land

Article
Spatial Transformation of a New City in 2006–2020:
Perspectives on the Spatial Dynamics, Environmental
Quality Degradation, and Socio—Economic
Sustainability of Local Communities in Makassar
City, Indonesia
Batara Surya 1, *, Hadijah Hadijah 2 , Seri Suriani 3 , Baharuddin Baharuddin 4 , A. Tenri Fitriyah 5 ,
Firman Menne 6 and Emil Salim Rasyidi 7
1 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Engineering, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia
2 Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
3 Department of Financial Management, Faculty of Economic and Bussines, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
4 Department of Agricultural Socio-Economic, Faculty of Agriculture, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
5 Department of Agricultural Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
6 Department of Accounting, Faculty of Economic and Business, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
7 Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Engineering, University Bosowa Makassar,
Makassar City 90231, Indonesia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 9 August 2020; Accepted: 11 September 2020; Published: 14 September 2020


Abstract: The accelerated development of new urban areas has an impact on changes in the spatial
use and complexity of ecosystems. The purpose of this study is to analyze (1) spatial transformation
works as a determinant of changes in the social formation of local communities in the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga; (2) process of social interaction and social adaptation between immigrants and
local communities in new social formations in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga; and (3)
the effect of spatial use, changes in social formation, and work differentiation on the socio-economic
sustainability of local communities. The research method used involves a combination of qualitative
and quantitative approaches. Data were obtained by observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, and
documentation. The results of the study show that spatial transformation has an impact on changing
the single social formations of local communities into multiple social formations and transforming
differences in modes of production between migrants and local communities into changes in the order
of life of local communities. These changing interactions and social adaptations cause changes in
the social structures and cultural patterns of local communities. Furthermore, changes in spatial use,
social formation, and job differentiation have a significant effect on the socio-economic sustainability of
local communities, with a coefficient of determination of 97.7%. This study recommends considering
environmental, economic, and sociocultural factors followed by government decision-making for
the future development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City.

Keywords: spatial transformation; land use change; new city; social economy;
sustainable development

Land 2020, 9, 324; doi:10.3390/land9090324 www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2020, 9, 324 2 of 50

1. Introduction
Cities are fundamentally social realities that cannot be disconnected from the rate of development
of the era and the impact of the developing global economy. To measure the impact of globalization, five
dimensions can be used: Economic factors, socio-economic factors, political factors, cultural factors, and
city layout [1,2]. Social change at the micro-level of the community are part of the impact of economic
development in suburban areas for the purpose of developing new urban areas. These conditions
cause changes in the index of social trust among those in local communities. Consequently, the local
communities who originally occupied the land often lose their rights over the property their livelihoods
might have relied on [3,4]. The process of globalization and its impact on socio-economic factors can be
observed in the high poverty rates and service gaps between cities. Thus, peri-urbanization involves
a process of penetration from the city center to the transition area of rural land use towards urban land
use [5,6].
Globalization for countries in Asia contributes positively to the development of democracy to
achieve prosperity among the citizenry. However, it is for some of the developed markets of the Pacific
region (Hong Kong and New Zealand), Europe (Ireland, Denmark, and Spain) and emerging markets
of Asia (China), Europe (Czech Republic), and Americas (Argentina and Peru) at a medium-term
horizon [7]. In different contexts, for example, China and Singapore have a tendency not to use
democratic instruments to achieve the prosperity of their people but instead utilize the phenomenon
of globalization, especially in the economic sector, to compete on the international stage. Globalization
has also touched countries in Southeast Asia, with a variety of impacts on economic, political, and
other social issues. In Southeast Asia, this phenomenon can be demonstrated by the fact that the rising
globalization in Southeast Asia is not always followed by an increase in economic growth [8].
The development of large cities and metropolitan areas in Indonesia cannot be separated from
the processes of globalization, technological advancement, and transportation. Social change at
the community level has become a strategic study area for social scientists and provides an opportunity
to understand the tendency to reconfigure social order [9]. City development will always be connected
to ideal concepts and forms. The ideal shape of a city does not have to be the same between one
urban area and another urban area. Furthermore, city spatial expressions have varying forms due to
compounding differences in the typology, morphology, and variations in the physical environment.
Consequently, it is very important to establish policies and strategies for planning housing supply
and managing housing environments in low-rise residential areas [10,11]. Strong spatial physical
engineering can direct the tendency of physical development to accelerate, slow down, stop, or divert
the direction of the spatial development of a city. The main domains of spatial planning include
efficient built-up development, the conservation of agricultural land, landscape preservation, and
human perception [12,13].
The dynamics of the growth of Makassar City and its relationship to the allocation of space being
developed shows symptoms of spatial segregation based on the socio-economic strata of the community.
Urban segregation is an inherent feature of cities and becomes a problem when it excludes or hinders
certain groups from accessing services, activities, and/or spaces [14]. Furthermore, residential
segregation by race/ethnicity is widely recognized as a leading source of health disparities [15]. As
such, the scope of Makassar City study is part of developing the Metropolitan Mamminasata urban area
based on the Makassar–Maros–Gowa–Takalar planological deconcentration policy. The development
of the city, which predominantly involves meeting the needs of housing and infrastructure, thus
becomes a determinant for increasing accessibility, land use changes, and the conversion of productive
agricultural land [16].
The dynamics of the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga have had an
impact on the conversion of productive agricultural land and have yielded changes in the typology,
morphology, and structure of the region due to the complexity of the ecosystem. This structure is
the result of the interactions of the multiple morphological elements representative of a city [17,18],
and this condition is marked by a reduction of the agricultural land and pond areas that have been
Land 2020, 9, 324 3 of 50

converted into urban activities. The transfer of land use functions in the new city area Metro Tanjung
Bunga area has had a significant impact on changes in spatial use. This condition is marked by
the presence of urban functions, including (1) recreational facilities, occupying an area of 29 hectares; (2)
housing, occupying an area of 33.5 hectares; (3) agricultural land, which reduced from 889.14 hectares
to 27.42 hectares; (4) ponds, which decreased in area from 108.4 hectares to 15 hectares; (5) mixed
gardens, which decreased in area from 11.20 hectares to 5 hectares; and (6) 160 hectares of vacant land,
which decreased to 85.32 hectares.
Various facilities were also developed, including (a) socio-economic facilities occupying an area
of 17 hectares and (b) a road network of 17.8 km. Likewise, the development of the population has
increased. The area was initially only inhabited by 4571 individuals in 1996. In 2008, this number
increased by 52,803 inhabitants, in 2015, by as many as 179,152 people, and in 2019, the total was 189,893
inhabitants. These conditions indicate that population migration and suburbanization in the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are positively associated with an increase in population related to
typological changes, as well as to morphological changes in spatial use. Furthermore, the specialization
of community activities closely related to formal urban activity patterns will require the support of
people with sufficient expertise, skills, and educational backgrounds [19].
The focus of this study is to answer the following research questions: (1) How does spatial
transformation work as a determinant of changes in the social formation of local communities in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga? (2) How is the process of social interaction and social
adaptation between immigrants and local communities in new social formations in the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga? (3) How do changes in spatial use, social formation, and job differentiation
affect the socio-economic sustainability of the local community?

2. Conceptual Framework
The phenomenon of spatial physical change as a determinant of changes in the social formation
of the local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is positively associated with
changes in social structure, social processes, and cultural patterns. The dominance of capitalistic
production in the control of reproduction is marked by the existence of socioeconomic activities that
develop multiple social formations, thereby differentiating the work of local communities. The direct
impacts that can be observed are (1) the specialization of community activities (in addition to the influx
of migrants but also due to the process of structural differentiation that requires specialization to be
carried out); (2) the weakening of the social ties of the local community due to social mobility; and
(3) the weakening of the cultural values of the local community due to the transformation of modern
culture. The conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure 1.
The transfer of land use functions in the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga due to the existence
of a capitalist mode of production has had an impact on the social life changes of the local community.
The consequences of this process are (1) an increase in the income gap; (2) changes in land ownership
causing changes in the patterns of social relations and group ties; and (3) decreased appreciation of
cultural values in the local community. Furthermore, community specialization has an impact on
income inequality and social mobility, thereby causing changes in the social interactions and social
adaptations of local communities in new social formations.
The existence of a commercially dominant activity in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
has become a driving force for social change towards sociocultural transformation in line with changes
in spatial use due to the polarizing effect of Makassar’s central activities. The growing complexity of
spatial use contributes positively to changes in social formation towards a process of social interaction
and social adaptation between migrants and local communities. Furthermore, changes in modes
of production have a positive contribution to the emergence of new, more open social status. Thus,
the complexity of spatial use has a direct impact on the division of status based on education, income,
and the differentiation of the work of local communities due to inconsistent social statuses and
coexisting modes of production in new social formations in the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga.
Land 2020, 9, 324 4 of 50

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City.

2.1. Urbanization and Urban Development

Urbanization, as a process that is driven by changes in the use of space, economy, human
factors, natural resources, and technology (artificial resources), produces an output of economic,
social, and physical conditions and issues that must be addressed in urban development policies [20].
The process of urbanization (along with its products) is the result of the form of development itself
based on all aspects of life and the physical environment at various scales—namely, in residential,
municipal, regional, national, and international environments [21]. Furthermore, urbanization is
a very complex phenomenon, and its scope is very broad, covering social, economic, political, and
geographic aspects [22]. The diversity of the typology and morphology of new vertical and horizontal
new urban areas is a natural process for the realization of a city. Urbanization, as a process of forming
urban society, will always create inequality. Thus, social change, as a process of modernization, is not
the same for every individual member of society [23].

2.2. Centrifugal Spatial and Centripetal Spatial Modes

Six factors have a strong influence on the process of spatial development in a centrifugal manner,
which reflects variations in the spatial intensity of suburban areas considering (a) accessibility; (b)
public services; (c) land characteristics; (d) the characteristics of land ownership; (e) the existence of
regulations governing land use; and (f) developer initiatives [24]. Each city must have a clear vision
of its social, economic, cultural, and physical spatial factors [25]. The process of centripetal spatial
development involves the addition of space to accommodate activities by erecting urban structures in
inner-city areas that allow physical structures to be built up between areas that have already been built.
Land 2020, 9, 324 5 of 50

These activities also influence the micro-environment by casting shadows and blocking people’s views
and sunlight [26]. Another important element is the spatial development of the city, which is divided
into two categories: (i) Horizontal development and (ii) vertical development. Horizontal development
is the process of adding space to accommodate activities by erecting buildings horizontally. Vertical
development involves adding space to the inner city by building multi-story buildings to accommodate
certain activities.

2.3. Urban Suburbs Spatial Transformation

The push-and-pull factors for why the population moves towards the periphery are more
dominant due to the development of new activity centers and the downtown area is no longer
possible to develop [27]. The arrival of newcomers and a shift in the function of the socioeconomic
space of the city center causes the peri-urban areas to experience changes. Change is defined as
the process of transforming rural to urban areas. Furthermore, “radical” transformations are needed,
as cities are complex systems, and urbanization is not a linear and simple process [28]. Thus, spatial
transformation will be related to morphological and human factors. Spatial transformation is a reflection
of the dynamics of urban life. Thus, the physical transformation of the peri-urban area is a normative
indicator [29,30]. Furthermore, the focus of objects in space shifts to the actual production itself. This
condition demonstrates that the focus needs to be shifted from production to reproduction. In many
ways, space produces the capitalist system, which defines the class structure in the economic system.
Thus, every revolutionary action must focus on spatial restructuring [31–33].
The main aspect of Lefebvre’s [34], thinking is to reflect on tri-partite divisions by beginning with
spatial practice (the production and reproduction of space). The main spatial practices eventually
dominated the so-called spatial representation, which was conceptualized by social elites, such as
urban planners and architects. Both regard this area as the “real space” used by themselves and others
to achieve and maintain dominance. Urban planners and architects understand this as a city renewal
program, which is theoretically designed to destroy the slums of poor people and replace them with
much more modern and superior housing in a process known as “city abolition”. Poor people are
moved to create space for new housing, but when this housing is built, it is more often the middle and
upper classes who are interested in renewing the city.
Space can play various roles in the socio-economic world. First, it can act as one of the many forces
of production. Second, space itself can define a variety of commodities consumed or can, itself, be
consumed productively. Third, space is politically important, facilitating system control. Fourth, space
strengthens the reproduction of productive relations and property rights. Fifth, space can assume
the form of a superstructure that looks neutral but hides the economic foundations that gave rise to it
and are far from neutral. Finally, there is always positive potential in space, such as the formation of
creative and humane work within it, as well as the possibility of utilizing the space in the name of
those who are controlled and exploited [35]. Lefebvre’s thinking is focused on justification, including
(1) the means of production for the production, of space and (2) putting this space into the context
of the desired direction of social change. A new emphasis on specifically urban spatial causality has
emerged to explore the generative effects of urban agglomerations not just on everyday behavior
but on such processes as technological innovation, artistic creativity, economic development, social
change as well as environmental degradation, social polarization, widening income gaps, international
politics, and, more specifically, the production of justice and injustice [36]. Thus, life in the world is
characterized by the modes of production that take place in space. The world is dominated, controlled,
and run by the state, capitalists, and the bourgeoisie. In this way, the world becomes closed and sterile
and is emptied of its contents (i.e., highways replace and destroy local communities).

2.4. The Consequences of Social Change

Social change can be accomplished via several extensions, particularly the theory of evolution,
by considering change as an adaptation of a social system to its environment. The “social” concept
Land 2020, 9, 324 6 of 50

was integrated only recently into debates on developing sustainability. Within the social sciences,
the discipline of sociology has been invisible in professional circles, and public and policy discussions
have focused on climate change and sustainability [37]. Furthermore, the process of internal
differentiation produces structural complexity in the dynamics of society [38] (e.g., changes from
simple and uniform to more complex and diverse forms in society). Society has thus developed from
the condition of gemeinschaft to gesellschaft. For social change, gemeinschaft includes close social
interactions, familial ties, and close friendships, while the shifts in social ties are voluntary, contractual,
and based on self-interest [39].
The dynamics of society develop from small-scale traditions (i.e., a society with a simple culture)
to large-scale traditions (i.e., a great cultural society) [40]. The community also moves from a form of
mechanical solidarity to a form of society that is a type of organic solidarity [41]. Therefore, society
develops from engaging in traditional actions into a society that acts rationally [42]. This process
of social change will eventually develop several social units (differentiation) in society and thus
become more complex [43]. The development of society is also greatly influenced by the changes in
behavior that occur in the environment of the actor based on the behavior of actors with a cause, while
the conditions the consequences follow later [44].
Adaptation level theory is fundamentally the same as environmental load theory. Low- or
high-level stimulation has negative consequences for behavior. An optimal level of stimulation is also
able to achieve optimal behavior [45,46]. Furthermore, more specific articulation is focused on process of
unification between local culture and global culture in a hierarchy. The process the mediation interplay
between cultures will be experienced directly, while in the media, interplay involves the articulation of
values and norms [47,48] by highlighting the existence of modes of production or economic systems
that exist in a country simultaneously in a hierarchical position. Here, there is dominance of one mode
of production over other modes of production.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Approach to the Case Study

The purpose of this study is to understand how spatial transformation, which was revolutionary for
the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, has had an impact on changing the social
formations of the local community, which was initially uniform, into multiple social formations.
Furthermore, the social interactions and social adaptation between migrants and local communities
cause changes in the social structure and cultural patterns of local communities. Thus, this study
aims to analyze (i) spatial transformation works as determinants of changes in the social formation of
local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, (ii) the process of social interaction
and social adaptation in these new social formations and the consequences of changes in the social
structures, social processes, and cultural patterns of local communities, and (iii) the effect of changes in
spatial use, social formation, and work differentiation on the socio-economic sustainability of local
communities. A case study approach was chosen for several reasons: (a) Spatial physical changes in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are specific and revolutionary and are complexly arranged;
(b) the case characteristics have prominent patterns, levels of consistency, and sequences; (c) the context
of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is quite complex; and (d) the nature of this case is intended
to explore a setting or moment of change in social formation due to spatial transformation.

3.2. Research Stages

This study was carried out through three stages: First, the pre-field stage, including; (a) research
design, (b) literature review, (c) research field selection, (d) research instrument selection, (e) data
collection design, (f) data analysis procedure design, and (g) data validity assessment design. Next was
the stage of fieldwork. In this process, we determined the background of the previous study—namely,
the main factor causing changes in the social formation in local communities is spatial transformation
Land 2020, 9, 324 7 of 50

associated with the transfer of land use functions and changes in spatial use. The developed assumption
is that changes in social formation are caused by changes in the mode of production due to the transfer
of land use functions and the existence of the functions of socioeconomic activities in the new city
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The third stage was entering the field. In this process, we explored
and determined the situation, as well as studied the circumstances and backgrounds of the local
communities and migrant populations to improve our relationship with the subjects under study.
Fourth, we participated while collecting data. In this process, several steps were carried out, including
(i) limiting ourselves to the entire scope of the research, (ii) recording data using field notes, (iii)
recording data using tools such as audio recording devices and video recorders if the subject did not
object, (iv) examining settings in which there were conflicts, and (v) conducting an analysis in the field
to explore the concepts that will be elaborated according to the research objectives.

3.3. Study Area

The location of this research was the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga, which has different
specifications from other suburbs in Makassar City in terms of its spatial use and in current development
intensity and is in direct contact with changes in the local community. The new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga was originally dominated by rural agrarian communities, even though it was administratively
included in the Makasssar City. The results of the initial identification indicated that the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga is a suburban area experiencing rapid development of its physical, social,
economic, and cultural elements. Furthermore, the spatial structures and spatial patterns in the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga underwent a very significant change due to the development of
several new activities—namely, trade and shopping centers, large-scale settlements, education, tourism,
and transportation. The consequence of these changes were changes, in the social structure, social
processes, and cultural patterns of local communities.
Local communities that still survive in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga cannot avoid
interacting with migrants and adapting to the new environment. Furthermore, the land tenure of
local communities underwent significant changes, spatial transformations, and cultural diffusion.
Change cannot be avoided by the local community in both the area’s symbols and its shared identity.
Furthermore, the rapid development of Makassar City’s transportation system is positively associated
with the changing patterns of interaction between the surrounding urban and rural areas. Moving
between the center of Makassar City and the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga takes approximately
15–25 min. The area’s many choices of transportation modes can be used to ease the movement and
mobilization of the population. The research location in Figure 2, and the geographical position of
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is shown in Table 1.
Land 2020, 9, 324 8 of 50

Figure 2. The new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City as the study area. Source:
The author and Google Maps@ .

Table 1. The population of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City.

Number of
Area Total Population Population Density
Number Sub-District Family
(Hectare) (Person) (Soul/Hectare)
Heads
1 Mangasa 203 10,348 32,042 203
2 Parang Tambung 138 9749 42,396 138
3 Tanjung Mardeka 337 2216 11,414 337
4 Barombong 734 3105 13,276 734
5 Maccini Sombala 204 5185 22,584 204
6 Jongaya 51 3932 15,678 51
7 Mannuruki 154 3583 12,082 154
8 Pa’baeng-Baeng 53 5059 20,731 53
9 Bungaya 29 2230 8949 309
Source: Makassar City Central Bureau of Statistics [49].

3.4. Method of Collecting Data

The sources of data in this study were determined by the focus and purpose of the study.
The data in this study were obtained through field observations, documents, surveys, and in-depth
interviews. In qualitative research, a sample of data sources is chosen while prioritizing the emic
perspective. That is, prioritizing the views of the informants and how local communities located
in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga experience changes in social formation due to spatial
transformations by examining and interpreting their environments based on their own foundations.
Furthermore, in accordance with the focus of the study, the data sources in this study include (1)
spatial transformation data as a determinant of changes in social formation, whose data sources
are the intensity of land use, spatial patterns, spatial structure, and development zones of the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga obtained through field observations and documents; (2) data on
Land 2020, 9, 324 9 of 50

the social interactions and social adaptations between migrants and local communities in the new
social formation. The sources of these data were the local communities and migrants, and the data
were obtained through surveys and in-depth interviews; (3) data on the consequences of changes
in new social formations on social structures, social processes, and cultural patterns. The source of
the data was the local community, supported by other data sources on the development of the new city
area Metro Tanjung Bunga through observations, documents, surveys, and in-depth interviews; and
(4) data on the effects of changes in spatial use, social formation, job differentiation, environmental
degradation, and the socio-economic sustainability of local communities, which were obtained through
detailed surveys and observable behaviors.

3.4.1. Research Instruments

In this study dominantly used a qualitative approach. Thus, the research instrument is
the researcher himself. Next, the initial action taken was to validate the data. The qualitative
approach used is a human instrument, which functions to determine the focus of research, select key
informants as data sources, especially for local communities who in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga and experience first-hand the process of change, due to a very fast and revolutionary spatial
transformation. Thus, the researcher acts in the process of collecting data, assessing data quality,
interpreting data, and making conclusions [50,51].
The steps we took included the following: (1) Increasing sensitivity through interactions with
any stimulus from the environment that was predicted to be meaningful in this study. This means
that we interpreted the spatial transformation of work as a determinant of changes in social formation
in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The instruments in this study were used for several
purposes, including the following: (1) The researcher as the main instrument: This process was carried
out by adjusting to all aspects of the situation for the purpose of data collection; (2) the researchers
involved themselves in the process of interaction for the purpose of understanding, feeling, and
exploring how social interactions and social adaptations are experienced by local communities by
referring to the relevant theories; (3) drawing conclusions based on the data collected for use, obtaining
confirmation, and changing/improving the data as needed; (4) trustworthiness was enhanced by
responding to the social phenomena that occur, especially those related to the phenomenon of spatial
transformation as a determinant of changes in social formation.
The quantitative instrument in this study was a questionnaire. This questionnaire was used
to measure the intensity of patterns of the social relations, social interactions, social adaptations,
job differentiation, and socio-economic sustainability of local communities that are associated with
educational backgrounds and income levels due to the specialization of local community activities and
changes in modes of production, as well as their relationship with the spatial transformation of the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The questionnaire was distributed to nine sub-districts which are
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga which is still inhabited by local communities. The reason
the researchers determined the location was based on the significant development conditions of the new
city area Metro Tanjung Bunga and a very intensive land use change. Furthermore, the criteria for
the perpetrators who filled out the questionnaire (respondents) were local communities and immigrants,
already married, at least living permanently or not leaving the place for a period of 5 years.

3.4.2. Triangulation
Triangulation is a data collection technique that combines data from different sources from
the same source. This research was carried out by combining observations, in-depth interviews, and
documentation for data sources simultaneously to test the credibility of the data and interpret spatial
physical changes as a determinant of changes in the social formation of local communities in the new
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. In this way, the data that were consistent, thorough, and certain within
the framework of achieving the research objectives. Data were collected through observations and
in-depth interviews and structured.
Land 2020, 9, 324 10 of 50

The primary data were obtained directly by the researchers from the field through surveys, in-depth
interviews, and observations. Data acquired through surveys and researchers were categorized as
quantitative data, while the data acquired from in-depth interviews and observations were categorized
as qualitative data. The primary data collected through this technique were quantitative data collected
through the survey, including (i) the spatial physical condition of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga; (ii) the status of the land occupied by the local communities, (iii) the frequency of patterns of
social relations, social interactions, and social adaptation between migrants and local communities;
(iv) land tenure status; and (v) the division of labor and the roles of institutions in community groups.
Thus, the hypothesis developed in this study is that there is a relationship between changes in space
use, changes in social formation, and job differentiation on the socio-economic sustainability of the local
community in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
Qualitative data collected through in-depth interviews included (a) the social stratification of local
communities and migrants, (b) the systems and mechanisms of work among local communities and
migrants, (c) the dominant economic activities of local and migrant communities, (d) the relationship
and social control patterns, and (e) the factors that lead to survival and changing patterns of social
relations. The qualitative data collected through observations include (a) the land use functions before
and after development of the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga, (b) residential facilities for local
community groups, (c) social stratification and social status, (d) patterns of social interaction and social
adaptation, and (e) work systems and community group institutions.

3.4.3. Research Informants and Respondents

Informants in this study were used for qualitative data collection. Determination of the informants
was done by the snowball method, meaning that the researcher determined the person who could
be interviewed based on the information provided by the local community—in this case, the local
community was able to provide good information about the development of the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga. Next, the informants were selected from among several respondents who
had been interviewed before. This step was intended to further explore some of the questions that
were answered in the questionnaire but required a more detailed explanation. This informant was
considered “the perpetrator” in the phenomenon under investigation.
The number of informants was 15—5 from outside the respondents and 10 from the respondents.
The selection of the 5 informants from outside the respondents was based on information obtained
at the village office. Furthermore, the informants were sourced from among the respondents with
the following considerations: (1) Experiencing a case in their family regarding land sales; (2) mastering
a fairly large area of land before the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga was built; (3) using their
land for the development of socio-economic activities by developer; (4) having familial relationships
that maintain a form of mutualism and commensalism symbiosis; (5) being able to provide good
information about the environment in which they live; (6) being able to provide good information about
the patterns of the social relations, social interactions, and social adaptations of local communities
with migrants.
Quantitative data were collected from the respondents or research samples. The sample
was determined using the stratified random sampling method. Sampling was based on dividing
the population into strata selecting simple random samples from each, strata and combining those
samples into a single sample to estimate the population parameters. The stratified random sampling
method is a method for selecting samples by dividing populations into homogeneous groups called
strata. Then, the samples are taken randomly from each of these strata [50,51]. This method is used with
the consideration that the study population is not homogeneous or proportionally distributed. In this
case, local communities and migrants were distinguished based on their educational backgrounds and
income levels. The results of the questionnaire were analyzed using the multiple regression method
Land 2020, 9, 324 11 of 50

and percentage analysis based on frequency numbers. Sampling based on Isaac and Michael [52].
The formulations used are as follows:

λ2 NPQ
s= (1)
d2 (N − 1) + λ2 PQ

where s is the number of samples, N is the population number, and λ2 is a chi-square (with dk = 1,
error level 1%, 5%, and 10% d = 0.05; P = Q = 0.5). Furthermore, the number of samples in this study
was set at 350 samples.

3.5. Data Analysis Method

Data analysis, in this study, was used to develop the research concepts. This process involved (i)
organizing data based on the data that were collected (e.g., field notes and researcher comments, pictures,
photos, and documents in the form of reports). Data analysis involved organizing, sorting, grouping,
coding, and categorizing. This organization was carried to find themes for use as substantive theories.
For the case studies in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, we relied more strongly on qualitative
research as an assessment tool for the data collected through the questionnaires. Furthermore, in-depth
interviews were conducted with informants for the purpose of comparing respondents’ answers and
asking for detailed explanations for both respondents and outside respondents who had been previously
interviewed. The aim was to determine the intensity of local community relations, their relationships
to social ties, and the principles of values and norms that are still adhered to in the community.
The researcher asked the informant to provide a detailed explanation of the frequency of patterns
of social relations and social ties between individuals in a group, both those that occurred before
the construction activities and those after the construction of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
Quantitative research was used to explore information through several questions that were
compiled and given alternative answers. The questions compiled by the researchers in the questionnaire
were based on the results of preliminary observations made in the field. That is, we sought information
related to the social interactions and social adaptations between migrants and local communities.
Furthermore, traditions and practices are still being engaged in to maintain the existence and
sustainability of local communities. The local communities selected as respondents were those who
were categorized as perpetrators of kinship within the community group.
Data analysis was carried out in the field at the time of data collection, to separate information
into categories, transforms the information into a narrative, and present the writing qualitatively.
The questionnaire itself was used to analyze the effects of the transfer of land use functions, spatial use,
spatial structure, changes in social formation, job differentiation, and environmental degradation on
the socio-economic sustainability of local communities. The first stage conducted was data collected
from the results of the interviews and observations. Secondary data were then analyzed using an emic
and ethical approach. Furthermore, data on the patterns of social relations and social interactions
based on the results of the interviews with informants were strengthened by observations conducted
at the research location.
The emic approach in this study related to the conclusions drawn from spatial transformation
as a determinant of changes in the social formation of local communities in relation to the transfer
of land use functions and changes in spatial use based on the informant’s perspective. Furthermore,
the data were considered ethical data when we determined the informant’s views on the phenomenon
of the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Emic and ethical data were used by
gathering information from the informants and respondents as the main data of the study. Thus, data
analysis in a qualitative approach starts from data collection in the field and is then grouped according
to the focus of the study.
The data that were grouped were then used for the interpretation or verification of data based
on the theory used as a reference in this research. The process of interpreting or verifying the data
in question involved comparing the status of land ownership, land function, and land status prior
Land 2020, 9, 324 12 of 50

to development in relation to the spatial structure, spatial function, and space utilization after
the construction of the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga. Furthermore, we collected data on
the location of residence, type of work, social interactions, and patterns of social relations, social
stratification, social status, social structure, and cultural patterns of the local community to be
interpreted for the dynamic process of the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
This activity involved analyzing qualitative research that was collected into additional information
or research data. These data were then analyzed by studying their tables and how frequently they
inform changes in the patterns of social relations and changes in social structures and cultural patterns
of local communities.
Data analysis was done by combining qualitative and quantitative data. The steps used for
the qualitative research were simultaneously used for the quantitative research. At the time of
interpretation or analysis, each data was reduced, namely categorization for qualitative data and
regression analysis for quantitative data using descriptive statistics. Furthermore, the two data
were interpreted via triangulation or between methods techniques. That is, the data obtained from
the questionnaire were explored again through two methods (qualitative and quantitative). This
merger was done to strengthen the validity of the analysis results.
Data reduction involves the grouping or categorization of data according to the scope of the study.
Likewise, with the questionnaire all questions posed referred to the main, focus of the study. Thus,
a quantitative approach was used to explain some parts of this research, specifically the patterns of
social relations and social interaction at the local community level in the new city area Metro Tanjung
Bunga. The analysis was carried out during data collection and after data collection was completed.
At the time of the interview, the researcher conducted an analysis of the answers being assessed to
obtain credible data. The analysis was carried out interactively and thoroughly. The activities in data
analysis included data reduction, data presentation, and the development of conclusions.
Data reduction was carried out with the following considerations: (1) The data obtained in the field
were numerous and complex, so data reduction was immediately carried out by grouping similar data
for interpretation; (2) we selected and summarized the main points, focused on important factors, and
sought themes and patterns to formulate conclusions; (3) reduced data will provide a clearer picture of
the topic and make it easier for researchers to collect further data in the framework of the data analysis;
(4) data reduction will be coded by certain aspects according to the purpose of the study.
After the data were reduced, the next step was to present the data: (1) Quantitative data were
presented in tables and graphs. The aim of this process was to organize data, arranged in relationship
patterns, to facilitate the analysis; (2) the presentation of qualitative data was done via brief descriptions,
charts, and the relationships between the categories and relevant theories applied; (3) the data were
presented in a text-based and narrative form to facilitate understanding; and (4) the data display used
letters and numbers arranged sequentially to understand the structure. Then, an in-depth analysis was
conducted and adjusted based on the phenomenon being studied. Thus, this research was broad and
then focused. The stages of data analysis were carried out by combining the qualitative and quantitative
approaches of domain analysis, taxonomy, componential analysis, and cultural theme analysis.
Quantitative analysis in this study was used to address the effects of land use change, spatial
use, spatial structure, changes in social formation, job differentiation, and environmental degradation
on the socio-economic sustainability of local communities (changes in spatial use (X1 ), changes
in social formation (X2 ), and job differentiation (X3 ) on the socio-economic sustainability of local
communities (Y)). Each respondent for each question gave the answer with the highest score (score
of five). The second step was done by dividing the results of the research scores with the ideal
score. We tested the effects between variables using the multiple linear regression method with
the following equation:

Y = β0 + β1 X1 + β2 X2 + β3 X3 + . . . + βn Xn + ε (2)
Land 2020, 9, 324 13 of 50

where Y is the dependent variable, X1 , X2 , X3 , . . . Xn are the independent variables, ε is the random
residue, and β0 , β1 , β2 , β3 , . . . βn is a population parameter whose value is not known and must be
estimated from the data. The β1 value indicates the contribution of the independent variable X1 to
the dependent variable Y. The process of combining qualitative and quantitative research in this study
is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Research process implementation flow.

4. Results
The spatial transformation in the new city area of the Metro Tanjung Bunga area is related to
land use changes, and the conversion of productive agricultural land is influenced by two factors:
(a) Centrifugal spatial development and (b) centripetal spatial development. The process of spatial
development horizontally determines the increasing area of urban spaces and increasingly densely
developed building areas. Meanwhile, larger cities are forced to expand their administrative boundaries,
thereby seeking to manage the unrestrained urban development along the horizontal axis, which has
become the largest urban threat of the 21st century [53]. Multi-scale indicators from building permit
records provide useful insight into the diachronic mechanisms of urban growth, with implications
for regional planning and the design of sustainable development practices [54]. Furthermore, rapid
economic development, population growth, and increasing industrialization have led to faster and
Land 2020, 9, 324 14 of 50

more substantial urban expansion, which has had an impact on the historical environment of rural
areas [55].
Centrifugal spatial development can be formulated as a process of adding space that occurs
horizontally by occupying spaces that are still empty. Furthermore, the polarization of Makassar City
space’s function in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga area is marked by the existence of several
functions of urban activities, namely large-scale settlements, trade and shopping centers, tourism,
educational facilities, health facilities, offices, services, and transportation systems. The relevant plans
promoted land use diversity and the incorporation of service facilities to support business functions [56].
The existence of this function is driving the influx of migrants into the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga to transform the uniform social formation of the local community into a dual social formation.
Urbanization is phenomena where the excessive complexity and dimensions of problems should not
hamper action; instead, actions should be encouraged and facilitated with synergistic and integrative
pathways for sustainable urban development [57].
Spatial transformation is closely related to changes in land use in the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga. This development mainly takes place in peri-urban areas due to the high pressure
caused by the growing population and the lack of facilities and infrastructure in the city centers [58].
The period 2003 to 2005 was characterized by the dominant use of agricultural land and aquaculture as
the main orientation of the local community. The new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is located
in the Makassar Strait coastal area. Observations show that in this new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga has experienced land expansion with an average of 50 m per year. The expansion of land area
(to the end of 2019) reached 1500 m from the coastline. Furthermore, the entry lane from Makassar
City to the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga at that time was connected via a pioneering road from
the Nuri direction along the banks of the river Jenneberang. The experience of developed countries
today is mainly the result of rural to urban migration due to the industrial revolution, while developing
countries have, in recent times, been driven by an increase in natural urban populations [59].
The new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga was initially an undeveloped area and predominantly
a productive agricultural area with fishponds. The community is predominantly engaged in
the agricultural sector (rural agrarian), although the area is administratively included in the Makassar
City area. Rural development in the new urban areas can be divided into the following five
types: The ecological leisure type, the traditional farming type, the balanced development type,
the industrial-and-agricultural mixed type, and the industrial promotion type [60]. The period from
2006 to 2010 was marked by the intensive conversion of agricultural land, changes in spatial use, and
changes in the land ownership status of local communities towards developer ownership. These
conditions had an impact on reducing the area of productive agricultural land and aquaculture based
on the functions of urban activities. Furthermore, the ongoing processes of rapid economic growth
and urbanization not only bring great opportunities but also new challenges to agriculture and rural
society [61]. Furthermore, the special situation of shrinking cities will ideally allow those cities to
pursue measures to transition towards sustainability, which may be harder to accomplish in growing
cities [62].

4.1. Determining Spatial Transformations in the New City Area

2006–2007 was the initial period when local communities transformed from an agrarian society
into an urban industrial society. This development was marked by a reduction in the productive
agricultural land from an initial condition of 889.14 hectares to 27.42 hectares, in pond land from an
initial condition of 108.40 hectares to 93.40 hectares, in mixed gardens from an initial condition of 11.20
hectares to 5 hectares, and in vacant land from an initial condition of 160 hectares to 85.32 hectares.
One of the most compelling issues in the transition from an agrarian to industrial society is the role
played by urban development in the creation of industrial modernity [12]. Therefore, land use and city
planners will increasingly have to address the costs of occupying productive agricultural land and
Land 2020, 9, 324 15 of 50

the conversion of natural habitats [63]. Furthermore, the expansion of urban land intensifies conflicts
between urban space, agricultural space, and ecological space [64].
The spaces that experienced significant changes in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
include (1) settlements, from an initial condition of 19.35 hectares to 101.39 hectares; (2) socio-economic
facilities, from initial conditions of 5.75 hectares to 17.00 hectares; and (3) recreational activities, from
an area of 4 hectares to 18.32 hectares. Furthermore, to support the development of the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga, the developer has prepared an area of 519.76 hectares as a new development
area. Thus, a decrease in agricultural land use intensity indicates greater future farmland expansion at
the expense of other ecosystems [65]. Furthermore, the spatial structure and configuration of land-use
patches, i.e., landscape patterns can affect the flow of energy and materials in inner-urban ecosystems
and hence the sustainable development of urban areas [66]. These conditions indicate that the spatial
transformation of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has experienced a rapid and revolutionary
acceleration. Furthermore, the existence of new socio-economic activities is an attractive factor for
the infiltrative and expansive influx of migrants. Ultimately, the economic effects of migration have an
impact on job creation, additional income, poverty risk reduction, improved education, and living
standards [67].
The acceleration of the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is closely related
to the centrifugal spatial development of Makassar City towards the periphery and reflects variations
in the intensity of spatial use. Rapid urban expansion often has a violent impact on the regional
landscape, mainly due to the conversion of a large amount of agricultural land into construction land
and other urban land types [68]. Six factors that drive the centrifugal process for the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga are (a) accessibility; (b) public services; (c) land characteristics; (d) characteristics
of landowners; (e) the existence of regulations governing land use; and (f) developer initiatives. These
six factors are positively associated with changes in spatial use, social formation, and ecosystem
complexity. These conditions have an impact on social differentiation related to economic income,
social status, lifestyle, consumption patterns, and living conditions, and highlight the differentiation
and combination of social groups in geographical space [69].
The field data show that land that was initially low in economic value with a value of $25 per square
meter then experienced a fairly high increase to a value of $100 per square meter after being developed
by the developer for several functions of urban activities, including (1) shopping center construction;
(2) elite settlements equipped with adequate, complete, and modern infrastructure and facilities; and
(3) the preparation of mature land plots. These three factors are determinants of spatial transformation
to facilitate the functions of commercial activities, large-scale settlements, and changes in the social
formation of local communities. Rapid economic and social development is exerting sustained pressure
on land demands [70]. The landscape is a very dynamic system with natural and social interconnected
systems that are strongly affected by constant change [66]. Furthermore, these changes are subject
to various influences (e.g., socio-economic, political, and environmental). In addition, urbanization
has also had a great influence. This is typified by the conversion of productive agricultural land and
semi-natural ecosystems into built-up areas accompanied by the negative ecological impacts of habitat
deterioration and fragmentation [71]. Thus, it can be concluded that the development of new urban
areas causes changes in social formation, social structure, and lifestyle based on the complexity of
urban ecosystems.
The dynamics of the fast and revolutionary development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga have two symptoms with a significant effect: (1) The existence of a dominant developer focused
on profit maximization, such that any idea will be accepted as long as it is able to bring the expected
financial benefits; (2) the results of Makassar City spatial planning are more focused on the benefits of
the region and the community, so the formulated spatial planning policies are more oriented towards
the welfare of the population. Both, of these experiences collide and are very difficult to reconcile. This
condition is also triggered by the licensing practices, which indicate that many violations occur. As
a result, the spatial concept is applicable theoretically but becomes meaningless in the field. Thus,
Land 2020, 9, 324 16 of 50

understanding the response mechanisms of ecosystem services to land-use changes is critical for
developing systematic and sound land planning [72]. Furthermore, the weak control of spatial use and
licensing expenditure practices make it much easier for development to have an impact on land use
changes and environmental degradation.
A high intensity of land use change has caused transformations in spatial patterns and reductions
in the areas of agriculture and aquaculture. This condition is marked by the high sale and purchase
transactions of land between local communities and developers. Since 2006–2008, agriculture and
fish-based activities are no longer the main sources of livelihood for the local communities. Changes in
the livelihood orientations of local communities are strongly dependent on the spatial transformations
that take place very quickly and are revolutionary. The local community activities and use of space in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are shown in Figures 4 and 5 below.

Figure 4. The main activities of local communities in the agricultural sector in the period 2006–2008.
Source: Primary data.

Figure 5. Utilization of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City in 2006–2008. Source:
Author Elaborator.
Land 2020, 9, 324 17 of 50

Figures 4 and 5 show the spatial use of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar
City. Interpretations that can be proposed related to the use of the space include (i) the orientation
of the main activities of the dominant local community in the agricultural sector; (ii) the patterns of
population activity, which are still characterized by kinship and patronage relations; (iii) the community
characteristics, which are still homogeneous; and (iv) the dominant patterns of developing settlements,
which feature agricultural production activities. Furthermore, the acceleration of the development
of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has an impact on the differentiation of the work of
local communities.
Figure 6 shows that until 2006, the total population still carrying out agricultural activities
comprised 2686 households. By 2008, there were 112 families, with a reduction of 2574 households.
Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 50
Furthermore, the livelihood orientations of local individuals as fishermen in 2006 totaled 621 households,
and by 2008, and
households, this by
number totaled
2008, this only totaled
number 50 households, or a reduction
only 50 households, or of 571 households.
a reduction This figure
of 571 households.
illustrates that the existing local communities have experienced significant changes
This figure illustrates that the existing local communities have experienced significant changes in in their livelihoods.
Furthermore,
their livelihoods.differentiation
Furthermore, affected the economic
differentiation businesses
affected that developed
the economic businesses in 2008: (i) Laborers
that developed in
by 55.55%, (ii) construction workers 27.40%, (iii) mobile vegetable traders
2008: (i) Laborers by 55.55%, (ii) construction workers 27.40%, (iii) mobile vegetable traders by by 3.37%, and (iv) stall
3.37%,
businesses
and (iv) stall bybusinesses
0.67%. This byfact illustrates
0.67%. thatillustrates
This fact the orientation oforientation
that the the livelihoods of livelihoods
of the local communities
of local
has experienced a shift from the previous conditions. Three categories
communities has experienced a shift from the previous conditions. Three categories of livelihood orientation can
of livelihood
be defined for the local communities after undergoing spatial transformation:
orientation can be defined for the local communities after undergoing spatial transformation: (1) (1) Relatively small
amounts
Relativelyofsmall
agricultural
amounts activities, (2) increasing
of agricultural urban
activities, informal sector
(2) increasing urbanactivities,
informaland sector(3)activities,
formal sector
and
activities, especially for those who have education and certain skills (i.e.,
(3) formal sector activities, especially for those who have education and certain skills (i.e., engaging in commercial
engaging
activities underactivities
in commercial the system of capitalism).
under the system of capitalism).

3000
2686
family head in 2006
2500 (soul)
2100

2000
%
1500
family head

1000
1000
621 family head in 2008
500 (soul)
231
190
73.61 112 3.07 57.55 123
11 0.3 24 0.67
17.01 50 1.37 38 1.04 6.33 27.4 0 0
50 1.37 12 0.33 3.37 50 1.37 5.23
0
the farmer fisherman laborers building motorcycle mobile small shop other (odd jobs) %
construction taxis driver vegetable seller
workers

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Orientation
Orientation of
of the
the livelihoods
livelihoods of
of local
localcommunities
communities in
in2006–2008.
2006–2008. Source:
Source: Processed
Processed data
data
from village
from village monograph
monograph data,
data, 2006–2008.
2006–2008.

In
In the
the period
period ofof 2010–2013,
2010–2013, thethe spatial
spatial transformation
transformation in in the
the new
new city
city area
area of
of Metro
Metro Tanjung
Tanjung
Bunga
Bunga entered
enteredthe second
the second phase of development
phase of development activities carriedcarried
activities out by theoutdeveloper. This condition
by the developer. This
is characterized by an infiltrative and expansive influx of migrants. The presence
condition is characterized by an infiltrative and expansive influx of migrants. The presence of the of the migrant
population is positively
migrant population associatedassociated
is positively with the social, economic,
with the social, and culturaland
economic, lifecultural
of the local
life community.
of the local
Furthermore,
community. Furthermore, the spatial transformation that took place had an impact on thea transition
the spatial transformation that took place had an impact on the transition from rural face
to an urban face characterized by the complexity of spatial use. Preferences for urban
from a rural face to an urban face characterized by the complexity of spatial use. Preferences for urban and suburban
locations reflectlocations
and suburban complexreflect
socioeconomic phenomena such
complex socioeconomic as sprawl,such
phenomena classassegregation,
sprawl, class gentrification,
segregation,
and
gentrification, and filtering [73]. The data from the field show that along the corridor of Bunga
filtering [73]. The data from the field show that along the corridor of Metro Tanjung Metro
road fromBunga
Tanjung the center
road of Makassar
from Cityoftowards
the center MakassarBarombong,
City towards services, shops, offices,
Barombong, settlements,
services, and
shops, offices,
recreational
settlements, facilities have developed.
and recreational This developed.
facilities have condition isThis marked by the
condition is presence
marked by of the
newpresence
functions,of
including (a) the Celebes Convention Center, (b) Trans Studio, (c) Mall GTC,
new functions, including (a) the Celebes Convention Center, (b) Trans Studio, (c) Mall GTC, (d) office (d) office center, (e)
Akkarena
center, (e) beach
Akkarenatourism,
beach (f)tourism,
shopping (f)centers,
shopping andcenters,
(g) eliteand
housing.
(g) elite housing.
Furthermore, in the new city area of of Metro Tanjung Bunga has
Metro Tanjung Bunga has developed
developed several
several locations
locations
featuring new residential complexes built by developers, namely (i) housing Menteng Garden, (ii)
Nirwana park, (iii) Khayangan park, (iv) Losari park, (v) Pantai Biru villa, (vi) Taman Losari 2000,
(vii) Danau Biru villa, (viii) Masamba garden, and (ix) Toraja park. The residential area built by the
developer occupies an area of 101.40 hectares, with 1954 houses built by the end of 2013. The field
data showed that the developing residential complexes were categorized as very luxurious to
luxurious. These settlements are generally built with a permanent and sturdy fence, closed from all
directions, with only one door for access. This type of home is also guarded by a portal officer who
Land 2020, 9, 324 18 of 50

(vii) Danau Biru villa, (viii) Masamba garden, and (ix) Toraja park. The residential area built by
the developer occupies an area of 101.40 hectares, with 1954 houses built by the end of 2013. The field
data showed that the developing residential complexes were categorized as very luxurious to luxurious.
These settlements are generally built with a permanent and sturdy fence, closed from all directions,
with only one door for access. This type of home is also guarded by a portal officer who engages
in a fairly, strict examination of guests who enter the complex. This highlights that the patterns of
exclusive life for new communities of migrants in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar
City. Conventional environmental typologies—planned, informal, and mixed types—are accompanied
by complex challenges, an endless demand for affordable housing, transportation networks, basic
services, and jobs [74,75].
The dynamics of the area’s development illustrate that the spatial practices taking place cause
changes in the means of production towards the reproduction of space that is driven by capitalism.
The acquired data show that this space developed by the developer is positively associated with
the presence of capitalism. In many ways, the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is reproduced
by the mechanism of the capitalist system, thereby producing differences in the class structure of
the economic system of the local community and its impact on changing social formation in the desired
direction. In the history of capitalist societies, the ecological conditions of social reproduction have
been largely ignored or downplayed. Only under the exacerbating ecological crises of recent decades
have economists, policy makers, and the common public begun to pay more attention to the natural
limits and conditions of sustainability [76]. Two types of spatial expressions occur due to this process:
(a) Spatially linear (linear) physical development and (b) concentric spatial physical development.
The spatial expressions that occur in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are each stand-alone and
a combination of two kinds of expressions, making the spatial expressions more complex. The impact
on the human dimension has a greater effect on the diversity of land uses, and the classification of real
estate finances leads to the integration of walkability in the built environment [77].
Figure 7 shows the spatial expression of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, which
has had an impact on urban differentiation by increasing the scale of modern urban industrial
factors. Three factors underlie this process: (1) The distribution and range of activities related to
the intensity of relations between urban areas are increasing; (2) functional differentiation; and (3)
spatial organization complexity. The field data show that spatial transformation is positively associated
with the socio-economic dynamics of society. Furthermore, based on the process of forming socially
varying spaces in relation to spatial transformation, three phenomena emerge in the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga: (1) Changes in the range and intensity of commercial economic activities
resulting in the creation of new economic arrangements that require certain types of expertise and skills
for accessing work. This makes livelihoods and education an important index of social differentiation;
(2) the differentiation of new functions that develop and are predicted to continue in the direction of
social and economic choices. This condition allows for several alternative activity patterns besides
traditional activities to develop as modern patterns of activity; (3) the increasingly complex social order
is reflected by changes in population mobility, population composition, the separation of ethnic groups,
and segmentation within local communities. Fluctuations in housing construction activities become
more intense over time, triggering real estate market segmentation, and making the construction
industry’s performance even more unpredictable [78].
Land 2020, 9, 324 19 of 50

Figure 7. Expression of the spatial area of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the period
2010–2012. Source: Primary Data.

The impact of spatial transformation on the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is moving
towards changes in social formation from the working systems of traditional agrarian societies towards
those of urban industrial societies. Changes in social formation are marked by the characteristics of social
life based on the properties that are considered traditional or primitive compared to the characteristics
of modern lifestyles. While cities atop the global hierarchy of the world’s urban spaces attract wealth,
glamour, and prestige, they are also socially polarized to a greater degree than other cities and
disproportionately attract migrants [79]. These changes have a tendency, to increase in scale to yield
changes in the scale of the lifestyle of local communities. Three types of spatial expressions that can be
constructed are related to lifestyle changes in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga: (i) Social levels,
(b) urbanization, and (3) segregation. Thus, a consolidated urban–rural land market and a better land
market mechanism must be established, the supply of public goods and services for villagers must be
increased further, and the monitoring and evaluation mechanisms must be further strengthened [80].
Furthermore, prolonged spatial physical development is positively associated with the expansion
of the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga towards the addition of urban areas. The field data show
that a developed area is located along Metro Tanjung Bunga road, which extends towards Gowa
Regency and Takalar Regency. This longitudinal pathway has controlled the growth of settlements
and non-residential buildings in such a way that it forms a concentration of buildings with a spatial
distribution far greater than its widening distribution. Space–time urban geography theory and
empirical studies have confirmed that the range, scope, vigor, and attention of people’s daily lives are
limited [81]. Thus, urban material and spiritual civilization continues to extend, to surrounding rural
areas during this process and produce new spatial patterns and landscapes along with continuous
changes in the regional industrial structure [82].
The pattern of developing settlements has a tendency towards the construction of large-scale
housing complexes whose uniform shapes, sizes, architectural styles, quality, and prices will directly
filter the entry of migrants. This means that those who do not have sufficient financial capacity will find
it difficult to have a residential facility built by the developer. This factor has an impact on the separation
of settlement facilities between immigrant residents and local communities in the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga. Three factors are foundational to justify these processes: (i) The ownership of
housing is based on income, (ii) the ownership of housing is based on socio-economic class, and (iii)
the selection and ownership of housing location is based on ethnic group (migrant or local). These
three factors produce variations in the social space in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga,
Land 2020, 9, 324 20 of 50

which is developing in the direction of spatial separation and segmentation between migrants and
local communities.
The field data show that the spatial zone developing in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
is divided into three categories: (1) The main zone of the area, which is inhabited by residents with high
socioeconomic status who are associated with high-income communities, complete social services, and
the center of activities (e.g., shopping centers and other social activities). Those who inhabit this zone
are dominant migrants consisting of powerful, professional, and business elite groups; (2) the zone
between zone one and zone three is a location inhabited by groups of workers comprising migrants
who enter and blend with the local community consisting of employees who work in businesses
related to formal economic activities and have a much better income than those in in zone three; (3)
the outermost zone (zone three) is inhabited by local communities with low socioeconomic status.
The dwellings of this group are generally, houses on stilts and are very simple and tend to develop
towards slum areas. The early urbanization process and the rapid development of the metropolis
has various impacts on the interactive development of spatial zoning and the urban climate [83].
The utilization of space in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the period of 2010–2013 is
shown in Figure 8 below.

Figure 8. Utilization of space in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the period 2010–2013.
Source: Author Elaborator.

Figure 8 shows the acceleration of development in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
in changing the use of highly complex spaces. The results of the field confirmation show that there
are three factors that have changed in terms of spatial patterns that can be explained for the period
2010–2013: (1) Changes in the form of land use, especially in the center of the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga; (2) changes in the orientation of local community livelihoods; and (3) changes
in the social fabric of local communities. These three factors demonstrate the changes of the local
community’s social formation into multiple social formations. The utilization of space in the new city
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the period 2010–2013 is presented in Figure 9 below.
Land 2020, 9, 324 21 of 50

Figure 9. Utilization of space in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the period 2010–2013.
Source: Field Observation Results and Google Maps@ .

Figure 9 shows how the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is experiencing changes in
the spatial use complexity of its urban ecosystem. Four significant factors are determinants of changes
in spatial use and contribute directly to changes in the shape and typology of new urban areas,
including (1) the housing development of an area of 19.35 hectares, which experienced an increase
of 101.39 hectares or 36.11% of the total land use; (2) the preparation of 52.58 hectares or 18.72%
of green open space; (3) the development of entertainment facilities covering 24 hectares or 8.55%;
and (4) the development of shopping centers covering an area of 15 hectares or 5.35%. These four
spatial functions, in addition to impacting changes in shape and typology, also contribute positively
to the improvement of the transportation system from Makassar City to the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga through integration of the Metropolitan Mamminasata urban system. This condition is
marked by the unification of the urban area of Makassar City with the regions of the Gowa Regency
and the Takalar Regency in their physical, economic, and social-spatial interactions. Cities pose
environmental challenges but also offer possibilities to close material and energy loops and connect
multiple societal and ecologic services [84]. Furthermore, spatial interactions among city clusters
are one of the main drivers of urban growth; the local government is not only an implementer of
the development agenda but also a policymaker that defines rules on how to connect global goals with
the local community [85,86].
Furthermore, the continued development of large-scale settlements has had a significant impact on
the decrease in the production and productivity of agricultural land and the deterioration in the quality
of the environment and its effects on surrounding rural conditions. A high intensity of agricultural land
conversion is a triggering factor for changing the livelihood orientation and work of local communities
from subsistence farming towards urban industrial work. Farmland abandonment is considered to be
an important phenomenon for changing the eco-environmental and sociocultural landscapes of rural
landscape, and emigration has become a key livelihood strategy for an increasing number of rural
households, which in turn has a profound effect on land management [87,88].
The field data show that the process of forming the spatial structure of the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga is a capitalistic economic model oriented toward the highest profit value, beginning
with the presence of a “capitalist economy”. This condition is based on the functional relationships
of urban socioeconomic activities. That is, the built social division and spatial system is a product
of the “capitalist mode of production”. A very prominent activity was marked by the presence of
a shopping center (Mall GTC), which is the largest wholesale center in Eastern Indonesia, in addition
Land 2020, 9, 324 22 of 50

to the presence of the Theme Park Trans Studio entertainment center, which is an international-scale
entertainment facility.
The data found in the field show that the allocation of land to individuals in the new city
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is based on income relative to site selection and residential references.
Furthermore, land ownership will determine the amount of rent, which will create a certain land use
structure. Thus, the spatial transformation in the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga Makassar was found to be a symptom of the dominance of the use of existing land based
entirely on the strength of capital and wealth. Furthermore, land tenure is largely determined by
the financial capacity of individuals and institutions due to the variations in land rent, which tends
to increase. Thus, the closer the service centers are, the higher the land value will be, and vice versa.
Land and people are the foundations of every nation, while in urban areas, rapid economic and social
development is exerting sustained pressure on land demands, and land development is essential
for economic growth and the advancement of urbanization [89,90]. This condition illustrates that
the existence of local communities that inhabit new urban areas will make it very difficult to engage
in economic business competition, including competition for the ownership of production facilities.
Thus, spatial transformation repositioned local communities as marginal groups even though they still
chose to live in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
The results of the field confirmation give an overview of the relevant mechanisms of relations
and the
Land modes
2020, ofPEER
9, x FOR production,
REVIEW showing that the arrival of capitalism has transformed traditional 22 of 50
agriculture-based spaces into a more modern economic system. Furthermore, the owners of existing
real
real estateand
estate and trade
trade industries,
industries,in in
thisthis
casecase
called “capitalists”,
called will always
“capitalists”, will direct
alwaysanddirect
control workers
and control
and their production. The relationship between the ruling class and the
workers and their production. The relationship between the ruling class and the ruling dynamics ruling dynamics in the in
thedevelopment
developmentofofthe thenew
newcity
cityarea
areaofofMetro
MetroTanjung
TanjungBunga
Bunga is is
positively
positively associated
associatedwith
withthethe
division
division
of classes, and social friction is a stimulus that causes a transformation of the uniform social
of classes, and social friction is a stimulus that causes a transformation of the uniform social formation formation
of the
of the local
local community
community into
into multiple
multiple social
social formations.
formations. Changes
Changes ininthethe spatial
spatial useuse
of of
thethe
newnew city
city area
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in 2017–2020 are shown in Figures 10 and 11 below.
of Metro Tanjung Bunga in 2017–2020 are shown in Figures 10 and 11 below.

A. Space use in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in 2017
1000
New city area

519.76
500

160
122.51 108
11 54.84
7.56 1.5 1.5
11.62
1.16 3.2 0 0.8 0.16 12.93 0.16 1.23 0.12 0.34 1.16 0
16.88 11.39
0
Land area (hektar) Percentage (%)
Trade/commerce Education Residence Health

B. Space use in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in 2020
1400 80
1145.82 70
1200 66.74
60
Space utilization

1000
50
800
40
600
30
400 242.12 20
14.1
200 40.65
79.14 102.04
10
15.89 1.5 9.56 14.56 30.39 10.12 25.15 5.94
4.61
2.37 1.77 1.46
0 0.93 0.09 0.56 0.85 0.59 0
Trade/commerce Education Residence Health Tourism Office Sport media Social facility Hotel Mixed wet field Pond Empty land
& garden
Land area (hektar) Percentage %

Figure (A,B)
10.10.
Figure (A,B)Utilization
Utilizationofofthe
thenew
newcity
city area
area Metro Tanjung Bunga
Metro Tanjung Bungain
in2017–2020.
2017–2020.Source:
Source: Author
Author
elaborator and Google Maps @@.
elaborator and Google Maps .
Land 2020, 9, 324 23 of 50

Figure 11. Spatial use of new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga 2017–2020. Source: Author Elaborator.

Figure 10A,B and Figure 11 show the very rapid and revolutionary spatial dynamics of the new
Metro Tanjung Bunga city area. The intensity of spatial use in 2017 is the third phase of the development
of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The transfer of land use functions that tend to increase is
characterized by significant changes in spatial patterns. The spaces that tend to increase at this stage
include (1) housing that utilizes an area of 122.51 hectares or 12.93%; (2) tourism facilities utilizing an
area of 11.62 hectares or 1.23%; (3) social facilities utilizing 11 hectares of land or 1.16%; and (4) trade
and shopping centers utilizing 7.56 hectares of land or 0.80%. This figure confirms that the intensity
of the spatial use of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has an impact on the integration of
urban areas in the surrounding villages, particularly the Gowa and Takalar Districts. Furthermore,
during the 2017–2020 period, additional areas of 1154.81 hectares were developed through coastal
reclamation to support the development of businesses, services, tourism, housing, and office centers.
The pattern of the spatial integration of the metropolitan area has an impact on the ecological landscape
and understanding the integration process of urban agglomeration is essential for sustainable regional
development and urban planning [71,91].
In 2020, the area of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga was further developed as
a continuation of the development in 2017 (fourth stage). The data obtained shows that the utilization
of space here is very prominent, including (1) the construction of new housing categorized as very
luxurious due to occupying an area of 1145.82 hectares or 66.74%, with the selling price for one unit of
housing between 100$ USD; (2) the development of trade and shopping centers occupying an area
of 242.12 hectares or 14.10%; and (3) the development of social facilities occupying an area of 30.39
hectares or 1.77%. Furthermore, to support tourism activities in the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga,
the developer is developing hospitality by utilizing an area of 10.12 hectares or 0.59% of the total area.
Thus, the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has a tendency to develop as a new independent city
Land 2020, 9, 324 24 of 50

through the support of facilities, infrastructure, and services for economic activities that are complete
enough to promote the agglomeration of the metropolitan Mamminasata urban system. The urban
spatial form has transformed from individual cities into mega-city regions or metropolises [92].
The population mobility and increased flow of transportation to and from the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga are influenced by several factors, including (1) population growth due
to urbanization, migration, and suburbanization related to the existence of residential complexes
and migrants who engage in economic business; (2) the choice of the means of settling, due to
the presence of migrants who enter infiltratively for the purpose of working in the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga; (3) land use changes and spatial transformations causing the population
to accumulate in one space, leading to economic, social, and cultural differentiation; (4) the high
demand for space requirements and the impact on the conversion of agricultural land use functions and
coastal reclamation to meet the demands for the development of business centers, services, settlements,
tourism, and offices. The coastal zone is a space where many social, economic, and political activities
intersect with natural processes [93].
Furthermore, residents’ activities related to economic activities in the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga are materially influenced by three main factors: (1) Economic efforts, in this case,
holding that which does not yet exist or changing the physical form of a material object to give that
object economic value (i.e., the center of trade, services, settlements, and tourism); and (2) consumption
methods, i.e., the spending activities of the population such that their level of welfare is optimally
achieved (e.g., using public and private vehicles, purchasing clothing, recreation, and traveling to
shopping centers). These two factors lead to different choices of transportation modes. The difference
lies in the chosen modes of transportation of migrants who are generally located in elite residential
complexes and use private transportation when in the dominant local community (two-wheeled
vehicles, such as motorcycles and bicycles) for carrying out their daily activities; (3) distribution
(trading), which is a population activity used to disseminate an object/service produced to the users
or distribute goods from the production sector to the market (consumers). Such community-based
infrastructure development has been proven to be effective as a model for investing in local infrastructure
development [94].
The field data show that the dominant migrant population controls production activities (in
addition to using private transportation, they also use transportation facilities with a large enough
vehicle capacity in the production transportation process). On the other hand, the transportation
used by local communities only utilizes two-wheeled vehicles. The results of the field confirmation
illustrate that the existence of capitalism in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga not only controls
production activities but also dominates control of the means of transportation. This fact highlights
the significant disparity in wealth and income between migrants and local communities. The use of
cars creates high costs for the community, while the use of public transportation provides a positive
contribution in the form of non-government subsidized income to public transport providers [95].
Furthermore, social activities related to the population have a positive effect on the demand for
transportation services. The activities of the population that developed in the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga include (1) social activities that involve visiting each other, staying in touch, attending
meetings, holding weddings, mourning, etc.; (2) education, which is a self-improvement activity in
the field of science and technology. The origin and destination of movement to the location of education
is based on the dominant source of generation from the location of the settlement to the location of
education. This condition is supported by the existence of higher education, elementary education, and
secondary education; (3) religious activities, which are mental and spiritual activities of the population
that hierarchically involve the relationship between the behavior of the population and its perceived
creator; (4) health services, which are marked by the presence of large hospitals, the Siloam Gleangleas
hospital, a community health center, and a doctor’s office; (5) the government, involving population
activities related to government services and other private offices; and (6) recreation, which describes
a resident’s activities related to leisure, refreshment, and visiting tourist attractions.
Land 2020, 9, 324 25 of 50

Land 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 50

Tourism activities have a positive contribution to the changing characteristics of transportation

Tourism activities have a positive contribution to the changing characteristics of transportation
in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. These tourism activities are very dominant, especially
in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. These tourism activities are very dominant, especially
on holidays due to intensive transportation movement patterns. The high volume of vehicles based
on holidays due to intensive transportation movement patterns. The high volume of vehicles based
on the origin of traffic generated from the center of Makassar City that crosses the main road has an
on the origin of traffic generated from the center of Makassar City that crosses the main road has an
impact on the increases in daily traffic volume. Furthermore, at peak times, the flow of traffic becomes
impact on the increases in daily traffic volume. Furthermore, at peak times, the flow of traffic becomes
quite high and causes congestion on the main road sections of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
quite high and causes congestion on the main road sections of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga. Increasing the road capacity by building ring roads to reduce traffic congestion in urban areas
Bunga. Increasing the road capacity by building ring roads to reduce traffic congestion in urban areas
has proven ineffective in the long run [96]. The travel patterns of the inhabitants of the new city area
has proven ineffective in the long run [96]. The travel patterns of the inhabitants of the new city area
Metro Tanjung Bunga are shown in Figure 12.
Metro Tanjung Bunga are shown in Figure 12.

250 250

214
219
200 200
mode of transportation

181
150 150

139
101 118
100 100
83 80 98
68
56 58
52.23 50
50 40 50
32.74 29.96
20.97 25.47 21.72
20.78 27.05 17.64 14.65
5 1.87 20.65 25.12 12.44 9.95
0 0
private transportation public transportation motorcycle bike on foot

population travel category local community population travel category % population travel category immigrant
population travel category % population travel category total travel population travel category %

Figure12.
Figure 12.Population
Populationtravel
travel matrix
matrix according
according to
to the
the use
use of
of transportation
transportation modes
modesin
inthe
thenew
newcity
cityarea
area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Source: Primary data.
of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Source: Primary data.

Figure1212
Figure shows
shows landland
use byusefunction
by function
with anwith an on
impact impact on the differences
the differences in the use ofintransportation
the use of
transportation
modes betweenmodes
migrantsbetween migrants
and local and local Three
communities. communities. Three
factors are factors
related are related
to these to these
differences: (i)
differences:
The dominant(i)private
The dominant private
transportation transportation
mode mode or
used by migrants, used by migrants,
53.23%, or 53.23%,inand
and (ii) differences the (ii)
use
ofdifferences in the use of modes
modes of transportation of transportation
between migrants andbetween migrants and
local communities, local are
which communities,
positively which are
associated
positively
with associated
economic, withtourism
social, and economic, social,Spatially,
interests. and tourism
these interests. Spatially,
three factors describe these three factors
the characteristics
describe the characteristics or profiles of the population and highlight the demand
or profiles of the population and highlight the demand for transportation in the new city area of Metrofor transportation
in the new
Tanjung city Population
Bunga. area of Metro Tanjung
activities Bunga.
related Population
to spatial activities
functions play related to spatial
an important role functions play
in determining
an important
travel profiles role
basedin on
determining
the origin travel profiles based
and destination on movement,
of the the origin and destination
such of the movement,
as settlements, workplaces,
such as settlements, workplaces, shopping centers, attractions, and education.
shopping centers, attractions, and education. Measuring the geographic extent of travel-activity patterns Measuring the
geographic extent of travel-activity patterns is very important for understanding
is very important for understanding the relationship between land-use patterns and accessibility [97]. the relationship
between
The land-use
data field showpatterns
that the and accessibility
differences in the[97]. The data field
transportation modesshow that the differences
of transportation in the
are related to
transportation
the travel patternsmodes of transportation
of migrants are related to which
and local communities, the travel patterns
are closely of migrants
related and local
to the intensity of
communities,
movement, which are
differences in closely
wealth,related to the intensity
and socioeconomic of movement,
interests. differences
Immigration in wealth,
has affected, andand
will
socioeconomic interests. Immigration has affected, and will continue to significantly affect,
continue to significantly affect, transportation infrastructure [98].
transportation infrastructure [98].
The formation of the spatial structure of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has positively
The formation of the spatial structure of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has positively
contributed to the creation of cheap labor resources that can be exploited to benefit capitalism based
contributed to the creation of cheap labor resources that can be exploited to benefit capitalism based
on fluctuations in the global economic cycle. The facts found in the field show that the poverty
on fluctuations in the global economic cycle. The facts found in the field show that the poverty of
of local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is not caused by personal or
local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is not caused by personal or
institutional failure but is a consequence of the organization of capitalism in the midst of the society.
institutional failure but is a consequence of the organization of capitalism in the midst of the society.
In this context, modernization in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga positively contributes to
In this context, modernization in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga positively contributes to
the marginalization of local communities. Furthermore, high land rent and low wages are an economic
the marginalization of local communities. Furthermore, high land rent and low wages are an
reality of capitalism. The results from the field illustrate that the spatial transformations in the new city
economic reality of capitalism. The results from the field illustrate that the spatial transformations in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga will make it difficult for the government to eliminate social
Land 2020, 9, 324 26 of 50

area of Metro Tanjung Bunga will make it difficult for the government to eliminate social injustice and
spatial damage because the social order itself is causing this economic inequality. This means that
collaboration between the private sector and the government in the process of developing the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga will cause changes in the social formation of local communities by
considering differences from previous conditions. The impacts of the spatial transformation of the new
city area Metro Tanjung Bunga on ecosystem complexity are outlined in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Impact of spatial transformation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.

Number Impact Parameter Interpretation

• Changes in the structure of urban services are characterized
Spatial by economic growth poles.
structures • Accumulation of urban activity centres towards the suburbs
of Metropolitan Mamminasata

• Changes in agricultural cultivation activities towards

1 Urban system industrial areas on the outskirts of
Metropolitan Mamminasata
Spatial patterns • Physical changes to the Metropolitan Mamminasata area due
to the allocation of new spatial functions (houses, work,
clans, facilities, and infrastructure).

Transport • Increased mobility of goods and passenger transportation.

movement • Increased volume of motor vehicles and traffic congestion.
systems
• Environmental degradation and decreasing green region
coefficient (KDH) in the Metropolitan Mamminasata
Ecosystem urban area.
conditions • Environmental damage due to pollution of the soil, water,
Environmental
2 and air.
system
• Removal of productive agricultural land-use functions.
Land-use • Environmental damage due to pollution of the soil, water,
systems
and air.

• Inequality in the mastery of spatial reproduction and urban

Economic dualistic (formal and informal) economic systems.
activities • Changes in work relations from traditional economic
Economic systems to urban modern economic systems.
3
system
• Changes in the land sale value based on urban
space functions.
Land value • The economic value of the land is oriented to the function of
space and the market economy.

• Changes in social relations towards differences in modes of

Social production and the sharpening of socio-economic strata.
structures • Changes in social status based on educational background,
expertise, and skills.

• Differences in vertical and horizontal social mobility between

4 Social system immigrants and local community.
Social mobility • Social mobility is characterized by the ability of capital,
wealth, and develops towards segregation.

• Social dynamics are very dynamic characterized by changes

in the orientation of agricultural work to urban industry.
Social dynamics
• The social dynamics of immigrants and local community
develop in the direction of urban inter-ethnic segmentation.

Source: Analysis results and primary data.

Land 2020, 9, 324 27 of 50

4.2. Spatial Dynamics and Environmental Quality Degradation

Spatial transformation as a determinant of changes in the social formation in the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga causes changes in the social mobility of local communities, both vertically
and horizontally. Furthermore, the modernization of development has a selective nature and exerts
an impact on the formation of community segmentation for individuals who move and evolve until
they leave the segment. The informal segment then involutes. This specifically refers to the influx
of newcomers and increasing numbers in line with spatial transformation in the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga. The dominant commercial space functions develop positively in association
with the mode of production of capitalism and contribute to the order of life of the local community.
This process was marked by a shift in the orientation of the activities of the local community from
farm laborers to construction workers and informal traders, with a small portion moving vertically
to become independent entrepreneurs in the villa rental business in the coastal areas that originally
relied on their work as farmers and fishermen. The repositioning of the local community’s economic
activities dominated by informal economic activities is positively associated with the existence of urban
villages in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga as an example of informal city morphology. This
transformation and continued evolution of the nature of urbanization brings with it many planning
challenges to provide an adequate and equitable supply of basic services, such as housing and land,
employment, health, and education, as well as protection of the natural environment [99].
The development of residential areas in bulk, from small segments to large and comprehensive
shapes, has an impact on changes in the spatial structure of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga to make it a new independent city. The process of forming a new city in a planned manner
has resulted in a gap in urban space which is dominated by expansive settlements of immigrants
which are very different in terms of the quality of buildings and infrastructure services for local
community settlements. This phenomenon is increasing highlighting the direction of the process of
segregation between the occupancy of local communities and migrants—spatially, economically, and
socially. Urban segregation describes the unequal distribution of different social groups in the urban
space, based mainly on occupation, income, and education, as well as gender and ethnicity [100].
The residential segregation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is shown in Figure 13 below.

Figure 13. Spatial segregation and differences in residential types in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga. Source: Primary data.

Figure 13 shows the spatial segregation associated with the residential areas of local communities.
Expansive migrant populations are a unique phenomenon. So far, there is natural segregation in urban
Land 2020, 9, 324 28 of 50

areas. The new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, as a newly developing area, was found to contain
different forms of segregation based on the formative process—namely, artificial segregation. This fact
can be seen from the emergence of new housing complexes that are designed for certain groups in
society. These new inhabitants will gradually form a new community. This condition is marked by
the emergence of new forms of housing built by developers, from luxurious to very luxurious types.
Urbanization is usually accompanied by complex challenges, including ongoing demands for housing,
transportation networks, basic services, and employment [89]. These challenges seem to emphasize
the economic and political dimensions of housing far more than the social and cultural dimensions [90].
Social mobility due to spatial transformation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga causes
changes in the social structures of local communities. The nature of these changes is fundamental
in terms of changing the social structures of local communities more generally. Furthermore, social
mobility in local communities involves movement that occurs in social structures—specifically,
the formation of certain patterns that regulate the organization of social groups to increase economic
stratification from simple strata to clear strata. Capitalism’s work system has an impact on two main
factors: (1) The functional system, which is the mechanism of the division of labor that requires
cooperation and equal positions; and (2) the scalar system, which entails the distribution of power
according to a power ladder from the bottom-up. Furthermore, the elements of the formed production
relations refer to institutional relations, social relations between individuals and community groups,
and positive associations with the formation of highly complex social structures. This scale-free
behavior of landscape–social relationships challenges the traditional modifiable area unit problem
and provides mechanistic insight into the conflicts and compatibilities between human activities and
human-induced land use changes [101]. The concept of a nature-based solution has been developed
to operationalize an ecosystem service approach within spatial planning policies and practices to
fully integrate the ecological dimension and, at the same time, address the current societal challenges
in cities [102]. Furthermore, ecosystems have been stabilized by human interventions to optimize
the delivery of certain ecosystem services, while, at the same time, awareness has grown that these
systems are inherently dynamic rather than steady [103].
Spatial transformation as a determinant of changes in social formation indicates that
the developmental dynamics of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga began with the penetration
of capitalism into the mastery of spatial reproduction that was originally engaged with by indigenous
communities, characterized by a move from rural agrarian to urban industrial society. The field data
show that the coexistence of pre-capitalist social formations and the social formations of capitalism in
spatial articulation processes that are not running optimally cause social changes in local communities
that are marked by the sharpening of strata away from simple stratification. Furthermore, the differences
in the ability to access economic resources for the reproduction of space in the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga causes marginalization in local communities. This condition is measured by
indicators of poverty in local communities, along with physical weakness, alienation, vulnerability, and
powerlessness, which are interrelated with one another. The poverty and voicelessness of marginalized
peoples were long viewed as an issue of inadequate individual capacity, rather than outcomes of a long
socio-cultural and historical process of subordination that resulted in reduced power and limited access
to resources and opportunities [104]. Furthermore, the marginalized urban community is a group of
people who do not have access to the economic and formal infrastructure of the city [105].
The spatial transformation of the Metro Tanjung Bunga new city area has a positive contribution
to environmental degradation due to several factors, including: (1) Land reclamation for housing and
settlement development needs due to different land elevations and their impact on urban flooding;
(2) changes in the typology and morphology of coastal areas due to massive coastal reclamation
impacting the damage and loss of mangrove forest habitats for coastal abrasion control; (3) increasing
the volume of waste generation based on the sources of waste (namely, housing and settlements,
socioeconomic activities, offices and services, hospitals and education, tourism facilities, hotels, and
other socioeconomic activities); (4) environmental pollution due to suboptimal waste management
Land 2020, 9, 324 29 of 50

originating from household waste, socioeconomic activities, tourism facilities, and other socioeconomic
activities; (5) the pollution of river water and sea water quality due to changes in land cover along
river basins and coastal areas; and (6) air pollution due to an increase in the volume of vehicles (both
public and private transportation). The deterioration in the environmental quality of the new city of
Metro Tanjung Bunga is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. Decreasing environmental quality in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Source:
Primary data and analysis results.

Figure 14 shows the decrease in environmental quality in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga. Relevant interpretations are related to a decline in environmental quality, among others: (1)
The main trigger for the decline in environmental quality is land reclamation activities. The differences
in land elevation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are influenced by the development
of large-scale settlements due to elevation differences between the inhabitants of migrants and local
communities. This difference in land elevation has an impact on the urban flooding experienced by
local community settlements, with pools of water reaching 1–1.5 m due to inadequate drainage system
support; (2) the high building density and population density have an impact on reducing land cover
along river basins and coastal areas that are used by local communities to build residential facilities.
The triggering factor here is the inability of the community to access land due to the high land value;
(3) the construction of buildings by developers impacting air, soil, and water pollution; (4) decreases
in surface water quality (river and sea) due to the high volume of waste generation. Rivers and seas
are used as media for the disposal of garbage and waste disposal by local residents, as well as for
socio-economic activities due to the lack of integrated waste management support; (5) air pollution
originating from motor vehicle exhaust and the tourism industry developing in the new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The functions of economic activities, large-scale settlement development
activities, and transportation systems in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga have a significant
impact on reducing the carrying capacity of the environment and environmental pollution over time.
Therefore, choosing an effective method has become an important issue for analyzing the relationships
between regional resources, the environment, and human activities, as well as providing operable and
effective regulatory counter measures to achieve a sustainable regional strategy [106,107].

4.3. Social Economy of Local Communities and Migrant Populations

The spatial transformation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has an impact on
the increase in formal activities that require certain fixed specifications and types of expertise (unlike
informal urban jobs).That is, becoming a farmer or informal sector worker does not require special
qualifications, but obtaining formal employment does require certain qualifications. The field data
Land 2020, 9, 324 30 of 50

shows that the dominant local community is not equipped with sufficient skills or educational
background, so they can only obtain informal positions as service workers, construction workers, or
services at shopping centers. Furthermore, in non-formal sector activities that do not require expertise,
skills, or educational backgrounds, the local community generally engages with business activities,
such as working as mobile vegetable trade workers, food stall workers, garbage collectors, public
transportation drivers, building construction workers, and motorcycle taxi drivers. A small portion
still attempt farming activities on vacant land that has not been utilized by the developer. Thus, spatial
transformation has an impact on the differentiation of the work of local communities. The urban
socio-spatial structure evolved from a single-core pattern to a single-core pattern with enclaves,
ultimately showing a more mosaic tendency toward the differentiation of community work [83]. This
has also led to the emergence of polarization and the fragmentation of labor, as well as an increasing
acceptance of urban form diversity [108–110].
The spatial transformation of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga was caused two
simultaneous modes of production: The capitalist mode of production driven by the entry of
companies with considerable business capital capabilities and the mode of pre-capitalism production
driven by the local community, with limited business capital. The domination of the capitalist mode
of production through technological support and investment is the means, by which capitalism is
used to build power structures in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. This is exacerbated by
the weakness of local communities in terms of their venture capital and technology. These factors
provide trigger for change by marginalizing local communities, leading to resistance, facilitating
change over time.
The field data show that there are three levels to the working mechanism of capitalism in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga: Family capitalism, managerial capitalism, and institutional
capitalism. These three levels have different characteristics from one another, but they all have the same
goal—the creation of the highest profit value. The conceptualization of capitalism by defining its main
institutions (individual motivation, law and the State, property and contract, markets, money and
finance, firms, employment relations) and, therefore, defining capitalism as an institutional and specific
system [111]. Furthermore, in a transitional society, there is a considerable proportion of “unidentified”
people who are neither pro-self nor pro-social, suggesting the potential existence of unstable states
during the transformation a from rural to capitalistic society [112].
The coexistence of two types of social formations (pre-capitalist and capitalist) has an impact
on differences in the mastery of spatial reproduction in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga,
leading to the spatial separation of housing locations between the expanding migrant groups and
local communities, with a capitalist space on one side and a pre-capitalist space on the other. These
differences act as the driving force of social change in local communities. Furthermore, the different
orientation of capitalist production and pre-capitalist production in local communities produces types
of business, with the orientation of subsistence production on the one side and the orientation of
commercial production on the other. Social relations in pre-capitalism social formation are characterized
by kinship relations and employer-worker relations in the social structure: (i) Subsistence-oriented local
communities, kinship-related social relations, and (ii) local communities that are focused on commercial
production. Work relations between owners and workers are developing a social structure that will
increase economic stratification. Furthermore, the social formation of capitalism is characterized by
social polarization, with the arrangement of society based upon the relations between social classes.
The field data show that the social relations in the organizational system of capitalism production can
be divided into three types of relationships: Egalitarian, class-based, and transitional (as intermediate
types). In the history of capitalist societies, the ecological conditions of social reproduction have been
largely ignored or downplayed. Only the exacerbating ecological crises of recent decades have forced
economists, policy makers, and the common public to pay more attention to the natural limits and
the conditions of sustainability [113]. Differences in the production procedures for the social formation
of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga are presented in Table 3 below.
Land 2020, 9, 324 31 of 50

Table 3. Differences in production procedures in new social formations.

Mode of Production
Distinguishing
Parameters as Capitalism
Characterizers Pre-Capitalism
Managerial
Family Capitalism Institutional Capitalism
Capitalism
Relatively simple
Relatively simple and tend to be
Complex and Very complex, fully
Method of moves to use traditional;
supported by using modern
Production modern the use of
modern technology technology
technology. technology is
very limited.
Combines several
Combines large business
business units, as
units consisting of two or
a production force.
Business unit more large business Family as
Engages in
Production companies as groups as a productive a production
the mass
Strength a production force force. Engages in force and
production of
but are still limited. the mass production of business unit.
commodities that
commodities that are
are exchanged and
exchanged and sold.
sold.
National and
Are regional and multinational
national in characteristics with
Production the production global business networks Local context and
Local context
Relationship relation system and links to the global very limited.
(between cities and economy
between regions) Has a relationship with
the global economy
Consists of several Combined group
Business Individuals in
business groups businesses and Individuals and
Capital family business
with one large-scale/multinational families
Ownership groups
management networks.
Contradictory,
consisting of Contradictory, consisting
capital owners, of capital owners,
Employer–Workers Employer–Workers
Production managers, managers, supervisors,
are egalitarian, are egalitarian,
Relationship supervisors, and and lowly workers
leading to a type of leading to a type
Type lowly workers (based on the class
transition of transition
(based on the class relations in the global
relations in capitalist society).
capitalist society).
The use of
technology that is
Simple Technology
relatively simple
Leading to the use The use of modern
and does not aim
of Modern technology for The use of modern
for efficiency but
Technology efficient production technology for efficient
rather is of
Technology and Utilization, with activities. production activities.
a utilitarian
Investment limited Large, dominant Large, dominant
nature.
investments, investments fully investments fully
Limited
including venture supported by supported by banks.
investments,
capital that is banks.
including
utilized.
venture capital
that is utilized.
Source: Analysis results and primary data.
Land 2020, 9, 324 32 of 50

Table 3 illustrates the development of two related modes of production, with the production of
capitalism
Land 2020, 9, on thePEER
x FOR oneREVIEW
side and the mode of production of pre-capitalism on the other. There 32 is of
a very
50
significant difference between these six distinguishing categories. There are three important categories
that, in principle,
production and the highlight
relationsthe most basic
between distinguishing
production, elements:
technology, The forces Furthermore,
and investments. of productionthe and
the relations
built between production,
social formation technology,
creates changes in the and
socialinvestments.
interactionsFurthermore,
and adaptations the built socialmigrants
between formation
and local
creates communities.
changes The social
in the social interactions
interactions and between
adaptations migrants and migrants
between local communities
and localincommunities.
new social
formations
The are valuedbetween
social interactions based migrants
on the intensity
and localofcommunities
the interaction,
in new ongoing social contact,
social formations and
are valued
communication built between individuals in the local community and between
based on the intensity of the interaction, ongoing social contact, and communication built between those in the local
communityin
individuals andthemigrants.
local community and between those in the local community and migrants.
Figure15A
Figure 15Ashows
shows thethe intensity
intensity of of social
social relations
relationsthatthattake
takeplace
placebetween
betweenthe theindividuals
individuals ofof
local
local
communities and migrants. Potential interpretations related to social interactions
communities and migrants. Potential interpretations related to social interactions include the following: include the
following:
(1) The intense (1) The intense
social social interactions
interactions in local community
in local community groups take groups
place take place in atmosphere
in a kinship a kinship
atmosphere
with a frequency with of
a frequency
interaction of4–6
interaction
times per 4–6week
timesorper week or
54.29%, and 54.29%, and the
the pattern of pattern of social is
social relations
reciprocal. (2) The intense interactions between individual local communities and migrants occurand
relations is reciprocal. (2) The intense interactions between individual local communities with
amigrants
frequency occur with
of 3–4 a frequency
times per week of 3–4 times per
or 48.57%, andweek
the or 48.57%,ofand
patterns the patterns
social relationsofare social
not relations
reciprocal.
are not
These reciprocal.
interactions These
reveal interactions
several factors: reveal
(i) The several factors: of
social relations (i)the
The social
local relationstake
community of the
placelocal
in an
community take place in an atmosphere of kinship and shared life patterns for the unity of the local
atmosphere of kinship and shared life patterns for the unity of the local community based on shared
community based on shared interests and (ii) the social interactions between local communities and
interests and (ii) the social interactions between local communities and migrants is more work-related,
migrants is more work-related, using business activities as a medium for social interaction.
using business activities as a medium for social interaction.

A. The intensity of social interactions between migrants and local communities

200
190
180
170
160
Intensity of interaction

140
130 130
120
100
80
60
54.29 50 48.57
40 37.14 37.14
30
20
14.29
8.57
0
Individuals in local community groups Percentage (%) Individual local communities with Percentage (%)
migrant residents
<2 Per week 3-4 per week 4-6 per week

B. Social contact between migrants and local communities

200 250
180
180
210
160 200
140
Social contact

120 150
100
100
80 100 100
70
60 60 51.43
40 28.57 40 50
28.57 20
20
11.43
0 0
< 2 x per week 3 s.d 4 x per week 4 s.d 6 x per week

Individuals in local community groups Percentage (%) Individual local communities with migrant residents Percentage (%)

Figure 15. Cont.

Land 2020, 9, 324 33 of 50

Figure 15. (A–C) Social interactions between local communities and migrant populations. Source:
Primary Data.

Figure 15B shows three categories of ongoing social contact: (1) The social contact between
individuals in local community groups is very intensive, with a frequency of 3–4 times per week or
51.43%, and (2) the social contact between local communities and migrants has a frequency value
of <2 per week or 60.00%. The process of social interaction based on ongoing social contact reveals
the following: (i) The social contact that takes place between individuals of a local community presents
a familial atmosphere that is bound by blood ties based on lineages, and (ii) the social contact between
local communities and migrants is more work-related, and communicative relationships built more
for workers’ control and economic effort serves as a medium for ongoing social contact. Labor that is
quantitatively relevant reflects structural, economic, and social transformation [20].
Figure 15C shows this ongoing social communication. The following factors can be disclosed:
(i) Social communication in local community groups is very intensive at 62.86%, and the frequency
of social communication is 4–6 times per week; (ii) social communication that takes place between
local communities and migrants is 65.71%, with a frequency of social communication of <2 per week.
Ongoing social communication relates to a number of factors: (i) Social communication within the local
community group still relies on the principles of togetherness, as indicated by the high tolerance and
principle of mutual help when experiencing difficulties, in addition to having a mutual desire—both
economically and socially—towards improving welfare; (ii) the social communication shown between
the local community and the migrant population is more of a working relationship, where control over
workers and social communication is built only under certain conditions and situations. The elements of
good communication, linguistic barriers, and cultural differences play an important role in the effective
application of relevant interventions [114].
The three things studied (intensity of interaction, social contact, and social communication), show
differences. The proposed interpretation related to social interaction is as follows: (i) The process of
social interaction within local community groups shows the functions and roles of the actors who
interact, are in the same social position, and are intensively oriented in their daily lives towards their
groups as a community unit bound by blood ties and the principle of togetherness; (ii) the process
of social interaction between individuals of the local community and migrants is more defined by
the patterns of work relations. This means that ongoing social interactions situate migrants who are
economic business owners in a higher position, and the social relations that take place relate more
to economic motivation; (iii) the process of social interaction between individual local communities
and migrants is more service oriented. This means that the social interactions that take place are
more mutually beneficial to both parties. In this case, the local community receives a service fee, and
the migrant population gains profit and profit value. The reasons for migration can be numerous,
including social, political, economic, and environmental factors [115].
Land 2020, 9, 324 34 of 50

The rapid and revolutionary spatial transformation in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
is a trigger for the ongoing process of social adaptation at the individual level in the local community.
The current social adaptation being observed is based on changes in the work orientation of the local
community, which were initially relatively homogeneous and characterized by a rural agrarian society
(agriculture and fishermen) and then developed in a heterogeneous direction with complexity as
a characteristic. This complexity arose with the development of new functions in the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga. This process of social adaptation demonstrates the existence of different levels in
the adaptation of individual local communities. These conditions are characterized by the development
of social differentiation, social status, and social classes. That is, spatial physical change, as a stimulus,
conditions individual differences in response to environmental changes, resulting in differences at
the level of individuals in the adaptation process. Modernization in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga has a dualistic nature: It conditions different adaptation processes between both individuals
and individual local communities. Spatial physical change is a driving force for social mobility (both
vertically and horizontally) to maintain the existence of local communities. There are two categories of
spatial transformation: (i) The process of the social adaptation of local communities and (ii) the process
of the social adaptation of migrant populations, which are both infiltrative and expansive.
Changes in the orientation of the work of local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga were initially modest (traditional agrarian). Then, the area moved towards an urban industrial
society. This process of change is characterized by the development of new strata and social statuses
in local communities based on specialization and expertise. This reorientation is related to changes
at the system level through stages involving new special functions. The process of social adaptation
that occurs then encourages the development of social differentiation to carry out new functions in
the family due to modifications in the lives of the local communities, which are influenced by high
internal and external needs, especially in terms of meeting the needs of life.
Spatial–physical changes that take place quickly and are revolutionary have an impact on
changes in the social fabric of local communities and are variously marked by the development
of local community activities as a form and adaptation response to a situation of environmental
change. Some individual community groups have a high adaptive capacity. However, the adaptive
power of individuals of a local community is also weakened in this context, making it difficult for
the systems of this group to accommodate new situations. This condition is generally represented
in local communities by subsistence farmers. The development of business activities in the new city
area of Metro Tanjung Bunga shows the different levels of adaptation in the local community based on
the level of income obtained to maintain the community’s existence. The work currently undertaken
by the local community shows that the existence of the local community, based on its adaptation
process, rests in a position of uncertainty. There are only two orientations for the activities of the local
community that are in a normal position based on their level of income obtained: The mobile vegetable
trade and formal work based on the routine income earned. Both, of these business activities have
a more stable level of adaptation compared to other work orientations.
For the social adaptations of local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga,
the following interpretations can be determined: (1) Differences in the level of adaptation in local
communities indicate the ongoing differentiation of work in the lives of local communities, and (2)
the level of income earned today is strongly influenced by the response of the local community to
the situation of environmental change. Thus, the differences shown in the level of adaptation have
a positive effect at the system level and the stages that must be passed by the local community. That
is, changes at the local community system level are highly dependent on the level of adaptation in
responding to environmental change stimuli. Thus, it can be concluded that the process of the social
adaptation of local communities occupies a transitional position and is highly dependent on the ability
of individuals to respond to environmental stimuli. The adaptive capacity shown is a form of response
to the stimulus of environmental change due to the reproduction of space driven by capitalism.
Furthermore, the rationalization of action is the driving force of individuals in local community
Land 2020, 9, 324 35 of 50

groups underpinned by economic motivations to improve welfare. Individual corporations are looking
beyond traditional profit-making goals, rethinking their impacts on society and the environment, and
seeking to identify ways to cultivate positive and sustainable relationships with stakeholders [116].
Furthermore, improved social and environmental performance can provide both tangible benefits,
such as cost reduction and risk management, and intangible benefits, such as enhanced reputation and
increased competitiveness [117].
The dominance of the procedures for the production, of capitalism in the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga began with mastery of the factors of production for modernization. Modernization has
a dualistic nature—in this case, with informal activities on one side and formal activities on the other.
Formal activities that take place in relation to spatial functions have an impact on socio-economic
inequality. Furthermore, the social adaptation process of the migrant population is more towards
a formal work system mechanism for the urban industrial society, followed by the rationalization of
action. The economic and social changes in modern society have resulted in intensive and extensive
migrant activity [118].
The process of social adaptation between local communities and migrants shows that there
are significant differences between the two groups marked by shifts in normative space and
the rationalization of actions in developing economic business activities with new social formations.
The types of business activities developed in the pre-capitalist formation tend to shift towards a type
of transition, while the social formation of capitalism tends to remain in a position of balance and
dominance. These two social formations are then followed by a rationalization of the actions of each
community. A comparison of the process of normative space shifts and the rationalization of actions in
relation to the process of social adaptation between migrants and local communities is explained in
Table 4 below.

Table 4. Comparison of social adaptation processes, normative space shifts, and rationalization
of actions.

Comparison of Shifts in Normative

Social Adaptation Process
Space and the Rationalization Process
Number Description
Local
Immigrant Local Community Immigrant
Community
Investment and
1 technology Low High Is High
development
Normative
2 Is High Is High
space shift
The process of
3 rationalizing Is High Is High
action
Source: Analysis results and primary Data.

Table 4 provides a description of the different adaptive capacities of the community (local
communities and migrants). Interpretations can be made regarding the process. First, the spatial
transformation of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga caused changes in social formation in
line with the development of investments, technology, and management. In capitalism, production
is categorized as high. The procedure for the production of capitalism is strongly influenced by
investment support, technology, and modern management in the form of general cooperation and
building a network of investment cooperation within the framework of mastering production factors
due to economic motivations and business opportunities. In the pre-capitalism social formation,
the development of investments, technology, and management is categorized as low. This condition is
greatly influenced by the ability of local communities to access very limited sources of venture capital.
Land 2020, 9, 324 36 of 50

Likewise, the investment network is also very limited, and the ability to master technology remains
relatively simple. The pattern of economic business development tends to be simple and only aims at
meeting subsistence needs; this pattern is more independent as an adaptive response to the stimulus of
physical environmental change. At the microlevel, the outcomes of the school-to-work transition can be
related, for example, to occupational status, education-job mismatch, wage and wage growth, security
of employment, job and career mobility, participation in training, and job satisfaction [119–121].
Second, the shift in normative space in the pre-capitalist social formations and capitalist social
formations also shows a difference related to the procedures of production, both of which go hand
in hand. The shift of normative space in the social formation of capitalism is categorized as high.
This condition occurs due to the production procedures and working systems of capitalism that are
contractual and collective, based on the ability of individuals to reach a position. That is, position
and status are largely determined by the adaptive capacity of individuals to achieve achievements
in the working system of capitalism, thus giving birth to formal urban industrial working classes.
Furthermore, in pre-capitalism social formations, the shifts in normative space are categorized as
moderate. This condition occurs because the influence of values and traditions are still quite strong,
so the principles of togetherness are still characteristic, and individuals tend to exist in social groups.
Thus, the development of social classes does not directly affect the production procedures implemented.
Moreover, individuals’ positions and statuses tend to be similar; even though social polarization has
occurred, its effect is not significant. Social polarization occurs when the income inequality between
ethnic groups is taken, into account [122].
Third, that the process of the social adaptation of local communities in new social formations is
followed by the rationalization of actions. In the pre-capitalism social formation, the rationalization of
actions is categorized as moderate. This condition occurs due to the influence of spatial transformation,
which becomes a driving force in the adaptation process of local communities for the purpose
of maintaining their existence and achieving prosperity, as well as motivations for achievement.
Furthermore, the working system of capitalism is perfectly structured for different conditions. That is,
the more developed the stratification is for status and working classes, the more this stratification will
economically benefit capitalism to achieve the highest profit. Complex adaptive systems consist of
a multitude of agents, from whose individual adaptation efforts the adaptive behavior of the system
as, a whole emerges. At both levels (the level of the individual agents and the level of the system as
a whole), viability is contingent on proper adaptation to the environment [123].
The coexistence of pre-capitalist social formations and the social formations of capitalism shows that
the existence of capitalism in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga dominates economic production
activities for the creation of space in a representational manner. This means that the domination of
capitalism production procedures in the dynamics of the development of the new city area Metro
Tanjung Bunga presents a difference in adaptation capacity and a weak ability to control production
factors by local communities. Thus, differences in the level of adaptation of the local community are
largely determined by the ability to articulate the existence of new urban spatial functions driven by
capitalism. The coexistence of these two interrelated modes of production ensures that the mode of
production of capitalism dominates the factors of economic production in the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga. Thus, the transition controlled by an articulation of the two modes of production—in
this case, the mode of production of capitalism and the mode of non-capitalist production—shows that
the existence of capitalism is increasingly dominant (or will become more dominant) within the modes
of production of the local communities. In real life, the actual conditions for the accumulation of
aggregate capital are quite different to those for individual capitals and simple reproduction [124].
The transfer of land use functions and the conversion of productive agricultural land to changes
in spatial use have led to a change in the single social formation of local communities characterized by
the transformation of rural agrarian formations into dual social formations due to the spatial functions
that developed in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga impacting the differentiation of the work
of local communities to change social interactions and adaptations. The consequence of changes
Land 2020, 9, 324 37 of 50

in interactions and social adaptations causes changes in the social structure that sharpen the social
stratification, social status, and cultural patterns of local communities from traditional agrarian to
urban industrial models. This process of change will always continue and is highly dependent on
the spatial dynamics of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City. Thus, decision
making and development policies from the government in favor of marginal communities are needed
due to the lack of responses in changing the relevant environmental stimuli and access to the economic
resources of the city. This will involve the formulation of policies to meet political, socio-economic, and
environmental interests [125]. Furthermore, the effects of changes in spatial use, social formation, and
work differentiation on the socio-economic sustainability of local communities are shown in Table 5,
as follows.

Table 5. Summary of the test results for the significance of the regression coefficients.

Coefficient Error
Independent Variable t-Count t-Table
β Sbi
X1 0.191 0.067 2.872 1.94
X2 0.138 0.053 2.854 1.94
X3 0.406 0.097 4.184 1.94
Variant Source JK Db RJK Fcount Ftable α = 0.05
Regression 19.642 3 6.547
85.814 4.76
Residue 0.458 6 0.076
Total 20.1 9 - - -
R R2 db1 db2 F-count F-table
0.989 0.977 3 6 85.814 4.76
Source: Analysis results.

Table 5 shows the effects of changes in spatial use, social formation, and job differentiation on
the socio-economic sustainability of local communities. Several explanations related to these results
were proposed: (i) Changes in spatial use have a positive effect on the socio-economic sustainability
of local communities; (ii) changes in social formation have a positive effect on the socio-economic
sustainability of local communities; (iii) job differentiation has a positive effect on socio-economic
sustainability in the local community; (iv) changes in spatial use, social formation, and job differentiation
simultaneously have an influence on the socio-economic sustainability of local communities; and
(v) the effects of changes in spatial use, social formation, and job differentiation explain 97.7% of
the social sustainability of the local community economy in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga,
Makassar City.

5. Discussion
The spatial transformation of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City, has had an
impact on the attachment of local communities to traditions that are hereditary and have experienced
a downward trend. Once always obedient to its traditions, this community is now either no longer
fully obedient (only carrying out part of the tradition) to being completely disobedient (no longer
practicing the tradition). Consequently, the value system will change when the type of community
changes, and norms will also change.
Spatial transformation coupled with changes in social formation causes changes in social
interactions and social adaptations and impacts social change internally at the local community
level of the new city area Metro Tanjung Bunga. Changes in social structure, characterized by
sharpening of economic stratification, and interactional changes due to differences in social interactions
between local communities and migrants cause changes in the social systems of the local communities.
Furthermore, cultural change is characterized by the development of traditional agrarian societies
Land 2020, 9, 324 38 of 50

into urban industrial societies. Changes in the social interactions within local communities based on
their patterns and structures were initially characterized by tight social ties (gemeinschaft) and then
developed towards voluntary and contractual social ties (gesselschaft). These changes have had an
impact on the fragmentation of local community life. That is, the social relations of local communities
are still traditional agrarian, while urban industrial community relations develop new social formations
that are fully influenced by the spatial transformations that take place quickly and revolutionarily in
pursuit of economic growth. Furthermore, awareness of the risks of the collapse of the natural system
have begun to spread as, a consequence of the traditional development associated exclusively with
economic growth [126].
The consequences of local community developments in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
in this new social formation include (i) sharpening economic stratification from simple stratification
to clear strata; (ii) differences in status, from a fully ascribed status to an achieved status based on
one’s efforts and achievements, as well as expertise and skills to meet one’s needs; (iii) changes in
the social system of the local community toward an open social system; and (iv) changes in social
values and norms from a fully traditional agrarian life to an urban industrial society. Thus, the spatial
transformation that results in new social formations has had an impact on social change in the local
community of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Furthermore, spatial transformation caused
a shift from agricultural activities characterized by rural and homogeneous agriculture to changing
the means of production to reproduce the space dominated by commercially characterized urban
spatial functions. Understanding the characteristics of rural landscape change during the urbanization
process is crucial to developing more elaborate rural landscape management plans for sustainable
development [127].

5.1. Spatial Transformations, Social Formations, Social Interactions, and Social Adaptations
Spatial transformation as a determinant of changes in social formation is initially characterized as
a single and homogeneous social formation before transitioning towards multiple social formations,
including pre-capitalism and capitalism, thereby causing changes in the social interactions and social
adaptations between local communities and migrants in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
Changes in social interactions and social adaptations cause social changes in local communities.
The consequences of internal social changes in local communities are marked by sharpening economic
stratification and a change in cultural patterns from traditional agrarian to urban industrial. Thus, there
is a relationship between the spatial transformation of changes in social formation and the changes in
social formation related to changes in social interaction and social adaptation, as well as the consequences
of changes at the local community level of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Sustainability
is often conceived of as an attempt to balance competing economic, environmental, and social
priorities [128]. The general social changes in local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga are shown in Figure 16 below.
Spatial transformation as a determinant of changes in social formation, which causes changes
in social interactions and social adaptations and affects local communities, is a social phenomenon
observed in the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, which was developed in an
integrated manner and supported by the development policies of the government. This collaboration
became the driving force behind the expansion of capitalism through the process of penetration,
invasion, domination, and succession in land tenure to develop the functions of urban activities in
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. The reality that the expansion of capitalism penetrates, into
the pre-capitalism space reflects the domination of the reproduction of space by capitalism, leading to
marginalization and social change in the local community. Thus, the practice of formalization aims to
eliminate informality. The main challenge is to explore complex informal/formal relationships and
the dynamics of street trade to understand how forms of informality negotiate space and visibility in
the public sphere [129].
Land 2020, 9, 324 39 of 50

Figure 16. The process of social change in the local communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga. Source: Author Elaborator.

Marginalization in local communities, due to spatial transformation and changes in social

formation, has an impact on differences in ability, as well as differences in rights and access to
economic resources, as well as the reproduction of space between two coexisting social formations.
Justification for marginality in local communities is assessed based on several indicators: Poverty,
physical weakness, isolation, vulnerability, and powerlessness in the mastery of spatial reproduction
and access to spatial functions in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga.
The reality that spatial transformation works as a determinant begins with changes in the status
of land ownership and the transfer of land use functions from the dominance of agricultural functions
to the dominance of commercial functions. This process caused a shift in production facilities towards
the reproduction of space in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. That is, the coexistence of
these two types of social formations and the dominance of the mastery of spatial reproduction by
the social formations of capitalism, alongside the articulation of two types of social formations that are
not running optimally, produce marginalization in local communities.

5.2. Sustainability Development in the New City Area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
Sustainable development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is primarily intended to
improve the welfare of the community through efforts to optimize the use of space without ignoring
the needs of future generations. Spatial engineering for sustainable city development is a development
necessity from three perspectives: Environmental, economic, and social. Furthermore, sustainable
development is formulated for the purpose of building shared awareness of inclusivity, economics,
social justice, and ecological survival. Moreover, the sustainable development of the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga is a conscious and planned effort to integrate the environment and resources into
the development process to guarantee the capabilities, welfare, and quality of life of present and future
Land 2020, 9, 324 40 of 50

generations. Cities with a lower dependency on physical and economic growth are more likely to
emphasize the quality of the built environment and address issues of sustainable urban development
closely when planning and implementing new town projects [130].
The concept of sustainable development in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is based
on three main principles: (i) Physical environmental sustainability, (ii) economic sustainability, and
(iii) social sustainability. These three basic principles will require decision makers and government
policies to optimize the roles of stakeholders (namely, the government, the private sector, and
community participation). Sustainable development governance refers to a combination of the rules
and decision-making processes of civil, private, and public actors, which together shape the future [131].
Thus, it is very important to formulate and evaluate the conditions of the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Makassar to develop the area towards the concept of an eco-city, with consideration of three
main elements: People, the planet, and profit. This will facilitate natural resilience, nature, food
security, and energy security. A major challenge that can undermine the use of resilience for guiding
planning activities is the value-laden and contested nature of the concept that can be interpreted in
a variety of ways [132].
The orientation of sustainable development in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga entails
dialectics that position the economic, social, and environmental dimensions as the three main unified
pillars of life systems and urban systems that are integrated into spatial structures and spatial patterns
that fulfill a sense of justice, inclusiveness, and competitiveness. The sustainable development of
urban space along with its economic and social benefits considering quality of life and the ecological
environment has become a new and important subject that needs to be explored [133]. Furthermore, if
the economic and social dimensions are considered to represent development goals, then both need to
have a relationship with the environmental dimension, including natural resources. The orientation
of sustainable development in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga Makassar City is shown in
Figure 17 below.
Figure 17 shows the concept of sustainable development in the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga, Makassar City. This concept is based on several factors, including (1) creating a safe, comfortable,
and livable city by (a) providing basic facilities and infrastructure in accordance with the typology
of the new city area; (b) improving health, education, and socio-cultural services; (c) developing
housing in accordance with the typology and land characteristics of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga; (d) developing a public transportation system that is integrated with urban and multimodal
systems in accordance with the typology and geographical conditions of the new city area of Metro
Tanjung Bunga; (e) providing and improving economic infrastructure, namely trade and services and
other economic activities; and (f) improving the security of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga
through prevention, a provision of facilities, and criminal and conflict management systems, as well as
empowering the community by optimizing the use of social capital, specifically for local communities
that are marginalized as a result of changes in the work orientation of rural agrarian communities to
urban industrial models. Urban-rural linkages are an integral part of fostering development in both
urban and rural communities [134].
Second, the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga Makassar City is part of the urban settlement
area that needs comprehensive planning support to be implemented and well managed. This process,
in its implementation, is done to realize housing facilities by incorporating elements of environmental
parks with three main considerations: Ecological, aesthetic, and social. Thus, the development of new
settlement areas in the future will be able to support residential areas that are livable, inclusive, and
sustainable. In this way, the process that involves the participation of the population in the analysis
of problems and actions represents an adequate approach to achieve shared goals based on real
needs [135,136].
Land 2020, 9, 324 41 of 50

Figure 17. Sustainable development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Source:
Author Elaborator.

Third, the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is expected to solve
the main problem of Makassar City—reducing surrounding rural migration and population mobility
due to regional economic development and positively contributing to the sustainable economic
growth of Makassar City. Thus, the sustainable development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung
Bunga is oriented toward the implementation of an environmentally friendly independent city by
integrating environmental management, including resources, into the development process to ensure
the capabilities, welfare, and quality of life of present and future generations. The sustainability
approach is committed to conserving natural resources and biodiversity. Indeed, sustainability is
needed ensure a future for the Earth [137,138].
Fourth, the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City, was developed considering six
main targets, which were implemented effectively and efficiently. The six principles are the presence of
strong neighbors, walkability, affordability, comfortable, culture, and connectivity. The new city area
of Metro Tanjung Bunga is also being developed as a green city with climate and disaster resilience
through (i) the fulfillment of a 20% green open space to meet public needs for green open spaces;
(ii) integrated community-based waste management supported by the provision of waste water
management facilities before being channeled into rivers and the sea; (iii) integrating a multimodal
transportation system, thereby reducing and limiting the use of private modes of transportation and
Land 2020, 9, 324 42 of 50

providing green open road spaces along the Metro Tanjung Bunga road corridors; (iv) controlling land
use development on the river and sea border through the conservation of land and water resources
since the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is located in the Makassar Strait coastal area and
crossed by the Jenneberang watershed; (v) optimizing the use of renewable and environmentally
friendly energy; and (vi) developing private green open spaces in multi-storey buildings, such as
hotels and shopping centers. Furthermore, the implementation of urban farming is oriented toward
regional and household scales. The goal of an environmentally friendly city is to bring harmony to
the three pillars of sustainable development—social, economic, and ecological components—to create
a sustainable environment [139,140].
Fifth, strengthening the institutional capacity of the government in the supervision and control
of spatial use control in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga through efforts to limit permits
for land use functions and the conversion of productive agricultural land to ensure food security,
especially in surrounding rural areas, as well as strengthening the community’s institutional capacity
based on the socio-economic empowerment of local communities to increase the productivity of
economic enterprises that are mutually beneficial between migrants and local communities. These five
components will help achieve environmental and economic sustainability and facilitate sustainable
justice between communities and social cohesion in the future development of the new city area of
Metro Tanjung Bunga. The most vital function of cities is to provide affordable infrastructure and
an institutional environment that enables migrants and other marginalized urban communities to
contribute to urban prosperity and problem-solving with their skills, networks, and entrepreneurial
minds [141].

6. Conclusions
The collaboration between the government and capital owners in the development of the new
city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga has accelerated the process and produced very complex spatial
transformations. Changes in the use of space via the penetration of capitalism cause changes in
the means of production through a reproduction of space. Intense changes in spatial use produce
the social formation of capitalism alongside the social formation of pre-capitalism in multiple social
formations. The coexistence of these two types of social formations in the control of spatial reproduction,
which is dominated by the social formation of capitalism, engenders powerlessness among local
communities in their access to spatial reproduction resources and has an impact on the marginalization
and poverty of local communities. Furthermore, labor differentiation causes changes in social interaction
and social adaptation, yielding different modes of production between migrants and local communities.
These different modes of production are positively associated with economic inequality in the control
of spatial reproduction and reinforce capitalism’s dominance of spatial control.
Marginalization in local communities, due to spatial transformation, has an impact on differences
in ability and differences in rights and access in utilizing economic resources between the two coexistent
types of social formation. Marginality in local communities is characterized by poverty, physical
weakness, isolation, vulnerability, and powerlessness in the control of spatial reproduction and access
to spatial functions that are developing in the new area of Metro Tanjung Bunga. Furthermore,
the domination of the control over the factors of production by capitalism has led to a change in
the work system of traditional agrarian societies towards urban industrial societies. The difference
in the level of adaptation of local communities is largely determined by the ability to articulate
the existence of spatial functions in the new urban area driven by capitalism. The coexistence of
two production modes that go hand in hand has resulted in the production methods of capitalism
dominating the economic production factors in the new area Metro Tanjung Bunga.
The change from a single social formation into multiple social formations causes changes in
the social interactions and social adaptations between local communities and migrants. Under
the conditions of multiple social formations, the social interactions and social adaptations engaged
in by local communities become more complex. Internally in the social formation of pre-capitalism,
Land 2020, 9, 324 43 of 50

interactions and adaptations are characterized by gemeinschaft and externally with social formations of
capitalism, interactions and adaptations are characterized by gesselschaft. Thus, spatial transformation
coupled with changes in social formation produces job differentiation as part of the existence of local
communities in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga, Makassar City. The consequences of
internal social change in local communities include the sharpening of social stratification from simple
stratification to a clear stratum, differences in status from ascribed status to achieved-status, which
vary according to the efforts made based on one’s expertise and skills, changes in social systems
towards more open social systems, and cultural changes from traditional agrarian values and norms to
the values and norms of urban industrial society.
The future development direction of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga will involve
fulfilling three main components: Environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and
social sustainability. These three components require decision support and policy support from
the government. Sustainability in the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga is being developed in
the direction of a safe, comfortable, and livable city. Settlement development through the support of
comprehensive and well-managed planning is positively associated with reducing rural migration
and population mobility to facilitate the economic growth of Makassar City. The implementation of
the development of the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga in the future requires the principles
of strong neighborhoods, walkable, affordable, comportable, cultural, and connectivity. Thus,
the new city area of Metro Tanjung Bunga requires strengthening the institutional capacity of
the government in supervision, controlling spatial use, and limiting permits for land use changes
and the conversion of productive agricultural land to provide food security, disaster resilience, and
energy security. Furthermore, strengthening the institutional capacity of the community will be
necessary for the socio-economic empowerment of local communities to increase the productivity of
economic enterprises that are mutually beneficial for both migrants and local communities to realize
environmental and economic sustainability and thus create sustainable justice and social cohesion
between communities.

Author Contributions: B.S., S.S., conceptualization; B.B., E.S.R., and H.H. compiled the research; B.S., E.S.R., F.M.,
and A.T.F. designed the methodology; B.S., S.S. H.H., F.M., E.S.R., and A.T.F. processed the data; B.B., A.T.F., and
F.M. contributed to the materials/methodology/analysis tools; B.S., B.B., and H.H. analyzed the data; H.H., E.R.,
and E.S.R. contributed to the examination of the data; B.S., H.H., B.B., A.T.F., E.S.R., and F.M. wrote and revised
the draft. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Government of the Republic of Indonesia through the Ministry of
Research and Technology in the form of development research grant assistance.
Acknowledgments: We are grateful for the participation of the stakeholders in contributing ideas for carrying out
this study. Thank you to the Ministry of Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia for their support
and financial assistance in carrying out this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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