Option E – Leisure, Sport & Tourism

1. Leisure
Definitions  Discuss the difficulties in attempting to define leisure, recreation, tourism and sport.
 Discuss the influence of accessibility, changes in technology and affluence upon the growth
of these activities.
- Leisure: any freely chosen activity or experience that takes place in non-work time
- Recreation: a leisure-time activity undertaken voluntarily for enjoyment. Includes individual pursuits, organized
outings and events, and non-paid sports.
- Sport a physical activity involving a set of rules or customs. This activity may be competitive.
- Tourism travel away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure. Excludes day-trippers.
- Difficulty in attempting to define they overlap because participation may be simultaneous
The growth of these activities
- Accessibility: Infrastructural improvements opening up pleasure periphery
- Changes in technology:
o Internet has facilitated research and booking operations.
o Credit card has made payments much easier between customer and tour operator.
o Wide-bodied jet planes, high speed trains and large cruise ships: widen economies of scale and time-
space convergence
- Affluence
o Growing desire by wealthier population to escape pressures of urban living
o More disposable income
o More educated population are aware of cultures and environments: curiosity
o More leisure time with shorter working hours and paid leave of skilled jobs

2. Leisure at the International scale: tourism

Changes in demand  Explain the long-term and short-term trends and patterns in international tourism.
Changes in supply  Explain the changes in location and development of different tourist activities.
 Explain the growth of more remote tourist destinations.
Key patterns in international tourism
- Tourist preference shifting toward Asia-Pacific region due to their rapid economic development: improved
infrastructure, hygiene and knowledge of languages at acceptable level, whereas underdeveloped places
relatively static.
- According to Plog’s model, most people are of the mid-centric type: do not oppose adventure and so like new
experiences, but will not visit bizarre and remote places
Plog’s Psychographic Profile
The Plog Model is similar to the Butler Life Cycle Model, but instead of focusing on the product, it actually focuses on
the people using the product; and in the case of tourism, the tourists.
The Plog Model divides tourists into three different groups. The groups are:
 Allocentrics:  hardened travellers. Discover new destinations, adventurous experiences. Independent travel, use
local transport. Discover new destinations that has tourism potential. Above average income.
 Mid-centrics: Majority of travellers. Seek well-known, established destinations. Travel in groups and on package
holidays. Expect developed tourist facilities.
 Psychocentrics: Same destination for most of their lives. Holiday destinations similar to home environment. Like
the familiar, may be repeat visitors.

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Explain the short-term and long-term trends in international tourism
RISING DEMAND
Social Economic Political Environmental
 Smaller families making  Increase in disposable  Removal of  Creation of new
tourism more affordable income visa national parks or
 Increase in leisure time  Growth of new low cost restrictions the protection of
(weekends and paid holidays) airlines certain areas.
 Government
 An increase in life expectancy  The introduction of
allowing more time to travel pensions making travel investment in  Natural landforms
tourist being designated
after retirement more affordable after
 New forms of tourism e.g. retirement infrastructure a UNESCO site.
medical tourism or spas.  Increase in advertising  Greater  Good reliable
 Major sporting events e.g.  Improvement in tourist political weather
Football World cup in South infrastructure e.g. hotels freedom e.g.
Africa  Weakening of currency in  Natural beauty
Chinese
 Improving linguistic skills tourist destination making citizens e.g. Sahara
 Increase in world population travel cheaper Desert, Himalaya
 Increase in computer  Movement away from  Increased Mountains or
ownership and access to the subsistence farming stability of Great Barrier Reef
internet  Wider use of credit cards. area e.g
Vietnam after  Introduction of
 Increased leisure time (labour  Increased car ownership ecotourism and
saving devices, shorter  Simpler booking methods the war the
of the 1960s sustainable
working week, flexible e.g. Expedia online tourism
working hours)  Single currency in Europe and 1970s
(the Euro)
FALLING DEMAND
Social Economic Political Environmental
 Terrorist  Economic recession or loss of  Political instability  Natural disasters e.g.
attacks e.g. jobs e.g. Libya Thailand after 2004 Indian
Bali bombings Ocean tsunami
2002 aimed at  Increased cost of travel.  Introduction of
Rising oil prices are add fuel visas, tourist tax,  Environmental accidents e.g.
tourists
levies. exit tax Gulf of Mexico oil spill
 Ethnic tensions
 Weakening of domestic  Closing of borders  Rising sea levels possible
between locals
and overseas currency making e.g. Myanmar flooding tourist destinations
international travel more after failed e.g. Maldives
visitors
expensive 'Saffron
Revolution' (now  Outbreak of disease e.g.
 Credit crunch making finance Swine flu
open again)
harder to access.
 Worries about personal
carbon footprint.

Butler’s tourism model

1. Exploration: A new destination, with very few visitors.
Usually adventurous travellers that have minimal impact.
2. Involvement: If the tourists like the new destination and
the destination is happy to receive tourists, then there may be
investment in tourist infrastructure and involvement by locals.
Tourist numbers grow slowly.
3. Development: Tourism becomes big business with further
investment and involvement by TNCs. Holidays become more

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organised with package holidays arriving.
4. Consolidation: The area becomes reliant on tourism. Advertising and marketing attempts to maintain and increase
tourism levels. Facilities like beaches, swimming pools and golf courses may become the domain of tourists causing
some local resentment.
5. Stagnation: There is some local opposition to tourists, there is no new investment, tourists become tired of the
same destination and growth stops.
6. Rejuvenation: Tourism is relaunched through advertising, tourists arrival from new markets increase, new
transport links are opened or the tourism become more sustainable with local involvement.
6. Decline: There is no relaunch, locals remove their support, TNCs leave and tourism begins to decline.

3. Leisure at the international scale: Sport

International Examine the social, cultural, economic and political factors affecting participation and
participation and success in two major international sports.
success
Case study of a Analyse the geographic factors that influenced the choice of venue(s).
contemporary Examine the factors affecting the sphere of influence for participants and supporters.
international sports Evaluate the short- and long-term geographic costs and benefits of hosting such an event
event at both the local and national level.

Factors affecting participation and success in golf/football

- Football is global sport because traditionally played: spread with British Empire
- Large government investment by Sports Minister in England for stadiums/equipment to develop football talent:
football success is part of national identity
- Football can be played in state-provided parks whereas golf courses are privately-owned and expensive.
- More wealthy countries do better at golf because leisure time and affluence (membership in golf club) needed to
hone talent.
- Female success in golf is dominated by East-Asians as opposed to with males where it’s whites: cultural norm of
male-domination not ingrained with introduction of golf.
London 2012 Olympics
Locational advantages

Economic Sociocultural Political Environmental

 Accessibility:  The Lower Lea Valley needed  The bid had  There were large
- five international regeneration: hoped higher living the support brownfield sites in
airports in London. standard for deprived area (high of the local Newham that could
- Newham located very unemployment, low income, poor
and national be used to
close to the London. government construct the
public health)
- Good rail network. . Olympic Village on.
- Newham is connected  London and the UK has a tradition  The then  East London is built
by the underground, of sport. Lord's is the home of mayor of on a floodplain so
overground, mainline Cricket, Wimbledon the home of London, Ken the land is flat and
rail, Docklands light tennis and Twickenham the home Livingstone, easy to build on.
railway and Eurostar. of rugby. It also has many other put aside his  The East of London
 Many of the venues were famous sporting venues in the difference should be
already in existence e.g. capital like the O2 arena, the with the protected from
Wembley, Lord's, Emirates and Wembley. then Prime flooding by the
Wimbledon and the O2  London championed the idea of Minister Thames Flood
arena. leaving a legacy. They said that a Tony Blair Barrier.
 The government poor area would be regenerated to fully  During July and
guaranteed to cover the and venues would be left for support the August, London
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 cost of the Olympics. future use. London bid. normally has a
 The UK has a successful  They had the backing of  The current good climate for
track record of hosting celebrities, Lord Sebastian Coe Prime participating in and
major sporting events, it (former Olympic champion) and Minister viewing sport (not
hosted the European David Beckham. (David too hot or cold, not
football championships in  The bid team used local residents Cameron) much rainfall).
1996 and the to show that it had the backing of and London  London and
Commonwealth Games in the local population. Mayor England are in
2002.  All venues will be used after the (Boris Europe, so close to
 London is world city, so it Olympics. They will either be Johnson) many of the
is easy to attract made smaller or dismantled and also Olympics potential
sponsorship and moved to other parts of the strongly athletes and
advertising to the venue. country. support the spectators.
 There are a large number of hotel Olympics.
rooms in and around London.
Problems with location?
 London is already a developed city, so selecting London may have taken the opportunity of other cities like
Istanbul or Havana to develop.
 London is one of the world's most expensive cities to visit and live. Many potential spectators will be put off by
the expense.
 Some businesses had to be closed and relocated to make way for the Olympic village.
 There have been questions marks, whether London's transport network can cope with the influx of visitors.
 There is the risk that the Olympics might attract a terrorist attack. In fact the day after London won the Olympics,
it experienced a major terrorist attack.
Impacts
SHORT-TERM
Sociocultural Economic Political Environmental
+ Local residents will have + Hotels and restaurants + The British + Cars will not be allowed
the opportunity to go and should see a massive government into the Olympic Village so
watch world class sport on increase in business on will be in the all spectators will be
their doorstep. the lead up to and spotlight at walking, cycling or using
+ A new school/college has during the Olympics and the time and public transport. This
been built on the site of the Paralympics the Prime should reduce air
Olympic Village. It will be + Olympic merchandise Minister at pollution in the area of the
the media centre during will be sold across the the time will Olympic Village.
the games world increasing revenue get publicity
+ Jobs will be created selling from the games from opening
merchandise, tickets, food, + Sponsorship and the Games.
etc at Olympic venues – advertising should cover + There will be
positive multiplier effect. a lot of the costs from an increase in
the games. tax revenue
+ Existing land owners can during the
charge premium rent games.
- During the Olympics there - The cost of hotels, - The - There will be an increase
will be road closures and restaurants, taxis,etc. Government in flights arriving into the
increased traffic which will will probably increase will have less UK which will cause an
make it harder for during the Olympic money to increase in air pollution.
Londoners to move around. Games. spend on Also more energy will be
- London may become a - Some businesses may roads, used in hotel and venues.
terrorist target and at the have to close during the schools, - The increased number of
very least there will be Olympics because of hospitals, etc. spectators and athletes
increased disruption safety or accessibility while it pays will increase waste and
because of security checks. problems (impossible to for the litter which will have to be

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- Local residents affected by make deliveries) Olympic dealt with.
noise, dust and visual - inflation of land prices Games
pollution of years of for first-time buyers
construction and heavy (market exclusion)
vehicle movement.
LONG-TERM
Sociocultural Economic Political Environmental
+ The venues will be available + The infrastructure + If the games + The improved public
for the public to use improvements (especially are transport should mean
decades into the future. public transport) will successful that cars are removed
Things like the velodrome, benefit Londoners and then the from the roads and use
aquatics centre and white business for decades to government public transport instead.
water centre should come. will be seen + Areas of brownfield land
develop athletes in new + The image of London in a positive around London have been
disciplines. should be enhanced light and cleared of pollutants left
+ The Olympic village's making business and might have over from factories.
accommodation will be individuals want to do a better + Previously covered rivers
converted and used as business in London. chance of have been opened and
affordable accommodation. + 12, 000 permanent jobs re-election. cleaned. Areas of parkland
+ Equipment used in the alone created (managing + The UK have also been created.
Olympics will be given to facilities and transport should + Infrastructural/landscape
charities for free. networks) definitely regeneration: bridges,
+ Local residents may see the + Boost for tourism industry improve its roads, railways to increase
value of their houses in East London as higher standing on accessibility, dangerous
increase with all the standards and the overhead power lines
regeneration taking place. international internationa moved underground, land
recognition/improving l circuit. remediation of brownfield
image sites from
deindustrialization
- It is estimated that - There may be an - The - More structures, hotels
Londoners will have an oversupply of hotel rooms government and accommodations will
increased tax bill for the after the games. London is may be increase the country's
next ten years to pay for in the processing of saddled carbon footprint.
the Olympics (£6 billion) adding 15,000 hotel rooms with long - The creation of
- Many of the jobs created for the Olympics. term debt impermeable surfaces
will only be short-term (e.g. - The increased demand for paying off may affect the
construction), so facilities generated by the the games. hydrological cycle.
unemployment may rise games may create
after the games. inflation.
- Displacement but
relocation of 900
businesses (jobs), Britain’s
largest church (Kingsway
Int’l Christian Centre),
residents and 500 trees

4. Leisure at the national/regional scale: Tourism

Case study of a national Examine the economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism.
tourist industry
Case study of Evaluate the strategies designed to manage and sustain the tourist industry.
ecotourism
Tourism as a Examine the importance of tourism as a development strategy for low-income countries.
development strategy

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Costa del Sol, Spain context
- Initial primary attractions were climate, long coastline, and distinctive culture
- Exemplary of post-1945 growth in tourism: became centre for package tours and uncontrolled development
How Spain case study relates to Butler’s Model
- Stagnation stage: less growth because no longer fashionable (boring and mainstream/carrying capacity reached)
- Decline/rejuvenation: attractiveness declines, international operators move out can occur – but attempts to
modernize and invest e.g. attempts to clean up beaches (EU Blue Flag beaches), development of quality
accommodation
Impacts
Sociocultural Economic Environmental
- Culture is diluted e.g. area swamped by - Decline in tourism market - Pollution of sea and
characterless buildings during world recession beaches
- Perceptual carrying capacity reached due to because prices were too high - Farmland built on
overcommercialization: lack of open space, and there were cheaper - Wildlife frightened
limited car parking, crowding of facilities such as upmarket hotels elsewhere away by
bars and beaches, noise pollution - Initially very rapid increase in development:
- Many new recreational, sport and leisure employment (traditionally migratory birds
facilities such as bars, discos, golf courses, retail farming and fishing) in looking for nesting
services and restaurants for locals as well. Has construction, cafes, hotels - Carrying capacity
four times more of these facilities than would be but reached: water
expected for a settlement of its size. - unemployment when tourism supply and sewerage
- Increased crime rates: drugs, vandalism and decreased (up to 70% – dumping into sea to
mugging employed in tourism at peak) toxic levels

Ecotourism case study: intro

- Now awareness of costs of mass tourism so move towards small scale
- Improved education and awareness make people confident about visiting exotic and remote locations
- Most rapidly growing subset of tourism
Costa Rica context
- Great biological diversity (5% of world’s terrestrial species) and many national parks/nature reserves: especially
rainforest
Strategies in Costa Rica to manage and sustain tourist industry
- Eco-lodges in tune with local environment e.g. built from wood discarded by loggers, solar energy heats water,
and bio-degradable soups
- Locals employed: cooks, waiters, cleaners
- Provide activities such as jungle hikes and bird watching – educating – with a large range of recreational activities
e.g. young single professionals prefer eco-adventure like rafting
- Many lodges are actually owned by expatriates from US: leakage.
- As tourism grows and is promoted, expectations of tourists have grown and so has the luxury e.g. electricity,
tourists arrive in 4x4s which use petrol and disturb wildlife
Tourism as a development strategy for low-income countries
- Good if lack raw materials but has pristine nature, endowed with heritage/culture/indigenous tribes: prevents
marginalization through being economically disadvantaged
- Diversifies economy with service sector
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- Makes infrastructural improvements worthwhile
- Good because is an export not subject to price fluctuations of commodities on world market so can overcome
balance of payments
- Labour-intensive so alleviates unemployment and builds skill and entrepreneurship of workforce (language,
catering, entertainment)
- Global shocks depress international tourist demand but domestic demand too weak to compensate for lost
international revenue: dependence
- Inflation marginalizes locals: everyday goods, land
- Overshoot carrying capacity: not equipped to deal with congestion, power shortage
- Emergence of informal economy/black market prevents tax revenue
- Economic leakage: increased foreign ownership – airlines, international hotel chains, tour operators
Gambia context
- One of world’s poorest country with highest population growth rate in West Africa
- Huge foreign debt issue due to over-dependence on peanut production
Impact of tourism on Gambia
- Constitutes 12% of Gambian GNP
- 4/5 hotels are foreign owned, and locals (rarely management positions) earn as little as little as £1 per day and
are laid off for the five-month wet season.
- Sex tourism and child begging
- Phenomenon of ‘bumsters’. These are unemployed young men who hang around beaches, latching onto tourists
and trying to sell them drinks, trinkets or anything else, or to arrange trips, in the hope of a tip; lifestyle also
attracts children away from school

5. Leisure at the national/regional scale: Sport

Case study of a national - Explain the hierarchy of a league and the location of its teams.
sports league - Examine the relationship between team location and the residence of its supporters.
Why residence of supporters is spreading out
- Transport advancements: space-time convergence, viewing sporting events is a huge leisure activity
- Technological advancement: television (Sky televised and popularized BPL), social media
- Successful teams have wider sphere of influence: global
English Premier League
- most watched league in the world, watched by half a billion in 202 countries. It is also the world's richest league
generating about $3 billion in income during the 2009/10 season.
- The Barclay's Premier League is the only level one league in England so it is top of the hierarchy in terms of
football leagues.
- The Barclays Premier League is often considered to be the number one league in the world as well, because of its
viewing figures, average attendances and income generation.

6. Leisure at a local scale: tourism

Tourism management For one named city or large town:
in urban areas - describe the distribution and location of primary and secondary tourist resources
- discuss the strategies designed to manage tourist demands, maximize capacity and
minimize conflicts between local residents and visitors, and avoid environmental
damage.

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Tourism management Examine the concept of carrying capacities in a rural tourist area.
in rural areas Discuss strategies designed to maximize capacity and minimize conflicts between local
residents and visitors, and avoid environmental damage
Distinguish between primary and secondary tourist resources
- Primary are pre-existing attractions for tourism or recreation (that is not built specifically for the purpose),
including climate, scenery, wildlife, indigenous people and cultural/heritage sites.
- Secondary includes accommodation, catering, entertainment and shopping.
Venice context
- Located in North-east Italy in the middle of the Venice Lagoon: known as Queen of the Adriatic.
- Total population of only 60, 000, which is steadily declining and 10% of population in 1930s.
Describe the distribution and location of primary and secondary tourist resources in Venice, Italy
Rialto Bridge, St. Mark’s Square and St. Marks Basilica; luxury hotels Hotel Canal Grande and restaurants; located in
centre and coast, both densely distributed among each other
Venice problems
- Out-migration of residents due to exceeding perceptual carrying capacity, homes lost to tourist developments
- Overcrowding (congested footpaths/canals resembling spaghetti junction), tourist intrusion in churches (major
primary attraction but Italy deeply religious), inflation of land and everyday goods
- Conflict of interest between Venetians employed in tourist industry and those who aren’t
- Conflict of interest between locals and visitors, latter of which feel as though they have the right to de-stress,
explore and enjoy Venice
Management strategies in Venice (see essay)
- Government build more low-cost, affordable housing for locals
- Subsiding local services like post offices and doctor surgeries to ensure they remain open and not pressured
under increasing rent and decreasing population
- Unauthorized coach tours denied entry to main coach terminal
- Ban on day trippers, so must have a hotel reservation to enter: can also increase income since those staying
spend significantly more e.g. food and accommodation
- Charge tax of 5 Euros a day: extra income, but minimal impact on tourist numbers
- Limit advertising
- Drinking fountains: tourists leave millions of plastic bottles annually
- One-way system for certain bridges and walkways in busiest periods
- Areas of St. Mark Square blocked off to reduce litter, also increased patrol: addresses pigeon problem too where
tourist feed/waste attracts pigeons which are a pest, carry disease, and damage/disfigure ancient buildings with
excrement
- Conclude exemplary of saying ‘loved to death’.
Examine the concept of carrying capacity
- Carrying capacity: the maximum number of visitors/participants that a site/event can satisfy at one time.
- Environmental carrying capacity the maximum number before the local environment becomes damaged
- Perceptual carrying capacity the maximum number before a specific group of visitors considers the level of
impact, such as noise, to be excessive. E.g. young mountain bikers are more crowd-tolerant than elderly walkers.
- Difficult to determine: we learn to cope
- When thresholds are exceeded, may be permanent effect not only on physical components like soil but also
human like culture.
- Creating a specific carrying capacity may give a false impression of security.
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Machu Picchu context
- Is a ‘honey pot site’ in Peru, visited for remarkable biodiversity and pristine character – ruins of Inca city
- Consists of sanctuary between Andean and Amazonian ecosystems
- Government promotes cultural tourism because seen as important strategy for development and locals escaping
poverty: unregulated growth due to open access
Management strategies in Machu Pichu
- System for collection of solid waste and removal by train to landfill sites near Cuzco, stricter rules for waste
disposal imposed
- $20/person entrance ticket and Inca Trail generates $10 million a year to protect – important that is for non-
residents
- Fee for hiking Inca Trail tripled to $50
- Number of people on the trail limited to 500: previously up to 1000 daily
- All tourists required to trek with registered companies which help ensure hikers keep to trail conservation rules
like no steel tipped walking sticks
- Redistribution away from Machu Picchu and Inca Trial being promoted: Tribes Travel Company advertises nearby
Choquequirao trail by pointing out pressure and providing alternative to trying to see sunrise with 1000 other
people
Management strategies in rural areas (general)
- Improved signage to prevent littering, leaving gates open, trampling and ignoring footpaths – awareness of need
for being sensitive to locals, or indicating punishment for actions: more feasible than constant patrolling over
vast space of rural areas
- Ban cars with park and ride schemes: narrow roads in rural areas prone to congestion

7. Leisure at the local scale: sport and recreation

The leisure hierarchy Explain the relationship between urban settlements and recreational and sports facilities
in terms of frequency, size, range and catchment area.
Intra-urban spatial Examine the distribution and location of recreational and sports facilities in urban areas
patterns and relate the patterns to accessibility, land value and the physical and socio-economic
characteristics of each urban zone (from the central business district to the rural–urban
fringe).
Urban regeneration Discuss the role of sport and recreation in regeneration strategies of urban areas.
Intra-urban patterns
- From the CBD to rural-urban fringe, the distribution of facilities becomes sparser.
- This is because there is a wider range and frequency of facilities higher up the settlement hierarchy.
- Culture more varied in CBD so wider range of interests
- Land value is higher and competing land use so facilities that don’t require much space
- More economically well-off can afford more services e.g. golf
- More accessible so wider sphere of influence/catchment area
- Also the nature of those in urban-rural fridge require more space like country parks, garden centres and nature
reserves.
Explain the relationship between urban settlements and recreational/sport facilities (can merge with points from
intra-urban patterns)
- Population size increases from villages, small country town, town, city and capital city
- Approaches more threshold populations (minimum number of people for a service to be provided): worth
providing facilities with specialist functions
- Larger and varied demand
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- Greater resources, especially monetary
- Overall increase in frequency, size (e.g. Olympic size), range (alternate definition is the maximum distance
someone will travel)
Examples of facilities: small, medium, large
- Pubs, community hall, playground
- Tennis courts, swimming pool, golf courses, cinema, bowling alley
- Stadium, national sports centre, theme park, Olympic-sized swimming pool
The role of sport and recreation in regeneration strategies of urban areas
- See Lower Lea Valley Case Study
- Provision of parks and open space are good for de-stressing: prevents social tension and high crime rates/drug
use because alternative recreation and public health
- Sport and recreational facilities can also act as tourist attractions e.g. Singapore

8. Sustainable tourism - Define sustainable tourism.

- Examine the extent to which it might be successfully implemented in different
environments.
Sustainable tourism that conserves primary tourist resources and supports the livelihoods and culture of local
people
Sustainable tourism includes
- Using natural, cultural and social resources sustainably
- Reducing overconsumption and waste
- Maintaining biodiversity
- Involving local communities e.g. training
- See Machu Pichu and Venice and Costa Rica case studies
Sustainable tourism measures in coastal environments
- Banning of plastic bags
- Promote sustainable diving: quotas on divers
- Stop trade in coral, turtle shells
Sustainable tourism measures in national parks
- Enforce ban against poaching with fines or jail terms
- Only allow small-scale ecotourism: see case study
- Leave only footprints, take only pictures

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