Advanced Electrical

Services Engineering

Volume 1

Fundamental Theory &

LV Electrical Installation Design
Advanced Electrical
Services Engineering

Volume 1

Fundamental Theory &

LV Electrical Installation Design

Dr Anthony C. M. Sung

August 2010
Title: Advanced Electrical Services Engineering, Volume 1
ISBN: 978 988 195 481 7
Author: Dr Anthony C M Sung

© 2010: Smart and Sustainable Technologies Publishing Co. Ltd.

All rights reserved.

Disclaimer:
This text is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication. However no responsibility of any
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 Foreword

Dr Tony Sung is probably the best-placed person in the UK to produce a book on Electrical
Services Engineering, combining as he does a deep knowledge of the application of the
fundamentals of electric circuit theory to the practice of installation design, with the long
experience he has of presenting the subject to undergraduate, postgraduate and professional
audiences, and his position as chairman of the Electrical Services Group of CIBSE. He
has now distilled his experience in this subject area, to produce a text which takes the
reader from the early stages of student knowledge, to the advanced considerations which a
professional designer must be familiar with.

The book is in two volumes, with this volume starting by setting out the fundamentals
of electrical circuits and components, and describing, with examples, the quite well-
known methods for analysis of circuits. However, we very quickly move on to the practical
considerations which a designer must take into account, such as the choice of method
of Earthing, Grounding and Bonding of real power supply circuits under different
circumstances, and the allowances which must be made for the presence of possibly large
harmonic components in the waveforms of mains supplies in modern buildings, with
various kinds of load. At each point, the requirements of standards bodies in the EU and
North America are set out, compared and explained. The final, and longest, chapter in this
volume sets out the methods which a professional electrical engineer must be familiar with,
to design power supply systems with the necessary performance, delivering the required
electric power to the point of use with a minimum of capital cost consistent with the
safety of users. A unique approach in this text is the use of the Joule Loss method to
help designers and installers verify the approximate operating temperature of the cables
under grouped or high harmonic content conditions. There are many worked examples
throughout the text, and each chapter has a number of tutorial problems for the reader to
work through, to reinforce knowledge of the principles described. Finally the principles
and methods described are demonstrated in a complete design example worked through in
detail, and three Appendices deal with fault current capacity of power transformers, MVA
calculations under fault conditions and applications of Power Factor Capacitors, and there
is a comprehensive list of up-to-date references for further reading.

This book will be suitable for first-degree students of Electrical Engineering generally and
of Electrical Building Services Engineering in particular, and will also be a useful reference
text for practicing designers in engineering consultancies.

Professor Kenneth M Letherman

BSc MSc PhD DSc CEng FIEE
Emeritus Professor of Building Services Engineering, University of Manchester, UK.

August 2010
 Preface

Electrical Services Engineering is a vital engineering activity of the built

environment discipline. It is the aim of this text to provide the reader with the
underlying principles of the subject to understand the practical treatment of the
design and analysis of electrical services systems in buildings.

This text is organized into two volumes. Volume 1 presents the fundamental theory
and equations for the design of electrical circuits. Volume 2 is devoted to more
advanced topics such as Power transformers, Whole-life-time Ownership cost and
IEC/IEEE Fault level calculations.

It is intended that this set of two books will be a suitable course text for both
undergraduate and postgraduate degree courses. Volume 1 can be used for the first
and second years of an electrical power engineering module leading to a first degree
in building services or mechanical or civil engineering degree. Volume 2 is suitable
for a specialised electrical services engineering module in the third and fourth
years of an electrical power engineering or building services engineering degree. It
can also serve as a useful reference text for postgraduate MSc and MEng degrees
satisfying the further learning requirements for CEng registrations in Sustainable
Power Engineering and Building Services disciplines worldwide.

It is hoped that the large number of worked examples contained in this text will
help the reader develop an understanding of the electrical services system design
solutions. For building services engineering practitioners, these two books could
serve as a self-study or reference text for further learning use. The term “advanced”
in the title is used in a relative sense, to distinguish the lecture notes used by
the author for his teaching of many continuous professional development short
courses. Inevitably the text will no doubt contain some errors, which are entirely
the responsibility of the author. I welcome comments from users of these two
books. Information on how they can be improved would be gratefully received.

Dr Tony Sung
BSc(Hons) MSc PhD CEng FCIBSE FIET MEI SenMIEEE MHKIE(Ir)
Manchester, England, UK
 Acknowledgements

In preparation of the text, I have been greatly assisted by many useful discussions
and interchanges with members of the CIBSE Electrical Services Group
committee, the IET Built Environment Technology Technical and Professional
Network committee and my academic colleagues from various universities in
Dublin, Hong Kong and the UK.

I have received help and advice from too many colleagues and students to list
individually. However, in particular I am greatly indebted to Professor Kenneth
Letherman (Emeritus Professor of Building Services Engineering) of the
University of Manchester and Lindsay Moody (CIBSE Electrical Services Group)
for their thorough review of the entire manuscript and many valuable suggestions
throughout the project. Professor Geoffrey Levermore (Professor of the Built
Environment) of the University of Manchester, Professor W K Chow (Head
of Department of Building Services Engineering) of Hong Kong Polytechnic
University and Professor Eugene Coyle (Head of the School of Electrical
Engineering Systems) of Dublin Institute of Technology read the manuscript and
contributed great improvements.

Finally there are not enough words I can use to express my gratitude to my family
who have put up with me not giving them enough attention all the time that I was
immersed in getting on with the project.

Tony Sung
Manchester, UK
May 2010
 Table of Contents

Foreword
  
Preface
 
Acknowledgements

Chapter 1:
Fundamental Electrical Circuit Theory

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Duty of care 1
1.2.1 Delegation of responsibilities 2
1.3 Electrical Symbols used 3
1.4 Ohm’s Law 3
1.5 Passive and Active elements 3
1.6 Ideal and Practical Electrical Energy Sources 4
1.7 Passive Elements 5
1.7.1 Resistance 6
1.7.1.1 Temperature coefficient of resistivity 9
1.7.1.2 AC resistance versus DC resistance 13
1.7.1.3 Resistances in Series 18
1.7.1.4 Resistances in Parallel 19
1.7.1.5 Application of Resistances in series and
    in parallel 20
1.7.2 Capacitance 21
1.7.2.1 Capacitances in Parallel 24
1.7.2.2 Capacitances in Series 25
1.7.3 Inductance 25
1.7.4 Impedance 28
1.7.5 Non-linear Impedance 31
xii   Advanced Electrical Services Engineering

1.8 Electromagnetism 31
1.9 Electromechancial Energy Conversion 33
1.9.1 Generating Mode 33
1.9.2 Motoring Mode 34
1.9.3 Induced magnetic field 35
1.9.4 Magnetic attractive force 38
1.9.5 Force between two long conductors 38
Tutorial Problems for Chapter 1 41

Chapter 2:
Circuit Analysis Techniques

2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 Conservation of Energy 43
2.3 Definition of Direct Current (d.c.) 44
2.4 Flow of d.c. in pure passive elements 45
2.4.1 Average value of a ripple d.c. quantity 46
2.5 Alternating Current (a.c.) 48
2.5.1 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value 48
2.6 Electrical Power in a.c. circuits 50
2.7 Complex number ‘i’ versus the operator ‘j’ 52
2.7.1 Operator j identities 53
2.8 Phasor Representation of Voltage and Current for Passive Elements 53
2.8.1 Pure resistance in a.c. circuits 53
2.8.2 Pure Capacitance in a.c. circuits 54
2.8.3 Pure Inductance in a.c. circuits 54
2.9 Voltage Divider 56
2.10 Current Divider 60
2.11 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 62
2.12 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 63
2.13 Superposition Principle 64
 Table of Contents   xiii

2.14 Thevenin’s Theorem 65

2.15 Maximum power transfer theorem 67
2.16 Motor efficiency 68
2.17 Cable efficiency 69
2.18 Crest Factor 70
2.19 Single phase a.c. circuit 71
2.20 Polyphase a.c. circuits 74
2.20.1 Two phase a.c. supply 74
2.20.2 Three phase a.c. supply 75
2.21 Power in a Polyphase system 82
2.22 Delta-Star loads transformation 82
Tutorial Problems for Chapter 2 84

Chapter 3:
Earthing, Grounding and Bonding

3.1 Introduction 91
3.1.1 Earthing system types 93
3.2 Concepts and Objectives of Earthing Systems 93
3.2.1 Earthing Systems and definition of conductors 95
3.2.2 North American Grounding Systems 96
3.2.3 European Grounding Systems 98
3.2.3.1 TN-C system 98
3.2.3.2 TN-S system 99
3.2.3.3 TNC-S system 100
3.2.3.4 T-T system 102
3.2.3.5 I-T system 103
3.3 Main equipotential bonding 104
3.3.1 Local supplementary equipotential bonding
   conductors and additional grounding connections 105
3.4 Effects of Grid supply on Earthing and Bonding 107
3.5 Additional Protection 107
xiv   Advanced Electrical Services Engineering

3.6 Touch voltage concept within a protected zone 108

3.7 Rise of Earth Potential (RoEP) 114
3.7.1 Step voltage 115
3.8 Earth (Ground) electrode resistance 116
3.9 Hot or Cold Substation classifications 118
3.9.1 Hot or Cold Assessment 118
3.10 Earth (Ground) grid considerationss 119
3.11 Comments 121
Tutorial Problems for Chapter 3 123

Chapter 4:
Harmonic Distortion

4.1 Introduction 125

4.2 Harmonic distortion 125
4.3 Voltage and Current Distortion Limits 127
4.3.1 General procedures for assessing harmonics 127
4.3.2 Distortion Power Factor 128
4.3.3 Total Harmonics Distortion 130
4.4 ‘K-factor’ 132
4.5 The “Factor K” 132
4.5.1 Typical K-factors 133
4.5.2 Harmonics analysis 134
4.6 Derating Transformers 137
4.7 Derating Cables supplying high harmonic content loads 138
4.7.1 BS7671 method 139
4.7.2 BS IEC 60287 harmonic derating method 140
4.8 Harmonic resonance 140
Tutorial Problems for Chapter 4 144
 Table of Contents   xv

Chapter 5:
LV Electrical Installations Design

5.1 Introduction 147

5.2 Assessment of General Characteristics 148
5.2.1 Minimum requirements 148
5.3 Protection against Overcurrents 148
5.4 Estimating Neutral Current in 3-phase 4-wire non-linear
  load circuit 155
5.5 BS7671 basic method for protection against overload 157
5.6 North American approach to Overload protection 165
5.7 Heat transfer mechanisms in electric cables 167
5.8 Methods for analyzing cable operating temperature 168
Neher and McGrath method 168
BS IEC 60287 method 169
5.9 Approximate method of calculating conductor operating
  temperature 176
5.10 Heat transfer equations for electrical cables - from first principles 179
5.10.1 Method using the Rayleigh number 181
5.11 Operating temperature of a single cable 184
5.12 Operating temperature of grouped cables 186
5.12.1 Formulae for the rating factor Cg 186
5.13 Grouping of mixed single phase and three phase circuits 189
5.14 Grouping several lightly loaded circuits with a group of
   power cables 191
5.15 Grouping cables in unfilled cable troughs or enclosed trenches 193
5.16 Empirical formula for cables in unfilled enclosed trenches 195
5.17 Grouping of cables not liable to simultaneous overload 196
5.18 Voltage Drop Criteria 199
xvi   Advanced Electrical Services Engineering

5.19 Protection against Fault Currents 201

Compliance method 1 201
Compliance method 2 202
5.20 Adiabatic line of circuit conductors 204
Steps for drawing adiabatic lines 205
5.21 Energy Withstand Capacity 206
5.22 Let through energy 207
5.23 Backup (Cascade) Protection 210
5.24 Discrimination of protection device operations 210
Method 1 - Discrimination by current 212
Method 2 - Discrimination by arcing energies 212
Method 3 - Discrimination by discrimination time setting 213
Method 4 - Discrimination by time delay and current 214
5.25 Protection against electric shock 216
5.25.1 Automatic disconnection of supply 218
5.25.2 Disconnection time for shock protection 218
5.25.3 High earth leakage equipment circuits 219
5.25.4 Additional protection 221
5.26 Design Example 222
Design Brief 223
Initial design information check 223
Maximum and minimum IP calculation check 225
Initial single line diagram design 227
Voltage drop compliance check 227
Protection against overload current check 229
Final circuit heat generation rate check 233
Protection against electric shock check 234
Additional protection check 236
Protection against short circuit currents check 236
Surge arresters check 237
Final single line diagram after full design review check 237
Isolation and Switching check 238
Inspection and testing check 238
Energy Performance and Carbon footprint estimates 238
Design and commissioning folder 238
Tutorial Problems for Chapter 5 240
 Table of Contents   xvii

Appendix 1 245
Fault VA Capacity of Power Transformers

Appendix 2 249
Fault MVA Calculation Method

Appendix 3 255
Application of Power Factor Correction Capacitors

References 259

Index 263
 To

Irene, Katie and Adam