DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY North La Union Campus Bacnotan, La Union COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE (CACC 107) ALEXANDER DATIVO L. DUMPIT JIMILEE M. GARCIA DONNA S. CARIASO RUSSEL B. BARRAMEDAMODULE 1 INTRODUCTION AND THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF FARM ANIMALS Introduction Animal scientists work with farmers to improve animal breeding, diseases’ prevention and better nutrition. When animals grow well and stay healthy, farmers can produce more meat, milk and eggs for our consumption. They also work with farmers to decrease the environmental impact of animal agriculture. The livestock species playa very important economic and socio-cultural roles for the wellbeing of rural households, such as food supply, source of income, asset saving, source of employment, soil fertility, livelihoods, transport, agricultural traction, agricultural diversification and sustainable agriculture. Objectives At the end of this module, the students/leamers should be able to: - Discuss the inter-relationships of the components of an ecosystem: Explain the economic utility of farm animals; Familiarize with the world’s protein needs, production and consumption; Acquaint with the different terms used in Animal Science; . Estimate live weight of some farm animals using various methods; and Familiorize with the different nomenclatures / terms that refers to the specific parts of the animal's body. Seek eNm Lessons: 1. Introduction to Animal Science 2. Terminologies in Animal Husbandry 3. External Body Parts of Farm Animals 4, Body Measurement, Liveweight and Dress weight Estimation of Farm Animals Directions to the Learners: |. Soft copy of this Module will be given/send to students through on line: 2. The student/leamer will answer alll Self-Checks and perform all activities that is being asked in each lesson;3. Perform/answer summative test at the end of the Module; 4. The student will submit/send soft copies of their answers sheets of the self-checks, activities and summative test on or before the scheduled date of submission through on line; 5. Report to the instructor/professor on the scheduled face to face meeting (if there is any/if necessary) for comprehension on various contents of the lessons; 6. Module examinations/long exams/Mid Term/Finals will be done on the scheduled face to face meetings [if there is any/if necessary), otherwise it will be done thru on line; 7. Additional and succeeding face to face meeting schedule will be decided during the last face to face meeting; 8. Releasing/sending of soft copy of the next and succeeding modules will be done on line after completing the requirements of the last module; and 9. Grading will be based on the results of the different evaluations (self- checks, activities, summative tests, etc.) that is being provided in the lessons/modules. References: Campbell, J. R., Kenealy M.D., and Campbell K.L. 2003. Animal Science, The Biology, Care and Production of Domestic Animals 4% ed. McGraw Hills, New York Frandson R. D., 1985. Anatomy and Physiology of farm animals. Lea and Fabiger: USA FRANDSON, R.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animat.4! edition.Lea & Fibiger, Philadelphia.560 pp. GETTY, R. 1975. Sisson & German's Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.5! edition. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 2095 pp Joumal of Applied Animal Research. Volume 46. 2018. Issue 1 Laboratory and Lecture Manual on Fundamentals of Animal Science. Published by UPLB Philippine Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science. Vol. 28, no 1 (200Lesson1. Introduction to Animal Science Introduction/Rationale livestock animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens, have many roles in the farm ecosystem. They eat com and hay that is grown on the farm, they provide milk, eggs, wool and meat for humans, and their waste can ferlilize the soil. Animal manure contains many nutrients that Plants can use to grow. All animals have important roles in the ecosystem. Some animals help to bring out the nutrients from the cycle while others help in decomposition, Carbon, and nitrogen cycle. All animals, insects, and even micro-organisms play role in the ecosystem Animals supply humans with wool, sik, fur, leather; lubricants, waxes and ‘can act as a mode of transportation, used for sport, for recreation, and for companionship. With tourism and recreation, many people travel great distances to view the incredible biodiversity on Earth. This provides o source ‘of economic wealth in many areas. Why do humans eat meat and other animal products? Animal products can improve human nutrition and heart and bone health. Meat, such as poultry, beef, pork and fish supply many nutrients. Protein is an important part of the diet because it functions as a building block for bones, muscles, cartilage, skin and blood. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/learners should be able to: 1. Explain the role of plants and animals in the maintenance of an ecosystem; 2. Familiarize with the economic use of plants and animal by-products: 3. Acquaint with the world's protein requirements, production and consumption; and 4, Discuss the economic utility of farm animalsMan, Animal and Ecosystem In an ecosystem, the continued growth of plants and animals depend on the maintenance of and balance between: a. Plants as food producers b. Animals as food consumers Plants through photosynthetic activity will: @. convert energy of the sun into carbohydrates; b. fix nitrogen from atmosphere: c. together with other elements of air, water, and soil, converts them into proteins; and d. source of food energy for man. Figure 1 shows the components of an ecological system and their interrelationships. Animals will directly or indirectly consume plants for their energy, growth and reproduction; feed only on plants (herbivores); feed only on animals (comivores); feed on both plants and animals (omnivores) like Man. While animals retum part of the nutrients that they consume back to the soil and eventually to the plants, the amount is less than they withdraw from the plants. Much of the energy taken in by animals from the plants is dissipated to the atmosphere during respiration. Thus, for a given land area, the growth of animal population could introduce on imbalance ecosystem in a way that could deplete the vegetation. In a system where animals are produced in a pastoral system and where regrowth of vegetation is left entirely to nature, the land could be easily over-graze to the extent that while animals continue to reproduce ‘and increase their number, vegetation is not given the opportunity to Tecover its normal growth. indeed, in many parts of the world what used to be areas of lush vegetation have become deserts. Aside from plants, animals are the source of food energy for man, but because of the dissipation of energy in the process of conversion of plants and other feedstuffs into products, and poor producers of food due to dissipation of energy in the process of conversion of plants and other feedstuffs into products, animals are poor producers of food.Solar Energy Heat loss to s Water Environment ELANTS Gaseous Products ; (PRODUCERS) pon sean Atmospheric Nitrogen Soil Nutrients 2 Fixing Bacteria DECAYED pes ORGANISMS Respired Gases to Atmos ‘Leached Nutrients to Soil ‘CONSUMERS: HERBIVORES Heat Loss from body CARNOVORES to Environment COMNIVORES Figure 1.Inter-relationships of the components of an ecosystemActivity: (15 pts) @ Give five (5) examples each of animals classified as herbivores, omnivores and camivores. Animals and their Economic Utility Distinctive attributes of animals that enhances their ability to produce food for man: 1. Animals can feed and convert plants and other materials which would have gone to waste, into rich human food, and 2. Animal products have chemical composition that closely resemble man's dietary requirements and therefore more digestible and nutritious. In crop production, only a fraction of biomass is fit for human consumption. in rice production, only about half of the entire harvested biomass is grains, the rest are straws which is consumed as feed by farm animals like cattle/carabao; andin the processing of rice grains into Polished rice, their by-products like rice bran cannot be eaten by man thus rich source of nutrients for animals. Form animals like ruminants could feed on biomass wastes like straws, stovers, hays, grasses, and leaves of crops and convert them into highly concentrated protein foods (meat and milk) that are highly digestible and nutritious to man. While food is the most important contribution of animals to human, they were also domesticated to provide: 2. skins, and hairs for clothing b. animal power for transport and traction and beauty ¢. man's amusement and companion Table 1 shows the most important species of animals that have been domesticated by man for their agricultural value.Table 1.Farm Animals and their uses SPECIES SCIENTIFIC NAME MAIN USES. Mammals Horse Equus caballus Traction, transport and amusement Ass Equus asinus Traction and transport Mule (Hybrid of male assand Traction and transport mare) Come! Comelus dromedaries Transport Cattle (no hump) Bufallo Sheep Goat Pigs Rabbit Birds Chicken Duck Mallard Muscovy Goose Turkey Pigeon Quail Guinea fowl Bos taurus Bos indicus Bubalus bubalis Ovis aries Capra hircus ‘Sus scrofa Oryctolagus cuniculus Gallus gailus ‘Anas platyrhynchos Cairin amoschata Anser domesticus Meleagris gallopavo ‘Columbia livia Cotumix cotumix Numida meleagris Meat, milk, hide fraction and transport Meat, milk, traction and transport Meat, milk, and hair (wool) Meat and milk Meat Meat and skin Meat, eggs and amusement Meat and eggs Meat and eggs Meat and eggs Meat and eggs Meat and amusement Meat and eggs Meat and eggsAnimal Agriculture and the Population Problem Even as the animals that are commonly raised for food are quite intensively produced, they are not enough to meet the world's protein needs. Over the world feed protein needs and supply, Andrew W. Speedy, FAO ‘and other institutions suggest that global meat and production and Consumption will rise from 233 million tons (2000) to 300 milion tons (2020), and Mik from 568 to 700 milion tons over the same period. The world now produces more than four times the quantity of meat as it did 50 years ago. In 2013, production was around 320 million tons, Pig meat is the most popular meat globally, but the production of poultry is increasing most rapidly. 80 billion animals are slaughtered each year for meat. In 2012, globally, fish provides about 3.0 billion people with almost 20% of their average per capita intake of animal protein. From the food supply data, about 102 grams of protein are available per capita with 6.5% derived from animal protein. With the ever-increasing human population and the contraction of land for agricultural production, the challenge to produce more animal food Products is becoming more and more severe. Animal Science and the Animal Industry Like all other production sectors of the economy, the continued viability and progress of the animal industry depends on how it is able to respond successfully to the changing conditions of the biological, physical and socio- economic and political environments. Advances in Animal Science keep the industry responsive to these environmental changes. The development of more efficient and productive breeds and varieties of animals through breeding; cheaper and more nutritious feeds materials for animal feeds: of new drugs and feed additives; of new systems of housing and managementadopted to present environmental conditions that economically improve the health and Performance of animals; cheaper and more economical processing of animal products, etc. enable the different segments of the industry to fully and economically utilize whatever resource are available. Through technological advances, the animal industry in the Philippines has developed from basically backyard and self-subsistence production system and consisting of specialized but highly interdependent segments. Figure 2 shows the different components of the industry showing the flow of inputs fromthe suppliers fo the producers and of the products from the producers to Consumers. Because of the adoption of new production technologies and the subsequent rapid growth and industrialization, the Philippine animal industry has tended to depend more and more on imported inputs which include feedstutfs, veterinary drugs and chemicals, equipment and breeding stocks. At present the livestock industry principally produces carabao, cattle, hogs and chicken. Goats and ducks are also raised but do not contribute significantly to the protein supply of the country. Hogs provide most of the total domestic meat next are cattle and carabaos and third is chicken. The country is relatively sufficient in chicken, eags, and pork but imports beef. Hog and chicken production system which depend heavily on commercially-mixed feeds are more intensive and commercially-oriented. They are mostly located close to urban center. Cattle, carabaos and goats, on the other hand, subsist mainly on grasses and roughages and are raised mainly by smaliholder farmers in the rural areas. In animal science, the challenges to all of us is to be able to meet our need for food and other essential products from animals in a most economical and efficient system of production without endangering our environment.BREEDING STOCK FEEDSTUFFS IMPORTATION IMPORTATION MIDDLEMEN CONSUM BREEDER FARMS VET DRUGS IMPORTATION ee PROCESSOR OTHER INPUT SUPPLIERS PRODUCTION, FARMS EQUIPMENT TARORTATION LIVESTOCK MARKET o-. === EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS Figure 2.Schematic diagram of the Philippine Animal Industry @ ¥ Self-Check: (15 pts) 1. What is the role of plants in an Ecosystem? (5 pts) 2. How does plant and animal by-products become useful ‘as raw material? Explain. (10 pts) 10Lesson 2: Terminologies in Animal Husbandry Introduction/Rationale This lesson focuses on the different terminologies or terms that are being used in identifying the different species of domesticated farm animals. This includes on their parturition, scientific names, type of their mea, breeds, sex, age, classification, etc. Knowledge on these terms is very important to Agriculture students especially in the implementation of the different aspects of management like growing, feeding, and for breeding purposes as this will become a great factor in decision making. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/learners should be able to: 1. State the scientific names, sample breedsand meat type of the different species of farm animals; and 2. Identify and familiarize with the term used based on the age and sex of the farm animal. General Terms In Animal Husbandry iG Sen en Parturition - general term for the act of giving birth in farm animals ™pango 1. Calving - act of giving birth in cows Farrowing — act of giving birth in sows Kidding - act of giving birth in sows Foaling - act of giving birth in mares Lambing - act of giving birth in ewes Caracalving - act of giving birth in carabao Gestation - pregnancy time from conception to birth Conception — act of fertilization Dam - female parent Sire — male parent Fertility — ability to produce fertilizable ova and to provide proper environment for and initiating cell division and embryonic adevelopment. In males, it is the ability to produce to produce large number of sperm cell capable of fertilization. 7. Fecundity or prolificacy — ability to give birth to offspring frequently of numerous young at frequent intervals 8. Sterility — inability to produce normal young 9. Impotency — failure to copulate 10. Puberty ~ sexual maturity, as exhibited by first heat or ovulation 11.Weanling - young animal, after separation from its dam 12.Weaning - the process of separating young animals from its dam . Cattle (Bos taurus / Bos indicus) and Carabao (Bubalus bubalis / Bubalus carabenensis) 1. Ox=ruminant member of bovine family, or sometimes the male is used for draft purposes. Cattle - domesticated bovine animals. Bulls -male breeding ox of any age. Cow — female cattle that has given birth to a young. Heifer — young female ox under 3 years of age, usually one that has not yet given birth, Steer - male ox castrated before sexually mature. Stag - male ox castrated after sexually matured. Calf- young ox of either sex, less than one year of age. 9. Bull calf — young male calf under one year of age. 10.Carabull - caraboo bull 11. Bullock ~ usually a stag for draft purposes. 12.Caraheifer - young female carabao under three years of age usually one that has not yet given birth. 13.Caracow - mature female, one that has given birth 14. Transmitting ability — the ability of the animal to pass on either good or bad traits to progeny. 15. Proven sire — bull about which one have sufficient unselected information to indicate his transmitting ability. ORO PND . Horse (Equus caballus) |. Stallion — mature male horse; if the stallion is used for breeding Purposes the term studhorse is preferred. 2. Mare - mature female horse; broodmare is the term for the female horse used for breeding purposes. Colt young male horse usually up to 3 years old, Filly - young female horse usually up to 3 years old. Foal — young horse of either sex below one year of age. Gelding — horse which was castrated while young, Saw 27. Yeld mare or Dry mare - one that has not produced any young during breeding season. 8. Ridgling — stallion with one testis or none in its scrotum. 9. Equestration - horsemanship, the art of riding a horse . Swine (Sus scrofa/Sus domesticus) 1, Boar- male pig of any age 2. Sow- mature female pig, one that has given birth. 3. Gilt - young female pig under one year of age, usually one that has not yet given birth. ‘Shote - young pig either sex, weighing approximately 60 kg. Barrow — male pig which was castrated while young; or pig that was castrated before secondary sex characters have developed. 6. Stag - a male pig castrated after maturity. 7. Weanling - young pigs separated from sow, about 5 weeks old. 8. Suckling ~ young pigs from birth up to weaning. . Litter — group of pigs bom in one farrowing, 0. Liter size - the number of young pigs bom in one farrowing. oe 9, 1 . Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hircus) Ram - male sheep of any age. Ewe - female sheep of any age. Lamb - young sheep of either sex below one year of age. Wethersheep - male sheep which was castrated while young preferably one to three weeks of age. Shearling - yearling sheep with two teeth. Fleece - wool covering the sheep. Billy goat or buck - male goat of any age. Pelt - wool and skin of a sheep. . Doe - female goat of any age. 10. Buck - male goat for breeding purposes. 11.Buckling - a young buck. 12.Nanny = young female goat. 13. Kid — young goat of either sex below one year of age. 14.Wether goat - male goat castrated before the secondary sex characters have developed. Seppe PNOD 0 13E. Meat and Meat Products 1. Meat of different animals. @) Beef —ox, one year old and above b) Veal - ox, less than one year old ¢) Pork - pig d) Venison - deer €) Mutton - sheep, less than one year old f) Lamb - sheep, less than one year old g) Chevon - goat h) Lappan - rabbit |) Carabeet- corabao beef; caraveal j), Game meat- game animals (wild hunted) k) Chevaline — horse 2. Meat ~ properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good condition at the time of sloughter. 3. Slaughter - from fasting through stunning, up to breeding to skinning and evisceration. 4. Butchering — from spitting and quartering, to cutting the carcass into the retail cuts. F. Poultry: Chicken - (Gallus gallus/Gallus domestic) Duck - Mallard- (Anas platyrhynchos) Muscovy -(Cairina moschata) Turkey -(Meleagris gallopavo) Pigeon -(Columbia livia) Quail -(Cotumixcotumix) Geese -(Cygnopsis cygnoides) 1. Poultry - a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to man; can also refer to dressed carcass of fowis. 2. Chicken ~ one of the more common species different from turkeys, duck, geese, etc. Chick - young chicken while in the down stage. Rooster - a male fowl one year old or over. Cockerel - a male fow less than one year old. Capon - a caponized male readily distinguished by undeveloped comb and wattles. Pullets — a female fow! less than one year old. Drake — a male duck. aA aw @N 149. Duck—a female duck. 10. Duckling - the young duck in down stage. 11. Plumage - the feathers of fowl. 12. Poult the young of domestic turkey, properly applied until sex can be distinguished, 13.Tom - male turkey. Common Name Scientific Name [Sample Breeds | Buffalo Bubalus bubalis | Murrah, Nili-ravi, Surf, Water Buffalo Bubalus carabenensis | Philippine Carabao River type is apesnas, Cattle Bos taurus Holstein Freisian, Jersey European/Exotic Bos indicus American Brahman Indian/humped Goat Capra hircus | Anglo- Nubian, | Saanen, Toggenburg Sheep ‘Ovies aries ‘Merino, Rambouliiei, St. Croix Horse Equus caballus Quarter horse Arabian Pig/Swine Sus domesticus Duroc, Landrace, Sus scrofa Large White Chicken Gallus gallus New Hampshire Gallus domesticus Rhode Island Red [Pigeon Columbia livia Tumbler, King Duck: ‘Mallard Anas platyrhyncos Muscovy Cairina moschata Turkey ‘Meleagris gallopavo Nicholas white: Quail ‘Cotumix cofumix Seattle, Negro, Tuxedo Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus Chinchilla, Himalayan 15@ ¥ Self-Check: (10pts) 1. Differentiate BostaurusfromBosindicus? (5 pts) 2, What are the two (2) main features of a Brahman animal? (5pts) Activity: Fill in the correct terms in the table below: (65 pts) anruRe YOUNG | MALEFOR | FEMALE | MALE ruse Pomestic | sciennic | Ton” | meat | FEMALE | areeDinc | “Twat | castea- | sampte | ‘RATE fanmats | “Name | (actor runroses | wan | “eo | “Sree | ‘ren ‘ving GEN | sEFORE/ minute hy im | “ArTER mature 1. sheer 2.carasro | gubats bubals ‘3. SWINE | Pork | Stag | «came cow S.HoRse Foaling x 4 puck rake 7.chicKEN raio acon nben | - 16Lesson 3; External Body Parts of Farm Animals Introduction/Rationale Anatomy is a branch of science that deals with form and structure. Thorough knowledge of structure imparts much information about its function. However, a mere description of structure without describing function would be Of little practical value. Conversely, it is impossible to gain a thorough understanding of function without the basic knowledge of the structure involved, A practical application of knowledge of external anatomy is a fundamental for efficient animal Production systems. It is very important then for @ Student in Animal Science to be familar with the distinguishing extemal features of the different species of farm animals. Such species of farm animals would be of great help in their identification and classification. These have immediate importance in judging research work, buying and seling animals, handling and veterinary work. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Familiarize with the different nomenclatures / terms that refers to the specific parts of the animal's body; 2. Describe and differentiate the distinguishing extemal features of the different species of farm animals using illustrative drawing, 3. Compute the estimated weight of a pig, cattle, goat and carabao; 4. Determine the estimated dress weight of an animal; and 5. Compute the monetary value of an animal. The External Anatomy of the Different Farm Animals 1. Beef Cattle Beef cattle are cattle raised for meat production (as distinguished from dairy cattle, used for mik production). The meat of mature or almost mature cattle is_known as beef. In beef production there are three main stages: cow-caif operations, grounding, and feediot operations, vbody EXTERNAL PARTS OFA BEEF CATTLE Source:https://beef2live.com/story-anatomy-beef-cattle-89-104357 2. Horse The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, single-toed animal of today. 18muzzle” jaw point of shoulder breast ~ Birth — chestnuts. S knee _cannon bone, coronet fetlock joint, band \ gy >pastern- A THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A HORSE Source: https://www.ponydreams.com/horse-anatomy-external/ 3. Dairy Cattle Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows) are cattle cows bred for the ability to Produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cows generally are of the species Bos taurus. 19EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A DAIRY CATTLE Source:httos//animalcorner.org/cow-anatorny/ 4. Goat Goat is a member of the animal family Bovidae and the subfamily Caprinae, meaning it is closely related to the sheep. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat. Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species of animal, and have been used for milk, meat, fur and skins across much of the world, 20Female Goat EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A FEMALE GOAT Source: https://animalcorner.org/goat-anatomy/ 5. Chicken Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus} is a type of domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus). They are one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion as of 2018, up from more than 19 billion in 2011.Body Parts of Chicken EXTERNAL PARTS OF A CHICKEN Source: https://www_pinterest.ph/pin/468655904947097373/ 6. Swine Swine is any of various stout-bodied short-legged omnivorous artiodactyl mammals (family Suidae) with a thick bristly skin and a long flexible snout. 2foreleg EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A PIG Source: https://www_pinterest.oh/pin/700872760737303934, 7. Carabao The carabao (Filipino: kalabaw) is a domestic swamp-type water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) native to the Philippines. This bovine has been declared as the national animal of the Philippines. Carabao have been used by farmers as draft animal in their farming activities like plowing, harrowing, etc 23EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF A CARABAO, Source: https://ep franphil.com/preservation-of-carabao-hide-parts-of-the-body/ 24@ Y Self-Check:(10 pts) 1. In terms of extemal appearance, how can you differentiate a rooster from a hen? (5 pts) 2. What is the difference between the feet of a cattle and ahorse. (Spts)Lesson 4: Body Measurement, liveweight and Dress Weight Estimation of Farm Animals Introduction/Rationale The accurate estimation of body weight of livestock is important in deciding the slaughter weight, feeding level and what treatment dose fo use (Ulutas et al. 2002; Machila et al. 2008). Among the many methods used for its determination, a weighing scale is considered as standard if the scales used ore well calibrated (Machila et al, 2008). In most rural areas in the Philippines,cattle are rarely weighed as weighing instruments are costly to obtain, need technical maintenance and are difficult to transport to livestock farms, especially in Pastoral and agro-pastoral systems (Machila et al. 2008). Formers and cattle traders offen rely on visual judgment to determine the live weight (LW) of animals, which is a subjective method whose accuracy depends on users’ experience. Body weight is closely related to body measurements, with Heart Girth (HG) generally accepted as the most satisfactory single predictor of liveweight (LW) in cattle (Fall et al. 1982; Dodo et al. 2001; Yan et al. 2009; Isik et al, 2009: Lesosky et al. 2012; Lukuyu et al. 2016). The method is cheap, accurate and Consistent; thus, many predictive regression equations are based on this Parameter alone or in combination with others. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Identify and familiarize with the different methods in determining the estimated liveweight of farm animals; and 2. Compute/calculate the estimated liveweight of specific farm animals. Determining Body Weight 1. Eye Ball Estimate — this is determined by just simply judging visually the farm animal as practiced by traditional vakeros. 2. Weighing scale method - this is done by the use of baskula with a capacity ranging from 10 to 1,000 kilograms. 263. Body measurement method — this is determined by using Linear Regression Formula. The body length (bl) is measured using a tape measure from the base of the fail up to the base of the neck. The heart girth (hg) is also measured by encircling the tape measure at the breast portion of the live Gnimal. The unit of measurement to be used for swine is the English system (inches). For cattle, both English (inches) and Metric system (centimeter) can be Used as unit of measurement; however, if inches will be used, you need to convert your answer to kilogram by dividing it with 2.2 (there are 2.2 pounds per kilogram) to arrive with a kilogram answer. For carabao, the unit of measurement is in metric system (centimeter) 1. Formula in determining the Estimated Live weight of a Pig: liveweight = HG? x BL(weight should be in pounds (Ibs) 400 HG = Heart girth BL = Body length To get the weight in kilograms (kgs) =weight in Ibs 22 2. Formula indress weight estimation: Dress weight = Estimated liveweight x 72% 27How to Calculate Pig Weight Using a Measuring Tape HEART GIRTH LENGTH Measure the circumference _ Measure from the base of just behind the forelegs _the ear to the base of the tail er 1) Measure the pig's heart girth. Place the fabric measuring tape around the Pig, just behind the front legs. Note the pig's circumference in inches, 2) Measure the pig's length. Start at the base of the pig's ears and measure to the base of its tail. Note the pig's length in inches. 3) Calculate the pig's girth measurement. To calculate the girth, you will ‘square the heart girth measurement. For example, if the pig had a heart girth of 44 inches: 44 x 44 = 1936 4) Multiply the pig's girth measurement by its length. If our example pig had a length measurement of 39 inches: 1936 x 39 = 75,504 5) Divide your total by 400 to get the estimated total live weight. For example: 75,504 / 400 = 188.76 Ibs. 6) To estimate carcass weight, multiply your live weight by 72%. For example: 188.76 x 0.72 = 135.90 Ibs Source:https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/714031715895350346/ 7. If you want to convert the weight of the pig in pounds to kilograms, then divide the result by 2.2 (there are 2.2 pounds per kilogram). 8. The estimated weight then of the pig is 85.8 or 86 kg. 2Ba. Example of Weight Estimation for swine: Formula: Y= (hax bl) /2.2 400 Given: Y= Estimated weight hg = 37 inches bl =52 inches Y= (37)? x52 /22 400 Y=17797 12.2 Y = 80.89 or 81 kgs. b, Dress weight = 81 kgs. x 72% = 58.32 Kgs. 28@ Activity: (45 pts) 1. Compute the estimated liveweight and dress weight of the following farm animals, to wit: as pts. each) a. Sow (HG = 43 inches; BL = 57 inches) b. Boar (BL = 49 inches; HG = 38 inches) ¢.Gilt (HG = 39 inches; BL = 51 inches) How to Calculate Cattle Weight Measuring beef cattle. To determine the estimated weight of your cattle, using English System of measurement a. Formula: Y= (hg)?x I 10, 840 b. Procedure: * Measure the circumference of the animal, as shown in "distance C" in the illustration. Make sure to measure girth in relation to the location of the animar's heart. 30Measure the length of the animal's body, as shown in distance A-B in the illustration. Using the measurements from steps 1 and 2, calculate body weight using the formula HEART GIRTH x HEART GIRTH x BODY LENGTH / 300 = ANIMAL WEIGHT IN POUNDS. For example, if a beef cow has a heart girth equal to 70 inches and a body length equal to 78 inches, the calculation would be (70x 70 x78) / 300 = 1,274 pounds. If you are to convert pounds into kilogram, then you will have to divide the 1,274 lb with 2.2 because there are 2.2 pounds per kilogram. So the estimated weight of the cattle is579 kg. source ws 0 ie 0 t c. Example: 1. Weight Estimation of Cattle using Metric System (centimeter) Example: Y = Estimated weight Given: hg=179.cm. bl =200 cm Y= (179)2 x200 10,840 Y = 6,408,200 / 10,840 Y= 591 kgs. 2. Weight Estimation of Cattle using English System (inches) Formula: = Y= (hg)?x bl / 2.2 300 Example: Y= Estimated weight Given: hg = 70 inches bl = 78 inches Y= (70)? x78 300 31Y = 382,000 / 300 Y= 1,274 /2.2 Y = 579 kgs. Note: Goat and sheep weight estimation has the same procedure and formula Qs that of cattle. @ Activity: (20 pts) 1. A bull was measured with 63 inches Heart Girth; ‘and 72 inches Body Length, determine the estimated live weight.(10pts) 2. Given the following data, compute the estimated weight of a cow: (10 pts) a. BL = 187 cm. b.HG = 165m, 32Determination of Body Weight in Philippine Carabao-Murrah Crossbred Buffaloes Using External Body Measurements a. Formula: Body Weight = -522.73 + 4.93 x Heart Girth b. Procedure: The procedure in getting/measuring the heart girth of a carabao is the same as that of a cattle. c. Example: Heart Girth = 80 inches Estimated Body Weight (Y) = - 522.73 +4.93 x 80 Y = 4.41x80 Y = 352 kilos Weight Estimation For Carabao(Based on UPLB Manual) Estimated Weight (Y) = -0.466 + 4.70x Heart Girth Example: Given hearth girth = 80 inches So: ¥ = -0.466 + 4.70 x 80 inches Y = 466 kgs. 33@ Activity: (100pts) 1. Given the following data, estimate the monetary value of the farm animals with estimated liveweight, to wit: (5 pts each) g. Pig at Php 140.00 per kilo with estimate liveweight of 89 Kgs. b, Bull at Php 155.00 per kilo with estimate Liveweight of 430 kas €. Carabao at Php160.00 per kilo with estimate Liveweight of 415 kgs d.Goat at Php 170.00 perkilo with estimate liveweight of 33 kgs. 2. Proceed to your backyard/ neighbors/field in your locality/community and look/find for any farm animal (pig/carabao/cattle/goat) and gpply what you have leamed from the lesson by measuring the body length and hearth girth; then compute for the estimated liveweight and dress weight (pig). Show your solutions (50pts). 3. Submit pictures of the farm animals that you have encountered (chicken, goat, carabao, cattle, etc.) Send pictures thru online (20pts) 4. List down all your observations based on their physical appearances and characteristics (10pts)Summative Test: (60pts) - What is an ecosystem? (5 pts) Differentiate slaughtering from butchering. (5 pts) 3. Compute the estimated weight of a carabao with 93 inches heart girth. (5 pts) x 4, Identification (8pts) Q. The general term of act of giving birth for farm animals. b. Amale duck. c. They exist only on plants. d. The meat of a calf. ©. A female horse used for breeding purposes. {. Weight determination/estimation which is done visually. g. Can also refer to dressed carcass of fow's. f. Adomestic swamp-type water buffalo 4. Matching Type: (7pts) A B a. Rooster a. Ready to lay chicken _h, Chicken b. Sheep ©. separation from dam i, Baskula c. Pullet c. Mature male fowl d. Venison d. Meat of a goat e. New Hampshire e. Bos indicus f. Weighing scale. Landrace g. Weoning g. Meat of a deer 5. The heart girth of a pig is measured 45 inches and the body length was 58 inches. Compute for the estimated weight and dress weight. (10 pts) 6. What is the estimated weight of a bull with 85 inches body length and 75 inches heart girth? (10 pts) 7. Compute for the estimated weight of a goat with 23 inches heart girth and 34 inches body length. (10 pts) 35MODULE 2 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS Introduction Physiology is the study of functions of the parts or organ system of the body; it is also a study of function of living matter. It attempts to explain the Physical and chemical factors that are responsible for the origin, development and progression of life. The study of physiology will provide knowledge on the Structure and function of the body and consequently, the care of the body. Homeostasis is a key word in modem physiology. It is used to mean the maintenance of state or constant condition in the intemal environment just like the temperature of our body which remains constant at 37°C. Essentially all the organs and tissues of the body perform functions that help maintain this Constant condition. The animal is kept alive by the coordination of the functions Of the different organs. The nervous and endocrine systems perform the control, Coordination and integration of the functions of the other organ systems in ways that make them work together just like the parts of one machine to accomplish homeostasis. Objectives At the end of this module, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Familiarize and acquaint with the Classifications and functions of bones ‘and muscles; 2. Acquaint with the different Parts of the skeletal and muscular system Using illustrative drawin 3. Acquaint and familiarize with the functions of the nervous system and Central Nervous system; 4. Familiarize and acquaint with the different divisions of the nervous system; 5. Identify and familiarize with the different sensory modalities; 6. Discuss and explain the functions of the cardiovascular system; 7. Familiarize and discuss the flow of blood circulation; 8. Identify the different blood systemic circulations and the organ they supply; 9. Determine the functions of hormones being secreted by endocrine glands; 10. Familiarize with the role of lymphatic system to the body of farm animals;11. Familiarize with the role of respiratory system to the body of farm animals; 12. Discuss the importance of kidney as an organ; and 13. Describe how animals use their body temperature in response to the environment. Lessons 1. The Skeletal and Muscular System 2. The Nervous and Endocrine System 3. The Cardiovascular System (CVS) and Respiratory System 4. The Excretory System and Body Temperature Regulation Directions to the Learners 1. Soft copy of this Module will be given/send to students through on li 2. The student/leamer will answer all Self Checks and perform all activi that is being asked in each lesson; . Perform/answer summative test at the end of the Module; . The student will submit/send soft copies of their answers sheets of the self-checks, activities and summative test on or before the scheduled date of submission through on line: 5. Report to the instructor/professor on the scheduled face to face meeting (if there is any/if necessary) for comprehension on various contents of the lessons; 6. Module examinations/iong exams/Mid Term/Finals will be done on the scheduled face to face meetings (if there is any/ifnecessary), otherwise it will be done thru on line; 7. Additional and succeeding face to face meeting schedule will be decided during the last face to face meeting; 8. Releasing/sending of soft copy of the next and succeeding modules will be done on line after completing the requirements of the lost module; and . Grading will be based on the results of the different evaluations (self- checks, activities, summative tests, etc.) that is being provided in the lessons/modules. ao 2References Campbell, J. R., Kenealy M.D., and Campbell K.L. 2003. Animal Science, The Biology, Care and Production of Domestic Animals 4! ed. McGraw Hills, New York Frandson R. D., 1985. Anatomy and Physiology of farm animals. Lea and Fabiger: USA FRANDSON, R.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals.4' edition.Lea & Fibiger, Philadelphia.560 pp. GETTY, R. 1975. Sisson & German's Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.5" edition. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 2095 pp Laboratory Manual on Fundamentals of Animal Science. Published by UPLB Lecture Manual on Fundamentals of Animal Science. Published by UPLB NALBANDON, A.V. 1975. Reproductive Physiology of Mammals and Birds.3"4 Edition. W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, U.S.A. 334 pp.Lesson 1: The Skeletal and Muscular Systems Introduction/Rationale The musculoskeletal system supports and protects the animal and enables movement. The bones that make up the skeleton give structure to bodies and protect the brain. The ribs protect the heart and lungs and help in breathing. Muscles make up most of an animal's body and roughly half of its weight, Skeletal muscles work in pairs: when one contracts, the other relaxes. For example, when the biceps contract, the triceps relax, causing the human elbow to bend. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/iearners should be able to: 1. Identify the classifications and functions of bones and muscles; 2. Identify and name the different parts of the skeletal and muscular system using illustrative drawing; 3. Classify and state the functions of bones according to gross appearance; and 4. Differentiate and give examples of the 3 groups of muscles in the muscular system.THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ‘Source:https://swantraining.net/horse- bones-ool-them-bones/ The Skeletal System of a Horse The skeleton has the following functions: » Support ~ the skeleton keeps the body upright and provides a framework for muscle and tissue attachment. > Posture — the skeleton gives the correct shape to our body. » Protection — the bones of the skeleton protect the internal organs and feduce the risk of injury on impact.Other functions of bones 1. protect the vital organs 2. gives rigidity & form to the body 3. act as levers 4, storage of animal 5. site for blood formation Classification of bones according to gross appearance a. Long Bone - act as lever, aid in support, locomotion &prehension. ex. Humerus, radius, ulna, tibia fibula 'b. Short Bone - act as absorbing concussion. ex. Carpus & tarsus ¢. flat Bone - protect vital organs &in muscle attachment. ex. Scapula & pelvic bone d. Sesamoid Bone - to reduce friction or change in course of tendons. ex. Patella e. Iregular bone - for protection of support & muscle attachment. ex. Vertebrae Division of Body Skeleton a. Appendicular skeleton The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of thebonesthat support the appendages. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle pectoral and pelvic girdle. 1. Forelimb ~ shoulder - scapula @. arms - humerus b. forearm - radius & ulna c. wrist (knee) - carpals d. forefoot ~ metacarpals2. Hind limbs Q. hip - lium, ischium & pubis b. thigh - femur cc. kneecap ~ patella d. leg/shank - fibia & fibula e. ankle (hock) - tarsals f. hind foot - metatarsals & phalanges b, Axial Skeleton 1. skull 2.vertebrae - cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (waist), sacral(rump), caudal / coccygeal (tail). 3. ribs ¢. Visceral Skeleton Any bony formation in an organ, as in the heart, tongue, or penis of certain animals; the term also includes the carfilaginous rings of the trachea and bronchi. The bones of the visceral skeleton are formed in soft organs. They are not Present in all species of animals. Examples of visceral skeleton bones include: ~ bone in the penis of dogs - bone in the heart of cattle - bone in the snout of pigs THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM The muscular system is the most prominent & extensive anatomical feature of the body which is noted for contractility constrict or shorten its nomal length. This systemis an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture ond circulates blood throughout the body.There are 3 types of muscles in the body: 1. Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously controlled. They are attached to bones, and contracting the muscles causes movement of those bones, 2. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle lines the inside of blood vessels and organs, such as the stomach, and is also known as visceral muscle. It is the weakest type of muscle but has an essential role in moving food along the digestive tract and maintaining blood circulation through the blood vessels. Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be consciously controlled. 3. Cardiac muscle This is located only in the heart, cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body. Cardiac muscle stimulates its own contractions that form the heartbeat. Signals from the nervous system control the rate of contraction. This type of muscle is strong and acts involuntarily. The main functions of the muscular system are as follows: 1. Mobility The muscular system's main function is to allow movement. When muscles contract, they contribute to gross and fine movement. Most muscle movement of the body is under conscious control. However, some movements are reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand from a source of heat. 2. Stability Muscle tendons stretch over joints and contribute to joint stability. Muscle tendons in the knee joint and the shoulder joint are crucial in stabilization. The core muscles are those in the abdomen, back, and pelvis, and they also stabilize the body and assist in tasks, such as lifting weights.3. Posture Skeletal muscles help keep the body in the correct position when someone is sitting or standing. This is known as posture.Good posture relies on strong, flexible muscles. Stiff, weak, or tight muscles contribute to poor posture ‘and misalignment of the body. Long-term, bad posture leads to joint and muscle pain in the shoulders, back, neck, and elsewhere. 4. Circulation The heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The Movement of the heart is outside of conscious control, and it contracts automatically when stimulated by electrical signals. Smooth muscle in the arteries and veins plays a further role in the circulation of blood around the body. These muscles maintain blood ressure and circulation in the event of blood loss or dehydration. They expand to increase blood flow during times of intense exercise when the body requires more oxygen. 5. Respiration Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it pushes downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill with air. When the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushes air out of the lungs. When the animal breath more deeply, it requires help from other muscles, including those in the abdomen, back, and neck. 6. Digestion The muscular system allows for movement within the body of farm animals, for example, during digestion or urination. Smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal or GI tract control digestion. The GI tract stretches from the mouth to the anus. Food moves through the digestive system with a wave-like motion called peristalsis. Muscles in the walls of the hollow organs contract and relax to cause this movement, which pushes food through the esophagus into the stomach. The upper muscle in the stomach relaxes to allow food to enter, while the lower muscles mix food particles with stomach acid and enzymes. 9The digested food moves from the stomach to the intestines by peristalsis. From here, more muscles contract to pass the food out of the body as stool. 7. Urination The urinary system comprises both smooth and skeletal muscles, including those in the: bladder kidneys penis or vagina prostate ureters urethra The muscles and nerves must work together to hold and release urine from the bladder. Urinary problems, such as poor bladder control or retention of urine, are caused by damage to the nerves that carry signals to the muscles. 8. Birth of Young Smooth muscles in the uterus expand and contract during parturition. These movements push the young through the vagina. Also, the pelvic floor muscles help to guide the young’s head down the birth canal. 9. Vision The skeletal muscles around the eye control its movements. These muscles work quickly and precisely, and allow the eye to: + maintain a stable image * scan the surrounding area + track moving objects If there are damages to the eye muscles, it can impair vision. 10. Organ protection Muscles in the torso protect the intemal organs at the front, sides, and back of the body. The bones of the spine and the ribs provide further protection. Muscles also protect the bones and organs by absorbing shock and reducing friction in the joints. 1011. Temperature regulation Maintaining normal body temperature is an important function of the muscular system.When body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal muscles increase their activity to make heat. Shivering is one example of this mechanism. Muscles in the blood vessels also contract to maintain body heat. Body temperature can be brought back within normal fange through the relaxation of smooth muscle in the blood vessels. This action increases blood flow and releases excess heat through the skin. Muscular System RHOMBOIDEUS TRAPEZIUS SaRUTEAL LATISSIMUS BRACHIOCEPHALICUS ANTERIOR DEEP PECTORAL TRICEPS. FLEXOR EXTENSOR: ‘CARPUS IP FLEXOR CARPUS Main muscles of the horse Source:https://www.pinterest ,ph/pin/31314159882269247/ Three (3) major groups of muscles 4. Striated (Skeletal or striped muscle) — muscle of limbs / trunk — voluntary or under direct control of the will ©. Smooth (unstriated or visceral muscle) — not under the control of the will They are found in the muscular layer of the stomach, intestine, urogenital system, walls of blood vessels & around the alveolar ducts of lungs. ic Gargiac (sttiated involuntary & hearl}muscles — they are found in the jeart, an¥ Self Check: @ 1. Explain why heart is considered a bone? (5 pts) 12Lesson 2: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Introduction/Rationale In general, the nervous system controls the rapid activities of the body such as muscular contraction, secretions of some endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, gastro-intestinal motility, to mention a few. The rapid reflex action to avoid danger is due to nervous system activities. The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone into the bloodstream to regulate the body. While powerful, the endocrine organs are relatively small. Hormones are chemical messengers that have many different functions. In the bloodstream, the hormones travel throughout the body. Nervous system deals on neurons while endocrine system tackles on hormones of the body of farm animals. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Acquaint with the functions of the nervous system and Central Nervous systems; 2. Identify the classifications of neuron according to the direction of impulse conduction; 3. Familiarize with the different body sense. organs; 4. Determine and identify what part of the tongue where modalities of taste be determined; and 5. Describe the common characteristics and functions of neurons. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system is composed of the Brain, the Spinal Cord and the Nerves. Essentially all parts of the body are supplied with nerves. The nerve cells oF neurons specialize in impulse condition or the relay of messages from effector organs to the nervous system and vice versa, The human brain contains about 100 bilion neurons or about the same number of stars in our galaxy. Neurons Maybe classified according to the direction of impulse conduction as follows: 1. Afferent (sensory) neurons - transmit neve impulses from effector ‘organ to the spinal cord or brain. 132. Efferent (motor) neurons - transmit nerve impulses away from the brain ©F spinal cord to or towards muscles or glands (effector organs).1he effector organ could be the skeletal muscle, cardiac muscles, smooth muscle or some other glands. 3. Intemeurons — conduct impulses from an afferent neuron within the central nervous system (CNS) which is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Structure of Neurons Neurons isconsist of: . Cell body Biological Neuron b. One axon c. One or more dendrites i Axon and dendrites - are threadlike VL extensions from the cell body called nerve ss fibers. nudes: a Receptors -the distal ends of dendtites of sensory neurons - they receive the stimuli that initiate boty the conduction of — impulses to the cell Sexes body of the neuron. Axon ~ is a single process that extends out from the cell body, and may end up on a synapse or on any effector organ. Neuron or nerve cells do not come in direct contact with one another, instead, there is a small gap of about 200 A (Angstrom - 1/19? inch) between them. This gap is called Synapse where nerve impulses are transmitted from one nerve cell to another and located between the axon terminals of one neuron (presynaptic or preganglionic) and the cell body or dendfites of another (postsynaptic or postganglionic). 14Divisions of the Nervous System 1, The Central Nervous System (CNS) Sensory Modalities This consists of the various sense organs of the body. This includes the sense of smell, vision, hearing, rotational and linear acceleration, taste, cutaneous senses with receptor in the skin to monitor touch-pressure cold, warmth and pain, and organic sensation (hunger, thirst, bladder fullness and sexual sensation). The rods and cones of the eyes for example, respond maximally to light of different wavelengths and there are different cones for each of the primary colors. There are 4 different modalities of tastes - sweet, salt, sour and bitter and each is perceived by more or less distinct type of taste bud in the tongue. Usually, the bitterness of the food can be tasted or determined at the base of our tongue, the soumess and saltiness at the side and sweetness at the tip of the tongue. Sounds of different pitches are heard primarily because different groups of hair cells in the organ of Corti are activated maximally by sound waves of different frequencies. The sensation evoked by impulses generated by a specific receptor is interrupted by a specific part of the brain which it ultimately activates. 15Principal Sensory Modalities Sensory Modality Receptor Sense Organ Conscious Sensations: Vision Rods and cones Eye Hearing Hair cells Ear (Organ of Corti) ‘Smell Olfactory neurons Olfactory mucous membrane Taste Taste receptor cell Taste bud (tongue) Rotational Acceleration | Hair cells Ear (semicircular canals) Linear Acceleration Hair cells Ear (utricle and saccule) Touch-pressure Nerve endings Various Warmth Nerve endings Various Cold Nerve endings Various Pain Naked nerve endings _| Various Joint __| Nerve endings ra | Unconscious Sensations: Muscle length Nerve endings Muscle spindle Muscle tension Arterial blood pressure Central nervous pressure Inflation of lung Temperature of blood in head Arterial PO2 PH of CSF Osmotic pressure Arteriovenous blood | Glucose difference Nerve endings Nerve endings Nerve endings Nerve endings Neurons in hypothalamus Nerve endings (chemo- receptors) Receptors on ventral Surface of medulla Oblongata Cells in OVLT and Possibly other citcum- ventricular organs in ‘anterior hypothalamus Cells in hypothalamus (glucosestats) Golgi tendon organ Stretch receptors in carotid Sinus and aortic arch Stretch receptors in walls of Great veins, atria Stretch receptors in lung Parenchyma Carotid and aortic bodies 2. The Somatic Nervous System The striated or skeletal muscies of the body are innervated by the somatic division of the nervous system. is part of the nervous system which brings about the quick adjustments of the muscles to changes in the environment. 16When we bum our finger, receptors in the skin transform this stimulus into nerve impulses, which are carried by different nerve fibers to the spinal cord. With this, the higher nerve centers, which in tum send nerve impulses by way of efferent fibers to the muscles of the hand, cause the finger to be removed from the source of the heat. This is a form of reflex arc. Adjustments of this type can be made with remarkable speed. Some nerve impulses of this type travel at the rate of about 40 meters per second. 3. Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system, like the somatic has afferent components, central integrating stations, and effectorpathways. The glands and visceral masculature of the body receive efferent fibers from the autonomic nervous system. The adjustments in the gland and visceral musculature are made by means of chemical mediators, acethylcholine and epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the terminal neurons of the autonomic fibers. There are two mojor divisions of the autonomic system, the sympathetic and parasympathetic. The cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic are contained in the gray matter of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord while the cell bodies of the parasympathetic neurons of the cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system and situated within the midbrain, hindbrain and in the sacral region of the spinal cord. The preganglionic neurons of both sympathetic and parasympathetic division produce acetylcholine while postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division produce mainly norepinephrine. The Endocrine System In animals, the endocrine system encompasses a group of tissues that release hormones into circulation for travel to and action on distant targets. An endocrine tissue is typically a ductless gland (e.g. pituitary, thyroid) that releases its hormones into capillaries that permeate the tissue. Endocrine glands - secrete chemical mediators called hormones that regulate growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, stress responses, body and tissue fluid, and electrolyte balance. Endocrine system - enable the animal to adjust to changes in its environment. 7Endocrinology — a branch of physiology which deals with the coordination of various body tissues by chemical mediators (hormones) produced by restricted areas of the body (endocrine gland) and transported through the circulatory system to the organ of tissue on which they exert their effects. Hormones — is a substance or chemical mediator produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the blood to some part of the body where it exerts its effects. It may be classified as simple protein, glycoprotein and steroids but all have common characteristics and function as follows: Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions; Hormones are effective in biocatalyctic amounts; Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates; Hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect or at some other glands or organs; and Hormones are transported through the circulatory system or blood stream aeNo s The Important Role of Hormones Estradiol, progesterone and testosterone are hormones present in plant and animal products. These naturally occurring hormones are endogenous (coming from inside the system). In animals, they travel through the bloodstream fo synchronize body functions and influence reproduction, growth and development. As consumers demand greater sustainability, growth-promoting hormones can enhance production efficiency and can contribute significantly to the goal of producing more food with fewer resources. Hormones such as androgens and estrogens are given to growing Cattle to promote growth and they cooperate with the endogenous hormones. Growth promoting hormones improve feed efficiency, protein deposition and growth rate of cattle. Glands of the Endocrine 1. Hypophysis or _—_—Pituitary Gland This is located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone called Sella tunica, which protects it from outside pressure. It has 3 lobes or portion. 18. Anterior Pituitary lobe or Adrenohypophysis b. Intermediate Lobe or Pars Intermedia cc. Posterior Pituitary lobe on Neurohypophysis The Adrenohypophysis secretes the following hormones: 1. Growth hormone or Somatotrophic Hormone (STH) - promote growth of the long bones before the epiphyseal - diaphyseal plate is fused together in adulthood. Epienyacat late (rowen, Plate) Diaphysia Motaphysia @ Growing tong bone (©) Mature tong bone 19Gigantism -is over secretion of STH -when this occurs before adulthood Acromegaly - when this happens after adulthood in human. Dwarfism - occurs when there is deficiency of STH during growth an development. . Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone or ACTH - stimulates the adrenal cortex t produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone. 20Pituitary Gland Anterior, terior lobe pe Hydrolysis. Intermediate lobe Pro-ACTH Adrenal cortex Produ Es ee oe obpedionet 3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH ~ stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones thyroxine (Ts) and tridothyronine (Ts) which stimulates the oxygen consumption of most of the cells in the body, helps regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and is necessary for normal growth and maturation. 4. Prolactin or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH) - stimulates milk secretion in lactating mammary gland. 5. Folicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) ~ stimulates the ovary to produce graafion follicle; in the male, it maintains the integrity of the seminiferous tubules of the tes6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - stimulates ovulation in mammary gland and the formation of corpus luteumin ovulated follicle as well as the production of progesterone(prepares uterus for pregnancy) by the corpus luteum. In the male, it stimulates the cells of Leydig or interstitial cells to produce testosterone (male sex hormone responsible for the development of the secondary sex character). The Posterior Pituitary Lobe or neurohypophysis secretes two (2) hormones: 1. Oxytocin, neurohormone in mammals, the principal functions of which are to stimulate contractions of the uterus during labor, to stimulate the ejection of mik (letdown) during lactation, and to promote maternal nurturing behavior. Oxytocin is thought to influence a number of other physiological and behavioral processes as well, particulary sexual and social behavior in males and females. In both sexes, oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus and stored and secreted into the bloodstream from the posterior pituitary gland. It is also synthesized and secreted in other tissues, including the brain, uterus, placenta, ovaries, and testes. 2. Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH) - which is important in conserving body water by reducing urine formation. Pars intermedia is the boundary between the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary. It contains three types of cells - basophils, chromophobes, and colloid-filled cysts. The cysts are the remainder of Rathke's pouch. In human fetal fe, this area produces melanocyte stimulating hormone or MSH which causes the release of melanin pigment in skin melanocytes (pigment cells). However, the pars intermediais normally either very small or entirely absent in adulthood, In lower vertebrates (fish, amphibians) MSH from the pars intermedia is responsible for darkening of the skin, often in response to changes in background color. This color change is due to MSH stimulating the dispersion of melanin pigment in dermal (skin) melanophore cells. 2. Thyroid Gland This gland is located at the neck just below the Larynx. There are 2 lobes of thyroid connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called Isthmus. The thyroid gland maintains the level of metabolism in the tissues that is optimal for their normal function. It secretes the hormone thyroxine (Ta) and tridothyronine (Ts) which stimulates the oxygen consumption of most of the cells in the body, 22helps regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and is necessary for normal growth and maturation. Thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of an individual. Thyroid gland is made up of follicles which are filled with colloids. When the gland is inactive, the colloid is abundant, the follicles are large, and the cells lining them are flat. When the gland is active, the follicles are small, and the cells are cuboid or columnar. The thyroid gland is not essential in life, but in its absence, there is poor resistance to cold, mental and physical slowing, and in children, mental retardation and dwarfism (cretinism) conversely, excess thyroid secretion leads to body wasting, nervousness, tachycardia, tremor, and excess heat production. The common disease associated with over activity of the thytoid is thyrotoxicosis such as Graves’ disease (exophthalmic goiter) caused by thytoid-stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI). There is marked stimulation of secretion of thyroid hormones and the high circulating Ts and Ts levels inhibit TSH secretion, 50 the circulating TSH is depressed. The exophthalmos in Graves’ disease is due to the swelling of the tissue, particularly the extra muscles, within the rigid bony walls of the orbits. This pushes the eyeballs forward. In the case of hypothyroidism such as simple golter, there is lack of thyroxine secretion due to a deficiency of iodine in the diet. lodine is an important component of thyroxine, thus iodine deficiency results in thyroxinedeficiency. The low level of thyroxine in circulation will stimulates TSH production by the pituitary in an effort to increase thyroid activity. In the process there will be hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the thyroid gland resulting in the production of goiter. One good source of iodine in the diet of farm animals is Mineral Salt Block which is provided as feed supplement. For human being, eating of iodine rich foods like sea weeds is usually done, The secretion of Ts or thyroxine is controlled by TSH of the pituitary. Whenever Ty is low, TSH production is increased and this will in tum, stimulates increased production of 14. The high T, level will decrease in circulation. This type is known as negative feedback mechanism. 3. Pancreas This glandis located at the duodenal loop of the small intestine. It is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. It functions as exocrine gland when its acinar cells secrete pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. The endocrine function is limited to the cells of Langerhans which are found throughout the pancreas. The alpha cells of the islets of the Langerhans secrete 23glucagon which is responsible for increasing blood sugar level and the beta cells secrete insulin which is responsible for lowering blood glucose level. Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells of the tissues, thus, increasing glucose utilization by the cells. It is anabolic, increasing the storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. On the other hand, glucagon is catabolic, mobilizing glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids from the stores into the bloodstream. The two hormones are thus reciprocal in their overall action and are reciprocally secreted in most circumstances. Excess insulin causes hypoglycemia, which leads to convulsions and coma. Insulin deficiency causes diabetes mellitus, a complex and debilitating disease that if untreated is eventually fatal. Glucagon deficiency can cause hypoglycemia and excess makes diabetes worse. A third hormone, somatostatin plays a role in the regulation of islet cell secretion. It produces hyperglycemia and other manifestations of diabetes whether ishypersecretion or overproduction or somatostatin, 4, The Adrenal Gland There are 2 endorsing organs of the adrenal gland, one surrounding the other. The main secretions of the inner adrenal medulla are the epinephrine and norepinephrine: the outer cortex secretes steroid hormones such as: 1. Aldosterone — which regulate sodium metabolism by reabsorbing sodium from the kidney tubules. 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone) - stimulate —_glycogenolysis_ and —_glyconeogenesis, thus hyperglycemic. The secretion of glucocorticoids ds is controlled primarily by ACTH from the ‘anterior pituitary. When there is low level of glucocorticoids in circulation, ACTH is increased which in tum, stimulates increased production of glucocorticoids. The increased level of glucocorticoids in circulation will in tur inhibit further secretion of ACTH. Stressful stimuli will also stimulate the production of ACTH which is independent from that elicited by the level of glucocorticoids in circulation. The secretion of aldosterone is not under the control of ACTH but by Circulating factors such as blood pressure and/or the extra cellular fluid volume (ECF). When the blood pressure or the ECF is low, this would stimulate the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone which in tum will act in the kidney tubules to reabsorbed sodium as well as water which has a close affinity to 24sodium, thus, increasing ECF volume and eventually blood pressure.The adrenal Cortex has three types of cell making up the three zones of the cortex, the zonaglomeruloza which secrets aldosterone and the zona fasciculate and zonareticularis which secrete the glucocorticoids. 5. Parathyroid Gland In humans there are usually four parathyroid glands which are embedded in the thyroid gland. However, the location of the individual parathyroid and their number vary considerably. Parathyroid tissue is sometimes found in the mediastinum. There are two distinct types of the cells making up the parathyroid: (1) The chief cells which have clear cytoplasm secrete the parathyroid hormone, and (2) the less abundant and larger oxyphil cells which have oxyphil granules in their cytoplasm, contain large number of mitochondria. The function of oxyphil cell is unknown. Parathyroid hormones or PTH mobilizes calcium from bone and increases urinary phosphate excretion, thus in effect increases blood calcium level. This causes the demineralization of the bones and formation of calcium-containing kidney stones. In young animals, demineralization of bones results in rickets, but in adults, it is known as osteomalacia. The amount of mineral accretion in bone Per unit of bone matrix is deficient. When there is a decrease in bone mass with Preservation of the normal ratio of mineral to matrix, the condition is known as ‘osteoporosis. Likewise, these bone disease will also manifest in severe vitamin D deficiency, thus, Vitamin D is closely associated with the function of the parathyroid gland. Vitamin D is metabolized in the kidney tubules into 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalcifero!_ which increases the efficiency of calcium and phosphate absorption into the intestinal wall, thus making these minerals available for bone formation. On the other hand, when there is vitamin D deficiency, limited amounts of calcium level, thus stimulating the parathyroid gland to secrete PTH, resulting in calcium mobilization from the bones. In hypoparathyroidism, osteoclerosis may set in due to increased amount of calcified bone. One should understand that there is a constant ratio of calcium and phosphorous being maintained in the blood circulation. When the blood level of phosphorous is high, calcium level is low and vice versa. Calcitonin or also known as Thyrocalcitonins a hormone that lowers calcium level in the blood, thus, has an opposite effect to that of parathormone which increases calcium level in the blood. Thyrocalcitonin is secreted by thyroid gland upon stimulation by a secretion coming from the parathyroid gland in response to a high calcium level in the blood perusing the parathyroid gland. Thyrocalcitonin lowers calcium level by preventing bone resorption through the activation of the osteoblast cells which stimulate bone formation. Also, 25thyrocalciton inincreases calcium excretion in the urine, thus, contributing to the lowering of blood calcium level. Three types of cell associated with bone formation and bone resorption: 1. Osteoblast — stimulates bone formation 2. Osteoclast - associated with bone resorption 3. Osteocyte - associated with bone resorption. When there is hypersecretion of PTH, osteoblast and osteocyte cells predominate to cause bone resopriion; on the other hand, when there is hypersecretion of PTH or hypersecretion of calcitonin, osteoblast cells predominate to cause bone formation. Activity: (25 pts) 1. When and how does gigantism and dwarfism occur? Explain. (10 pts) 2. Discuss one supplementation in the animal's diet to prevent goiter as a disease? (5 pys) 3, What part of the tongue can you determine/taste the following: (10 pts) a. bittemess : b. sourness c. sweetness : d. saltiness 26Lesson 3; The Cardiovascular System (CVS) and Respiratory System The cardiovascular system is the main system for communication between different parts of the body of animals. It pumps and conducts the blood to imigate every part of the body. Blood is necessary for transporting food, waste Products, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones and immune system cells. The cardiovascular/circulatory system pushes the blood around the body with oxygen and nutrients for the cells and removes waste. This is especially important for homeostasis by maintaining stable pH levels and body temperature. In fish, blood passes through the heart once on its way to the gills and then around the rest of the body. In mammals and birds with lungs, blood Passes through the heart twice, on its way to the lungs to pick up oxygen and then through the heart again to be pumped around the body. Respiratory system brings oxygen into our bodies which we need for our Cells in order to live and function properly and get rid of carbon dioxide which is a waste product of cellular function. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Discuss and explain the functions of the Cardiovascular system; 2. State the different pulse rate of farm animals; 3. Discuss the flow of blood circulation; 4. Identify the different blood systemic circulations and the organ they supply; 5. Identify the different blood cells and discuss their functions; and 6. Discuss the process of blood coagulation. The Cardiovascular System (CVS) In most animals, the circulatory system is used to transport blood through the body. Some primitive animals use diffusion for the exchange of water, nutrients, and gases. However, complex organisms use the circulatory system to carry gases, nutrients, and waste through the body. The Cardio Vascular System (CVS) includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels through which the blood flows in circulation. It has the following functions: 271. To convey the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract fo the tissues; 2. To camry 02 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs; To remove the waste products of metabolism and take them to the excretory organs for disposal; To transport hormones from one part of the body to another; To help in maintaining the water equilibrium of the body; To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body: To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body: and To assist in overcoming diseases by the antibodies contained in the blood. 2 ONE ME The Heart The heart is located in the middle mediastinal space. It is enclosed with a pericardium or pericardial sac. The mammalian heart has 4 chambers; the upper 2 chambers are the atria, and the lower chambers, are the ventricles. There is a complete septum separating the left and the right side of the heart. However, free communication exists between the atrium (auricle) and the ventricle on the same side of the heart. The atrio-ventricular valve or A-V valve prevents the backflow of the blood from the veniticle fo the atrium during ventricular systole. The valve on the right side is called tricuspid valve and the ‘one on the left side is known as bicuspid or mitral valve. A valve also stands at the aortic orifice (Aortic valve) and at the pulmonary office (pulmonary valve). This valve prevents the backfiow of blood from these blood vessels (aorta and pulmonary artery) into the ventricles during diastole. The heart normally beats in an orderly sequence: the contraction of the atria (atrial systole) is followed by the contraction of the ventricles.(ventricular systole), and followed by diastole, in which alll the 4 chambers are in isometric relaxation, the AV valves open, thus, allowing the blood to fill up the ventricles. In fact, % of ventricular filing ‘occurs during diastole and complete filing occurs during atrial systole. At the start of the ventricular systole, the AV valves are closed, and the aortic and 28pulmonary valves are opened to allow the flow of ventricular blood into the gorta and pulmonary artery respectively. However, not alll ventricular blood is ejected at the end of the ventricular systole; about 50 ml of blood are left in each ventricle in human heart as end systolic ventricular volume. Contraction of the heart is spontaneous and is initiated by the depolarization of the Sino-atrial node (SA node). The depolarization spreads radially through the atria resulting in atrial systole, converges on the atrio- ventricular node (AV node). From the AV node, the wave of depolarization Passes through the bundle of His, then through the Purkinje system to the ventricular muscles, causing ventricular systole. The SA node is the cardiac Pacemaker and its rate of discharge determines the rate at which the heart beats. Heart Sound Two sounds that are normally heard through a stethoscope during each cardiac cycle: 1. Slow, slightly “lub" sound (first sound) - caused by the closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves. 2. Shorter, high pitch “dub" sound (second sound) - caused by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves just after the end of the ventricular systole. The blood forced into the aorta during systole not only moves the blood in the vessels forward but also sets up a pressure wave which travels down the arteries. The pressurewaves expand the arterial wall as it travels, and the expansion is palpable as the pulse. The pulse is a wave of dilation of an artery originating from the aorta as the blood flows into the heart. The rate of heart beat is usually measured by determining the pulse rate. The average pulse rate per minute in different classes of animals is as follows: Elephant - 30-45 pulse rate/minute Horses -- ~ 38 pulse rate/minute Carabao and cattle -- 54 pulse rate/minute Goat -- 78 pulse rate/minute Chicken - ~~ 200-400 pulse rate/minute Mouse - 600 pulse rate per minute 29Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on the following animals: a. Horse - extemal maxillary artery or about the middle of the lower jaw ©. Cattle and carabao - similar location as in the horse but slightly on the outer surface; coccygeal artery at the base of the underneath of the tail cc. Sheep, Goat, Dog and Cat - femoral artery d. Pigs and others — auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or chest region @ ¥ Self Check: (5 pts) & The Blood Vessel 1. What is your observation on the pulse rates of farm animals? Explain. (5 pts) 'n general, the blood vessel that caries oxygenated blood away from the heart is called artery, and that which carries blood or un-oxygenated blood back fo the heart is called vein. The onlyexemptions to the principle are the pulmonary artery which carries un-oxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and the pulmonary veins which cary oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. The aorta or aortic artery carries blood from the left ventricle to the different systemic circulations such as neck, trunk, limbs, and the visceral organs. The aortagives off to smaller branches of arteries which in tum give rise to several arterioles which give tise to a bed of capillaries which eventually join together to form venule. A venule joins to bigger veins which end up on the vena cava which retums un-oxygenated blood from several systemic irculations to the right atrium of the heart.Blood Circulation Venous blood coming from the different parts of the body is retumed back to the heart via the vena cava to the right atrium. From the right atrium it goes to the right ventricle through the Nae tricuspid valve. Then it passes through the pulmonary valve and goes to the ie: pulmonary artery which carries the blood vee to the lungs (puimonary circulation). in the lungs, exchange gases takes place; carbon dioxide is given off and oxygen is taken in by the circulating blood. The oxygenated blood is retumed back fo the nan ve heart by the pulmonary veins which enter the heart at the left atrium. From the left atrium, the blood goes to the left ventricles through the mitral or bicuspid vaive. Then it goes through the aortic to the aorta which caries the blood to the different systemic circulations. In systemic circulation, the oxygen is taken in by the tissues andcarbon dioxide is given off by the tissues to the circulating blood. These cellular exchanges of gases take place at the different capillary beds. Then all the venous blood from the systemic circulations is retumed back to the heart via the vena cava Source:https://pediatricheartspecialiss.com/hearl-education/14-normal/152-normal- heart-anatomy-and-blood-flow The systemic circulation includes the following special systems of blood circulation: Nentiular ‘Septum 1 Coronary circulation ~ is a part of systemic circulation, it supplies blood to the heart itself. 2. Hepatic circulation — is a part of systemic circulation; it supplies arterial blood to the liver. 3. Cerebral circulation — supplies arterial blood to the brain. 4. Renal circulation — supplies arterial blood to the brain. 5. Splanchnic circulation — supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract. a1The Blood Blood — is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of electrolytes and some non-electrolytes. By configuration, the blood is separated into two categories: 1, Plasma — the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic molecules, and organic molecules which are in transit to various Parts of the body or which aid in the transport of other substances. Blood plasma is composed of the following important constituents: . Water and gases - oxygen, carbohydrates, nitrogen . Proteins - albumin, globulin, fibrinogen Glucose and lipids - fats, lecithin, cholesterol Non-protein nitrogen substances - amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine ammonia, salts Inorganic salts and minerals - chlorides, bicarbonate, sulfates, phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and traces of manganese, cobalt, copper , zinc f. enzymes g. hormones, vitamins, immune substances aoge @ The normal plasma volume is about 3-5% of the body weight. 2. Blood cells ~ is made up of the following which are all suspended in the Plasma and the number of each kind of cell present in the blood is determined by means of Haemocytometer. @, The White Blood Cells or WBC (leucocytes) are part of the immune system that helps fight infection and defend the body against other foreign materialsand has3 types: .1. Granulocytes or polymorphonuclear (PMN) - are the most numerous. They are subdivided into neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils based on their affinity to either neutral, acidic or basic dyes, respectively. They are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. mature rapidly and enter the circulation where they survive for no more than 2 weeks. Their main function is phagocytic in nature. old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and other portions of the recticulo-endothelial system. 322.2. Lymphocytes — are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen and thymus and to some extent in the bone marrow. They enter the blood circulation for the most part via lymphatic. They are believed to produce antibodies and counteracttoxins @.3. Monocytes ~ are large none-molecular leukocytes. They are called transitional cells and have well developed motility. Like neutrophil leukocytes, they are actively phagocytic and are capable of ingesting alll sorts of foreign matter. . RBC (erythrocytes) or red blood cells are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone marrow. They lose their nuclei before entering the circulation. These non-nucleated cells are soft. and Contain hemoglobin. The primary functions of erythrocytes are to pick Up inhaled oxygen from the lungs and transport it to the body's tissues, ‘and to pick up some (about 24 percent) carbon dioxide waste at the tissues and transport it to the lungs for exhalation. Hemoglobin ~ is a complex iron-containing conjugated protein with molecular weight of about 68,000. It is a globular molecule made up of 4 sub-units, and each unit contains a red pigment, iron-containing derivative porphyria called heme moiety conjugated to a Polypeptide, globin. The oxygen-carying property of hemoglobin is due to the iron content in the pigment. Hemoglobin - binds O2 to form oxyhemoglobin, O2 attaching to Fe++ in the heme. Since hemoglobin contains 4 HB units, the hemoglobin molecule actually reacts with 4 molecules of O2 to form HbOs, Hbs +407 ys Hb.Os This reaction is is oxygenated (not an oxidation)nand requires less than 0.01 second. Oxygen is afterwards readily given off fo the tissues as the blood goes to the systemic capillaries. in the muscles, oxygen is taken up by myohemoglobin. Platelets or thrombocytes - are small oval disk-like granulated bodies 2- 4 microns in diameter. There are about 300,000/cu mm of circulating blood. The megakaryocytes, giant cells in bone marrow, form platelets by pinching off bits of cytoplasm, and extruding them into the Circulation. When the blood vessel walls are injured, platelets collect at the site, sticking to the vessel wall and liberating serotonin which leads to local vasoconstriction. They also liberate thromboplastinwhich aids in blood clotting, and play the role in clot reactions. 33Blood Coagulation The essential process in coagulation is the conversion of the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein, fibrin, a reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is formedtrom its inactive circulating precursor, the prothrombin, in the presence of calcium by the action od activated thromboplastin. Prothrombin is synthesized in the liver, and vitamin Kis essential in blood clotting mechanism. Activated thromboplastin is made available at the site of the injury in the Presence of Ca++ by reaction involving platelets and some other factors. The schematic mechanism in blood clotting is shown below: Vitamin K liver ep Prothrombin Factor Vil and X Ca ++ ProthrOMDIN eye Thrombin Activated Thromboplastin (platelets) Thrombin FIDINOGeN — > Fibrin (clot) Lymphatic System Lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help in getting rid of body toxins, wastes and other unwanted materials. Its primary function is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cell throughout the body. The lymphatic or immune system is separate from the circulatory system, with its own fiuid (lymph), vessels (lymphatic veins) and lymph nodes to filter out used cell parts, cancer cells and bacteria to keep the body healthy. 34ox __Animal Body Fluid Componets The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are related to the body fivid components. The animal body is made up of 60-70% water. This is distributed as intracellular fivid(ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about 40-50% of the body weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight. In animals with closed vascular system, the ECF is divided into 2 components. The interstitial fluid which consist of the cerebrospinal fiuid, synovial fiuid and the lymph; and the blood plasma. The interstitial fluid is about 15% of the body weight and the plasma is about 5% of the body weight. The lymphatic system is composed of lymph node, lymph vessel and the lymph. The lymph nodes and its functions. The lymph nodes are small bodies of lymphoid tissues which are ovoid or bean shaped and located in strategic Points of the body through which the lymph passes on its way to the blood stream. It is generally agreed that lymph nodes have at least 2 functions. One of these is the production of lymphocytes; anotheris to stop foreign materials that come to them in the lymph. This filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the phagocytic activity of the teticulo-endothelial cells. They become swollen or inflamed during severe bacterial infections. 352 ¥ Self Check: (5 pts) =O 1. Can you recall what a lymphocyte is? é Kindly tell something about it. (5 pts) The lymph vessels. The lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of the body tissues via a system of vessels that end in the venous system. The lymph vessels begin in the tissues as biind lymph capillaries, similar in structure to blood Capillaries. By the convergence of lymph capillaries, smaller lymph vessels are formed, and these in tum unite to fom larger lymph vessels. Like the veins, the lymph vessels contain valves which prevent the back fiow of ifs content, but have thinner walls than the veins. Ultimately, all lymph vessels drain into either the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct, which empty into the venous system anterior to the heart. Lymph from the tight side of the head and neck, the right forelegs and the right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct, which empty into the venous system anterior to the heart, that from the test of the body, to the thoracic duct. Flow of lymph. The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the capillaries, the intracellular fluid, and the lymph capillaries. The latter remove from the tissue spaces materials that do not or cannot enter the blood Capillaries. Water and crystalloids can move either way. Parliculate matter and large molecules such as proteins and lipids cannot enter the blood capillaries but can penetrate the much more permeable wall of the lymph capillaries. The flow of lymph in the lymph vessels is sluggish and in one direction only, from the tissues towards the heart. The factors concemed in lymph flow are: (1) the difference in pressure at the two ends of the lymph system; (2) the massaging effect of muscular movements; and (3) the presence of the lymph vessels of valves, which permit floe un one direction, that is, towards the heart. Composition of lymph. Tissues fluid and lymph proper, that is, the fiuid lymph vessels are different. Lymph derived largely from the blood, is similar in composition to blood plasma, The plasma of the blood passes through the thin wall of the blood capillaries, enters the tissue spaces, and becomes tissue fivid of lymph. The cells of the tissues themselves also contribute to the composition of the lymph, for there is free interchange between intracellular fluid and the {issue fiuid. In this way, the Cells rid themselves of the waste products of metabolism and absorb foodstuffs. 36The composition of lymph varies with the state of activity of the digestive organs, lymph derived from the intestine during fat absorption has a milky appearance because of the fat that it contains and is known as chyle. Ordinarily, lymph is colorless, clear, watery liquid having a specific gravity of about 1,015. It contains a few re cells normally, and lymphocytes are present. lymph contains water, glucose, gases, proteins, non-protein nitrogenous substances, inorganic substances, hormones, coenzymes, vitamins, and immune substances. The proteins are the same kind as in blood plasma but the amount is less. This is especially true of lymph from the limbs, for the capillary walls in these regions are less permeable to the blood proteins than the other regions. Inter-relationship between the circulatory system and the lymphatic system All body tissues are supplied with blood capillaries as well as lymph capillaries. The blood capillaries absorb substances produced by the cells and other nutrients, and metabolites present in the interstitial fluid which require the circulatory system for their distrioution to the other parts of the body. However, there are substances which cannot readily enter the walls of the blood capillaries because of the size of their molecules, such as protein molecules of certain hormones and enzymes. The protein molecules can sfill join the circulatory system by way of the lymphatic system. Since the lymph capillaries have more permeable walls than the blood capillaries, all metabolites of big molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the blood capillaries will be ‘absorbed by the lymph capillaries. Eventually, the lymph fiuid will enter the Circulatory system through the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The Respiratory System The main function of respiration is to provide oxygen to the cells of the body and the remove excess carbon dioxide from them. Different species achieve this in different ways. Uniceliular organisms get their oxygen by diffusion from fivid surrounding them and eliminate carbon dioxide in the same way; larger organisms cannot. Some larger organisms that lives in the air (certain insects) do get enough 02 by diffusion alone, but they have a special system of gir tubes (trachea or spiracles) that pipe air directly to many regions of the body, so that the distance O2 must diffuse to reach tissue cells are short. Larger ‘animals, including man, make use of two systems: (1) A blood circulatory system to camy to and from the tissue cells large Quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the help of hemoglobin; and (2) A respiratory system, a gas exchanger, to load the blood with oxygen and remove excess carbon dioxide. In fish, blood flows through gill 37,vessels and extracts oxygen from water flowing around them. In man and other farm animals, the respiratory surfaces are folded within the body to prevent drying of the delicate membranes; air saturated with water vapor is drawn into intimate contact with the blood flowing through the pulmonary capillaries, and gases are exchanged. Fish Respiratory System These two (2) systems cooperate to supply the needs of tissues. One system supplies air; the other supplies blood. The ultimate purpose is the transfer of gases between air and cell. The respiratory system is an air pump which draws fresh air through air tube to small air sacs (alveoll) that have very thin membranes. The circulatory system is a blood pump which drives the whole output of the heart through fine thin-walled blood tubes (capillaries) surrounding the alveoli. The Respiratory Apparatus The nasal cavity has two nasal tubes(some a third tube, the mouth, is also used).and then becomes one, the trachea. The trachea is always kept open by the presence of rings of carfilage in its wall. It subdivides into main branches, the right and left bronchi; which are similar in structure and function as trachea. Each of the two bronchi divides into two more, and each of these into two More, and so on until they have been 20 - 23 subdivisions in all. A simple calculation shows that 20 subdivision of this type produce about a million terminal tubules. At the end are numerous blind pouches, the alveoli or alveolar 38Sacs, here gas exchange occurs. There are about 300 millions of these in the two lungs of man; their diameter varies from 75 to 300 microns. Pulmonary capiny Respiratory System of a Horse Source:https://flairstrips.com/respiratory-system-overview/ The lungs may be regarded as two elastic membranous sac whose interior {in free communication with the outside air through the respiratory passages) is highly modified and enlarged by the presence of numerous alveoli.The wall of the alveolus is composed of a single layer of respiratory epithelium. Across this layer of cells and the endothelium of the blood capillaries, gaseous exchange between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the numerous adjacent takes place. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the mediastina organs. This cavity is completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The pleura, a serous membrane, line the thoracic cavity, forming the lateral walls of the mediastinum and are reflected from there on the lungs, thus forming @ pleura cavity. The pleural is merely a capillary space, occupied by thin film of fluid, which serves fo moisten and lubricate the two pleural layers. The pressure in the pleural cavity is negative. Therefore when the pleural cavity is opened, air rushes in and the lungs will collapse. The inspiratory muscles consist of the diaphragm and the extemal intercostals muscles. The movement of the diaphragm accounts for 75% of the change in intrathoracic volume during quiet inspiration. The diaphragm is 39attached around the bottom of the thoracic cage and arches over the liver and moves downward like a piston when it contracts. The distance of movement is about 1.5 70 7.0 cm. The extemal intercostals muscles run obliquely downward and forward from fib to rib. The rib as if hinged at the back. so that when the external intercostals muscles contract, they elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the stemum outward and increases the antero-posterior diameter of the chest. The expiratory muscles consist of intemal intercostals muscles and the muscles of the abdominal wall. The intemal intercostals muscles pass obliquely downward and posteriorly from rib to rib, and therefore, pull the rib cage downward when they contract. The muscles of the anterior abdominal walll also gid expiration by pulling the rib cage downward and inward: and by increasing the extra abdominal pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward. Resting Respiratory Rates Species i Breaths /min (range) Cat 5 16-40 | ___ Dairy cow ae ORES 26 SOR Pe ee: Dog 18-34 Horse 10-14 Pig 32-58 ff Sheep 16-34 The Respiratory Center There are at least three mojor parts of the respiratory center. They are: 1, Medullary center — capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of respiratory cycle. This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for the basic coordinated sequence of inspiration and expiration. This center is often divided into an Inspiratory Center and an Expiratory Center, because maximal sustained inspiration follows electrical stimulation of some region;and maximal expiration follows stimulation of adjacent regions. At the lateral slides of this region, there are receptors which are believed to H* concentration. A rise in Ht results in hyperventilation. 2. Pneumotaxic center — located in the upper pons above the medullary center. Stimulation of this center accelerates respiration, especially expiration. It is postulated that inspiration sets up impulses that ascend 40from the medullary inspiratory center to the pneumotaxic center, where they generate impulses that descend to the expiratory center nd inhibit inspiration, a negative feedback mechanism. 3. Apneustic center - located in the lower pons, between the Pneumotaxic center and medullary center. The role of this center is revealed when both the pneumotaxic center and the vagi are inactivated; prolonged apneusis then results. (Apneusis is the cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position). Mechanism of Inspiration Inspiration is an active process. Contraction of the diaphragm increases the longitudinal diameter of the chest. Also, the contraction of the extemal intercostals muscles elevates the ribs, resulting transverse diameter of the thorax. At the start of inspiration, the intrapleural pressure is about -2.5 mmHg (relative to atmospheric pressure). When the chest volume is increased, the infrapleural pressure is further increased to about -émmHg, and the lines are Pulled into a more expanded position. The pressure in the ainway becomes slightly negative, and air flows into the lungs. Mechanism of Expiration Following an inspiration, the enlarged thorax may retum to its resting Position by purely passive forces, that is, without muscular effort. At the end of inspiration, the lung recoil pulls the chest back to the expiratory position where the pressures of the lungs and chest wall balance. The pressure in the airways becomes slightly positive and air flows out of the lungs. Although in quiet breathing, expiration is passive, labored breathing is accompanied by active expiration, that is, the return of the thorax to other resting position being hastened. This is accompanied by the contraction of the expiratory muscles (intemal intercostals Muscles and the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall). Very active expiration is seen also in coughing, talking, laughing, barking, etc a1Self Check: (20 pts) 1. The animal body is made up of how many percent fluids? How are they distributed as per body weight Percentages? (5 pts) 2. For those animals with closed vascular system, what is their body weight percentage distribution? (5 pts) 3. In your own understanding, what is the difference between mechanisms of expiration from mechanism of inspiration? (10 pts) 42Lesson 4: The Excretory System and Body Temperature Regulation Introduction/Rationale Most people know that the major function of the kidneys is to remove waste products and excess fiuid from the body. These waste products and excess fluids are removed through the urine. Other hormones produced by the kidneys help regulate blood pressure and control calcium metabolism. The urinary/renal system removes waste products. Animal bodies are made up of roughly 80% water, depending on the type of animal, age, sex and health. Generally, a loss of 15% of body water results in death. Animals lose water through their skin and lungs, feces and urine. To re-balance this water loss, animals must get water from their food and drink. On the other hand, the most important adaptation is how animals regulate their body temperature. Animals can be either warm-blooded or cold- blooded. Cold-blooded animals do not maintain a constant body temperature. They get their heat from the outside environment, so their body temperature fluctuates, based on external temperatures. Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students/leamers should be able to: 1. Explain the role of kidney as an organ; 2. Discuss how urine is formed in the body of farm animals; 4. Discuss how animals regulate their body temperature as against the environment; 4, Explain the role of ADH in water conservation 5. Identify and classify animals based on how they regulate their body against the environment; 6. Determine how these animals adjust to changing environment; and 7. Explain the effect of environmental temperature on body heat loss. 43The Excretory System - Kidney and Body Fluids Importance of Kidney Kidneys play a prominent role in regulating (a) the concentration of metabolic wastes; (b) the osmotic pressure: (c) the fluid volume: and (d) the ionic composition of our internal environment. The kidneys are commonly described as excretory organs’ but actually, they ate primarily organs which regulate volume and composition of the internal fluid environment. Their excretory function is incidental to their regulatory function. The kidney aids in keeping the composition of blood plasma constant by: 1. The excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste products of metabolism; 2. The elimination of excess inorganic salts; 3. The elimination of excess water; and 4. The elimination of no-volatile, soluble foreign substances that may have gained entrance to the blood. Structure of the Kidney The kidneys are paired, somewhat flattened bean-shaped organs which lie retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column against the _ posterior abdominal wall. Each kidney is suppliedwith blood by a single renal artery which arises from the abdominal aorta. Each renal artery divides the pelvis. These arterial branches pass between the calyxes and penetrate the parenchyma. Within the parenchyma, these arteries are designated as interlobar because they course between the lobes orAt the junction of cortex and medulla, the interlobar arteries bend over the bases of the pyramids to form a series of incomplete arches, the acriform arteries. Interlobar arteries arise at right angle from the acriform arteries and run radially toward the periphery in the cortical medullary rays. In their course through the cortex, they give rise to short lateral branches, the afferent arterioles, each of which supplies a glomerulus. The venous system which drains blood out of the kidney runs parallel with the arterial system and comes out of the kidney as renal vein. Each kidney is composed of over a million units of nephrons. A nephron consists of several parts: Renal corpuscie Proximal convoluted tube Distat convoluted cube Cottector auct Nephron (1) The glomerulus is formed by the invagination of a tuft of capillaries into the dilated, blind end of the nephron called the Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule is collectively called as the renal corpuscle or malphighian capsule. (2) The proximal tubule is joined to Bowman's capsule by a short connecting segment. The convoluted portion of the proximal tubule (pars convoluta) enters a cortical medulla ray to penetrate the deeper layers of the cortex and become the loop of Henle. The proximal tubule is composed of a single layer of cuboidal or truncated pyramid cells resting on a basement membrane. The cells are coarsely granular, nuclie are large and basally located. The apical surfaces of the cells which bulge 45