Designation: D 6433 – 99

Standard Practice for

Roads and Parking Lots Pavement Condition Index
Surveys1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D 6433; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope function. For example, each roadway or parking area is a

1.1 This practice covers the determination of roads and separate branch.
parking lots pavement condition through visual surveys using 2.1.4 pavement condition index (PCI)—a numerical rating
the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) method of quantifying of the pavement condition that ranges from 0 to 100 with 0
pavement condition. being the worst possible condition and 100 being the best
1.2 The PCI for roads and parking lots was developed by the possible condition.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1, 2).2 It is further verified and 2.1.5 pavement condition rating—a verbal description of
adopted by DOD and APWA. pavement condition as a function of the PCI value that varies
1.3 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded from “failed” to “excellent” as shown in Fig. 1.
as the standard. The SI units given in parentheses are for 2.1.6 pavement distress—external indicators of pavement
information only. deterioration caused by loading, environmental factors, con-
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the struction deficiencies, or a combination thereof. Typical dis-
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the tresses are cracks, rutting, and weathering of the pavement
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- surface. Distress types and severity levels detailed in Appendix
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- X1 for AC, and Appendix X2 for PCC pavements must be used
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precau- to obtain an accurate PCI value.
tionary statements are given in Section 6. 2.1.7 pavement sample unit—a subdivision of a pavement
section that has a standard size range: 20 contiguous slabs (68
2. Terminology slabs if the total number of slabs in the section is not evenly
2.1 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: divided by 20 or to accommodate specific field condition) for
2.1.1 additional sample—a sample unit inspected in addi- PCC pavement, and 2500 contiguous square feet, 6 1000 ft2
tion to the random sample units to include nonrepresentative (225 6 90 m2), if the pavement is not evenly divided by 2500
sample units in the determination of the pavement condition. or to accommodate specific field condition, for AC pavement.
This includes very poor or excellent samples that are not 2.1.8 pavement section—a contiguous pavement area hav-
typical of the section and sample units, which contain an ing uniform construction, maintenance, usage history, and
unusual distress such as a utility cut. If a sample unit condition. A section should have the same traffic volume and
containing an unusual distress is chosen at random it should be load intensity.
counted as an additional sample unit and another random 2.1.9 portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement—
sample unit should be chosen. If every sample unit is surveyed, aggregate mixture with portland cement binder including
then there are no additional sample units. nonreinforced and reinforced jointed pavement.
2.1.2 asphalt concrete (AC) surface—aggregate mixture 2.1.10 random sample—a sample unit of the pavement
with an asphalt cement binder. This term also refers to surfaces section selected for inspection by random sampling techniques,
constructed of coal tars and natural tars for purposes of this such as a random number table or systematic random proce-
practice. dure.
2.1.3 pavement branch—a branch is an identifiable part of
3. Summary of Practice
the pavement network that is a single entity and has a distinct
3.1 The pavement is divided into branches that are divided
into sections. Each section is divided into sample units. The
type and severity of pavement distress is assessed by visual
1
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-04 on Road and inspection of the pavement sample units. The quantity of the
Paving Materials and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D04.39 on distress is measured as described in Appendix X1 and Appen-
Nondestructive Testing of Pavement Structures. dix X2. The distress data are used to calculate the PCI for each
Current edition approved June 10, 1999. Published September 1999.
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of sample unit. The PCI of the pavement section is determined
this standard.

Copyright © ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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5.5 Layout Plan, for network to be inspected.
6. Hazards
6.1 Traffic is a hazard as inspectors may walk on the
pavement to perform the condition survey.
7. Sampling and Sample Units
7.1 Identify branches of the pavement with different uses
such as roadways and parking on the network layout plan.
7.2 Divide each branch into sections based on the pave-
ments design, construction history, traffic, and condition.
7.3 Divide the pavement sections into sample units. If the
pavement slabs in PCC have joint spacing greater than 25 ft (8
m) subdivide each slab into imaginary slabs. The imaginary
slabs all should be less than or equal to 25 ft (8 m) in length,
and the imaginary joints dividing the slabs are assumed to be
in perfect condition. This is needed because the deduct values
developed for jointed concrete slabs are less than or equal to 25
ft (8 m).
7.4 Individual sample units to be inspected should be
marked or identified in a manner to allow inspectors and
quality control personnel to easily locate them on the pavement
surface. Paint marks along the edge and sketches with locations
connected to physical pavement features are acceptable. It is
necessary to be able to accurately relocate the sample units to
FIG. 1 Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and Rating Scale allow verification of current distress data, to examine changes
in condition with time of a particular sample unit, and to enable
based on the PCI of the inspected sample units within the future inspections of the same sample unit if desired.
section. 7.5 Select the sample units to be inspected. The number of
sample units to be inspected may vary from the following: all
4. Significance and Use of the sample units in the section, a number of sample units that
4.1 The PCI is a numerical indicator that rates the surface provides a 95 % confidence level, or a lesser number.
condition of the pavement. The PCI provides a measure of the 7.5.1 All sample units in the section may be inspected to
present condition of the pavement based on the distress determine the average PCI of the section. This is usually
observed on the surface of the pavement, which also indicates precluded for routine management purposes by available
the structural integrity and surface operational condition (lo- manpower, funds, and time. Total sampling, however, is
calized roughness and safety). The PCI cannot measure struc- desirable for project analysis to help estimate maintenance and
tural capacity nor does it provide direct measurement of skid repair quantities.
resistance or roughness. It provides an objective and rational 7.5.2 The minimum number of sample units (n) that must be
basis for determining maintenance and repair needs and surveyed within a given section to obtain a statistically
priorities. Continuous monitoring of the PCI is used to estab- adequate estimate (95 % confidence) of the PCI of the section
lish the rate of pavement deterioration, which permits early is calculated using the following formula and rounding n to the
identification of major rehabilitation needs. The PCI provides next highest whole number (see Eq 1).
feedback on pavement performance for validation or improve- n 5 Ns2/~~e2/4!~N – 1! 1 s2! (1)
ment of current pavement design and maintenance procedures.
where:
5. Apparatus e 5 acceptable error in estimating the section PCI; com-
5.1 Data Sheets, or other field recording instruments that monly, e565 PCI points;
record at a minimum the following information: date, location, s 5 standard deviation of the PCI from one sample unit to
branch, section, sample unit size, slab number and size, distress another within the section. When performing the initial
types, severity levels, quantities, and names of surveyors. inspection the standard deviation is assumed to be ten
Example data sheets for AC and PCC pavements are shown in for AC pavements and 15 for PCC pavements. This
Figs. 2 and 3. assumption should be checked as described below after
5.2 Hand Odometer Wheel, that reads to the nearest 0.1 ft PCI values are determined. For subsequent inspections,
(30 mm). the standard deviation from the preceding inspection
5.3 Straightedge or String Line, (AC only), 10 ft (3 m). should be used to determine n; and,
5.4 Scale, 12 in. (300 mm) that reads to 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) or N 5 total number of sample units in the section.
better. Additional 12-in. (300 mm) ruler or straightedge is 7.5.2.1 If obtaining the 95 % confidence level is critical, the
needed to measure faulting in PCC pavements. adequacy of the number of sample units surveyed must be

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FIG. 2 Flexible Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet for Sample Unit
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FIG. 3 Joint Rigid Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet for Sample Unit

confirmed. The number of sample units was estimated based on Repeat the process of checking the revised number of sample
an assumed standard deviation. Calculate the actual standard units and surveying additional random sample units until the
deviation (s) as follows (see Eq 2): total number of sample units surveyed equals or exceeds the
n minimum required sample units (n) in Eq 1, using the actual
s 5 ~ (i51~PCIi – PCIs!2/~n – 1!!1/2 (2) total sample standard deviation.
7.5.3 Once the number of sample units to be inspected has
where:
PCIi 5 PCI of surveyed sample units i, been determined, compute the spacing interval of the units
PCIs 5 PCI of section (mean PCI of surveyed sample using systematic random sampling. Samples are spaced equally
units), and throughout the section with the first sample selected at random.
n 5 total number of sample units surveyed. The spacing interval (i) of the units to be sampled is calculated
7.5.2.2 Calculate the revised minimum number of sample by the following formula rounded to the next lowest whole
units (Eq 1) to be surveyed using the calculated standard number:
deviation (Eq 2). If the revised number of sample units to be i 5 N/n (3)
surveyed is greater than the number of sample units already
surveyed, select and survey additional random sample units. where:
N 5 total number of sample units in the section, and
These sample units should be spaced evenly across the section.

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n 5 number of sample units to be inspected. Data Sheet for Sample Unit is included in Fig. 3.
The first sample unit to be inspected is selected at random
9. Calculation of PCI for Asphalt Concrete (AC)
from sample units 1 through i. The sample units within a
Pavement
section that are successive increments of the interval i after the
first randomly selected unit also are inspected. 9.1 Add up the total quantity of each distress type at each
7.6 A lessor sampling rate than the above mentioned 95 % severity level, and record them in the “Total Severities”
confidence level can be used based on the condition survey section. For example, Fig. 4 shows five entries for the Distress
objective. As an example, one agency uses the following table Type 1, “Alligator Cracking”: 5L, 4L, 4L, 8H, and 6H. The
for selecting the number of sample units to be inspected for distress at each severity level is summed and entered in the
other than project analysis: “Total Severity” section as 13 ft2 (1.2 m2) of low severity and
Given Survey
14 ft2 (1.3 m2) of medium severity. The units for the quantities
1 to 5 sample units 1 sample unit may be either in square feet (square meters), linear feet
6 to 10 sample units 2 sample units (meters), or number of occurrences, depending on the distress
11 to 15 sample units 3 sample units
16 to 40 sample units 4 sample units
type.
over 40 sample units 10 % 9.2 Divide the total quantity of each distress type at each
severity level from 9.1 by the total area of the sample unit and
7.7 Additional sample units only are to be inspected when
multiply by 100 to obtain the percent density of each distress
nonrepresentative distresses are observed as defined in 2.1.1.
type and severity.
These sample units are selected by the user.
9.3 Determine the deduct value (DV) for each distress type
and severity level combination from the distress deduct value
8. Inspection Procedure
curves in Appendix X3.
8.1 The definitions and guidelines for quantifying distresses 9.4 Determine the maximum corrected deduct value (CDV).
for PCI determination are given in Appendix X1 for AC The procedure for determining maximum CDV from indi-
pavements. Using this test method, inspectors should identify vidual DVs is identical for both AC and PCC pavement types.
distress types accurately 95 % of the time. Linear measure- 9.5 The following procedure must be used to determine the
ments should be considered accurate when they are within maximum CDV.
10 % if remeasured, and area measurements should be consid- 9.5.1 If none or only one individual deduct value is greater
ered accurate when they are within 20 % if remeasured. than two, the total value is used in place of the maximum CDV
Distress severities that one determines based on ride quality are in determining the PCI; otherwise, maximum CDV must be
considered subjective. determined using the procedure described in 9.5.2-9.5.5.
8.2 Asphalt Concrete (AC) Surfaced Pavement— 9.5.2 List the individual deduct values in descending order.
Individually inspect each sample unit chosen. Sketch the For example, in Fig. 4 this will be 25.1, 23.4, 17.9, 11.2, 7.9,
sample unit, including orientation. Record the branch and 7.5, 6.9, and 5.3.
section number and the number and type of the sample unit 9.5.3 Determine the allowable number of deducts, m, from
(random or additional). Record the sample unit size measured Fig. 5, or using the following formula (see Eq 4):
with the hand odometer. Conduct the distress inspection by
m 5 1 1 ~9/98!~100–HDV! # 10 (4)
walking over the sidewalk/shoulder of the sample unit being
surveyed, measuring the quantity of each severity level of where:
every distress type present, and recording the data. Each m 5 allowable number of deducts including fractions
distress must correspond in type and severity to that described (must be less than or equal to ten), and
in Appendix X1. The method of measurement is included with HDV 5 highest individual deduct value.
each distress description. Repeat this procedure for each (For the example in Fig. 4, m 5 1 + (9/98)(100-25.1) 5 7.9).
sample unit to be inspected. A copy of a Blank Flexible 9.5.4 The number of individual deduct values is reduced to
Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet for Sample Unit is the m largest deduct values, including the fractional part. For
included in Fig. 2. the example in Fig. 6, the values are 25.1, 23.4, 17.9, 11.2, 7.9,
8.3 PCC Pavements—Individually inspect each sample unit 7.5, 6.9, and 4.8 (the 4.8 is obtained by multiplying 5.3 by (7.9
chosen. Sketch the sample unit showing the location of the – 7 5 0.9)). If less than m deduct values are available, all of the
slabs. Record the sample unit size, branch and section number, deduct values are used.
and number and type of the sample unit (random or additional), 9.5.5 Determine maximum CDV iteratively, as shown in
the number of slabs in the sample unit and the slab size Fig. 6.
measured with the hand odometer. Perform the inspection by 9.5.5.1 Determine total deduct value by summing individual
walking over the sidewalk/shoulder of the sample unit being deduct values. The total deduct value is obtained by adding the
surveyed and recording all distress existing in the slab along individual deduct values in 9.5.4, that is, 104.7.
with their severity level. Each distress type and severity must 9.5.5.2 Determine q as the number of deducts with a value
correspond with that described in Appendix X2. Summarize greater than 2.0. For example, in Fig. 6, q58.
the distress types, their severity levels and the number of slabs 9.5.5.3 Determine the CDV from total deduct value and q
in the sample unit containing each type and severity level. by looking up the appropriate correction curve for AC pave-
Repeat this procedure for each sample unit to be inspected. A ments in Fig. X4.15 in Appendix X3.
copy of a Blank Jointed Rigid Pavement Condition Survey 9.5.5.4 Reduce the smallest individual deduct value greater

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FIG. 4 Example of a Flexible Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet

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FIG. 5 Adjustment of Number of Deduct Values

than 2.0 to 2.0 and repeat 9.5.5.1-9.5.5.3 until q 5 1. 10.5 Fig. 7 shows a summary of PCI calculation for the
9.5.5.5 Maximum CDV is the largest of the CDVs. example PCC pavement distress data in Fig. 8.
9.6 Calculate PCI by subtracting the maximum CDV from
100: PCI 5 100-max CDV. 11. Determination of Section PCI
9.7 Fig. 6 shows a summary of PCI calculation for the 11.1 If all surveyed sample units are selected randomly or if
example AC pavement data in Fig. 4. A blank PCI calculation every sample unit is surveyed then the PCI of the section is the
form is included in Fig. 2. average of the PCIs of the sample units. If additional sample
units, as defined in 2.1.1, are surveyed then a weighted average
10. Calculation of PCI for Portland Cement Concrete
is used as follows:
(PCC) Pavement
PCIS 5 ~N – A!~PCIR!/N 1 A~PCIA!/N (5)
10.1 For each unique combination of distress type and
severity level, add up the total number of slabs in which they where:
occur. For the example in Fig. 7, there are two slabs containing PCIS 5 weighted PCI of the section,
low-severity corner break (Distress 22L). N 5 total number of sample units in the section,
10.2 Divide the number of slabs from 10.1 by the total A 5 number of additional sample units,
number of slabs in the sample unit and multiply by 100 to PCIR 5 mean PCI of randomly selected sample units, and
obtain the percent density of each distress type and severity PCIA 5 mean PCI of additional selected sample units.
combination. 11.2 Determine the overall condition rating of the section by
10.3 Determine the deduct values for each distress type using the section PCI and the condition rating scale in Fig. 1.
severity level combination using the corresponding deduct
curve in Appendix X4. 12. Report
10.4 Determine PCI by following the procedures in 9.5 and 12.1 Develop a summary report for each section. The
9.6, using the correction curve for PCC pavements (see Fig. summary lists section location, size, total number of sample
X4.20 in Appendix X4) in place of the correction curve for AC units, the sample units inspected, the PCIs obtained, the
pavements. average PCI for the section, and the section condition rating.

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FIG. 6 Calculation of Corrected PCI Value—Flexible Pavement

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FIG. 7 Example of a Jointed Rigid Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet

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FIG. 8 Calculation of Corrected PCI Value—Jointed Rigid Pavement

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. Distress in Asphalt Pavements

X1.1 During the field condition surveys and validation of X1.1.3 Spalling as used herein is the further breaking of
the PCI, several questions are commonly asked about the pavement or loss of materials around cracks or joints.
identification and measurement of some of the distresses. The X1.1.4 If a crack does not have the same severity level
answers to these questions for each distress are included under along its entire length, each portion of the crack having a
the heading“ How to Measure.” For convenience, however, the different severity level should be recorded separately. If,
most frequently raised issues are addressed below: however, the different levels of severity in a portion of a crack
X1.1.1 If alligator cracking and rutting occur in the same cannot be easily divided, that portion should be rated at the
area, each is recorded separately at its respective severity level. highest severity level present.
X1.1.2 If bleeding is counted, polished aggregate is not X1.1.5 If any distress, including cracking and potholes, is
counted in the same area. found in a patched area, it is not recorded; its effect on the

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patch, however, is considered in determining the severity level longest side. Alligator cracking occurs only in areas subjected
of the patch. to repeated traffic loading, such as wheel paths. Pattern-type
X1.1.6 A significant amount of polished aggregate should cracking that occurs over an entire area not subjected to
be present before it is counted. loading is called “block cracking,” which is not a load-
X1.1.7 A distress is said to be raveled if the area surround- associated distress.
ing the distress is broken (sometimes to the extent that pieces X1.5.1 Severity Levels:
are removed). X1.5.1.1 L—Fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running par-
allel to each other with no, or only a few interconnecting
X1.2 The reader should note that the items above are
cracks. The cracks are not spalled (Fig. X1.1).
general issues and do not stand alone as inspection criteria. To
X1.5.1.2 M—Further development of light alligator cracks
properly measure each distress type, the inspector must be
into a pattern or network of cracks that may be lightly spalled
familiar with its individual measurement criteria.
(Fig. X1.2).
X1.3 Nineteen distress types for asphalt-surfaced pave- X1.5.1.3 H—Network or pattern cracking has progressed so
ments are listed alphabetically in this manual. that the pieces are well defined and spalled at the edges. Some
of the pieces may rock under traffic (Fig. X1.3).
RIDE QUALITY X1.5.2 How to Measure—Alligator cracking is measured in
square meters (square feet) of surface area. The major difficulty
X1.4 Ride quality must be evaluated in order to establish a in measuring this type of distress is that two or three levels of
severity level for the following distress types: severity often exist within one distressed area. If these portions
X1.4.1 Bumps. can be easily distinguished from each other, they should be
X1.4.2 Corrugation. measured and recorded separately; however, if the different
X1.4.3 Railroad crossings. levels of severity cannot be divided easily, the entire area
X1.4.4 Shoving. should be rated at the highest severity present. If alligator
X1.4.5 Swells. cracking and rutting occur in the same area, each is recorded
X1.4.6 To determine the effect these distresses have on ride separately as its respective severity level.
quality, the inspector should drive at the normal operating
speed and use the following severity-level definitions of ride BLEEDING
quality: X1.6 Description—Bleeding is a film of bituminous mate-
X1.4.6.1 L—Low. Vehicle vibrations, for example, from rial on the pavement surface that creates a shiny, glasslike,
corrugation, are noticeable, but no reduction in speed is reflecting surface that usually becomes quite sticky. Bleeding is
necessary for comfort or safety. Individual bumps or settle- caused by excessive amounts of asphaltic cement or tars in the
ments, or both, cause the vehicle to bounce slightly, but create mix, excess application of a bituminous sealant, or low air void
little discomfort. content, or a combination thereof. It occurs when asphalt fills
X1.4.6.2 M—Medium. Vehicle vibrations are significant the voids of the mix during hot weather and then expands onto
and some reduction in speed is necessary for safety and the pavement surface. Since the bleeding process in not
comfort. Individual bumps or settlements, or both, cause the reversible during cold weather, asphalt or tar will accumulate
vehicle to bounce significantly, creating some discomfort. on the surface.
X1.4.6.3 H—High. Vehicle vibrations are so excessive that
X1.6.1 Severity Levels:
speed must be reduced considerably for safety and comfort.
X1.6.1.1 L—Bleeding only has occurred to a very slight
Individual bumps or settlements, or both, cause the vehicle to
degree and is noticeable only during a few days of the year.
bounce excessively, creating substantial discomfort, safety
Asphalt does not stick to shoes or vehicles (Fig. X1.4).
hazard, or high potential vehicle damage.
X1.4.7 The inspector should drive at the posted speed in a
sedan that is representative of cars typically seen in local
traffic. Pavement sections near stop signs should be rated at a
deceleration speed appropriate for the intersection.

ALLIGATOR CRACKING (FATIGUE)

X1.5 Description—Alligator or fatigue cracking is a series

of interconnecting cracks caused by fatigue failure of the
asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading. Crack-
ing begins at the bottom of the asphalt surface, or stabilized
base, where tensile stress and strain are highest under a wheel
load. The cracks propagate to the surface initially as a series of
parallel longitudinal cracks. After repeated traffic loading, the
cracks connect, forming many sided, sharp-angled pieces that
develop a pattern resembling chicken wire or the skin of an
alligator. The pieces are generally less than 0.5 m (1.5 ft) on the FIG. X1.1 Low-Severity Alligator Cracking

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FIG. X1.2 Medium-Severity Alligator Cracking FIG. X1.5 Medium-Severity Bleeding

FIG. X1.3 High-Severity Alligator Cracking

FIG. X1.6 High-Severity Bleeding

polished aggregate should not be counted.

BLOCK CRACKING
X1.7 Description—Block cracks are interconnected cracks
that divide the pavement into approximately rectangular
pieces. The blocks may range in size from approximately 0.3
by 0.3 m (1 by 1 ft) to 3 by 3 m (10 by 10 ft). Block cracking
is caused mainly by shrinkage of the asphalt concrete and daily
temperature cycling, which results in daily stress/strain cy-
FIG. X1.4 Low-Severity Bleeding
cling. It is not load-associated. Block cracking usually indi-
X1.6.1.2 M—Bleeding has occurred to the extent that cates that the asphalt has hardened significantly. Block crack-
asphalt sticks to shoes and vehicles during only a few weeks of ing normally occurs over a large portion of the pavement area,
the year (Fig. X1.5). but sometimes will occur only in nontraffic areas. This type of
X1.6.1.3 H—Bleeding has occurred extensively and consid- distress differs from alligator cracking in that alligator cracks
erable asphalt sticks to shoes and vehicles during at least form smaller, many-sided pieces with sharp angles. Also,
several weeks of the year (Fig. X1.6). unlike block, alligator cracks are caused by repeated traffic
X1.6.2 How to Measure—Bleeding is measured in square loadings, and therefore, are found only in traffic areas, that is,
meters (square feet) of surface area. If bleeding is counted, wheel paths.

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X1.7.1 Severity Levels:
X1.7.1.1 L—Blocks are defined by low-severity3 cracks
(Fig. X1.7).
X1.7.1.2 M—Blocks are defined by medium-severity3
cracks (Fig. X1.8).
X1.7.1.3 H—Blocks are defined by high-severity3 cracks
(Fig. X1.9).
X1.7.2 How to Measure—Block cracking is measured in m2
(ft2) of surface area. It usually occurs at one severity level in a
given pavement section; however, if areas of different severity
levels can be distinguished easily from one another, they
should be measured and recorded separately.
BUMPS AND SAGS
X1.8 Description:
FIG. X1.8 Medium-Severity Block Cracking
X1.8.1 Bumps are small, localized, upward displacements
of the pavement surface. They are different from shoves in that
shoves are caused by unstable pavement. Bumps, on the other
hand, can be caused by several factors, including:
X1.8.1.1 Buckling or bulging of underlying PCC slabs in
AC overlay over PCC pavement.
X1.8.1.2 Frost heave (ice, lens growth).
X1.8.1.3 Infiltration and buildup of material in a crack in
combination with traffic loading (sometimes called “tenting”).
X1.8.1.4 Sags are small, abrupt, downward displacements
of the pavement surface. If bumps appear in a pattern perpen-
dicular to traffic flow and are spaced at less than 3 m (10 ft), the
distress is called corrugation. Distortion and displacement that
occur over large areas of the pavement surface, causing large or
long dips, or both, in the pavement should be recorded as“
swelling.”
X1.8.2 Severity Levels:
FIG. X1.9 High-Severity Block Cracking
X1.8.2.1 L—Bump or sag causes low-severity ride quality
(Fig. X1.10).
X1.8.2.2 M—Bump or sag causes medium-severity ride
quality (Fig. X1.11).
X1.8.2.3 H—Bump or sag causes high-severity ride quality
(Fig. X1.12).

3
See definitions of longitudinal transverse cracking within Appendix X2.10.

FIG. X1.10 Low-Severity Bumps and Sags

X1.8.3 How to Measure—Bumps or sags are measured in

linear meters (feet). If the bump occurs in combination with a
crack, the crack also is recorded.
CORRUGATION
X1.9 Description—Corrugation, also known as “wash-
FIG. X1.7 Low-Severity Block Cracking boarding”, is a series of closely spaced ridges and valleys

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FIG. X1.11 Medium-Severity Bumps and Sags FIG. X1.13 Low-Severity Corrugation

FIG. X1.12 High-Severity Bumps and Sags FIG. X1.14 Medium-Severity Corrugation

(ripples) occurring at fairly regular intervals, usually less than

3 m (10 ft) along the pavement. The ridges are perpendicular to
the traffic direction. This type of distress usually is caused by
traffic action combined with an unstable pavement surface or
base.
X1.9.1 Severity Levels:
X1.9.1.1 L—Corrugation produces low-severity ride qual-
ity (Fig. X1.13).
X1.9.1.2 M—Corrugation produces medium-severity ride
quality (Fig. X1.14).
X1.9.1.3 H—Corrugation produces high-severity ride qual-
ity (Fig. X1.15).
X1.9.2 How to Measure—Corrugation is measured in
square meters (square feet) of surface area.

DEPRESSION FIG. X1.15 High-Severity Corrugation

X1.10 Description—Depressions are localized pavement improper construction. Depressions cause some roughness, and
surface areas with elevations slightly lower than those of the when deep enough or filled with water, can cause hydroplan-
surrounding pavement. In many instances, light depressions are ing.
not noticeable until after a rain, when ponding water creates a X1.10.1 Severity Levels (Maximum Depth of Depression):
“birdbath” area; on dry pavement, depressions can be spotted X1.10.1.1 L–13 to 25 mm (1⁄2 to 1 in.) (Fig. X1.16).
by looking for stains caused by ponding water. Depressions are X1.10.1.2 M–25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.) (Fig. X1.17).
created by settlement of the foundation soil or are a result of X1.10.1.3 H—More than 50 mm (2 in.) (Fig. X1.18).

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pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic loading and can
be caused by frost-weakened base or subgrade near the edge of
the pavement. The area between the crack and pavement edge
is classified as raveled if it is broken up (sometimes to the
extent that pieces are removed).
X1.11.1 Severity Levels:
X1.11.1.1 L—Low or medium cracking with no breakup or
raveling (Fig. X1.19).
X1.11.1.2 M—Medium cracks with some breakup and rav-
eling (Fig. X1.20).
X1.11.1.3 H—Considerable breakup or raveling along the
edge (Fig. X1.21).
X1.11.2 How to Measure—Edge cracking is measure in
linear meters (feet).

FIG. X1.16 Low-Severity Depression JOINT REFLECTION CRACKING

(From Longitudinal and Transverse PCC Slabs)
X1.12 Description—This distress occurs only on asphalt-
surfaced pavements that have been laid over a PCC slab. It
does not include reflection cracks from any other type of base,
that is, cement- or lime-stabilized; these cracks are caused
mainly by thermal- or moisture-induced movement of the PCC
slab beneath the AC surface. This distress is not load-related;
however, traffic loading may cause a breakdown of the AC
surface near the crack. If the pavement is fragmented along a
crack, the crack is said to be spalled. A knowledge of slab
dimension beneath the AC surface will help to identify these
distresses.
X1.12.1 Severity Levels:
X1.12.1.1 L—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.22): Nonfilled crack width is less than 10 mm (3⁄8 in.), or
filled crack of any width (filler in satisfactory condition).
FIG. X1.17 Medium-Severity Depression X1.12.1.2 M—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.23): Nonfilled crack width is greater than or equal to 10
mm (3⁄8in.) and less than 75 mm (3 in.); nonfilled crack less
than or equal to 75 mm (3 in.) surrounded by light secondary
cracking; or, filled crack of any width surrounded by light
secondary cracking.
X1.12.1.3 H—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.24): Any crack filled or nonfilled surrounded by medium-
or high-severity secondary cracking; nonfilled cracks greater

FIG. X1.18 High-Severity Depression

X1.10.2 How to Measure—Depressions are measured in

square meters (square feet) of surface area.

EDGE CRACKING

X1.11 Description—Edge cracks are parallel to and usually

within 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to 1.5 ft) of the outer edge of the FIG. X1.19 Low-Severity Edge Cracking

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FIG. X1.20 Medium-Severity Edge Cracking

FIG. X1.23 Medium-Severity Joint Reflection Cracking

FIG. X1.21 High-Severity Edge Cracking

FIG. X1.24 High-Severity Joint Reflection Cracking

of high severity cracks, which are all recorded separately. If a

bump occurs at the reflection crack, it is recorded also.
FIG. X1.22 Low-Severity Joint Reflection Cracking
LANE/SHOULDER DROP-OFF
than 75 mm (3 in.); or, a crack of any width where approxi-
mately 100 mm (4 in.) of pavement around the crack are X1.13 Description—Lane/shoulder drop-off is a difference
severely raveled or broken. in elevation between the pavement edge and the shoulder. This
X1.12.2 How to Measure—Joint reflection cracking is mea- distress is caused by shoulder erosion, shoulder settlement, or
sured in linear meters (feet). The length and severity level of by building up the roadway without adjusting the shoulder
each crack should be identified and recorded separately. For level.
example, a crack that is 15 m (50 ft) long may have 3 m (10 ft) X1.13.1 Severity Levels:

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 D 6433
X1.13.1.1 L—The difference in elevation between the pave-
ment edge and shoulder is > 25 mm (1 in.) and< 50 mm (2 in.)
(Fig. X1.25).
X1.13.1.2 M—The difference in elevation is > 50 mm (2
in.) and < 100 mm (4 in.) (Fig. X1.26).
X1.13.1.3 H—The difference in elevation is > 100 mm (4
in.) (Fig. X1.27).
X1.13.2 How to Measure—Lane/shoulder drop-off is mea-
sured in linear meters (feet).
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE CRACKING
(Non-PCC Slab Joint Reflective)
X1.14 Description:
X1.14.1 Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pavement’s
centerline or laydown direction. They may be caused by:
FIG. X1.26 Medium-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off
X1.14.1.1 A poorly constructed paving lane joint.
X1.14.1.2 Shrinkage of the AC surface due to low tempera-
tures or hardening of the asphalt, or daily temperature cycling,
or both.
X1.14.1.3 A reflective crack caused by cracking beneath the
surface course, including cracks in PCC slabs, but not PCC
joints.
X1.14.1.4 Transverse cracks extend across the pavement at
approximately right angles to the pavement centerline or
direction of laydown. These types of cracks are not usually
load-associated.
X1.14.2 Severity Levels:
X1.14.2.1 L—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.28): nonfilled crack width is less than 10 mm (3⁄8 in.), or
filled crack of any width (filler in satisfactory condition).
X1.14.2.2 M—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.29): nonfilled crack width is greater than or equal to 10 mm
and less than 75 mm (3⁄8 to 3 in.); nonfilled crack is less than FIG. X1.27 High-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off
or equal to 75 mm (3 in.) surrounded by light and random
cracking; or, filled crack is of any width surrounded by light
random cracking.
X1.14.2.3 H—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.30): any crack filled or nonfilled surrounded by medium- or
high-severity random cracking; nonfilled crack greater than 75
m (3 in.); or, a crack of any width where approximately 100
mm (4 in.) of pavement around the crack is severely broken.

FIG. X1.28 Low-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking

X1.14.3 How to Measure—Longitudinal and transverse

cracks are measured in linear meters (feet). The length and
severity of each crack should be recorded. If the crack does not
have the same severity level along its entire length, each
portion of the crack having a different severity level should be
FIG. X1.25 Low-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off recorded separately.

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FIG. X1.29 Medium-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse FIG. X1.31 Low-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching
Cracking

FIG. X1.32 Medium-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching

FIG. X1.30 High-Severity Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking

PATCHING AND UTILITY CUT PATCHING

X1.15 Description—A patch is an area of pavement that has
been replaced with new material to repair the existing pave-
ment. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it is
performing (a patched area or adjacent area usually does not
perform as well as an original pavement section). Generally,
some roughness is associated with this distress.
X1.15.1 Severity Levels:
X1.15.1.1 L—Patch is in good condition and satisfactory.
Ride quality is rated as low severity or better (Fig. X1.31).
X1.15.1.2 M—Patch is moderately deteriorated, or ride
quality is rated as medium severity, or both (Fig. X1.32).
X1.15.1.3 H—Patch is badly deteriorated, or ride quality is
rated as high severity, or both; needs replacement soon (Fig. FIG. X1.33 High-Severity Patching and Utility Cut Patching
X1.33).
X1.15.2 How to Measure—Patching is rated in ft2 of the patch will be considered when determining the patch’s
surface area; however, if a single patch has areas of differing severity level. No other distresses, for example, are recorded
severity, these areas should be measured and recorded sepa- within a patch. Even if the patch material is shoving or
rately. For example, a 2.5 m2 (27.0 ft2) patch may have 1 m2 cracking, the area is rated only as a patch. If a large amount of
(11 ft2) of medium severity and 1.5 m2 (16 ft2) of low severity. pavement has been replaced, it should not be recorded as a
These areas would be recorded separately. Any distress found patch but considered as new pavement, for example, replace-
in a patched area will not be recorded; however, its effect on ment of a complete intersection.

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POLISHED AGGREGATE TABLE X1.1 Levels of Severity for Potholes
Average Diameter (mm) (in.)
X1.16 Description—This distress is caused by repeated Maximum Depth of 100 to 200 mm 200 to 450 mm 450 to 750 mm
traffic applications. Polished aggregate is present when close Pothole (4 to 8 in.) (8 to 18 in.) (18 to 30 in.)
examination of a pavement reveals that the portion of aggre- 13 to #25 mm L L M
gate extending above the asphalt is either very small, or there (1⁄2 to 1 in.)
>25 and #50 mm L M H
are no rough or angular aggregate particles to provide good (1 to 2 in.)
skid resistance. When the aggregate in the surface becomes >50 mm M M H
smooth to the touch, adhesion with vehicle tires is considerably (2 in.)
reduced. When the portion of aggregate extending above the
surface is small, the pavement texture does not significantly
contribute to reducing vehicle speed. Polished aggregate medium-severity. If the depth is more than 25 mm (1 in.), they
should be counted when close examination reveals that the are considered high-severity (Figs. X1.35-X1.37).
aggregate extending above the asphalt is negligible, and the X1.17.2 How to Measure—Potholes are measured by count-
surface aggregate is smooth to the touch. This type of distress ing the number that are low-, medium-, and high-severity and
is indicated when the number on a skid resistance test is low or recording them separately.
has dropped significantly from a previous rating.
X1.16.1 Severity Levels—No degrees of severity are de- RAILROAD CROSSING
fined; however, the degree of polishing should be clearly
evident in the sample unit in that the aggregate surface should X1.18 Description—Railroad crossing defects are depres-
be smooth to the touch (Fig. X1.34). sions or bumps around, or between tracks, or both.
X1.16.2 How to Measure—Polished aggregate is measured X1.18.1 Severity Levels:
in square meters (square feet) of surface area. If bleeding is X1.18.1.1 L—Railroad crossing causes low-severity ride
counted, polished aggregate should not be counted. quality (Fig. X1.38).
X1.18.1.2 M—Railroad crossing causes medium-severity
POTHOLES ride quality (Fig. X1.39).
X1.18.1.3 H—Railroad crossing causes high-severity ride
X1.17 Description—Potholes are small—usually less than quality (Fig. X1.40).
750 mm (30 in.) in diameter—bowl-shaped depressions in the X1.18.2 How to Measure—The area of the crossing is
pavement surface. They generally have sharp edges and measured in square meters (square feet) of surface area. If the
vertical sides near the top of the hole. When holes are created crossing does not affect ride quality, it should not be counted.
by high-severity alligator cracking, they should be identified as Any large bump created by the tracks should be counted as part
potholes, not as weathering. of the crossing.
X1.17.1 Severity Levels:
X1.17.1.1 The levels of severity for potholes less than 750 RUTTING
mm (30 in.) in diameter are based on both the diameter and the
depth of the pothole, according to Table X1.1. X1.19 Description—A rut is a surface depression in the
X1.17.1.2 If the pothole is more than 750 mm (30 in.) in wheel paths. Pavement uplift may occur along the sides of the
diameter, the area should be determined in square feet and rut, but, in many instances, ruts are noticeable only after a
divided by 0.5 m2 (5.5 ft2) find the equivalent number of holes. rainfall when the paths are filled with water. Rutting stems
If the depth is 25 mm (1 in.) or less, the holes are considered from a permanent deformation in any of the pavement layers or

FIG. X1.34 Polished Aggregate FIG. X1.35 Low-Severity Pothole

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FIG. X1.36 Medium-Severity Pothole FIG. X1.39 Medium-Severity Railroad Crossing

FIG. X1.37 High-Severity Pothole FIG. X1.40 High-Severity Railroad Crossing

FIG. X1.38 Low-Severity Railroad Crossing

FIG. X1.41 Low-Severity Rutting

subgrades, usually caused by consolidated or lateral movement X1.19.2 How to Measure—Rutting is measured in square
of the materials due to traffic load. meters (square feet) of surface area, and its severity is
X1.19.1 Severity Levels (Mean Rut Depth): determined by the mean depth of the rut (see X1.19.1.1-
X1.19.1.1 L—6 to 13 mm (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in.) (Fig. X1.41). X1.19.1.3). The mean rut depth is calculated by laying a
X1.19.1.2 M—>13 to 25 mm (>1⁄2 to 1 in.) (Fig. X1.42). straight edge across the rut, measuring its depth, then using
X1.19.1.3 H—>25 mm (>1 in.) (Fig. X1.43). measurements taken along the length of the rut to compute its

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FIG. X1.42 Medium-Severity Rutting FIG. X1.44 Low-Severity Shoving

FIG. X1.43 High-Severity Rutting FIG. X1.45 Medium-Severity Shoving

mean depth in millimeters.

SHOVING
X1.20 Description:
X1.20.1 Shoving is a permanent, longitudinal displacement
of a localized area of the pavement surface caused by traffic
loading. When traffic pushes against the pavement, it produces
a short, abrupt wave in the pavement surface. This distress
normally occurs only in unstable liquid asphalt mix (cutback or
emulsion) pavements.
X1.20.2 Shoves also occur where asphalt pavements abut
PCC pavements. The PCC pavements increase in length and
push the asphalt pavement, causing the shoving.
X1.20.3 Severity Levels:
X1.20.3.1 L—Shove causes low-severity ride quality (Fig.
X1.44). FIG. X1.46 High-Severity Shoving
X1.20.3.2 M—Shove causes medium-severity ride quality
(Fig. X1.45). SLIPPAGE CRACKING
X1.20.3.3 H—Shove causes high-severity ride quality (Fig.
X1.46). X1.21 Description—Slippage cracks are crescent or half-
X1.20.4 How to Measure—Shoves are measured in square moon shaped cracks, usually transverse to the direction of
meters (feet) of surface area. Shoves occurring in patches are travel. They are produced when braking or turning wheels
considered in rating the patch, not as a separate distress. cause the pavement surface to slide or deform. This distress

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 D 6433
usually occurs in overlaps when there is a poor bond between
the surface and the next layer of the pavement structure.
X1.21.1 Severity Level:
X1.21.1.1 L—Average crack width is < 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) (Fig.
X1.47).
X1.21.1.2 M—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.48): average crack width is $ 10 and < 40 mm ($ 3⁄8 and<
1-1⁄2 in.); or the area around the crack is moderately spalled, or
surrounded with secondary cracks.
X1.21.1.3 H—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X1.49): the average crack width is > 40 mm (1-1⁄2 in.) or the
area around the crack is broken into easily removed pieces.
X1.21.2 How to Measure—The area associated with a given
slippage crack is measured in square meters (square feet) and
rated according to the highest level of severity in the area.
FIG. X1.48 Medium-Severity Slippage Cracking
SWELL

X1.22 Description—Swell is characterized by an upward

bulge in the pavement’s surface, a long, gradual wave more
than 3 m (10 ft) long (Fig. X1.50). Swelling can be accompa-
nied by surface cracking. This distress usually is caused by
frost action in the subgrade or by swelling soil.
X1.22.1 Severity Level:
X1.22.1.1 L—Swell causes low-severity ride quality. Low-
severity swells are not always easy to see but can be detected
by driving at the speed limit over the pavement section. An
upward motion will occur at the swell if it is present.
X1.22.1.2 M—Swell causes medium-severity ride quality.
X1.22.1.3 H—Swell causes high-severity ride quality.
X1.22.2 How to Measure—The surface area of the swell is
measured in square meters (square feet).

WEATHERING AND RAVELING FIG. X1.49 High-Severity Slippage Cracking

X1.23 Description—Weathering and raveling are the wear-

ing away of the pavement surface due to a loss of asphalt or tar
binder and dislodged aggregate particles. These distresses
indicate that either the asphalt binder has hardened appreciably
or that a poor-quality mixture is present. In addition, raveling
may be caused by certain types of traffic, for example, tracked

FIG. X1.50 Example Swell. Severity level is based on ride quality

criteria.

vehicles. Softening of the surface and dislodging of the

aggregates due to oil spillage also are included under raveling.
X1.23.1 Severity Levels:
X1.23.1.1 L—Aggregate or binder has started to wear away.
FIG. X1.47 Low-Severity Slippage Cracking In some areas, the surface is starting to pit (Fig. X1.51). In the

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FIG. X1.51 Low-Severity Weathering and Raveling FIG. X1.52 Medium-Severity Weathering and Raveling

case of oil spillage, the oil stain can be seen, but the surface is
hard and cannot be penetrated with a coin.
X1.23.1.2 M—Aggregate or binder has worn away. The
surface texture is moderately rough and pitted (Fig. X1.52). In
the case of oil spillage, the surface is soft and can be penetrated
with a coin.
X1.23.1.3 H—Aggregate or binder has been worn away
considerably. The surface texture is very rough and severely
pitted. The pitted areas are less than 10 mm (4 in.) in diameter
and less than 13 mm (1⁄2 in.) deep (Fig. X1.53); pitted areas
larger than this are counted as potholes. In the case of oil
spillage, the asphalt binder has lost its binding effect and the
aggregate has become loose.
X1.23.2 How to Measure—Weathering and raveling are
measured in square meters (square feet) of surface area.

FIG. X1.53 High-Severity Weathering and Raveling

X2. DISTRESS IN JOINTED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

X2.1 This Appendix lists alphabetically 19 distress types exception of linear cracking distress, which is defined sepa-
for jointed concrete pavements. Distress definitions apply to rately for plain and reinforced jointed concrete.
both plain and reinforced jointed concrete pavements, with the

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X2.1.1 During the field condition surveys and validation of enough to permit slab expansion. The insufficient width usually
the PCI, several questions often are asked about the identifi- is caused by infiltration of incompressible materials into the
cation and counted method of some of the distresses. Answers joint space. When expansion cannot relieve enough pressure, a
to these questions are included under the heading “How to localized upward movement of the slab edges (buckling) or
Count.” For convenience, however, the most frequently raised shattering will occur in the vicinity of the joint. Blowups also
issues are addressed below. can occur at utility cuts and drainage inlets.
X2.1.1.1 Faulting is counted only at joints. Faulting associ- X2.3.1 Severity Levels:
ated with cracks is not counted separately since it is incorpo- X2.3.1.1 L—Buckling or shattering causes low-severity
rated into the severity-level definitions of cracks. Crack defi- ride quality (Fig. X2.1).
nitions are also used in defining corner breaks and divided X2.3.1.2 M—Buckling or shattering causes medium-
slabs. severity ride quality (Fig. X2.2).
X2.1.1.2 Joint seal damage is not counted on a slab-by-slab X2.3.1.3 H—Buckling or shattering causes high-severity
basis. Instead, a severity level is assigned based on the overall ride quality (Fig. X2.3).
condition of the joint seal in the area. X2.3.2 How to Count—At a crack, a blowup is counted as
X2.1.1.3 Cracks in reinforced concrete slabs that are less being in one slab; however, if the blowup occurs at a joint and
than 1⁄8 in. wide are counted as shrinkage cracks. Shrinkage affects two slabs, the distress should be recorded as occurring
cracks should not be counted to determine if the slab is broken in two slabs. When a blowup renders the pavement impassable,
into four or more pieces. it should be repaired immediately.
X2.1.1.4 Low-severity scaling, that is, crazing, should only
be counted if there is evidence that future scaling is likely to CORNER BREAK
occur.
X2.1.2 The user should note that the items above are general X2.4 Description—A corner break is a crack that intersects
issues and do not stand alone as inspection criteria. To measure the joints at a distance less than or equal to one-half the slab
each distress type properly, the inspector must be familiar with length on both sides, measured from the corner of the slab. For
the individual distress criteria. example, a slab measuring 3.5 by 6.0 m (11.5 by 20.0 ft) that
has a crack 1.5 m (5 ft) on one side and 3.5 m (11.5 ft) on the
X2.2 Ride Quality: other side is not considered a corner break; it is a diagonal
X2.2.1 Ride quality must be evaluated in order to establish crack. However, a crack that intersects 0.5 m (4 ft) on one side
a severity level for the following distress types: and 2.5 m (8 ft) on the other is considered a corner break. A
X2.2.1.1 Blowup/buckling. corner break differs from a corner spall in that the crack
X2.2.1.2 Railroad crossings. extends vertically through the entire slab thickness, whereas a
X2.2.2 To determine the effect these distresses have on ride corner spall intersects the joint at an angle. Load repetition
quality, the inspector should drive at the normal operating combined with loss of support and curling stresses usually
speed and use the following severity-level definitions of ride cause corner breaks.
quality: X2.4.1 Severity Levels—
X2.2.2.1 L—Low. Vehicle vibrations, for example, from X2.4.1.1 L—Break is defined by a low-severity4 crack. A
corrugation, are noticeable, but no reduction in speed is low severity crack is < 13 mm (1⁄2 in.), cracks of any width with
necessary for comfort or safety, or individual bumps or
settlements, or both, cause the vehicle to bounce slightly but
create little discomfort. 4
The above crack severity definitions are for nonreinforced slabs. For reinforced
X2.2.2.2 M—Medium. Vehicle vibrations are significant slabs, see linear cracking.
and some reduction in speed is necessary for safety and
comfort, or individual bumps or settlements cause the vehicle
to bounce significantly, or both, creating some discomfort.
X2.2.2.3 H—High. Vehicle vibrations are so excessive that
speed must be reduced considerably for safety and comfort, or
individual bumps or settlements, or both, cause the vehicle to
bounce excessively, creating substantial discomfort, a safety
hazard, or high potential vehicle damage, or a combination
thereof.
X2.2.3 The inspector should drive at the posted speed in a
sedan that is representative of cars typically seen in local
traffic. Pavement sections near stop signs should be rated at a
deceleration speed appropriate for the intersection.

BLOWUP/BUCKLING

X2.3 Description—Blowups or buckles occur in hot

weather, usually at a transverse crack or joint that is not wide FIG. X2.1 Low Severity Blowup/Buckling

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FIG. X2.2 Medium Severity Blowup/Buckling

FIG. X2.4 Low-Severity Corner Break

FIG. X2.3 High-Severity Blowup/Buckling

satisfactory filler; no faulting. The area between the break and

the joints is not cracked or may be lightly cracked (Fig. X2.4).
X2.4.1.2 M—Break is defined by a medium-severity4 crack,
or the area between the break and the joints, or both, has a
medium crack. A medium severity crack is a nonfilled crack >
13 mm and < 50 mm (>1⁄2in. and < 2 in.), a nonfilled crack < FIG. X2.5 Medium-Severity Corner Break
50 mm (2 in.) with faulting < 10 mm (3⁄8 in.), or a any filled
crack with faulting < 10 mm (3⁄8in.) (Fig. X2.5). more pieces due to overloading, or inadequate support, or both.
X2.4.1.3 H—Break is defined by a high-severity4 crack, or If all pieces or cracks are contained within a corner break, the
the area between the break and the joints, or both, is highly distress is categorized as a severe corner break.
cracked. A high severity crack is a nonfilled crack >50 mm (2
X2.5.1 Severity Levels—Table X2.1 lists severity levels for
in.) wide, or any filled or nonfilled crack with faulting >10 mm
divided slabs. Examples are shown in Figs. X2.7-X2.9.
(3⁄8 in.) (Fig. X2.6).
X2.5.2 How to Count—If the divided slab is medium- or
X2.4.2 How to Count—Distressed slab is recorded as one
high-severity, no other distress is counted for that slab.
slab if it:
X2.4.2.1 A single corner break. DURABILITY (“D”) CRACKING
X2.4.2.2 More than one break of a particular severity.
X2.4.2.3 Two or more breaks of different severities. For two X2.6 Description—“D” cracking is caused by freeze-thaw
or more breaks, the highest level of severity should be expansion of the large aggregate, which, over time, gradually
recorded. For example, a slab containing both low- and breaks down the concrete. This distress usually appears as a
medium-severity corner breaks should be counted as one slab pattern of cracks running parallel and close to a joint or linear
with a medium corner break. crack. Since the concrete becomes saturated near joints and
cracks, a dark-colored deposit can usually be found around
DIVIDED SLAB fine“ D” cracks. This type of distress may eventually lead to
X2.5 Description—Slab is divided by cracks into four or disintegration of the entire slab.

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FIG. X2.6 High-Severity Corner Break FIG. X2.8 Medium-Severity Divided Slab

TABLE X2.1 Levels of Severity for Faulting

Severity Level Difference of Elevation
L >3 and <10 mm
(>1⁄8 and <3⁄8 in.)
M >10 and <20 mm
(>3⁄8 and <3⁄4 in.)
H >20 mm
(>3⁄4 in.)

FIG. X2.9 High-Severity Divided Slab

FIG. X2.7 Low-Severity Divided Slab

X2.6.1 Severity Levels:

X2.6.1.1 L—“D” cracks cover less than 15 % of slab area.
Most of the cracks are tight, but a few pieces may be loose and
or missing (Fig. X2.10).
X2.6.1.2 M—One of the following conditions exists (Fig.
X2.11): “D” cracks cover less than 15 % of the area and most
of the pieces are loose and or missing, or “D” cracks cover
more than 15 % of the area. Most of the cracks are tight, but a FIG. X2.10 Low-Severity Durability Cracking
few pieces may be loose and or missing.
X2.6.1.3 H—“D” cracks cover more than 15 % of the area cracking are on the same slab, the slab is counted as medium-
and most of the pieces have come out or could be removed severity cracking only.
easily (Fig. X2.12). FAULTING
X2.6.2 How to Count—When the distress is located and
rated at one severity, it is counted as one slab. If more than one X2.7 Description:
severity level exists, the slab is counted as having the higher X2.7.1 Faulting is the difference in elevation across a joint.
severity distress. For example, if low and medium “D” Some common causes of faulting are as follows:

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FIG. X2.11 Medium-Severity Durability Cracking FIG. X2.13 Low-Severity Faulting

FIG. X2.12 High-Severity Durability Cracking FIG. X2.14 Medium-Severity Faulting

X2.7.1.1 Settlement because of soft foundation.

X2.7.1.2 Pumping or eroding of material from under the
slab.
X2.7.1.3 Curling of the slab edges due to temperature and
moisture changes.
X2.7.2 Severity Levels—Severity levels are defined by the
difference in elevation across the joint as indicated in Table
X2.2. Figs. X2.13-X2.15 show examples of the different
severity levels.
X2.7.3 How to Count—Faulting across a joint is counted as
one slab. Only affected slabs are counted. Faults across a crack
are not counted as distress but are considered when defining
crack severity.

JOINT SEAL DAMAGE

FIG. X2.15 High-Severity Faulting
X2.8 Description:

TABLE X2.2 Levels of Severity for Punchouts X2.8.1 Joint seal damage is any condition that enables soil
Severity of the Majority of Number of Pieces or rocks to accumulate in the joints or allows significant water
Cracks 2 to 3 4 to 5 >5 infiltration. Accumulation of incompressible materials prevents
L L L M the slab from expanding and may result in buckling, shattering,
M L M H
H M H H or spalling. A pliable joint filler bonded to the edges of the
slabs protects the joints from material accumulation and

27
 D 6433
prevents water from seeping down and softening the founda-
tion supporting the slab. Typical types of joint seal damage are
as follows:
X2.8.1.1 Stripping of joint sealant.
X2.8.1.2 Extrusion of joint sealant.
X2.8.1.3 Weed growth.
X2.8.1.4 Hardening of the filler (oxidation).
X2.8.1.5 Loss of bond to the slab edges.
X2.8.1.6 Lack or absence of sealant in the joint.
X2.8.2 Severity Levels:
X2.8.2.1 L—Joint sealant is in generally good condition
throughout section (Fig. X2.16). Sealant is performing well,
with only minor damage (see X2.8.1.1-X2.8.1.6). Joint seal
damage is at low severity if a few of the joints have sealer,
which has debonded from, but is still in contact with, the joint
edge. This condition exists if a knife blade can be inserted FIG. X2.17 Medium-Severity Joint Seal Damage
between sealer and joint face without resistance.
X2.8.2.2 M—Joint sealant is in generally fair condition
over the entire section, with one or more of the above types of
damage occurring to a moderate degree. Sealant needs replace-
ment within two years (Fig. X2.17). Joint seal damage is at
medium severity if a few of the joints have any of the following
conditions: joint sealer is in place, but water access is possible
through visible openings no more than 3 mm (1⁄8 in.) wide. If
a knife blade cannot be inserted easily between sealer and joint
face, this condition does not exist; pumping debris are evident
at the joint; joint sealer is oxidized and “lifeless” but pliable
(like a rope), and generally fills the joint opening; or, vegeta-
tion in the joint is obvious but does not obscure the joint
opening.
X2.8.2.3 H—Joint sealant is in generally poor condition
over the entire section, with one or more of the above types of
damage occurring to a severe degree. Sealant needs immediate FIG. X2.18 High-Severity Joint Seal Damage
replacement (Fig. X2.18). Joint seal damage is at high severity
if 10 % or more of the joint sealer exceeds limiting criteria
listed above or if 10 % or more of sealer is missing. between the settlement or erosion of the shoulder and the
X2.8.3 How to Count—Joint seal damage is not counted on pavement travel-lane edge. The elevation difference can be a
a slab-by-slab basis but is rated based on the overall condition safety hazard, and it also can cause increased water infiltration.
of the sealant over the entire area. X2.9.1 Severity Levels:
LANE/SHOULDER DROP-OFF X2.9.1.1 L—The difference between the pavement edge
and shoulder is >25 and #50 mm (>1 and #2 in.) (Fig. X2.19).
X2.9 Description—Lane/shoulder drop-off is the difference

FIG. X2.16 Low-Severity Joint Seal Damage FIG. X2.19 Low-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off

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 D 6433
X2.9.1.2 M—The difference in elevation is >50 and #100
mm (>2 and #4 in.) (Fig. X2.20).
X2.9.1.3 H—The difference in elevation is >100 mm (>4
in.) (Fig. X2.21).
X2.9.2 How to Count—The mean lane/shoulder drop-off is
computed by averaging the maximum and minimum drop
along the slab. Each slab exhibiting distress is measured
separately and counted as one slab with the appropriate
severity level.
LINEAR CRACKING
(Longitudinal, Transverse, and Diagonal Cracks)
X2.10 Description—These cracks, which divide the slab
into two or three pieces, usually are caused by a combination
of repeated traffic loading, thermal gradient curling, and
repeated moisture loading. (Slabs divided into four or more
pieces are counted as divided slabs.) Hairline cracks that are
only a few feet long and do not extend across the entire slab,
are counted as shrinkage cracks.
X2.10.1 Severity Levels (Nonreinforced Slabs):
X2.10.1.1 L—Nonfilled4 cracks # 13 mm (# 1⁄2 in.) or
filled cracks of any width with the filler in satisfactory FIG. X2.21 High-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off
condition. No faulting exists (Fig. X2.22).
X2.10.1.2 M—One of the following conditions exists: non-
filled crack with a width >13 and #50 mm (>1⁄2 and # 2 in.);
nonfilled crack of any width # 50 mm (2 in.) with faulting of
<10 mm (3⁄8 in.), or filled crack of any width with faulting <10
mm (3⁄8 in.) (Fig. X2.23).
X2.10.1.3 H—One of the following conditions exists: non-
filled crack with a width >50 mm (2 in.), or filled or nonfilled
crack of any width with faulting >10 mm (3⁄8 in.) (Fig. X2.24).
X2.10.2 Reinforced Slabs:
X2.10.2.1 L—Nonfilled cracks $ 3 and < 25 mm ($ 1⁄8 to
< 1 in.) wide; filled crack of any width with the filler in
satisfactory condition. No faulting exists.

FIG. X2.22 Low-Severity Linear Cracking

X2.10.2.2 M—One of the following conditions exists: non-

filled cracks with a width $ 25 and < 75 mm ($ 1 and < 3 in.)
and no faulting; nonfilled crack of any width # 75 mm (3 in.)
with # 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) of faulting, or filled crack of any width
with # 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) faulting.
X2.10.2.3 H—Once of the following conditions exists:
nonfilled crack >75 mm (3 in.) wide, or filled or nonfilled crack
of any width with faulting >10 mm (3⁄8 in.).
X2.10.3 How to Count—One the severity has been identi-
fied, the distress is recorded as one slab. If two medium
FIG. X2.20 Medium-Severity Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off severity cracks are within one slab, the slab is counted as

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 D 6433

FIG. X2.23 Medium-Severity Linear Cracking FIG. X2.25 Low-Severity Patching, Large and Utility Cuts

FIG. X2.24 High-Severity Linear Cracking FIG. X2.26 Medium-Severity Patching, Large and Utility Cuts

having one high-severity crack. Slabs divided into four or more

pieces are counted as divided slabs. In reinforced slabs, cracks
<3 mm (1⁄8 in.) wide are counted as shrinkage cracks. Slabs
longer than 9 m (29.5 ft) are divided into approximately equal
length“ slabs” having imaginary joints assumed to be in perfect
condition.
PATCHING, LARGE (MORE THAN 0.5 M2 [5.5 FT2])
AND UTILITY CUTS
X2.11 Description—A patch is an area where the original
pavement has been removed and replaced by filler material. A
utility cut is a patch that has replaced the original pavement to
allow the installation or maintenance of underground utilities.
The severity levels of a utility cut are assessed according to the
same criteria as large patching.
X2.11.1 Severity Levels: FIG. X2.27 High-Severity Patching, Large and Utility Cuts
X2.11.1.1 L—Patch is functioning well, with little or no X2.11.2 How to Count—If a single slab has one or more
deterioration (Fig. X2.25). patches with the same severity level, it is counted as one slab
X2.11.1.2 M—Patch is moderately deteriorated, or moder- containing that distress. If a single slab has more than one
ate spalling can be seen around the edges, or both. Patch severity level, it is counted as one slab with the higher severity
material can be dislodged with considerable effort (Fig. level.
X2.26).
X2.11.1.3 H—Patch is badly deteriorated. The extent of the PATCHING, SMALL (LESS THAN 0.5 M2 [5.5 FT2])
deterioration warrants replacement (Fig. X2.27). X2.12 Description—A patch is an area where the original

30
 D 6433
pavement has been removed and replaced by a filler material.
X2.12.1 Severity Levels:
X2.12.1.1 L—Patch is functioning well with little or no
deterioration (Fig. X2.28).
X2.12.1.2 M—Patch is moderately deteriorated. Patch ma-
terial can be dislodged with considerable effort (Fig. X2.29).
X2.12.1.3 H—Patch is badly deteriorated. The extent of
deterioration warrants replacement (Fig. X2.30).
X2.12.2 How to Count—If a single slab has one or more
patches with the same severity level, it is counted as one slab
containing that distress. If a single slab has more than one
severity level, it is counted as one slab with the higher severity
level.
POLISHED AGGREGATE
X2.13 Description—This distress is caused by repeated FIG. X2.29 Medium-Severity Patching, Small
traffic applications. Polished aggregate is present when close
examination of a pavement reveals that the portion of aggre-
gate extending above the asphalt is either very small, or there
are no rough or angular aggregate particles to provide good
skid resistance.
X2.13.1 Severity Levels—No degrees of severity are de-
fined; however, the degree of polishing should be significant
before it is included in the condition survey and rated as a
defect (Fig. X2.31).
X2.13.2 How to Count—A slab with polished aggregate is
counted as one slab.
POPOUTS
X2.14 Description—A popout is a small piece of pavement
that breaks loose from the surface due to freeze-thaw action,
combined with expansive aggregates. Popouts usually range in
diameter from approximately 25 to 100 mm (1 to 4 in.) and in FIG. X2.30 High-Severity Patching, Small
depth from 13 to 50 mm (1⁄2to 2 in.).
X2.14.1 Severity Levels—No degrees of severity are de-
fined for popouts; however, popouts must be extensive before
they are counted as a distress. Average popout density must
exceed approximately three popouts/m2 over the entire slab
area (Fig. X2.32).

FIG. X2.31 Polished Aggregate

X2.14.2 How to Count—The density of the distress must be

measured. If there is any doubt that the average is greater than
three popouts per square yard, at least three random 1 m2 (11
ft2) areas should be checked. When the average is greater than
FIG. X2.28 Low-Severity Patching, Small this density, the slab should be counted.

31
 D 6433

FIG. X2.32 Popouts

PUMPING
X2.15 Description—Pumping is the ejection of material
from the slab foundation through joints or cracks. This is
caused by deflection of the slab with passing loads. As a load FIG. X2.34 Pumping
moves across the joint between the slabs, water is first forced
under the leading slab, and then forced back under the trailing X2.15.2 How to Count—One pumping joint between two
slab. This action erodes and eventually removes soil particles slabs is counted as two slabs; however, if the remaining joints
resulting in progressive loss of pavement support. Pumping can around the slab are also pumping, one slab is added per
be identified by surface stains and evidence of base or subgrade additional pumping joint.
material on the pavement close to joints or cracks. Pumping
near joints is caused by poor joint sealer and indicates loss of PUNCHOUT
support; repeated loading eventually will produce cracks.
Pumping also can occur along the slab edge causing loss of X2.16 Description—This distress is a localized area of the
support. slab that is broken into pieces. The punchout can take many
different shapes and forms, but it is usually defined by a crack
X2.15.1 Severity Levels—No degrees of severity are de- and a joint. The distance between the join and the crack or two
fined. It is enough to indicate that pumping exists (Fig. X2.33 closely spaced cracks is # 1.5 m (5 ft) wide. This distress is
and Fig. X2.34). caused by heavy repeated loads, inadequate slab thickness, loss
of foundation support, or a localized concrete construction
deficiency, for example, honeycombing.
X2.16.1 Severity Levels—Table X2.2 lists the severity lev-
els for punchouts, and Figs. X2.35-X2.37 show examples.
X2.16.2 How to Count—If a slab contains more than one
punchout or a punchout and a crack, it is counted as shattered.

FIG. X2.33 Pumping FIG. X2.35 Low-Severity Punchout

32
 D 6433
X2.17.1.2 M—Railroad crossing causes medium-severity
ride quality (Fig. X2.39).
X2.17.1.3 H—Railroad crossing causes high-severity ride
quality (Fig. X2.40).
X2.17.2 How to Count—The number of slabs crossed by
the railroad tracks is counted. Any large bump created by the
tracks should be counted as part of the crossing.
SCALING, MAP CRACKING, AND CRAZING
X2.18 Description—Map cracking or crazing refers to a
network of shallow, fine, or hairline cracks that extend only
through the upper surface of the concrete. The cracks tend to
intersect at angles of 120°. Map cracking or crazing usually is
caused by concrete over-finishing and may lead to surface
scaling, which is the breakdown of the slab surface to a depth
FIG. X2.36 Medium-Severity Punchout of approximately 6 to 13 mm (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in.). Scaling also may
be caused by deicing salts, improper construction, freeze-thaw
cycles and poor aggregate. The type of scaling defined here is
not caused by “D” cracking. If scaling is caused by “D”
cracking, it should be counted under that distress only.
X2.18.1 Severity Levels:
X2.18.1.1 L—Crazing or map cracking exists over most of
the slab area; the surface is in good condition, with only minor
scaling present (Fig. X2.41).
X2.18.1.2 M—Slab is scaled but less than 15 % of the slab
is affected (Fig. X2.42).
X2.18.1.3 H—Slab is scaled over more than 15 % of its area
(Fig. X2.43).
X2.18.2 How to Count—A scaled slab is counted as one
slab. Low-severity crazing only should be counted if the
potential for scaling appears to be imminent or a few small
pieces come out.
FIG. X2.37 High-Severity Punchout
SHRINKAGE CRACKS
X2.19 Description—Shrinkage cracks are hairline cracks
RAILROAD CROSSING
that usually are less than 2-m long and do not extend across the
X2.17 Description—Railroad crossing distress is character- entire slab. They are formed during the setting and curing of
ized by depressions or bumps around the tracks. the concrete and usually do not extend through the depth of the
slab.
X2.17.1 Severity Levels:
X2.17.1.1 L—Railroad crossing causes low-severity ride X2.19.1 Severity Levels—No degrees of severity are de-
quality (Fig. X2.38). fined. It is enough to indicate that shrinkage cracks are present
(Fig. X2.44).

FIG. X2.38 Low-Severity Railroad Crossing FIG. X2.39 Medium-Severity Railroad Crossing

33
 D 6433

FIG. X2.40 High-Severity Railroad Crossing FIG. X2.43 High-Severity Scaling, Map Cracking, and Crazing

FIG. X2.41 Low-Severity Scaling, Map Cracking, and Crazing FIG. X2.44 Shrinkage Cracks

corner spall differs from a corner break in that the spall usually
angles downward to intersect the joint, whereas a break
extends vertically through the slab corner. Spalls less than 130
mm (5 in.) from the crack to the corner on both sides should
not be counted.
X2.20.1 Severity Levels—Table X2.3 lists the levels of
severity for corner spalling. Figs. X2.45-X2.47 show ex-
amples. Corner spalling with an area of less than 650 cm (10
in.2) from the crack to the corner on both sides should not be
counted.
X2.20.2 How to Count—If one or more corner spalls with
the same severity level are in a slab, the slab is counted as one
slab with corner spalling. If more than one severity level
occurs, it is counted as one slab with the higher severity level.
FIG. X2.42 Medium-Severity Scaling, Map Cracking, and Crazing
TABLE X2.3 Levels of Severity for Corner Spalling
Dimensions of Sides of Spall
X2.19.2 How to Count—If any shrinkage cracks exist on a 130 3 130 mm to 300 3 300 mm 300 3 300 mm
Depth of Spall
particular slab, the slab is counted as one slab with shrinkage (5 3 5 in.) to (12 3 12 in.) (>12 3 12 in.)
cracks. <25 mm L L
(1 in.)
SPALLING, CORNER >25 to 50 mm L M
(1 to 2 in.)
>50 mm M H
X2.20 Description—Corner spalling is the breakdown of (2 in.)
the slab within approximately 0.5 m (1.5 ft) of the corner. A

34
 D 6433

FIG. X2.45 Low-Severity Spalling, Corner FIG. X2.47 High-Severity Spalling, Corner

TABLE X2.4 Levels of Severity for Joint Spalling

Length of Spall
<0.5 m >0.5 m
Spall Pieces Width of Spall
(1.5 ft) (1.5 ft)
Tight—cannot be removed easily <100 mm L L
(maybe a few pieces missing. (4 in.)
>100 mm L L

Loose—can be removed and <100 mm L M

some pieces are missing; if
most or all pieces are missing,
spall is shallow, less than 25
mm (1 in.). >100 mm L M

Missing—most or all pieces have <100 mm L M

been removed. >100 mm M H

FIG. X2.46 Medium-Severity Spalling, Corner

SPALLING, JOINT
X2.21 Description:
X2.21.1 Joint spalling is the breakdown of the slab edges
within 0.5 m (1.5 ft) of the joint. A joint spall usually does not
extend vertically through the slab, but intersects the joint at an
angle. Spalling results from:
X2.21.1.1 Excessive stresses at the joint caused by traffic
loading or by infiltration of incompressible materials.
X2.21.1.2 Weak concrete at the joint caused by overwork-
ing.
X2.21.1.3 Water accumulation in the joint and freeze-thaw
action.
X2.21.2 Severity Levels—Table X2.4 and Figs. X2.48- FIG. X2.48 Low-Severity Spalling, Joint
X2.50 show the severity levels of joint spalling. A frayed joint
where the concrete has been worn away along the entire joint
is rated as low severity. highest severity is counted and recorded as one slab. Joint
X2.21.3 How to Count—If spall is along the edge of one spalling also can occur along the edges of two adjacent slabs.
slab, it is counted as one slab with joint spalling. If spalling is If this is the case, each slab is counted as having joint spalling.
on more than one edge of the same slab, the edge having the

35
 D 6433

FIG. X2.49 Medium-Severity Spalling, Joint

FIG. X2.50 High-Severity Spalling, Joint

X3. DEDUCT VALUE CURVES FOR ASPHALT

FIG. X3.1 Alligator Cracking

36
 D 6433

FIG. X3.2 Bleeding FIG. X3.4 Bumps and Sags

FIG. X3.3 Block Cracking FIG. X3.5 Bumps and Sags (Metric units)

37
 D 6433

FIG. X3.6 Corrugation FIG. X3.9 Edge Cracking (metric units)

FIG. X3.7 Depression FIG. X3.10 Joint Reflection Cracking

FIG. X3.8 Edge Cracking

FIG. X3.11 Joint Reflection Cracking (metric units)

38
 D 6433

FIG. X3.12 Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off

FIG. X3.15 Longitudinal/Transverse Cracking (metric units)

FIG. X3.13 Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off (metric units)

FIG. X3.16 Patching and Utility Cut Patching

FIG. X3.14 Longitudinal/Transverse Cracking

FIG. X3.17 Polished Aggregate

39
 D 6433

FIG. X3.18 Potholes FIG. X3.21 Rutting

FIG. X3.19 Potholes (metric units) FIG. X3.22 Shoving

FIG. X3.20 Railroad Crossing FIG. X3.23 Slippage Cracking

40
 D 6433

FIG. X3.24 Swell

FIG. X3.25 Weathering and Raveling

FIG. X3.26 Total Deduct Value

X4. DEDUCT VALUE CURVES FOR CONCRETE

41
 D 6433

FIG. X4.1 Blowups FIG. X4.3 Divided Slab

FIG. X4.2 Corner Break FIG. X4.4 Durability (“D”) Cracking

42
 D 6433

FIG. X4.8 Linear Cracking

FIG. X4.5 Faulting

FIG. X4.6 Rigid Pavement Deduct Values, Distress 26, joint seal FIG. X4.9 Patching, Large, and Utility Cuts
damage

FIG. X4.10 Patching, Small

FIG. X4.7 Lane/Shoulder Drop-Off

43
 D 6433

FIG. X4.11 Polished Aggregate FIG. X4.14 Punchouts

FIG. X4.12 Popouts

FIG. X4.13 Pumping

44
 D 6433

FIG. X4.15 Railroad Crossing

FIG. X4.16 Scaling/Map Cracking/Crazing

FIG. X4.17 Shrinkage Cracks

45
 D 6433

FIG. X4.18 Spalling, Corner

FIG. X4.19 Spalling, Joint

FIG. X4.20 Corrected Deduct Values for Jointed Concrete

Pavement

REFERENCES

(1) PAVER Asphalt Distress Manual, US Army Construction Engineering (4) Sayers, M. W., Gillespie, T. D., and Queiroz, C. A. V., “The
Laboratories, TR 97/104, June 1997. International Road Roughness Experiment: Establishing Correlation
(2) PAVER Asphalt Distress Manual, US Army Construction Engineering and a Calibration Standard for Measurements,” World Bank Technical
Laboratories, TR 97/105, June 1997. Paper No. 45, the International Bank for Reconstruction and
(3) Carey, W.N., Jr. and Irick, P.E., “The Pavement Serviceability- Development/the World Bank, Washington, DC, 1986.
Performance Concept,” HRB Bulletin 250, 1960.

46
 D 6433
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47