
Section X, Class II. The RTP nomenclature is slightly different: the criterion is applied.
Subpart 3A design is analogous to the method A design in Section Sections 25.7–25.10 provide a series of design examples illus-
X and Subpart 3B is analogous to the method B design. Part 3 of trating design calculation and specification of all the components
RTP pertains to design; Subparts 3A and 3B are subsets of Part 3, shown in Figs. 25.19 and 25.20.
the former covering design-by-rule analysis, the latter covering
design-by-stress analysis. 25.6.4 Design Qualification Overview
Figures 25.19 and 25.20 sketch the components for which Design qualification in Section X Class I is empirical, based on
Subpart 3A rules are available. The notes on the drawings refer to a thorough prototype testing. Class II design is based partly on
the articles in RTP-1 that cover the indicated detail. The “NM” calculation, partly on testing. Material testing provides material
notes—for example, the note indicating the footprint load on the properties, calculation establishes the part dimensions and thick-
top of the vessel in Fig. 25.20—refer to nonmandatory provisions. nesses, and an AE examination gives an experimental verification
of the design. RTP-1 design is based either entirely or largely on
measured material properties and calculation, and it does not
require hydrostatic testing of vessels with design pressures less
than 0.5 psig and diameters not exceeding 12 ft For larger vessels
or those with design pressures greater than 0.5 psig, a hydrostatic
test is required. All three methods are based on long experience
and produce safe, reliable vessels.

25.7 SECTION X EXAMPLE: DESIGN

SPECIFICATION
Section X, Article RG-310 states the requirement for a Design
Specification as follows in a single paragraph:
The User, or an agent acting in his behalf, requiring that a ves-
sel be designed, fabricated, tested and certified to be a vessel
complying with this Section, shall provide or cause to be provided
for such a vessel information as to operating conditions, including
intended use and material compatibility with the contents, in such
detail as will provide the basis for design, material selection, fab-
rication, and inspection in accordance with this Section. This
information will be designated hereinafter as the Design
Specification.
FIG. 25.20 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART Figure 25.21 is a sketch of a Section X vessel suitable for
3A COMPONENTS (CHART 2 OF 2) use in a Design Specification. The vessel is a reactor with
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:48 AM Page 271

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 271

Specification is a key part of the User’s request for quotation.

Thus, so that the Fabricator’s bids are comparable, it is wise for
the User to develop a complete, thorough Design Specification.
In this example, the User has chosen the resin and therefore
accepts responsibility for compatibility of the resin with vessel
contents. If the User had wished the Fabricator to select the resin,
the User would have needed to make a complete disclosure of the
vessel contents, including any changes in the contents’ composi-
tion during the chemical reactions occurring in the vessel. It is
obvious that the person who selects the resin must understand
what the vessel will contain, but sometimes Chemical
Manufacturers regard such information as proprietary. If they
want to keep the composition of the contents secret, they must
choose the resin themselves.
Because the reactor will be installed indoors, there are no snow,
rain, or wind loads. Unprotected FRP is subject to damage from
the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Therefore, if the vessel will be
stored outdoors for a long period before it is installed, the User
would need to inform the Fabricator. The Fabricator would then
recommend an ultraviolet inhibitor for the final coat of resin or a
pigmented-gel coat on the outside of the vessel.
The User’s Design Specification should contain any informa-
tion necessary to the Fabricator but not governed by Section X.
FIG. 25.21 SECTION X DESIGN EXAMPLE For example, the corrosion barrier should be specified, and
although tolerances on nozzle locations are important as well,
they are not provided in Section X and should thus be included in
the Design Specification. Scheduling, shipping, delivery, pay-
internal design pressure of 40 psig that will be filled with 1.2 ment, and other commercial arrangements must be worked out
specific gravity liquid coincident with the internal design pres- and possibly documented in the Design Specification.
sure. The empty reactor will also be subjected to 10 psig exter- Nozzle elevations are measured from the bottom of the skirt. It
nal pressure. The design temperature is 150F for both internal is tempting to reference them from the bottom tangent line, but
and external design pressures. Acme 105 vinyl ester resin, that location is not easily located in a finished FRP vessel.
reinforced by glass fibers, is determined to be suitable for the Consider Fig. 25.10, which shows a head-to-shell joint. The
liquids the User intends to process in the reactor. The User thick, bulging joint overlay conceals the exact location of the tan-
desires the Fabricator to choose the brand of reinforcing glass gent line.
fiber. The contents are corrosive, so the User requires a con- Section X, Class II vessels are required to satisfy visual inspec-
ventional-veil-ply and 2-mat-ply corrosion barrier. In addition, tion criteria, but they apply only to the structural part of the lami-
the User requires a visual inspection level 2. (Visual inspection nate. A visual inspection of defects, such as pits and bubbles, are
and other quality control provisions are discussed later in this at least as important in the corrosion barrier; however, Section X
section.) does not cover them, for which reason the User’s Design
Many FRP vessels require corrosion barriers, but Section X Specification should provide criteria for such an inspection.
does not provide rules for their construction (although it does Article 6-940 and Table 6-1 of RTP-1, however, do contain such
allow their use). Section VIII treats liners the same way. For criteria that are suitable for use with Section X equipment. The
example, many steel vessels have rubber liners that are User could reference the RTP-1 provisions in the Design
required to prevent excessive corrosion. Without the proper Specification.
design and installation of the liners, these vessels would not be All too often, a User’s Design Specification lists several nation-
safe and reliable. Section VIII leaves the task of design and al standards on FRP equipment, such as RTP-1, Section X, ASTM
installation to the Manufacturer, and similarly, Section X pipe-and-tank standards, and the now-obsolete National Bureau of
leaves the task of design and installation of corrosion barriers Standards’ PS15-69 document. The User’s standard imposes all of
to the Fabricator. The nontreatment of liners and corrosion bar- them on the same vessel and states something to the effect of “in
riers is a good example of the following statement from the case of conflicts among these standards, the most stringent shall
preface of Section X: apply”—practice that invites chaos. In the author’s experience,
The Code does not address all aspects of these activities and RTP-1 for tanks and low-pressure vessels and Section X for
those aspects which are specifically addressed should not be con- higher-pressure vessels, together with a good User’s Design
sidered prohibited. Specification, shall suffice.
Table 25.10 is an example of a Design Specification for a
Section X vessel. The first set of entries gives the vessel designa-
tion in addition to the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and 25.8 SECTION X: EXAMPLE DESIGN
e-mail addresses of the User, the User’s Agent, and the individual CALCULATIONS
who prepared the Design Specification.
The final version of the Design Specification is often a collabo- Design calculations for the vessel in the Design Specification of
ration between the User and the Fabricator. However, the Design Table 25.10 are presented in the following paragraphs. Table 25.11
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 272

272 • Chapter 25

lists the design calculations and the section numbers of this chap- lamination analysis to determine the laminate properties for use in
ter where they are presented. method A design. (See Table 25.3 earlier in the chapter for a list of
The vessel will be constructed of mat–woven-roving laminate. mat- and woven-roving lamina properties.) They were used togeth-
Section X requires the use of lamina properties coupled with er with the lamination theory equations in Section X, Article
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 273

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 273

TABLE 25.12 LAMINATE PROPERTIES FOR EXAMPLE 1

DESIGN CALCULATIONS

E1 1.666  106 psi

E2 1.785  106 psi
E1f 1.778  106 psi tangent line of the shell, to the location where the heads and shell
E2f 1.681  106 psi abut for the joints, and to the deepest points in the heads. The
v1 0.24 weight density, , is the product of the specific gravity and the
v2 0.22 weight density of water, which is 0.0361 lb/in.3; thus   0.0433
v1f 0.239 lb/in.3. The external pressure is the same for all components —10
v2f 0.226 psig. Table 25.13 lists the internal pressures.

25.8.2 Top and Bottom Heads

RD-12 to obtain the mechanical properties of the mat–woven- To safely resist internal pressure, Section X requires that the
roving laminate listed in Table 25.12. In that table and in the thickness of a 2:1 ellipsoidal head be at least equal to t as given
design formulas that follow, the following symbols are used: by (RD-1173.1):
E1  the axial tensile modulus PD
E2  the hoop tensile modulus t1 = (25.11)
2(0.001E - 0.6P)
E1f  the axial flexural modulus
E2f  the hoop flexural modulus
where
v1  Poisson’s ratio for stress in x direction and contraction in
E  the lesser of E1 and E2 from Table 25.12  1.666  106 psi
y direction
P  the component pressure given in Table 25.13  41.34 psig
v2  Poisson’s ratio for stress in y direction and contraction in
(top head)
x direction
D  the inside diameter of the head  96 in.
v1f  Poisson’s ratio for bending stress in x direction and con-
traction/expansion in y direction When these values are inserted in the equation (25.11), the
v2f  Poisson’s ratio for bending stress in y direction and con- result is t  1.209 in., which is similar to an equation in Section
traction/expansion in x direction VIII, Division 1. In this case, however, the allowable stress has
been replaced by 0.001E, which is 1,666 psi. The head must also
Section X, Class II does not allow the thickness of the corro-
resist an external pressure of 10 psig. Article RD-1173.2 gives the
sion barrier to be considered as contributing to structural strength.
following equation for the maximum allowable external pressure,
Therefore, even though the vessel would have a corrosion barrier,
PA, for an elliptical head of thickness, t.
it is not included in the forthcoming calculations.

0.41a b t 2
E
25.8.1 Component Pressures
F
The internal pressure used in design computations for each PA = (25.12)
component is the sum of the design pressure and the hydrostatic 33(1 - v1v2)(K 0D0)2
pressure at the component. This pressure is given by the following

Where
P  Pd  h (25.10) K0  a numerical factor from Table 1173.2 in Section X that
is a function of the ratio of major to minor axes of the
where head (for the ratio  2, K0 0.9)
Pd  the design pressure F  the design factor  10
y  the weight density D0  D  2t  98.412 in., using the thickness required for
h  the vertical distance of the component to the surface of the internal pressure
liquid contents 1,2  Poisson’s ratio given in Table 25.12
The distance of h is measured to the centerline of nozzles in the When inserted into equation (25.12), these values yield PA 
shell, to the deepest point on nozzles in the heads, to the bottom 7.739 psig, which is less than design external pressure of 10 psig.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 274

274 • Chapter 25

Equation (25.12) cannot readily be solved for t, because D0 equations use more material properties. Previously, hoop and
depends implicitly on t. D0  D  t could be substituted into the axial tensile modulii and hoop and axial Poisson’s ratios were
equation, which could then be solved for t. The result would be a needed. Now, the equations use all the properties in Table 25.12
rather messy quadratic equation for t. It is easier to have a pro- except hoop tensile modulus, E2. The four elastic modulii may be
gram such as Mathcad solve the equation, or else to use a cut-and- obtained by testing or by lamination theory calculations. The four
try method. A Mathcad solution for t with PA  10 psig gives t  Poisson’s ratios are ordinarily calculated.
1.377 in. Thus the minimum thickness for the top head, governed In addition to the dimensions used in the example above, the
by external pressure, is 1.377 in. design length for external pressure design and the shell thickness
Equation (25.11) also applies to the bottom head, but in this are required. The design length is defined the same way by RD-
case P  48.61 psig. All the other values that go into equation 1172.1 of Section X and 3A-310 of RTP-1, and it is taken as the
(25.11) are the same. The result is t  1.425 in. As far as external greatest of the following:
pressure is concerned, the top and bottom heads have the same
load, geometry, and material properties, so the required thickness 1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the
is the same at 1.377 in. However, because this is less than the depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings
thickness required for internal pressure, it is the internal pressure (excluding conical heads and sections).
that governs the thickness of the bottom head. 2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels
Thicknesses given by design formulas can usually not be built with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings.
exactly, because they do not correspond to a real laminate 3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adja-
sequence. A real laminate must have an integral number of plies. cent stiffening rings.
In the notation of Table 25.6, the next practical laminate closest to, 4. The distance from the center of the first stiffening ring to the
but not thinner than, 1.377 in. is the one with a sequence of five formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the
sets of 3(MR) followed by one M, which comes out to 1.40 in. if formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all mea-
mat plies are assumed to be 0.043 in. thick and woven roving plies sured parallel to the axis of the vessel.
are assumed to be 0.033 in. thick. Similarly, the actual laminate for 5. The distance from the first stiffening in the cylinder to the
the bottom head-calculated thickness of 1.425 in. is 1.474 in., cone-cylinder junction.
which has a laminate sequence of five sets of 3(MR), M followed To continue the example, let L  144 in. The above calculation
by MRM. This could also be written 5[3(MR), M], MRM. gives a thickness of 1.3 in. Then the OD of the cylinder is 96 
2(1.3)  98.6 in. The equations in RD-1172.1 for calculating the
25.8.3 Shell-Design Computations allowable external pressure, PA, are:
Article RD-1171.1 gives the following rule for the minimum
thickness of a cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure: The 3 1 5

minimum shell thickness shall be the greater of t1 or t2, KD 0.8531 g E 42f E 41t 2
PA = (25.15)
where 3

(1 - v1fv2f) L a b F
3 D0 2
4

PR 2
t2 = (25.13) where:
0.001E 2 - 0.6P
D0  the outside diameter of the shell
PR KD  0.84, a knockdown factor
t1 = (25.14) F  design factor  5
2(0.001E 1 - 0.6P)
and the other symbols are defined above. The parameter  is
Equation (25.13) is based on the membrane stress in the axial defined by:
direction; equation (25.14), on the hoop membrane stress. The
allowable stress is 0.001 times the relevant modulus, discounted by g = 1 - 0.001 Zp if Zp … 100
0.6P. The symbols are as defined previously, except for R, which is (25.16)
g = 0.9 if Zp 7 100
the inside radius of the shell. The numerical values are as follows:
P  47.58 psig from Table 25.13 Zp is given by:
E1  1.666  106 psi (from Table 25.12) 3 1
E2  1.785  106 (also from Table 25.12) E 22f E 21 1 L2
R  48 in Zp = (1 - v1f v2f)2 (25.17)
E 21f
a tb
D0
For this choice of values: 2
t1  0.689 in. When inserted in (25.17) the values above give Zp  353.4,
t2  1.300 in. which is greater than 100 and thus   0.9. Then the value of PA
from (25.15) is 9.3 psi, which is less than the required 10 psi
Thus the internal-pressure hoop stress governs, and the mini- (Table 25.10). Using ply thicknesses from Table 25.2, the thinnest
mum allowed is t  1.3 in. laminate with an integral number of plies that is at least 1.3 in
Both Section X and RTP-1 have adopted new and more compli- thick is 5[3(MR),M], or 1.355 in thick. With t  1.355 in, Z p 
cated rules for computing the allowable external pressure on a 338.9,   0.9 and PA  10.3 psi, which satisfies the requirement.
cylindrical part, and both standards adopted the same rules. The The internal pressure requires t  1.3 in. But the closest practi-
new treatment is simplified version of the rigorous NASA SP- cal stack-up is 5[3(MR),M] which has nominal thickness 1.355 in,
8007 solution for lateral and longitudinal external pressure. The and which satisfies the external pressure requirement.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 275

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 275

25.8.5 Nozzle, Nozzle Attachment, and Reinforcing

Pad Design
Table 25.14 is a reproduction of Table RD-620.1 from Section
X; it gives the dimensions of nozzles and their flanges constructed
of contact-molded and pressure-molded FRP. Nozzles and flanges
of these dimensions satisfy the design requirements of Section X.
Flanges or nozzle designs not listed in this table can be designed
by using Article RD-1176, a method that represents an adaptation
of Mandatory Appendix 2 of Section VIII, Division 1 (Rules for
Bolted Flange Connections with Ring-Type Gaskets) to full-faced
gasket flanges. In the Section X version of the method, many of
the method’s stress factors are given by graphs; in the Section VIII
version, the same factors are used, but they are provided here in
both graphical and equational forms. For anybody considering
computerizing the method, the equational forms of the stress fac-
tors are much more convenient to use than the graphical forms.
Table 25.15 lists the nozzle and flange dimensions for the
FIG. 25.22 HEAD-TO-SHELL JOINT DIMENSIONS example vessel, which are taken from Table 25.14 and are for
50 psig. Table 25.16 lists practical and minimum allowable thick-
nesses for the nozzles. The columns labeled “minimum” represent
the minimum allowable dimensions for 50 psig; those labeled
“actual” represent the dimensions corresponding to laminates
Section X included a new Non-mandatory Appendix AI “Rigorous with practical stack-ups.
NASA SP-8007 Solution for Lateral and Longitudinal Pressure” Each nozzle has attachment overlays and a reinforcing pad.
which gives an example of the use of the rigorous solution. RTP-1 Figure 25.23 shows these dimensions. The dimensions to be cal-
introduced Non-mandatory Appendix NM-16, “External Pressure culated are Lb, the length of the secondary overlay on the nozzle
Design Example for Cylindrical Shells”. It has the same example as neck; tb, the thickness of the secondary overlay; Lp, the length the pad
the Section X appendix. will extend from the nozzle neck; and tp, the thickness of the rein-
forcing pad. RD-1174.2 has an algorithm for obtaining these
25.8.4 Shell-to-Head Joints dimensions. The calculated attachment laminate length, Lbc, is
Figure 25.22 indicates the two dimensions of the joint: t0 is the given by
overlay thickness and Lo is the length of overlay on each side of
the joint. RD-1175.2 provides the following simple formulas for FPr
L bc = (25.20)
t0 and L 0: 2Ss

P(R + t) where
t0 = (25.18) F  the design factor  10
0.001E 2
P  the internal pressure at the nozzle
PR r  the inside radius of the nozzle
2(Ss>F)
L0 = (25.19) Ss  the secondary shear bond strength in shear (1,000 psi
maximum)
where If Lbc < 3 in., then Lb  3 in.; otherwise, Lb  Lbc.
P  the pressure at the center of the joint The calculated overlay thickness, tbc, is given by the following
t  the shell thickness equation:
F  the design factor  10
E2  the tensile hoop modulus Pr
t bc = (25.21)
Ss  the secondary bond strength in shear  1,000 psi maxi- Ss - 0.6P
mum
If tbc < 0.25 in., then tb  0.25 in.; otherwise, tb  tbc, As an
At the bottom joint, P  47.58 psi, R  48in., E2  1.786  example, consider the manway opening. Here, P  46.02 psig
106 psi, and t  1.3 in.; we will take Ss  1,000 psi. Given these and r  12 in.; let Ss  1,000 psi. In this case, Lbc  2.761 in.;
values, L0  11.42 in. and t0  1.314 in. The same practical lami- thus, Lb  3 in. The tbc  0.333 in., which is greater than 0.25 in.;
nate schedules used for the shell can be used here, so the actual therefore, tb  0.333 in.
overlay thickness is 1.355 in. with a stack-up of 5[3(MR), M]. The thickness of the reinforcing pad shall be the greater of the
The top-joint overlay dimensions are calculated the same way following:
and with the same numbers except that P  41.34 psi. The result-
ing dimensions are L0  9.92 in. and t0  1.138 in. The practical (1) A thickness of secondary overlay with strength equivalent
laminate has a stack-up of 4[3(MR), M], MM and is 1.17 in. thick. to the tensile strength in the circumferential direction of the
After laying down each 3(MR), M, the laminator must wait for the shell thickness removed, tp1.
peak exotherm and then resume with an M ply. Therefore, finish- (2) A thickness of secondary overlay, tp2, that when added to
ing the overlay with three M plies was a good choice for the most the shell thickness reduces the bending stress at the opening
economical acceptable overlay. to an allowable level. The allowable bending stress is
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 276

276 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 277

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 277

defined as 0.1% of the flexural modulus of the reinforcing Step (2) Using from step (1), obtain a Kt factor from
laminate in its circumferential direction. Fig. 25.24, which is the relevant curve from Fig. RD-1174.3 in
Section X.
Thickness tp1 is given by the following equation: Step (3) Compute the maximum stress at the opening, Smax:

PR
t p1 = (25.22) Smax = S2K t. (25.24)
0.001E 2

Section X defines E2 as the tensile modulus of the secondary where

overlay in the circumferential direction. Because the direction of S2  0.001E2
the woven-roving laminae in secondary overlays is usually not E2  the circumferential tensile modulus of the shell
controlled, E2 in this equation shall be taken as the lesser of the (Note: There are a lot of E2’s floating around in the nozzle
two tensile moduli. Therefore, to compute the reinforcing pad design; please do not be confused.)
dimensions, E2  1.686  10 psi. Section X gives the following Step (4) Determine from the following equation the moment, M,
procedure for computing tp2: associated with Smax being applied at the edge of the opening:
Step (1) Compute the factor:
Smax t 2
M = (25.25)
23(1 - v1v2)
4

a b
r 6
b = (25.23)
2 2Rt
where
The symbols in equation (25.23) are as defined previously. t  the vessel thickness

FIG. 25.23 NOZZLE-ATTACHMENT-LAMINATE AND REINFORCING-PAD DIMENSIONS

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 278

278 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.24 Kt AS A FUNCTION OF B

Step (5) Determine the thickness of reinforcement, tpb, that will

reduce the stress imposed by M to the allowable Sf, defined as
0.001Ef (where Ef is the flexural modulus of the reinforcing lami-
nate in the circumferential direction). Assume an equivalent
moment to be M/ 2.

6a b
M
2
t t2 = - t (25.26)
Q Sf

The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tp, shall be the greater of Recall that Lc is the maximum chord length of the opening.
tp1 or tp2. Hillside nozzles and those nozzles installed in the shell so that the
Let us return to the manway opening example. The input values nozzle axis does not intersect the shell axis have Lc greater than
are as follows: the nozzle diameter.
The manway centerline intersects the vessel centerline and is
P  46.02 psig normal to it so that Lc  24 in. From the foregoing values, Lpc 
R  48 in. 8.674 in., but the minimum value in Table 25.17 is 12 Lc or 12 in.
r  12 in. Thus Lp  12 in. for the manway.
E2  1.686  106 psi In the same way, the attachment laminate and reinforcing pad
v1  0.24 dimensions were calculated for the other nozzles, the results of
v2  0.22 which are contained in Table 25.18. None of the thicknesses in
Ef  1.732  106 psi Table 25.18 correspond to laminates with integral numbers of
t  1.3 in. plies. Table 25.19 provides these thicknesses, together with realiz-
Given these values, equation (25.22) yields tp1  1.238 in., able lamination schedules.
equation (25.23) gives  0.986, and Fig. 25.24 gives Kt  8.14. This completes the part of the design example that can be done
Equation (25.24) then provides Smax  14,520 psi, equation with Section X method A rules. What remains is to calculate the
(25.25) renders M  4,091 in.-lb/in., and, finally, equation (25.26)
furnishes tp2  1.362 in. The greater of tp1 and t2p is 1.362 in.; thus
the minimum acceptable reinforcing pad thickness is 1.362 in.
Reinforcing pad length provisions are similar to attachment
overlay provisions: There is a calculated length as well as a mini-
mum length, the latter dependent on the nozzle size. The calculat-
ed pad length, Lpc, is given by the following equation:
pL cPF
L pc = (25.27)
4Ss
Table 25.17 states the minimum pad length requirements. The
required pad length is the greater of Lpc or the length in Table 25.17.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 279

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 279

required skirt thickness, which is done in the next section by Subpart 3A rules. Typical tanks have more nozzles, but the noz-
using methods available to engineers familiar with the design of zles presented in Fig. 25.25 illustrate Subpart 3A design rules as
FRP structural components. well as many would.
The tank is intended for outdoor service in an area with Seismic
25.8.6 Support Skirt Design Zone 0, so therefore the tank must withstand wind but not seismic
Because the vessel will be installed indoors, and also because loads. In addition, it is located in an area where building codes
there are no earthquake loads, the only structural requirement on require outdoor structures to support a 35 lb/ft2 snow load. The
the skirt is that it supports the weight of the vessel and its con- tank will contain liquid with a specific gravity of 1.2. RTP-1
tents. It must withstand direct stress and it must not buckle. In requires the purchaser, or his or her agent, to complete a User’s
accordance with the design of the shell, the allowable stress is set Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS), which is RTP-1’s
at 0.001E, where E is the axial modulus. The critical buckling Design Specification. (The completed UBRS for the tank is found
stress, scr , is given by the following equation: in Appendix 25.A.) Most entries in the UBRS are self-explanatory,
but some are not, particularly to those unfamiliar with FRP. Such
0.3Et UBRS entries are discussed in the following paragraphs.
scr = (25.28)
R Parts 6.00 and 7.00 in the UBRS concern the choice of construc-
tion materials. There is a set of entries appropriate for the User who
where
selects the resin and another for the User who wants the Fabricator
E  the axial modulus of the skirt
to select the resin. In the present example, the User selects
t  the thickness of the skirt
Derakane 470, basing the decision on personal experience. Items
R  the radius of the skirt
7.10, 7.20, 7.50, and 7.60 therefore need not be filled in. Items 7.30
The allowable buckling stress is 15scr. Equation (25.28) is used and 7.40 are required for design of the tank, and if the User requires
in Nonmandatory Appendix 3 of RTP-1, Article NM3-321, and is the Fabricator to choose the resin, these items must be completed
valid when the length of the skirt is more than several times Lc  because they give the Fabricator a basis for selection.
1.72(Rt)0.5, the critical length. The stress in the skirt,
, is simply The User’s standard cited in 8.00 would contain technical and
the supported weight divided by the cross-sectional area. The sup- possibly commercial matters not covered by RTP-1. For example,
ported weight W  56,500 lb, which was computed by ordinary RTP-1 does not give tolerances on nozzle location, for which rea-
methods; the axial modulus E  1.666  106 psi; and R  48 in. son a User’s Design Specification should state them.
Let us take t  0.317 as a trial value for the thickness, correspond- In 11.00, there is an entry for “man load,” which provides for a
ing to the lamination schedule 3(MR), MM. In addition, Lc  6.71 person standing on the top head, but Articles 3A-340 and 3B-300
in., the length of the skirt—60 in.—is 8.9 times Lc, and equation state the same requirement. A reason for including a provision for
(25.22) applies. The applied stress is computed as follows: the man load in the UBRS is to remind the User that there may be
a different, more demanding man-load requirement.
W Section 19.00 deals with the recording of the Inspector’s desig-
s = (25.29) nation. Three individuals named in RTP-1, Article 1-400 are con-
p[(R + t)2 - R2]
cerned with various aspects of inspection: a Certified Individual,
For this case, equation (25.29) gives s = 589 psi. The critical an Inspector, and an inspector. RTP-1, Article 1-400 delineates
buckling stress from equation (25.28) is 3,301 psi; when divided their roles as follows:
by Fb  5, the stress equals 660 psi. The allowable stress from a This Standard requires that specific inspections be carried out
material strength standpoint is 0.001E  1,666 psi. The applied by Inspection Personnel experienced in the fabrication of RTP
stress is less than either allowable stress, so therefore the skirt vessels. In addition, other inspections may be carried out as a part
thickness is acceptable. of the Fabricator’s Quality Control Program. Throughout this
Standard, Inspection Personnel are referred to as either inspec-
tor(s) (lowercase “i”), Inspectors (uppercase “I”), or Certified
25.9 RTP-1: EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN Individual(s) (uppercase “CI”).
SPECIFICATION A Certified Individual is an employee of the Fabricator authorized
by ASME to use its marks. The Certified Individual’s principal
Figure 25.25 is a sketch of the first RTP-1 design example: a responsibility is to protect the ASME mark by carrying out the duties
flat-bottomed storage tank with nozzles that can be designed with described in this Standard (RTP-1). He can also be the Inspector.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 280

280 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.25 RTP-1, EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

An Inspector is an individual who shall be mutually acceptable a higher proportion of mat than in the previous example.
to the User and Fabricator and shall carry out his duties in accord Consequently, the modulus and strength will be somewhat less
with this Standard. An Inspector’s reporting relationship to man- and the Poisson’s ratio will be higher. RTP-1 Fabricators are
agement must be independent of the Fabricator’s production and required to obtain laminate properties for design by testing lami-
marketing groups. He can also be the Certified Individual or the nates of the same construction, resin, and glass that they intend to
inspector, but not both. use in the vessel. Table 25.21 lists a typical set of properties,
An inspector is an individual engaged in inspection activities which will be used in the example.
during the course of fabrication, usually as a function of quality
control. He can be the Inspector, but he cannot be the Certified 25.9.2 Top Head Design
Individual. Because the tank is vented, there is no internal pressure in the
The following paragraphs demonstrate the application of top head. It must, however, withstand two loads: the snow load of
Subpart 3A rules to the tank. Material properties are considered 35 psf (0.243 psi) and the man load of 250 lb on a 16 in.2 area.
first, followed by the design of the top head, the design of the As it is possible that someone would want to clear snow from
shell and flat bottom, the design of the nozzles, nozzle reinforce- the top of the tank, the loads will be treated as acting simultane-
ments, and attachment overlays, and finally the design of hold- ously. Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method
down lugs to resist wind forces. Table 25.20 lists the section num- for calculating the stress in the center of an F&D head under the
bers of this chapter where component calculations are given. footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied
elsewhere on the head, so the calculation suffices. The stress on
25.9.1 Laminate Properties the top surface is given by Gt /t2, where t is the thickness of the
The tank will be built of mat–oven-roving laminates as in the crown of the head and Gt is a value from a graph in
previous example, but the laminates will be thinner and will Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly, the stress on the under-
include the corrosion barrier in the calculation of the vessel’s surface is Gb/t2 . Figure 25.26 is the graph that gives Gt and Gb as
strength RTP-1 permits. For these reasons, the laminates will have a function of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is the crown radius of the head.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 281

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 281

RTP-1 requires F  for elastic stability, Ef  1.25  106 psi,

and Pd  0.243 psi. The minimum required thickness is 0.236 in.,
which is less than 0.29 in.; thus the head satisfies the buckling
requirements.

25.9.3 Shell Design

FIG. 25.26 STRESS FUNCTIONS FOR FOOTPRINT Hydrostatic pressures for heights in the shell needed for design
LOADING were computed in the usual way. These are listed in Table 25.22.
RTP-1, Article 3A-210 gives the following algorithm for deter-
mining the minimum required thickness for a contact-molded,
In an F&D head, the crown radius equals the shell diameter; cylindrical shell. Compute thicknesses th and ta as follows:
thus Rc  144 in. The minimum pressure-containing part thick-
ness allowed by RTP-1 is 0.22 in. Using this thickness, (Rct)1/2
5.63 in.; from the graph, Gt  193.2 lb. and Gb  103.9 lb. th =
PDF
(25.32)
Therefore, the stress on the upper surface of the head is 2Sh
193.2/0.222  3,992 psi; on the lower surface, it is 103.9/0.222 
2,146 psi. The membrane stress,
s, from the pressure exerted by NaxF
ta = (25.33)
the snow load is given as follows: Sa
PRc
ss = (25.30)
2t where
P  the combined hydrostatic and design pressure at the
which, for the current values, yields
s  79.5 psi because the height at which the thickness is computed
snow load is 35 lb/ft2  0.243 psi. Thus the stress under the D  the shell diameter
footprint load on the top surface  3,299  79.5  3,378 psi. F  10, the design factor on internal pressure
The snow load may act for many days, but the footprint load acts Nax  the axial force per unit circumferential length
only for a short time, for which reason the design factor for tempo- Sh  the ultimate hoop tensile strength
rary loads, F  5, may be applied to find the allowable for the com- Sa  the ultimate axial tensile strength
bined stress: 16,000/5  3,200 psi, which is less than the absolute
value of the applied stress. Therefore, the head must be thicker. The The greater of th or ta is the required minimum thickness. For
next thickest practical mat–wovenroving laminate is 0.29 in. thick simplicity, the shell will be of uniform thickness. Thus P  7.8 psi,
with a stack-up of V, 2M, 2(MR)M. In this case, Gt  213.7 lb and the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the shell (because the
Gb  121.8 lb, and the footprint stresses on the upper and lower tank is vented, the design pressure is 0). Given the values of D 
surfaces are 2,541 psi and 1,448 psi, respectively. The membrane 144 in. and Sh  16,000 psi, th  0.351 in. The weight of the head
stress from the snow load becomes 60.3 psi; therefore, the stress was calculated by ordinary methods as 286 lb. The projected area
under the footprint becomes 2,601 psi, which satisfies the allow- of the head in ft2 is as follows:
able stress criterion. (Note: Neither the graph in this book nor the
graph in RTP-1 can be read to four figures, as the text seems to pD 2
imply. Appendix 11 was derived from an article by Eric Reissner A = 2
= 113.1 (25.34)
that gives a solution to the problem in terms of Coulomb functions
[10]. The author of this chapter wrote a Mathcad worksheet based Thus the total snow load is 113.1  35  3,939 lb. The circum-
on the paper from which the values of Gt and Gb were obtained.) ference of the tank is D  452.4 in.; therefore, Nax  (3,939 
Because the snow load applies an external pressure, the head 286)/452.4  9.34 lb/in. The axial and hoop strengths are the
must be checked for elastic stability. Article 3A-320 of RTP-1 same, so Sa  16,000 psi and
gives the following formula for the minimum allowed thickness
for an F&D head subjected to external pressure, Pd:
9.34 * 10
ta = = 0.00584 (25.35)
FPd 0.5
t = Rc a b
16,000
(25.31)
0.36E f
Thus the hoop stress governs and the required minimum thick-
where ness is 0.351 in. The next thickest realizable laminate is 0.37 in.
Ef  the flexural modulus thick with a stack-up of V, 2M, 3(MR)M.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 282

282 • Chapter 25

The bending moment at the base of the shell from wind is given
by the following equation:

H2
M w = Pw D (25.36)
2
From the UBRS, Pw  20 psf. For computing the wind
moment, the height is taken as the shell height plus the head
height of 17.16 ft The diameter is 12 ft; therefore, the base wind
moment Mw  35,336 ft lb. The moment produces a stress sw
that can be calculated as follows from the ordinary beam formula:

M wc
sw = (25.37)
I diameters exceeding 4 ft The minimum thickness of the radius
where section shall be equal to the combined thickness of the shell wall
I  the moment of inertia of the shell cross section and the bottom. The reinforcement of the knuckle radius area
c  D/2 shall taper so that it is tangent to the flat bottom, and shall not
extend beyond the tangent line onto the tank bottom. The
The moment of inertia can be obtained from the following knuckle reinforced area shall extend for a minimum distance of
equation: 8 in. from the inside tank bottom up the vertical wall for tanks
up to and including 4 ft in diameter, and 12 in. for tanks over 4 ft
D - t 2
b t = 4.272 * 105 in.4
in diameter. The reinforcement shall then taper into the side wall
I = pa (25.38)
2 for an additional 4 in. The perimeter of the tank bottom shall be
in a flat plane, and the bottom shall have no projections which
With these values, sw  71.5 psi. The axial stress from the exceed 41 in. and which will prevent uniform contact with a flat
weight is given as follows: support surface when the tank is filled with liquid.
W Figure 25.27 shows the knuckle construction for this example.
swt = = 11.3 (25.39) By coincidence, the shell and bottom have the same thickness, but
p(D - t)t
this is not always true. The bottom has a straight flange, for which
The stresses add weight on the leeward side of the tank, where reason the knuckle radius does not contain a joint (the joint is a
the total axial stress is 82.8 psi. This is far less than the allow- few in. up the side). This is not clearly stated as a requirement,
able stress. To be complete, the compressive stress on the leeward although it is treated as such and is certainly good practice. On
side must be checked for buckling. The critical buckling stress for the inside of the joint, a seal overlay is applied to prevent process
bending under wind moment is as follows: liquid from getting into the joint. The seal overlay has the same
stack-up as the corrosion barrier—namely, V, MM. On the outside
0.39Et of the joint, a butt-joint overlay is installed. Article 4-320 pro-
scr = (25.40) vides the rules for butt joints between the heads and the shell and
R
between the shell courses, and also for joints in the flat portion of
where a fully supported (as by a slab) flat bottom. In this case, the rules
R  the radius of the tank require the joint to be constructed of mat–woven-roving laminate
(the same as the parts being joined) of at least the same thickness
For the values given in equation (25.40),
cr  2,776 psi, as the thicker of the parts being joined. The first ply of the joint
which is much greater than the applied stress. The method used in overlay must be a mat ply at least 3 in. wide; the next, a woven-
equation (25.40) for wind loading is the same as that illustrated in roving ply of the same width as the mat ply; the last, a mat ply
Nonmandatory Appendix 3, Article NM3-321 of RTP-1. extending beyond the woven-roving ply beneath it by at least
1
2 in. on each side. The sequence continues, with alternating plies
25.9.4 Design of Bottom and Bottom Knuckle of mat and woven-roving and with each mat ply extending at least
1
Given the shell thickness and tank diameter, RTP-1 has rules 2 in. on either side of the ply beneath it until the required thickness
for the thickness of the bottom and design of the knuckle that is attained. The knuckle-reinforcement overlay is then added. It
require no calculation. Article 3A-250 states the minimum flat- would also be of a mat–woven-roving laminate and would extend
bottom thicknesses given in Table 25.23. at least 12 in. up the shell, as measured from the inside surface of
Subpart 3A rules currently apply to tanks and vessels up to 16 ft the tank bottom. The reinforcement overlay would be at least
in diameter, a limit that may be increased soon by the RTP-1 equal to the bottom thickness and would taper into the shell to a
Committee. For tanks 12 ft–16 ft in diameter, RTP-1 requires a width of at least 4 in., which is in addition to the 12 in. full-
design analysis. There are gaps in the diameter ranges because the thickness part of the overlay.
rule is for commonly available tooling.
The rules for the knuckle are somewhat more complicated. 25.9.5 Hold-Down Lug Design
Article 3A-350 states the following: Because the tank will be subjected to wind loading, it must be
equipped with hold-down lugs. Although no mandatory rules gov-
The radius of the bottom knuckle of a flat bottom vessel shall ern these lugs, Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 gives a method
not be less than 1 in. if the diameter is 4 ft or less, and 1.5 in. for for designing them. The forthcoming analysis of the lugs uses this
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 283

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 283

FIG. 25.27 KNUCKLE FOR FLAT-BOTTOM TANK

method, which applies to the type of lug sketched in Figs. 25.28, The retainer bar keeps the lug from sliding out of the overlay
25.29, and 25.30. Figure 25.28 shows a cross section of the hold- that might not adhere to the steel lug. The bottom of the lug is
down lug, tank wall, and overlay, where the cutting plane is verti- deliberately spaced above the slab to ensure that the weight of the
cal through the center of the lug. Note that the vessel-wall thick- vessel and its contents are transmitted to the slab through the bot-
ness under the lug is the sum of the bottom knuckle reinforcement tom of the vessel, not through the lugs. The lugs need only to resist
and the shell thickness. Figure 25.29 shows an elevation view of downward forces. Anchor bolts or clips that secure the lug to the
the lug assembly, and Fig. 25.30 shows a top view of the lug’s slab must not be tightened excessively; in fact, some User’s Design
nozzle assembly. Specifications call for making these threaded fasteners only finger-
tight and using a jam nut to ensure that the nut stays in place.
Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 checks against the following
six failure modes:
(1) Peel of the overlay from the vessel.
(2) Shear failure of the overlay to the vessel secondary bond.
(3) Tensile failure of the overlay at the vertical edges of the lug.

FIG. 25.28 CROSS SECTION OF HOLD-DOWN LUG

ASSEMBLY FIG. 25.29 ELEVATION VIEW OF LUG ASSEMBLY
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 284

284 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.30 TOP VIEW OF NOZZLE ASSEMBLY

(4) Yield in bending at the base of the lug. overturning moment, the uplift on the dished top head from the
(5) Shear failure of the vessel wall. wind, and the weight of the vessel less the bottom weight, all
(6) Bending failure of the vessel wall. influence the lug force. The wind uplift force on the top head, Uw,
is given by the following equation:
Table 25.24 lists the quantities that are input to the lug compu-
tations as well as the symbols used to represent the quantities in
the forthcoming equations. We are attempting to determine the p 2
Uw = D PP (25.41)
lug dimensions, but because the calculation is of the cut-and-try 4 0 w g
method, the dimensions are input.
The allowable peel load and the allowable bond shear stress are Inserting the values in the table results in the following equations:
values suggested in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4. The lug
yield strength is for A-36 structural steel. Lugs are often cut from 4M q 4(35,340)
steel structural shapes; thus the yield strength is realistic. Uq = = = 11,720 lb (25.42)
D0 144.74
The first series of computations determines the force on the
most heavily loaded lug. The lugs need to resist uplift only, for a
(144.74)2 c d(0.8) = 1,828
p 20
downward force in the vicinity of a lug is resisted by the knuckle Uw = (25.43)
pressing into the support lab. In the present example, a wind- 4 144
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 285

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 285

The wind pressure is divided by 144 to convert it from psf to The allowable stress is 15 the tensile strength of the laminate—
psi to be consistent with the other values in the equation. (The that is, 3,200 psi, for the stress results from wind, which is a
inside diameter of the tank shell is 144 in.; therefore, the outside temporary load. Because the overlay hoop stress is less than
diameter is the inside diameter plus twice the thickness or 144.74 that, it is therefore acceptable. Peel, overlay bond shear stress,
in.) The effective uplift force from the wind moment, Uq, is and hoop stress in the overlay are all less than their allowables,
obtained as follows: and the lug attachment overlay is acceptable. What remains is
The net uplift force is then to check the lug itself and the stresses in the vessel wall under
the lug.
U = Uw + Uq - Wv = 1,828 + 11,720 - 1,879 = 11,670 lb (25.44) The bending stress at the base of the lug can be computed from
the following equation:
The force on a single lug, Flug, is then
3Flugwlug 3(1,945)(6)
U 11,670 sb = = = 15,560 psi (25.53)
Flug = = = 1,945 lb (25.45) L lugt 2b 4(4)(0.375)2
N 6

The next step is to check resistance to peel. The maximum unit The allowable stress in the lug, which is assumed to be cut
radial load on the overwrap, wmax, is given as follows: from a structural A-36–steel angle, is 23 of its yield stress or
24,000 psi, which is greater than the bending stress in the lug.
Thus the lug stress is acceptable. The shear stress in the tank wall
3Fluge 3(1,945)(2.5) lb
wmax = = = 120.54 (25.46) under the lug, Tw, is approximately given as follows:
2 2 in.
h 11
P 662.95
The total radial load, P, is obtained from the following equation: tw = = = 149.3 psi (25.54)
t kwk (0.74)(6)
wmaxh (120.54)(2.5) which is a low value. Normal stress under the lugs is a combi-
P = = = 662.95 lb (25.47)
2 2 nation of bending from the lugs and the membrane from pressure.
The computation of these stresses begins by computing the bend-
The length of the tensile perimeter, Ltp, is as follows ing parameter, b:

1/4 1/4
L tp = 2(h - t b) + wlug = 2(11 - 0.375) + 6 = 27.25 in. (25.48) 2 2
b=≥ ¥ = ≥ ¥
3(1 - v ) 3(1 - 0.26 )
2
= 0.1763 in..- 1
145.48 2
a b t 2k a b 0.742
Dk
The peel load (lb/in.) is then
2 2
P 662.95 lb
Spl = = = 24.33 (25.49) (25.55)
L tp 27.25 in.
The axial bending moment in the shell under the lug, Max, is
which is less than the allowable peel of 50 lb/in. then obtained from the following equation:
The next mode to check is failure of the overlay to vessel sec-
ondary bond in shear. The shear stress is as follows:
M ax = a b = a b =
P 1 662.95 1 in.-lb
= 156.7
Flug wlug 4b 6 4(0.1763) in.
1,945
tov = = = 30.87 psi (25.50) (25.56)
2h 1wov 2(10.5)(3)

The allowable bond shear stress is 200 psi; therefore, the bond and the hoop moment, Mh, is as follows:
shear is acceptable.
Next, the tensile stress in the overlay adjacent to the vertical in.-lb
edges of the lug is checked. The tension, T, is obtained from the M h = vM ax = (0.26)(156.7) = 40.74 (25.57)
in.
following equation:
The axial normal stress in the wall under the lug results from
PD0 (662.95)(145.48) the superposition of the axial membrane stress and the bending
T = = = 8,037 lb (25.51) stress from Max, as follows:
2w 2(6)

U 6M ax 11,670 6(156.7)
The tensile hoop stress in the overlay, sov, is then sax = + = +
2
pDkt k tk p(145.48)(0.74) 0.742
T 8,037
sov = = = 2,835 psi (25.52)
h 1t ov (10.5)(0.27) = 1,752 psi (25.58)
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 286

286 • Chapter 25

Similarly, the hoop stress is the sum of the hoop membrane and The outside diameter of the reinforcing pad, dr, shall be the
the hoop bending stresses, as follows: greater of twice the opening’s largest dimension of the opening’s
largest dimension plus 6 in. The taper at the outer periphery of the
PhydDk 6M h (7.8)(145.48) 6(40.74) reinforcement laminate shall not be included in dr. Reinforcing
s = + = + pads shall not overlap. The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tr, is
2t k t 2k 2(0.74) 0.742
given by the following equation:
= 1,213 psi (25.59)
t r = VMKTt - M(Tc - Tt) (25.60)
As in the case of the overlay hoop stress, the allowable is 3,200 psi,
which is comfortably more than the greater of the hoop and axial where
stresses. V = 1 for internal pressure, 12 for external pressure
The lug design is adequate to resist wind loads. Table 25.25 M = 1 for vessel parts of contact-molded laminates
lists the six failure modes, the allowable stress, the imposed M =
/15,000 for other laminates, such as those that are
stress, and the ratio of allowable to imposed stress. It shows that filament-wound
the lug and attachment overlay are well designed. a = the hoop design strength, psi
The allowable stress for the vessel-wall shear is only a rough K = 1 for nozzles of greater than 6 in. diameter
value; it is rarely measured. It is the shear stress in a plane normal K = d/6 for 6 6
to the laminate and containing the axis of the vessel. Except for d = the nozzle’s largest hole dimension
gross impact (which is always the result of an accident), this kind Tc = the nominal wall thickness for construction
of failure is rare; therefore, the industry has not tried to define it. Tt = the minimum wall thickness that satisfies the design
The lug design method is only approximate and is based as much conditions
on experience as science. However, the method does result in reli-
able lugs. Although finite-element or some other exacting stress If tr  0.129 in., no reinforcing is required
analysis might result in smaller lugs and overlays, the engineering
cost would be greater than the material and labor savings unless the Now, let us consider nozzle A. The head is governed by external
Fabricator plans to build many lugs of the same design. pressure so that V = 12 . The head is contact-molded; therefore, M =
1. The diameter is 12 in., which is greater than 6 in., and K = 1.
25.9.6 Nozzle Reinforcement and Attachment Design From these values, Tc = 0.29 in. and T1 = 0.236 in. Then,
Only nozzle A on the top head and the manway will be consid-
ered because in both cases it illustrates the design process as well 1
tr = * 1 * 1 * 0.236 - 1 * (0.29 - 0.236) = 0.064 in.
as many more examples would. External pressure from the snow 2
load governs the design of the reinforcing pad for nozzle A. (25.61)
Paragraph 3A-700 of RTP-1 contains rules for the opening
reinforcement. The rules apply to openings for nozzles or man-
ways with cylindrical necks. Other restrictions are the following: Thus tr 6 0.129 in., and no reinforcing is required.
The attachment laminate is specified in RTP-1 by Figs. 4.8 and
(1) Only openings for circular nozzles in which the diameter 4.9 as well as Table 4.1 on pages 38, 39, and 42, respectively.
does not exceed half the vessel diameter are covered by Table 4.1 is reproduced in this chapter as Table 25.26.
these rules. The shear-bond width is the width of the attachment not only on
(2) Only openings in which the largest dimension along one the vessel part or reinforcing pad, but up the nozzle neck as well.
axis is no longer than two times the largest diameter along Nozzle attachment laminates are shown in Fig. 25.11. The
the axis at 90 deg. to the first axis are covered by these rules. attachment thickness is the greatest of 0.4 in.—twice the nozzle
These dimensions shall be measured from one cut edge to neck thickness, or tr Assume a nozzle neck thickness of 0.29 in, in
the opposite cut edge. which case the attachment laminate total thickness must be at
(3) These rules cover only the reinforcement of cylinders and least 0.58 in. Some of it may be on the inside of the installation,
dished, elliptical, and conical heads using RTP-1 design-by- may be some on the outside; this is acceptable as long as the sum
rule thicknesses. of the two is at least 0.58 in. Table 25.26 gives the width of the
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 287

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 287

which is a rolled-structural channel. The vessel will be supported

by building steel in an octagonal factory-floor opening and
framed by steel beams. The support ring will be connected to the
building steel by lugs welded to the ring. The vessel may be filled
with a liquid with a specific gravity of 1.4, but it must have a
design internal pressure of 5 psig and a design external pressure
of 10 psig.
The vessel will require vacuum-stiffening rings, even though
they are not shown in Fig. 25.31. The figure is meant to illus-
trate a sketch that would be part of the Design Specification,
which would not usually show vacuum rings. The Fabricator
would determine whether rings are needed and would also
design them.
Appendix 25.B provides the UBRS for the vessel. As in the
previous example, many of the entries may be left blank. Table
25.28 provides a list of the sections of this chapter where the
calculations for the vessel components can be found. However,
manway and nozzle reinforcement and attachment designs are
attachment to be at least 5 in. on the shell or head to which the not included because they are the same as in the previous
nozzle is attached and 5 more in. up the nozzle neck. example.
Assume that the manway neck is 0.37 in. thick. The shell is gov- The vessel will be built of the same resin as that used in
erned by internal pressure and is contact-molded; therefore, V  1 Example 1, but the Fabricator intends to build this vessel of
and M  1. The manway diameter is 24 in., so K  1 and dr  mat–woven-roving laminate as well. For this reason, the same
48 in. In addition, Tc  0.37 in. and Tt  0.351 in. Thus the rein- laminate properties of Example 1 apply. For convenience, they are
forcing pad thickness is as follows: listed in Table 25.29.
Hydrostatic pressures at various levels in the vessel are
t r = 1 * 1 * 1 * 0.351 - 1 * (0.37 - 0.351) = 0.332 in. required during the design process. The hydrostatic pressure is
given by the following equation:
(25.62)

From Fig. 4.8 of RTP-1, the attachment laminate thickness is Ph = gH (25.63)

twice the neck thickness, 0.74 in.; from Table 4.1 of RTP-1, the
width is 6 in. where
The dimensions of the reinforcing pad and attachment are Ph  the hydrostatic pressure
found the same way for nozzle B. g  the specific weight of the contents
Table 25.27 lists the dimensions of the nozzle reinforcing pads H  the depth of the liquid at the level in question
and attachments. The thicknesses have been rounded up from the
calculated values to correspond to practical laminate sequences. Because the design condition is with the full vessel, H is mea-
sured from the top of the top head. Table 25.30 lists the hydrostat-
ic pressures used in design computations.
25.10 RTP-1: DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
25.10.1 RTP-1 Example 2 Design Specification 25.10.2 Design of the Top Head
Figure 25.31 sketches Example 2 of RTP-1 design. The vessel The top head will be subjected to an internal pressure of
has F&D top and bottom heads and is supported by a steel ring, 5 psig, an external pressure of 10 psig, and the footprint load.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:49 AM Page 288

288 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.31 RTP-1,SECOND DESIGN EXAMPLE

The hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the head is 1.027 psig;

therefore, the head must withstand a total of 6.027 psig.
Paragraph 3A-220 requires the head to have a thickness of at
least tr, as follows:
Using the thickness required for internal pressure and the flexural
0.885PRcF modulus from Table 25.29:
tr = (25.64)
Su
1.25 * 106 2
ba b = 0.9930 psi
0.40
Pext = 0.36a (25.66)
where 5 120 + 0.4
P  6.027 psi, the total pressure
Rc  120 in., the crown radius of the head This is less than the required value Pext  10 psi. By trial and
Su  16,000 psi, the ultimate tensile strength of the laminate error it can be established that t  1.299 in leads to Pext  10.32 psi.
F  10, the design factor
Inserting the preceding values into equation (25.64) gives tr 
0.40 in., which is the minimum thickness required to resist inter-
nal pressure. The maximum allowed external pressure to thick-
ness t is specified in paragraph 3A-320:

t 2
Pext = 0.36 a ba b
Ef
(25.65)
Fv Ro

In this equation, Ef is the flexural modulus, Fv  5, the design

factor on elastic stability, and Ro  R  t, the outside crown radius.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/25/09 11:06 AM Page 289

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 289

psi. That thickness corresponds to a practical lamination sequence: the part of the shell above the stiffening ring (to be taken as the
V, MM, 4[3(MR), M], MRM. Equation 25.64 above for thickness part of the shell above the upper surface of the support ring); the
required to resist internal pressure can be solved for the P that second will be to design the part of the shell below the upper sur-
results from thickness of 1.299 in.: face of the ring.
At the top of the support ring, the hydrostatic pressure is 6.99
Sut 16000 * 1.299 psig; the design pressure, 5 psig. The shell must therefore with-
P = = = 19.57 psi
0.885FRc 0.885 * 10 * 120 (25.67) stand a combined pressure of P  11.99 psig. Paragraph 3A-210
supplies a rule for the required shell thickness—that it must be the
greater of t1 or t2, where
The MAWP for the top head is then this value of P less the
hydrostatic pressure which gives 18.5 psi.
Nax
It remains to verify that the head will resist the combination of t1 = (25.69)
footprint load and external pressure. The footprint load is consid- Su
ered a temporary load, and therefore by Paragraph NM11-300, a F
design factor of F  5 may be used while considering the combi-
and
nation of footprint load and stress from external pressure.
Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method for PR
calculating the stress in the center of an F & D head under the t2 = (25.70)
Su
footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied
F
elsewhere on the head, so the calculation suffices. The stress on
the top surface is given by Gt /t2 where t is the thickness of the where
crown of the head, and Gt is a value from a graph in P  combined design pressure-hydrostatic load
Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly the stress on the under Nax  the axial stress resultant
surface is Gb /t2. Figure 25.26 in Section 25.9.2 above is a copy of Su  the tensile strength
the graph that gives Gt and Gb as functions of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is F  10, the design factor
the crown radius of the head. In this case (Rct)1/2  (120 
1.299)1/2  12.49 in. Then, from the graph, Gt  323 lb and Gb  The axial stress resultant from the design pressure is Nax PdR/2 
224 lb. Thus the footprint stress on the top surface is t  5  60/2  150 lb/in.
323/1.2992  191 psi and the footprint stress on the lower For t1:
surface is b  224/1.292  133 psi. The membrane stress at the
top of the crown from external pressure is obtained from: 150
t1 = = 0.094 in. (25.71)
16,000
PextRc -10 * 120 10
sm = = = - 461.9 psi (25.68)
2t 2 * 1.299
For t2:
The superposition of this stress and the footprint stress on the (8.31)(60)
top surface gives 191  461.9  653 psi. The allowable stress t2 = = 0.312 in. (25.72)
16,000
is 16000/5  3200 psi, which is much greater than the imposed
stress. Since the internal design pressure is less than the external 12
design pressure, and since the positive footprint stress on the
Thus the required minimum thickness for resisting internal
underside of the head is less in absolute value than the footprint
pressure is 0.312 in. In reality, the axial stress resultant would be
stress on the top, the combination of internal pressure and footprint
reduced because the weight of the upper part of the vessel would
load is also acceptable.
partially counteract the pressure, but hoop stress governs, for
A top head laminate with stackup V, MM, 4[3(MR), M]MRM,
which reason this conservatism has no effect on the design.
which is 1.299 in. thick, satisfies RTP-1.
Paragraph 3A-310 gives an equation for computing the allowed
maximum external pressure on a given shell. It is:
25.10.3 Design of the Shell and Vacuum Rings
The shell must withstand two independent loads: external pres- 3 1 5
KD 0.8531 g E42f E 41 t 2
sure and combined design pressure–hydrostatic load. The usual PA = 3
strategy is to first compute the shell thickness required for internal (25.73)
11 - v1fv2f24 L a b F
3 D0 2
pressure and then to determine if this is sufficient for external
2
pressure. If it is not, the design must be rechecked with one or
more vacuum-stiffening rings added to the shell. If the external where:
pressure condition can be satisfied with a satisfactory number of F  design factor  5
rings, the design is accepted; if not, the shell thickness is KD  knockdown factor  0.84
increased and the design is checked again. Eventually, by trial and   1  0.001Zp if Zp … 100 Zp  0.9 otherwise
error, a satisfactory design is reached. There is a trade-off
between the number of rings required and shell thickness. The and
3 1
design engineer uses his or her judgment to determine whether a E 2f2 E 21 L2
11 - v1f v2f22
1
particular choice is satisfactory. Zp =
E 21f
a tb
Because the support ring will serve as a vacuum stiffener, the D0
shell design will be done in two stages. The first will be to design 2
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 290

290 • Chapter 25

In Equation (25.73), D0 represents the outside diameter, t the shell where

thickness, E1 the axial tensile modulus, E2f the hoop flexural modulus, I  the moment of inertia
E1f the axial flexural modulus, v1f Poisson’s ratio for bending stress in Pv  the design vacuum pressure
x direction and contraction/expansion in y direction, v2f Poisson’s ratio Ls  half the distance from the centerline of the stiffening
for bending stress in y direction and contraction/expansion in x direc- ring to the next line of support on one side, plus half of
tion and PA the allowable external pressure. The design length, L is the centerline distance to the next line of support on the
defined as the greatest of the following: other side of the stiffening ring (both measured parallel
to the axis of the cylinder)
1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the Fv  5, the design factor for elastic stability
depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings Eh  the hoop modulus of the sitffening ring laminate
(excluding conical heads and sections).
2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels A line of support, Ls, is defined as follows:
with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings.
3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adja- (1) a stiffening ring that meets the requirements of this paragraph;
cent stiffening rings. (2) a circumferential line on a head at one-third the depth of the
4. The distance from the center of the first stiffening ring to the head from the tangent line; or
formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the (3) a cone-to-cylinder junction.
formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all mea- The ring will be made of the same laminate, except for thick-
sured parallel to the axis of the vessel. ness, as the shell. Thus E2  1.785  106 psi. With t  0.932 in.,
5. The distance from the first stiffening in the cylinder to the D0  120  2(0.932)  121.846 in. The design length for use in
cone-cylinder junction. Equation (25.73), Ls  41.26 in., the same as the shell design
In the current example, one-third the depth of a head is 7.27 in., length.
the distance from the bottom tangent line to the top of the support
ring is 27.5 in. and the tangent line to tangent line length of the 10 * 41.26 * (121.846)3 * 5
I = = 87.113 in4
shell is 144 in. Then the design length for the upper part of the 24 * 1.785 * 106
shell is 144  7.27  27.5  123.77 in. Taking the shell thick-
ness as the minimum required for internal pressure, D0  120 No particular ring section is required by RTP-1. Perhaps the
2(0.312)  120.624 in. For this design, Equation (25.73) yields most common section is a trapezoid, an example of which is
PA  0.22 psi, far too low. sketched in Fig. 25.32. The dimensions shown result in a moment
If two evenly spaced vacuum rings are added to the shell above of inertia of 108.7 in.4 about an axis parallel to the vessel axis and
the support ring, then the design length is 123.77/3  41.26 in. through the centroid of the section. It was computed by ordinary
With the thickness unchanged, Equation (25.73) gives PA  0.67 methods. The moment of inertia includes the attachment, the shell
psi, still too low. By using various values of t in the equation, one wall under the trapezoid, and the attachment laminate. The wall
finds that t  0.9 in results in PA  10.05 psi. The lamination thickness of the ring is 0.28 in., with a lamination sequence of
schedule of the thinnest laminate with thickness at least 0.9 in MM,2(MR), M.
thick is 3[3(MR)M]MRM which is 0.932 in thick. That thickness A common way of building the ring is from a core of low-
results in PA  10.97 psi, which satisfies the design requirement. density rigid foam, which is attached to the vessel with an adhe-
The required moment of inertia of the vacuum rings is obtained sive. Then, the ring is laid up over the core. The core is usually so
from paragraph 3A-330: light that it does not contribute to strength or stiffness, but it is left
in the ring nevertheless.
Pv L s D 30 Fv The maximum allowable design pressure for the upper part of
I = (25.74)
24E h the shell is obtained by solving the t 2 equation, which governs the

FIG. 25.32 VACUUM-STIFFENING RING SECTION

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 291

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 291

0.909 in. The external pressure design length of the lower shell is
27.5 in., which is less than 41.26 in. (the design length of the
upper shell). Thus, if the shell segments are of the same thickness,
the lower shell would be adequate for the design external pres-
sure. The MAWP of the lower shell segment is calculated as
before:

Sut 16,000 * 0.909

MAWP = = Phyd = - 8.31
RF 60 * 10
internal pressure, for P and inserting the values for this example = 15.93 psi (25.81)
as follows:

Sut 16,000 * 0.932 Thus a shell that has a lamination sequence of V, 2M, 3[3(MR),
MAWP = - Phyd = - 6.99 = 24.9 psi M (0.909 in. thick), as well as two vacuum rings as shown in Fig.
RF 60 * 10 25.32, satisfies the RTP-1 requirements.
(25.75)
25.10.4 Design of the Bottom Head
In the portion of the shell below the upper surface of the sup-
port ring, the axial load is the sum of the weight of the vessel con- The top head will be subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of
tents, the weight of the vessel below the support, and the force 9.33 psig (from Table 25.30) combined with the design pressure
from the internal design pressure. (Table 25.31 lists the sum of of 5 psig to give a total pressure of P  14.33 psig. The external
these weights.) At the bottom of the shell, the total pressure is the design pressure is 10 psig. It will have the same geometry as the
hydrostatic pressure of 8.31 psig (from Table 25.30) plus the top head: torispherical, with a 120 in. crown radius, a 6% knuckle
design pressure of 5 psig, which sums to 13.31 psig. At the upper radius, and a 120 in. head diameter. The required thickness for
part of the shell, the required thickness for internal pressure and internal pressure is as follows:
contents weight is the greater of t1 and t2, where
0.885 PRcF 0.885 * 14.33 * 120 * 10
Nax tr = = = 0.919 in.
Su 16,000
t1 =
Su (25.76)
(25.82)
F
and The required thickness for external pressure is the same as for
the top head—that is, 1.223 in.—and has a lamination sequence
PR 13.31 * 60 of V, MM, 4[3(MR), M], M. From Section 25.7, the pressure
t2 = = = 0.499 in. (25.77)
Su 16,000 capacity of the head is 18.43 psi. Thus the MAWP is 18.43 
F 10 9.33  9.10 psig.

Nax is the axial membrane stress resultant and is given by the

following equation: 25.10.5 Support Ring Design
The weight of the entire vessel and its contents are computed
PdR Wt by ordinary methods. The total weight of 103,327 lb must be sup-
Nax = + ported by the ring. The ring, in turn, is supported by eight evenly
2 2pR (25.78)
spaced lugs that mate with building steel, forming the edge of the
octagonal opening that the vessel occupies. Figure 25.33 is a
where sketch of a cross section of the ring. In this example, the
Pd  the design pressure Fabricator rolls the ring from a structural channel. (The ring is
R  the inside shell radius usually made in two halves connected with bolted splices.) The
Wt  the total weight given in Table 25.31 vessel is built; then, the FRP-support and -retainer bands are
Thus: installed on the vessel. The ring is assembled onto the vessel
either on the site or in the Fabricator’s shop.
5 * 60 98,725 lb RTP-1, paragraph NM5-400 provides a method for designing
Nax = + = 411.88 (25.79) the ring in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-5 (Ring Support of
2 2p * 60 in.
Vessels). The bending moment, Mb, and the twisting moment, Mv,
Inserting this value in equation (25.76) gives at Section A in Fig. 25.34 are given by the following equations:

c sin (f - a) d
WR f cos a fe
411.88 Mb = - - 1 -
t1 = = 0.257 in. (25.80) 2p sin f R (25.83)
16,000
10

c cos (f - a) d
WR f sin a fe
Hoop stress therefore governs, requiring a thickness of 0.499 in. Mt = - - a + (25.84)
For simplicity, the entire shell will have the same thickness of 2p sin f R
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 292

292 • Chapter 25

FIG. 25.33 SUPPORT-RING CROSS SECTION

where and
W  the total supported weight Mt
R  a, f = the geometric quantities defined by Fig, 25.34 t = (25.86)
Zt
Note that the angle 2f is the angular separation between lugs where
and that a locates a section of the ring. Given that there are N Zb  the bending section modulus of the ring about a radial
lugs, f  180/N deg. The quantity e, the eccentricity of the lug centroidal axis
forces, is the radial distance from the line of action of the support Zt  the torsional section modulus
force to the shear center of the ring section, as shown in Fig.
25.35. The bending stress, j/b, and the torsional shear stress, t, For relatively thin-walled open sections, such as a rolled chan-
are then given as follows: nel, Zt is well approximated by the torsional stiffness constant J
divided by the thickest part of the section wall. A good indicator
Mb of yield in a steel channel is the von Mises stress, svm, obtained
sb = (25.85)
Zb from the bending and shear stresses by the following equation:

svm = 2s2b + 3t2 (25.87)

Thus, for a given ring, the von Mises stress is given as a func-
tion of a by equation (25.87). To verify the design of the ring, it is
necessary to find the section at which svm is greatest.
For the present example, W  103,327 lb, R  62 in., and N 
8. Then f  180/8  22.5 deg. A candidate section is a C15 
50 structural channel [11]. This channel has a moment of inertia
of 404 in. 4 and is 15 in. high. Then Zb  404/7.5  53.87 in.3,
the torsional constant J  2.67 in.4, and the thickness for com-
puting Zt is 0.65 in. Thus Zt  2.67/0.65  4.108 in.3, and the
shear center is 0.583 in. radially inward from the back of the
channel. Setting e  6 in. gives a reasonable allowance for the lug
design and clearance between the ring and building steel. Figure
25.35 is a plot of svm as a function of a for this set of values.
The value of a for which svm is greatest is a = 14.28 deg.,
where svm = 17,840 psi. The channel would be composed of
A36 steel, which has a yield strength of 36,000 psi. A normal
allowable stress is 23 of the yield or 24,000 psi, of which the actual
stress is 74.3%. Thus the ring section is acceptable.
FIG. 25.34 GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES IN THE STRESS Computations for the maximum von Mises stress were done by
ANALYSIS OF THE RING using Mathcad. Figures NM5-8, NM5-9, and NM5-10 in RTP-1
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 293

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 293

FIG. 25.35 VON MISES STRESS IN THE SUPPORT RING

are design charts for streamlining this process. They plot a stress 25.11 QUALITY ASSURANCE OF SECTION
function, Æ, as a function of Zb / Zt for various e/R, and there is a X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
separate chart for each number of lugs. The stress is then given by
the following equation: 25.11.1 Introduction
Manufacturers of both RTP-1 and Section X vessels are gov-
WRÆ erned by stringent quality assurance systems that are certified by
svm = (25.88) the ASME. The shops themselves must have written quality con-
Zb
trol procedures and be accredited by the ASME. All vessel con-
struction must be done in accordance with a detailed procedure
In the present case, Zb /Zt  13.113 and e/R  0.968. Figure
specification; moreover, each vessel design must be qualified
NM5-10 is the chart for eight lugs; it yields Æ  0.15 for this
either by testing (in the case of Section X, Class I) or by design
choice of Zb/Zt and e/R. The maximum von Mises stress is thus:
calculations backed by measured laminate properties (in the cases
of RTP-1 and Section X, Class II). Design calculations for RTP-1
103,327 * 62 * 0.15 and Section X, Class II vessels must be certified by a Registered
svm = = 17,840 psi (25.88)
53.87 Professional Engineer. Completed vessels must be inspected by an
individual certified by the ASME.
Although both RTP-1 and Section X necessarily use similar
25.10.6 Vessel MAWP quality assurance methods, ASME requirements from the two
The MAWP is listed in Table 25.32 for each pressure-containing documents are not identical; although they accomplish the same
component. The MAWP for the entire vessel is 9.10 psig, the least purpose by very similar means, they differ in detail. In the follow-
of those listed, and the maximum allowable external pressure is ing paragraphs, Section X requirements are considered first, fol-
10 psig, governed by the stiffening rings. The reason why the lowed by those of RTP-1.
MAWP is so much higher than the design pressure is that external
pressure governs the design of all the components, requiring 25.11.2 Section X Quality Assurance
greater component thicknesses than the internal pressure.
Section X contains requirements for the Fabricator’s quality
control system, vessel manufacturing procedure specification, and
inspection and testing. These three aspects of quality control are
each discussed in turn below.

25.11.2.1 Fabricator’s Quality Control System The Fabriator’s

Quality Control System must be maintained to ensure that the ves-
sels he or she builds satisfy all Section X requirements. The
Fabricator must also maintain a quality control manual that
describes his or her system. The manual is reviewed by the ASME
team that originally accredits the Fabricator’s shop and must be
available for review by the Authorized Inspector as a part of his or
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 294

294 • Chapter 25

her vessel inspections. The manual, which may contain proprietary is approved by the design engineer and by the Inspector before the
information, is not required to be distributed. As Section X states, repair is begun. If the repair is not approved, the component is
rejected. Some repairs may be required to satisfy Purchaser’s
It is intended that information learned about the system (The requirements that are not governed by the Code. For example,
Fabricator’s Quality Control System) in connection with the excessive air bubbles in an FRP corrosion barrier would violate the
evaluation will be treated as confidential and that all loaned Purchaser’s specification, not Section X. Because repairing the
descriptions will be returned to the Fabricator upon comple- barrier would not affect the pressure containment, the Registered
tion of the evaluation. Professional Engineer and the Inspector would not be required to
approve the repair. Another example is a misplaced nozzle, for
Thus the ASME team that accredits the shop may borrow the which the Code does not require a repair to be made. However, the
manual, but must return it and not reveal the contents. The repair would affect the pressure containment, so in this case both
Authorized Inspector5 has access to the manual during the visits the Registered Professional Engineer and the Inspector would need
to the Fabricator’s facility, but does not retain a copy. Section X to approve the repair. If there is doubt, the prudent Fabricator
does not require that the manual be available to Purchasers; there- would consult the Inspector to determine whether a given repair
fore, if a Purchaser wishes to review the manual, the Fabricator needs his or her approval in addition to the Registered Professional
must agree to let the Purchaser read it. Engineer’s approval. After all, it is the Inspector who decides
The complexity of the Quality Control System and manual whether a particular vessel may be stamped.
depend greatly on the size and complexity of the Fabricator’s (g) Resin Control Good resin control is essential to vessel qual-
operations and the kind of equipment that the Fabricator builds. It ity. The Quality Control System contains resin specification and
should be appropriate to the Fabricator’s circumstances. Although mixing procedures; procedures for the storage, handling, and dis-
the Code does not have a long, detailed set of requirements for posal of resins, catalysts, fillers, pigments, and promoters; and a
Fabricators’ Quality Control Systems, it does have an outline of procedure for identifying resin during fabrication.
features to be included in the manual. These are as follows: (h) Assembly, Fit-Up, and Dimensions Control Documentation
(a) Authority and Responsibility This section defines the of methods for assembly, fit-up, dimensional checks, and adhesive
authority and responsibility of those in charge of the Quality bonding of vessel components are included in the Quality Control
Control System. These individuals must have well-defined System. The system may also contain procedures for dimensional
responsibilities as well as the authority and freedom to identify control not required by the Code, such as tolerances on nozzle
and remedy quality control problems. placement.
(b) Organization The manual contains an organization chart (i) Calibration of Measurement and Test Equipment The
that shows the relationship among engineering, quality control, Fabricator maintains a system, including documentation, for the
purchasing, production, testing, inspection, and management per- calibration of all examination, measuring, and test equipment
sonnel. A small shop may have combined functions, such as qual- used to show compliance with Code requirements. A description
ity control, testing, and inspection vested in one person, and of the system is included in the Quality Control System manual.
therefore may have a very simple organization chart. (j) Forms The Quality Control System manual contains sample
(c) Drawings, Design Calculations, and Specifications For both forms for documenting all system procedures that must be
Class I and II vessels, the Quality Control System has procedures to followed. Pages 211–249 of Section X display many of these
ensure that the latest revisions of drawings, procedures and specifi- forms. The Fabricator must, however, compose his or her own
cations required by Section X are used for fabrication, inspection, forms as well, such as those for documenting resin receipt, stor-
and testing. For Class II vessels, the system also includes reference age, and use.
to the design documents certified by a Regis tered Professional (k) Authorized Inspector As stated previously, the Inspector has
Engineer and the need for any changes to such documents to be access to the Quality Control System manual. In addition, he or
approved by the Registered Professional Engineer. The Fabricator’s she has access to the design documents and records governed by
Quality Control System also provides those individuals building the the Code that are relevant to the vessels to be inspected.
vessel with other information not governed by the Code. The
Foreword to Section X (and all other Codebook sections) states that 25.11.2.2 Accreditation of a Fabricator The ASME authorizes
“the Code does not address all aspects of these activities.” a Fabricator’s shop to place the RP Section X) Symbol Stamp on
(d) Production Flow and In-Plant Inspection and Checkoff The vessels. The authorizing of shops is governed by the ASME Board
system includes a basic production-flow procedure, including in- on Conformity Assessment, not by the B&PV Code itself. The
plant inspection procedures and checkoff points as well as a Board sends a team to a candidate Fabricator to deter mine
means of documenting them. The purpose of this aspect of the whether his or her shop can produce vessels in conformity with
system is to guarantee that the Procedure Specification on the Section X. The team examines the Quality Control System, the
drawing is actually implemented. An example of a Procedure Procedure Specifications, and the fabrication work in progress;
Specification is given below. then recommends to the Board whether to authorize the shop.
(e) Material Receiving Control and Identity Before and during Authorizations must be renewed every three years.
fabrication, a system of material control ensures that the material
used complies with the applicable specifications and procedures. 25.11.2.3 Example of a Procedure Specification The Procedure
The system provides documentation that the proper material is Specification for Class II vessels is defined by completing Form Q-
used in fabrication. 120, found on pages 225-234 of Section X. Form Q-120 has the fol-
(f) Nonconforming Materials, Components, and Repairs All lowing three parts:
nonconformities, including materials, components, and fabrication
errors, are identified and documented. Components that fail to • Part I (Fabrication): This part must be completed for each
meet the required standards may be repaired if the proposed repair separately fabricated vessel part, including nozzle necks and
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 295

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 295

nozzle flanges. It specifies the materials, ply sequence, ply two lamination sequences, for part of the overlay could be (but is
orientation, and procedures used to fabricate the vessel part. not required to be) on the inside of the vessel while the rest is on
Part I must be accompanied by Parts II and III. the outside. Vessels with FRP corrosion barriers will always have
• Part II (Assembly) This part must be completed for every sec- at least the corrosion-barrier overlay part on the inside.
ondary lay-up process required to join vessel parts. It lists the Part III of Form Q-120 provides a list of all Procedure
materials, dimensions, and ply sequences of each secondary Specifications for the parts and joint overlays in the vessel. It also
overlay, including not only head-to-shell joints between sep contains the certification by the Authorized Inspector that the ves-
arate shell courses, but also overlays used to install nozzles, sel satisfies Section X and may receive the Section X RP Symbol
flange-nozzle neck connections, and opening-reinforcing Stamp.
pads. Part II must be accompanied by Parts I and III. An actual Form Q-120 would be much longer than the one pre-
• Part III (Summary) This part compiles a list of procedures used sented in Appendix 25.C. In addition to having eighteen overlays,
to fabricate individual vessel parts and join them into a com- the example vessel has fourteen parts for which Q-120, Part I
pleted vessel. Part III must be accompanied by Parts I and II. Forms would be required. Each part is four pages long, so the
complete form would be 4  (14  18)  1  129 pages long.
Appendix 25.C shows a Form Q-120 Procedure Specification Besides the Form Q-120, there are material-receiving reports,
for the Section X design example presented in Section 25.7. mechanical-property test reports, resin test records, inspection
Item I in Part I identifies the vessel, the vessel part for which records, the acoustic-emission (AE) test report, and the design
the procedure is to be done, and the Fabricator, User, and report. Documentation for a Section X vessel is voluminous.
Registered Professional Engineer who certify the design. It also Procedure Specifications for the various types of Class I vessels
gives the procedure number, the procedure date, and the date the are similar to one another.
part was fabricated.
Item II defines the essential design variables: the reinforcing 25.11.3 RTP-1 Quality Assurance
fiber types; the resin, catalyst, and promoter; the laminate Quality assurance and shop-accreditation requirements for
sequence; and the method of resin cure. In the top head, there are RTP-1 are very similar to those for Section X, especially Section
three types of reinforcement—a C-glass veil on the inner surface, X, Class II. The similarity is not surprising because both RTP-1
a 1.5 oz/ft randomly oriented mat, and a 24 oz/yd woven roving— and Section X use the same materials and manufacturing methods
after which the ply sequence is stated. The orientation defines the and both also require accreditation by an ASME survey team
direction of the weave of the woven-roving relative to the vessel before vessels are stamped. In addition, both require a Quality
axis. The woven-roving in the example has four fiber bundles per Control System with a written manual, as well as thorough docu-
in. in one direction and five per in. in the perpendicular direction. mentation of the design, fabrication, testing, and inspection of
The direction of the four-per-in. bundle coincides with the E1 every vessel that receives the ASME mark. RTP-1 and Section X
modulus direction. An orientation of 0 deg. aligns this direction both result in about the same amount of documentation for ves-
with the vessel axis. sels of similar complexity.
Item II(B)(3) states that the resin will be cured at room tempera- There are, however, a few significant differences, four of which
ture, without a post-cure; (B)(4) gives the design Barcol hardness are as follows:
as 40  5; (B)(5) is not applicable; and (B)(6) lists the design-
reinforcing fiber content as 41.1%  1% by weight. • As part of the accreditation process, the Fabricator must build
Item III documents the test report that establishes the engineer- a demonstration vessel to show that his or her shop can build
ing constants used in design calculation for the vessel. equipment that satisfies RTP-1. Though small, the vessel has
Item IV documents the design qualification for the top head. challenging design details, including a tangential nozzle and a
The date the vessel was tested, the design and acceptance test body flange. The vessel must be available to the ASME team
numbers, and the version of Section X are all given. Item IV(A) that surveys the shop.
lists the type and batch numbers of the reinforcing fiber forms, as • The Fabricator must produce demonstration laminates of
well as the resin and its catalyst and promoter. With this data, all every type of all laminates that he or she needs to produce and
materials could be traced through the Fabricator’s receiving must conduct tests to determine their mechanical proper ties.
reports and back to the Material Manufacturer’s certifications and The test values must meet the values set by RTP-1.
quality control data. The catalyst and promoter are chemicals • Inspection personnel are different, as exemplified by the RTP-
mixed with the resin just before it is used that initiate the cross- 1, Article 1-400 passage reproduced in Section 25.9.
linking reaction that transforms the resin from a thick liquid to a • Bonders and laminators are tested and certified. Bonders are
solid. In this case, the catalyst is benzoyl peroxide; the promoter, craftspeople who join FRP parts by means of secondary bonded
dimethylaniline. Other catalysts and promoters are used to cure overlays, whereas laminators are craftspeople who build the lam-
vinyl ester resin. Item IV(B) gives the resin data that the inates. To be certified, both must produce sample work accord-
Fabricator collects for each different batch of resin. The values in ing to written procedures. The sample work is then tested; if it is
the example are typical of vinyl ester resins. Item IV(C), (D), and found satisfactory, the bonder or laminator may, by using the
(E) each record the results of quality checks and inspections, and written procedures, produce parts for a stamped vessel.
(F) shows the certification by a representative of the Fabricator
and Inspector that the vessel part satisfies Section X. 24.11.4 Summary
Part II of Form Q-120 is a similar compilation for the overlay The quality assurance provisions of both Section X and RTP-1
that joins the top head to the shell. There are, however, two standards ensure that vessels that receiving the ASME mark—RP
important differences. The first is that Part II(B) specifies the sur- for Section X, RTP for RTP-1—are built according to either of
face preparation for the joint by referencing a procedure in the these standards. Such vessels have high-quality design and fabri-
Fabricator’s Quality Control Manual. The second is that there are cation and provide long, reliable service.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 296

296 • Chapter 25

25.12 REFERENCES 6. Nielsen, L. E., Mechanical Properties of Polymers, Reinhold

Publishing Co., New York, 1962, p. 11.
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X, Riber-Reinforced
Plastic Pressure Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical 7. RTP-1, Mandatory Appendix M-11; The American Society of
Engineers. Mechanical Engineers.

2. ASME RTP-1, Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion-Resistant 8. ASME Section X, Article RG-113; The American Society of
Equipment; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Mechanical Engineers.

3. Beckwith, S. W., Filament Winding—The String and the Glue, 9. ASME Section X, Article RG-121; The American Society of
Composite Fabricators Association Web site: http://www.cfahq.org/ Mechanical Engineers.
documents/StringandGlue.doc. 10. Reissner, E., “Stresses and Small Displacements of Shallow Spherical
4. Murphy, J., The Reinforced Plastics Handbook, Elsevier Science Shells, II,” Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1947,
Publishers, 1994, p. 356. pp. 279–300.

5. Tsai, S. W., and Hahn, H. T., Introduction to Composite Materials, 11. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Manual of Steel
Technomic Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1980, p. 280f. Construction, Allowable Sress Design, 9th ed., pp. 1–40.
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 297

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 297

APPENDIX 25.A

UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 1

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 298

298 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 299

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 299
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 300

300 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 301

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 301
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 302

302 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 303

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 303
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 304

304 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 305

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 305
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 306

306 • Chapter 25

APPENDIX 25.B

UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 2

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 307

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 307
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 308

308 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 309

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 309
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 310

310 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 311

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 311
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 312

312 • Chapter 25

APPENDIX 25.C

EXAMPLE PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION FOR A SECTION X VESSEL

ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 313

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 313
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 314

314 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 315

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 315
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 316

316 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 317

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 317
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 318

318 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 319

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 319
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 320

320 • Chapter 25
ASME_Ch25_p253-322.qxd 5/20/09 8:50 AM Page 321

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 321