Foundations
and Wall
Footings
This INFORM offers a brief Construction Background
introduction to the topic of how Masonry buildings, from medieval times
foundations and wall footings might until the early 20th Century were generally
built straight into the ground. For defensive
be affected by water and related reasons, castles tended to be built upon rocky
circumstances. It also sets out to promontories and, as a result, often had their
identify a range of issues that need walls constructed directly from the bedrock.
Ecclesiastical structures however tended to be
to be borne in mind when dealing located in a wide range of situations, including
with the problems. Given the river flood plains. Consequently, the walls of
complexities that can exist with the such buildings tended to be constructed on a
broader foundational pad so that the structural
topic, the information given can only load could be spread over a larger ground area.
be of the most superficial kind and As the construction of masonry domestic
buildings became more commonplace during
any significant concerns regarding
the 18th Century, large rough boulders were
the structural stability of building laid in a shallow trenches to create rudimentary
foundations should be addressed by foundations. The dimensions of these stones
tended to be larger than the width of the wall
consulting an appropriately qualified
that was to be built on top; so many buildings
professional. of this period can still be found with exposed
foundation stones, or with a distinct protrusion
occurring at the wall footing.
By Victorian times this protrusion had been stepped, over the length of the building it was
regularised, and reduced in dimension, until inevitable that some part of the foundation also
only a minor thickening of the wall occurred at acted as a part-retaining wall structure against
the footing. At the same time a more scientific the rise of the ground. Inevitably, this created
approach emerged in designing foundations, more of a problem as the foundation and wall
resulting in the laying of proper load bearing footing construction could lead directly to water
strips upon which the building’s walls were penetration of the interior where the floor was
constructed. lower than the external ground level.
Traditionally built stone masonry foundations Occasionally, the entrance doorway was located
were usually constructed without any form of in the highest part of the slope with the floor
damp-proofing. They were designed to tolerate made up above the external ground level to
water in the surrounding ground and permit this avoid this problem. Access into the property
to be drained away naturally. In this process, the was over a raised entrance platt or step as this
use of traditional lime mortars played a key part as prevented surface water from gaining direct access
it allowed the free movement of moisture through through the doorway. But, this arrangement still
the building. left the problem of dealing with any rainwater
discharged from the building itself, and the need
to control surface water discharging down the
Sloping Ground slope. On steeply sloping sites, complex original
Where buildings, or groups of buildings, were arrangements of gutters, slabs with channels cut
constructed up the ground slope, stepped in them, bridging entrance platts and applied
foundations had to be created, especially if the skirting blocks helped, although later external
buildings were adjoining. Whilst this meant road and pavement surfacing works can often add
that internal ground floor levels had to be to the difficulties.
Pavements and Roads
Pavements adjacent to buildings should, ideally,
be laid on a slope that falls away from the
wall as this helps direct rain water from the
footing towards the road-side gutter. Prior to
the introduction of tarmac or concrete slab
pavements, traditional detailing could involve
the construction of a pavement made up
from rows of thin cobbles or split stones. To
ensure that these discharged water properly the
stones were laid at right angles to the building
thereby allowing surface water to drain down
the slope between the stones. Sometimes, such
pavements also included the construction of an
integrated cobble lined gutter which took the
collected water away from the area. A further
traditional detail that could be found is the use
of a dimensioned kerb stone used to contain the
cobbles and to provide a drop into the adjacent
gutter.
Such traditional arrangements have often been the build up of pavements leads to creating a
lost where pavements and road improvements small well at the foot of the building into which
have been made resulting in the external ground rainwater is discharged. This arrangement can
level rising. Such later alterations make it all the also encroach onto the external face of wall foot
more important to ensure that any sub-surface ventilators, allowing water access directly into
drains function effectively, and that pavement the sub-surface of the building through the
gullies are not blocked up by growth or other vent slots. Unfortunately, increases in modern
debris. Often, another problem created by road level surfacing sometimes also eliminates
the gutter, running the risk of surface water
flowing back towards the building’s wall
footing and foundations, especially if the
surface slope away from the wall is slight, or
non-existent. In addition, the impermeability
of modern paving materials can trap
underlying moisture adjacent to the wall
footing.
Creating these circumstances should be
avoided if at all possible. Whilst in an
integrated community it is often impossible
for individual owners to overcome these
problems, a greater awareness of how
resurfacing both pavements and roadways
can affect water discharge back into buildings
needs to be recognised by the appropriate
authorities.
It also needs to be recognised that the regular
application of winter road salt on pavement
and road surfaces can be particularly
damaging. Some stones, especially sandstone,
are at a considerable risk of induced decay
where the salt splashes against the building as
salt contamination can lead to the accelerated
degradation of the stone. The first signs of this
happening usually occur in the vicinity of the
masonry joints and beds where there is an easy
route for salty moisture movement through
the lime mortar. Here, it is best to try to
prevent winter road salts to coming into direct
contact with the masonry.
Gardens
Gardening can also create problems for wall
footings and foundations by either increasing
the external ground level above the original
floor level, or by reducing the level to such an
extent that the foundations become exposed
through a drop in the adjacent ground. Both
situations should be avoided, ensuring that
the original ground levels, commensurate with
original floor levels, remain.
Air Drains
In the late 18th and early 19th Centuries the was applied to urban developments where
beneficial use of air drains around buildings basements were constructed to either a half
was well recognised. The air drain allowed or full level below the public pavement. By
evaporation of moisture from exposed aligning and constructing the building in
wall faces into the constructed trench as a from the pavement edge, a combined air-
method of dealing with rising damp in wall well and light-well was created with the open
footings and foundations. Used on a small space readily allowing moisture to evaporate
scale in mansion houses, the same principle from the lower wall into the free air. As part
of the arrangement, care needs to be taken to
ensure that water does not build up and flood
into the bottom of the air drain or well by
ensuring any drains flow freely.
Surface and Rainwater
Discharge
Where water is allowed to concentrate and
pool adjacent to walls, associated decay
mechanisms will inevitably be triggered
over time. The need to maintain an effective
rainwater discharge and collection system,
combined with the control of surface run
off water, is critical for the well-being of the
wall foot and foundations. Although many
circumstances do exist where rainwater down
pipes discharge directly onto the cobbled or
tarmac pavement surface this is not ideal as
water can readily penetrate from there into
the foundations with consequential damaging
effects.
A better, but still not ideal arrangement, is where
the rainwater down-pipes discharge into an open
gully which, in turn, connects with a sub-surface
drain to take the water completely away from
the building. This arrangement requires regular
maintenance to be carried out to ensure that the
gully does not become blocked with debris or
plant growth, and that the drains function at all
times.
Damp-Proofing
Traditionally constructed lime mortared
foundation walls were generally built with no
damp-proof membrane. They relied upon their
ability to naturally cope with the amount of
water that exists in their immediate vicinity.
Occasionally, the use of slate may be found in an
Attempts are often made to inject chemicals into
attempt to provide rudimentary damp-proofing.
a course of wall foot masonry above foundation
level to try to prevent water from rising up
In Victorian times the application of a layer of
through the structure. This creates a chemical
asphalt through the wall thickness above the
barrier within the structure of the stone. The
foundations created the first serious attempt
technique is only likely to be effective in sandstone
to put a damp-proof membrane in traditional
and is not so successful in less porous stones like
construction. Unfortunately, due to the thickness
granite or whin. Where used, the technique
of the layer of the asphalt, over time this seal can
leaves the disfiguring tell-tale signs of a series of
be squeezed out, thinned and broken due to the
horizontal (and sometimes vertical) holes into
imposed load of the building constructed on top
which the chemical injection process was carried
of it, to become less effective.
out. Other proprietary methods involving cutting
into the wall might include active and passive Further Reading
electro-osmotic techniques where electric Cracking and Building Movement - Book and
currents are passed through the installed CD ROM: Peter Dickinson & Nigel Thornton
system in an attempt to control dampness. RICS Books ISBN: 9781842191569
Why Do Buildings Crack? BRE Press: ISBN:
More recently, a variety of proprietary paint 978-0-8512-547-60
systems have been marketed that promote Cracks Caused By Foundation Movement: BRE
the view that if they are applied to the Press: ISBN: 978-1-8608-109-78
exterior of a building they will protect it from Structural Movement: is it really a
the weather. Whilst this may be true in a problem?: Clive Richardson: <www.
homogenously built surface, the claims may buildingconservation.com> The Building
be challenged whenever water finds its way Conservation Directory, 1996 article
behind the painted surface. If the paint is The Damp House: A Guide to the Causes and
truly impervious this will inevitably drive the Treatment of Dampness; Jonathan Hetreed; The
Crowood Press: ISBN: 978-1-8612-696-69
dampness more to the interior of the building
than allowing it to escape to the exterior. Care Rising Damp in Walls, Diagnosis and Treatment:
BRE Digest DG 245: BRE Press: ISBN
should be exercised when considering the
977-1-8406-012-8
application of impervious paint to deal with
wall footing and foundational problems.
Contacts
Conclusion Historic Scotland
Technical Conservation Group
Whilst many problems can befall building 0131 668 8668
wall footings and foundations, the most hs.technicalconservationgroup@scotland.
fundamental remedy is to try to ensure that gsi.gov.uk
they have the minimal amount of water to
Historic Scotland Investments and
contend with in performing their function of Projects Team:
supporting the building. 0131 668 8801
[email protected]
The most effective approach is to try to
understand how the building works, assess Historic Scotland Inspectorate:
0131 668 8716
what the surrounding evidence of failure is [email protected]
indicating and to find an answer that takes
into account all of the uncovered evidence.
Quality specialist advice may be required at
times to obtain such a full picture.
The House10/08 Produced from sustainable material
Principal author: Ingval Maxwell
Published by Technical Conservation, October 2008
Historic Scotland, Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH91SH
Tel: 0131 668 8638 Fax: 0131 668 8669
www.historic-scotland.gov.uk email:
[email protected]
