Session 2 Notes
Session 2 Notes
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• Signals represented as sequences of • Discrete-time signal may also be written as
numbers, called samples a sequence of numbers inside braces:
• Sample value of a typical signal or sequence {x[ n]} � {�, � 0.2, 2.2,1.1, 0.2, � 3.7, 2.9,�}
denoted as x[n] with n being an integer in �
the range � � � n � � • In the above, x[�1] � �0.2, x[0] � 2.2, x[1] � 1.1,
• x[n] defined only for integer values of n and etc.
undefined for noninteger values of n
• The arrow is placed under the sample at
• Discrete-time signal represented by {x[n]} time index n = 0
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• In some applications, a discrete-time
• Graphical representation of a discrete-time sequence {x[n]} may be generated by
signal with real-valued samples is as shown periodically sampling a continuous-time
below: xa (t )
signal at uniform intervals of time
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• Here, n-th sample is given by • Unit of sampling frequency is cycles per
x[n] � xa (t ) t �nT � xa ( nT ), n � �, � 2, � 1,0,1,� second, or hertz (Hz), if T is in seconds
• The spacing T between two consecutive • Whether or not the sequence {x[n]} has
samples is called the sampling interval or been obtained by sampling, the quantity
sampling period x[n] is called the n-th sample of the
• Reciprocal of sampling interval T, denoted sequence
as , is called the
FT sampling frequency: • {x[n]} is a real sequence, if the n-th sample
1 x[n] is real for all values of n
FT � • Otherwise, {x[n]} is a complex sequence
T
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• A complex sequence {x[n]} can be written • Example - {x[n]} � {cos 0.25n} is a real
{x[ n]} � {xre [ n]} � j{xim [n]}
as where sequence
xre [n] and are the real and imaginary
xim [n] • {y[n]} � {e j 0.3n} is a complex sequence
parts of x[n] • We can write
• The complex conjugate sequence of {x[n]} {y[n]} � {cos 0.3n � j sin 0.3n}
is given by { x * [ n]} � { xre [n]} � j{xim [ n]} � {cos 0.3n} � j{sin 0.3n}
• Often the braces are ignored to denote a where {yre [n]} � {cos 0.3n}
sequence if there is no ambiguity
{yim [n]} � {sin 0.3n}
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• Two types of discrete-time signals:
• Example -
- Sampled-data signals in which samples
{w[n]} � {cos 0.3n} � j{sin 0.3n} � {e � j 0.3n} are continuous-valued
is the complex conjugate sequence of {y[n]} - Digital signals in which samples are
• That is, discrete-valued
{w[n]} � {y * [n]} • Signals in a practical digital signal
processing system are digital signals
obtained by quantizing the sample values
either by rounding or truncation
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• Example - • A discrete-time signal may be a finite-
length or an infinite-length sequence
Amplitude
Amplitude
• Finite-length (also called finite-duration or
finite-extent) sequence is defined only for a
time, t
time, t
finite time interval: N1 � n � N 2
� � � N1 N2 � �
where and with N1 � N 2
Boxedcar signal Digital signal • Length or duration of the above finite-
length sequence is N � N 2 � N1 � 1
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• A length-N sequence is often referred to as
• Example - x[n] � n 2 , � 3 � n � 4 is a finite- an N-point sequence
length sequence of length 4 � (�3) � 1 � 8
• The length of a finite-length sequence can
y[n] � cos 0.4n is an infinite-length sequence be increased by zero-padding, i.e., by
appending it with zeros
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• Example - • A right-sided sequence x[n] has zero-
� 2 valued samples for n � N1
xe [n] � �n , � 3 � n � 4
� 0, 5 � n � 8
is a finite-length sequence of length 12 N1
n
obtained by zero-padding x[n] � n 2 , � 3 � n � 4
with 4 zero-valued samples A right-sided sequence
N1 � 0,
• If a right-sided sequence is called a
causal sequence
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• A left-sided sequence x[n] has zero-valued • Size of a Signal
samples for n � N 2
Given by the norm of the signal
L p -norm
N2 1/ p
n
� � p�
x p
� � � x[ n] �
A left-sided sequence � n ��� �
N 2 � 0,
• If a left-sided sequence is called a where p is a positive integer
anti-causal sequence
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Discrete-Time Signals: Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Time-Domain Representation
• The value of p is typically 1 or 2 or � L 1-norm x 1
is the mean absolute value of {x[n]}
L2 -norm
L �-norm x
x2 �
is the peak absolute value of {x[n]}, i.e.
is the root-mean-squared (rms) value of
{x[n]} x � � x max
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Discrete-Time Signals:
Time-Domain Representation Operations on Sequences
Example
• A single-input, single-output discrete-time
• Let {y[n]}, 0 � n � N � 1 , be an approximation of
{x[n]}, 0 � n � N � 1 system operates on a sequence, called the
input sequence, according some prescribed
• An estimate of the relative error is given by the
ratio of the L 2 -norm of the difference signal and rules and develops another sequence, called
the L 2 -norm of {x[n]}: the output sequence, with more desirable
� N �1
1/ p
2� properties
� � y[ n] � x[ n] �
Erel � � n � 0 � x[n] Discrete-time
y[n]
� N �1 2 � system
� � x[ n] � Input sequence Output sequence
21 � n �0 � 22
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Basic Operations
Operations on Sequences
• Product (modulation) operation:
• For example, the input may be a signal x[n] � y[n]
corrupted with additive noise – Modulator y[n] � x[n] � w[n]
w[n]
• Discrete-time system is designed to
generate an output by removing the noise • An application is in forming a finite-length
component from the input sequence from an infinite-length sequence
• In most cases, the operation defining a by multiplying the latter with a finite-length
particular discrete-time system is composed sequence called an window sequence
of some basic operations • Process called windowing
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Basic Operations Basic Operations
• Time-shifting operation: y[n] � x[n � N ]
• Addition operation:
where N is an integer
x[n] � y[n]
• If N > 0, it is delaying operation
– Adder y[n] � x[n] � w[n]
w[n] – Unit delay y[n] � x[n � 1]
x[n] z �1 y[n]
• Multiplication operation
• If N < 0, it is an advance operation
A
– Multiplier x[n] y[n] y[n] � A � x[n] x[n] z y[n] y[n] � x[n � 1]
– Unit advance
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Basic Operations Basic Operations
• Time-reversal (folding) operation: • Example - Consider the two following
y[n] � x[� n] 0�n�4
sequences of length 5 defined for :
{a[n]} � {3 4 6 � 9 0}
• Branching operation: Used to provide {b[n]} � {2 � 1 4 5 � 3}
multiple copies of a sequence • New sequences generated from the above
x[n] x[n] two sequences by applying the basic
operations are as follows:
x[n]
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Basic Operations Basic Operations
{c[n]} � {a[n] � b[n]} � {6 � 4 24 � 45 0}
{d [n]} � {a[n] � b[n]} � {5 3 10 � 4 � 3} • However if the sequences are not of same
length, in some situations, this problem can
{e[n]} � 3 {a[n]} � {4.5 6 9 � 13.5 0} be circumvented by appending zero-valued
2
samples to the sequence(s) of smaller
• As pointed out by the above example, lengths to make all sequences have the same
operations on two or more sequences can be range of the time index
carried out if all sequences involved are of
same length and defined for the same range • Example - Consider the sequence of length
of the time index n 0 � n � 2 { f [n]} � {� 2 1 � 3}
3 defined for :
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Basic Operations
Basic Operations
Ensemble Averaging
{ f [n]}
• We cannot add the length-3 sequence • A very simple application of the addition
to the length-5 sequence {a[n]} defined operation in improving the quality of
earlier measured data corrupted by an additive
• We therefore first append with 2
{ f [n]} random noise
zero-valued samples resulting in a length-5 • In some cases, actual uncorrupted data
sequence { f e [n]} � {� 2 1 � 3 0 0} vector s remains essentially the same from
one measurement to next
• Then
{g[n]} � {a[n]} � { f e [n]} � {1 5 3 � 9 0}
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Basic Operations Basic Operations
• While the additive noise vector is random • The average data vector, called the
and not reproducible ensemble average, obtained after K
• Let denote the noise vector corrupting
di measurements is given by
the i-th measurement of the uncorrupted K K K
x ave � 1
� xi � K1 � (s � di ) � s � K1 � di
data vector s: K
i �1 i �1 i �1
x i � s � di • For large values of K, is usually a
x ave
reasonable replica of the desired data vector
s
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Basic Operations
Basic Operations
• Example
{ f [n]}
• We cannot add the length-3 sequence
Original uncorrupted data Noise
8 0.5
Amplitude
4 0
2
earlier
0
0 10 20 30
Time index n
40 50
-0.5
0 10 20 30
Time index n
40 50 • We therefore first append with 2
{ f [n]}
8
Noise corrupted data
8
Ensemble average zero-valued samples resulting in a length-5
6 6
sequence { f e [n]} � {� 2 1 � 3 0 0}
Amplitude
Amplitude
4 4
2 2 • Then
{g[n]} � {a[n]} � { f e [n]} � {1 5 3 � 9 0}
0 0
-2 -2
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
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Combinations of Basic Sampling Rate Alteration
Operations
• Employed to generate a new sequence y[n]
FT'
with a sampling rate higher or lower
• Example - FT
than that of the sampling rate of a given
sequence x[n]
F'
• Sampling rate alteration ratio is R � T
FT
• If R > 1, the process called interpolation
y[n] � �1x[ n] � � 2 x[n � 1] � � 3 x[n � 2] � � 4 x[n � 3] • If R < 1, the process called decimation
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Sampling Rate Alteration
Sampling Rate Alteration
• In up-sampling by an integer factor L > 1,
L � 1 equidistant zero-valued samples are • An example of the up-sampling operation
inserted by the up-sampler between each 1
Input Sequence
1
Output sequence up-sampled by 3
two consecutive samples of the input
0.5
sequence x[n]:
0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
� x[n / L], n � 0, � L, � 2 L,�
0 0
� 0, otherwise
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
xu [n]
Time index n Time index n
x[n] L
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Sampling Rate Alteration Sampling Rate Alteration
• In down-sampling by an integer factor • An example of the down-sampling
M > 1, every M-th samples of the input operation
M �1
sequence are kept and in-between 1
Input Sequence
1
Output sequence down-sampled by 3
y[n] � x[nM ]
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
y[n]
-0.5
x[n]
-0.5
M
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
• Conjugate-symmetric sequence: • Conjugate-antisymmetric sequence:
x[ n] � x * [ � n] x[n] � � x * [� n]
If x[n] is real, then it is an even sequence If x[n] is real, then it is an odd sequence
An even sequence An odd sequence
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
• It follows from the definition that for a • Any complex sequence can be expressed as
conjugate-symmetric sequence {x[n]}, x[0] a sum of its conjugate-symmetric part and
must be a real number its conjugate-antisymmetric part:
• Likewise, it follows from the definition that x[ n] � xcs [n] � xca [ n]
for a conjugate anti-symmetric sequence where
{y[n]}, y[0] must be an imaginary number xcs [n] � 12 � x[n] � x * [� n]�
• From the above, it also follows that for an
odd sequence {w[n]}, w[0] = 0 xca [n] � 12 � x[ n] � x * [� n]�
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
• Example - Consider the length-7 sequence • Therefore {g cs [n]} � 12 {g [n] � g * [� n]}
�3� n � 3
defined for : � {1.5, 0.5� j 3, �3.5� j 4.5, 4, �3.5� j 4.5, 0.5� j 3, 1.5}
{g [ n ]} � {0, 1� j 4, � 2� j 3, 4 � j 2, �5� j 6, � j 2, 3} �
�
• Its conjugate sequence is then given by • Likewise {g ca [n]} � 1 {g [n] � g * [� n]}
2
{g * [ n ]} � {0, 1� j 4, � 2 � j 3, 4 � j 2, �5� j 6, j 2, 3}
� � {�1.5, 0.5� j , 1.5� j1.5, � j 2, �1.5� j1.5, �0.5� j , 1.5}
• The time-reversed version of the above is �
{g * [ � n ]} � {3, j 2, �5� j 6, 4� j 2, � 2 � j 3, 1� j 4, 0} gcs [n] � gcs * [� n ]
• It can be easily verified that
� and gca [n] � � gca [� n]
*
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Classification of Sequences
Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry
Based on Symmetry
• A length-N sequence x[n], 0 � n � N � 1,
• Any real sequence can be expressed as a can be expressed as x[n] � x pcs [n] � x pca [n]
sum of its even part and its odd part:
where
x[ n] � xev [n] � xod [n] x pcs [n] � 12 � x[n] � x * [�� n� N ]�, 0 � n � N � 1,
where
is the periodic conjugate-symmetric part
xev [ n] � 12 � x[n] � x[� n]� and
x pca [n] � 12 � x[n] � x * [�� n� N ]�, 0 � n � N � 1,
xod [ n] � 12 � x[ n] � x[� n]�
is the periodic conjugate-antisymmetric
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
• For a real sequence, the periodic conjugate- • A length-N sequence x[n] is called a
symmetric part, is a real sequence and is periodic conjugate-symmetric sequence if
called the periodic even part x pe [n] x[n] � x * [�� n� N ] � x * [ N � n]
• For a real sequence, the periodic conjugate- and is called a periodic conjugate-
antisymmetric part, is a real sequence and is antisymmetric sequence if
called the periodic odd part x po [n]
x[n] � � x * [�� n� N ] � � x * [ N � n]
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
• A finite-length real periodic conjugate- • Example - Consider the length-4 sequence
symmetric sequence is called a symmetric 0�n�3
defined for :
sequence {u[n]} � {1 � j 4, � 2 � j 3, 4 � j 2, � 5 � j 6}
• A finite-length real periodic conjugate- • Its conjugate sequence is given by
antisymmetric sequence is called a {u * [n]} � {1 � j 4, � 2 � j 3, 4 � j 2, � 5 � j 6}
antisymmetric sequence
• To determine the modulo-4 time-reversed
{u * [�� n� 4 ]}
version observe the following:
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Symmetry Based on Symmetry
u * [�� 0� 4 ] � u * [0] � 1 � j 4 • Therefore
u * [�� 1� 4 ] � u * [3] � �5 � j 6 {u pcs [n]} � 1 {u[n] � u * [�� n� 4 ]}
2
u * [�� 2� 4 ] � u * [2] � 4 � j 2
� {1, � 3.5 � j 4.5, 4, � 3.5 � j 4.5}
u * [�� 3� 4 ] � u * [1] � �2 � j 3
• Hence • Likewise
{u * [�� n� 4 ]} � {1 � j 4, � 5 � j 6, 4 � j 2, � 2 � j 3} {u pca [n]} � 1 {u[n] � u * [�� n� 4 ]}
2
� { j 4, 1.5 � j1.5, � 2, � 1.5 � j1.5}
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Classification of Sequences Classification of Sequences
Based on Periodicity Based on Periodicity
~
x [ n]
• A sequence satisfying x~[n] � ~
x [n � kN ] • Example -
is called a periodic sequence with a period N
where N is a positive integer and k is any
integer
• Smallest value of N satisfying x~[n] � ~ x [n � kN ]
is called the fundamental period
• A sequence not satisfying the periodicity
condition is called an aperiodic sequence
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Classification of Sequences:
Classification of Sequences:
Energy and Power Signals
Energy and Power Signals
• Total energy of a sequence x[n] is defined by • The average power of an aperiodic
� sequence is defined by
�x � � x[n]
2
K 2
n � �� Px � lim 2 K1�1 � x[ n]
K �� n�� K
• An infinite length sequence with finite sample
values may or may not have finite energy • Define the energy of a sequence x[n] over a
• A finite length sequence with finite sample �K �n�K
finite interval as
values has finite energy
� x,K
K
� � x[ n]
n�� K
2
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Classification of Sequences:
Classification of Sequences:
Energy and Power Signals
• Then
Energy and Power Signals
Px � lim 2 K1�1
K ��
� x. K • Example - Consider the causal sequence
defined by
• The average power of a periodic sequence
� n
x~[n] with a period N is given by x[n] � �3(�1) , n � 0
N �1 � 0, n�0
1 2
Px �
N � ~
x [n] • Note: x[n] has infinite energy
n �0
• Its average power is given by
• The average power of an infinite-length
sequence may be finite or infinite 1 � K � 9( K � 1)
Px � lim � 9 �1� � lim � 4.5
K � � 2 K � 1 � n � 0 � K �� 2 K � 1
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Classification of Sequences: Other Types of Classifications
Energy and Power Signals
• A sequence x[n] is said to be bounded if
• An infinite energy signal with finite average
x[n] � Bx � �
power is called a power signal
Example - A periodic sequence which has a
finite average power but infinite energy x[n] � cos 0.3�n
• Example - The sequence is a
bounded sequence as
• A finite energy signal with zero average
power is called an energy signal x[n] � cos 0.3�n � 1
Example - A finite-length sequence which
has finite energy but zero average power
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Other Types of Classifications Other Types of Classifications
• A sequence x[n] is said to be absolutely
summable if � • A sequence x[n] is said to be square-
� x[n] � � summable if �
2
n � ��
� x[n] � �
• Example - The sequence n � ��
• Example - The sequence
� n
y[n] � �0.3 , n � 0 sin 0.4 n
h[ n] � � n
� 0, n � 0
is an absolutely summable sequence as is square-summable but not absolutely
� 1 summable
� 0.3n � 1 � 0.3 � 1.42857 � �
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