Running Head: WAR ON NUTRITION 1

The War on Nutrition: Rationing in America and Britain During World War II

Andrew Dylan Christ

FCS 499 – Honors

5-5-19

Wayne State College

WAR ON NUTRITION 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One: INTRODUCTION 3

Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

Chapter Three: METHODOLOGY 20

Chapter Four: RESULTS 24

Chapter Five: SUMMARY 27

Chapter Six: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE 30

Chapter Seven: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 35

REFERENCES CITED 38

APPENDICIES A: CONSENT FORM 41

B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 44
WAR ON NUTRITION 3

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the first World War, over 100,000 people lost their lives to malnutrition in

the United Kingdom alone. The Great War left Britain in ruins – from their economy struggling

to regain power to widespread malnourishment, the toll of war became painfully evident. In

order to combat this problem, food rationing was a common practice for countries during

wartime. While ideal in nature, properly implementing this strategy was exceptionally difficult

and put Britain on the brink of starvation during one of the most turbulent periods in modern

history. Across the pond, the United States of America felt limited effects on the homefront

during WWI. This all changed when World War II saved America from its merciless Depression

and forced the country to take extreme measures in ways never seen before. With a second

World War on the horizon, America and Great Britain made their best efforts to save their

countries not only from the threat of impending annihilation but imminent starvation. The United

States and the United Kingdom took extensive precautions to prevent widespread food shortages

from happening again, but which country’s tactics proved to be the most efficacious? These

countries’ strategies for saving their people from starvation can best be seen in the revitalization

of the Ministry of Food, the Office of Price Administration, along with the steps taken through

rationing and educating families during the war. The rise of violent fascism from the Nazi regime

made two things absolutely certain: a new war was on the way and Britain and America could

not afford to go hungry again.

Purpose of Study

With a second World War on the horizon, America and Great Britain made their best

efforts to save their countries not only from the threat of impending annihilation but imminent

starvation. The United States and the United Kingdom took extensive precautions to prevent
WAR ON NUTRITION 4

widespread food shortages from happening again. The purpose of this study is to explore the

programs and policies put into place in both countries, as well as to examine the effects on the

people who lived through these events.

Research Questions

1. What were the methods used by the Office of Price Administration to successfully

educate American citizens about the importance of maintaining a well-balanced diet rich

with vitamins and minerals?

2. What was Britain’s approach to use the revitalized Ministry of Food to treat their citizens

as consumers and students seeking a better understanding how to maintain a nutrient

dense and well-balanced diet?

3. Were the United States and United Kingdom prosperous at the end of the war – in terms

of not simply maintaining, but elevating the food, nutrition, and health standards on the

homefront?

4. What forms of programs and policies used historically could be used again in times of

crisis?
WAR ON NUTRITION 5

LITERATURE REVIEW

Rationing, in layman’s terms, is the action of a government limiting the purchase of high

demand goods. In 1943, for instance, a pound of bacon cost approximately 30 cents, but a

shopper would also have to turn in seven ration points to buy the meat. Produce was also a

commodity allocated by the points system. In America during World War II, peas were 16

points, spinach was 11, pineapple juice was 32 points, and pears were 21 (Speaks & Clift, 2016).

As illustrated, the less of a product there was available for consumption, the more points were

required to attain it. These points often came in the form of stamps that were distributed to

citizens in books (The National WWII Museum New Orleans, n.d.). During the war, each person

may be given ration coupons, permitting him or her to “purchase” a definite amount of a product

each month. In America, with the creation of the Office of Price Administration, the government

began rationing certain foods in May 1942. Initially, the OPA encouraged voluntary rationing at

items such as metals, rubber, paper, food and fuel, promoting the effort with nationalistic posters

that encouraged Americans to remember their duty. A few months after these fruitless attempts

of rationing, the OPA began issuing ration books and tokens to families nationwide. The Office

of Price Administration initially focused on sugar consumption, but this inevitably led to the

regulation of all basic commodities. Coffee was added to the list that November, followed by

meats, fats, canned fish, cheese, and canned milk the following March. The newly named

Ministry of Food began regulating food and rationing particular items in the year 1936 (The

National WWII Museum, New Orleans, n.d.). Rationing has been established as a “go to” during

wartime for civilians. Rationing often includes food and other necessities for which there is a

shortage, including materials needed for the war effort such as rubber tires, fleece shoes,

textiles, and fuel. Car sales were stagnated during times of war, as automobiles and rubber were
WAR ON NUTRITION 6

constantly needed on battlegrounds. In 1942, the War Production Board seized automobile

production in America which led to massive losses by car dealers and car companies, making

many individuals out of work. Assembly lines went from producing engines to manufacturing

weapons, tanks, and aircraft carriers (Herold, 2018). The Japanese had apprehended a large

majority of the rubber plantations in the South Pacific. Because rubber was in such high demand

but in low supply, Congress formed the “Victory Speed” limit of thirty-fives miles per hour to

help tires last longer (Speaks & Clift, 2016). Cigarettes were also a scarce commodity with thirty

percent of all cigarettes produced being allocated for service men (Ames History Museum,

2019). Another commodity which became a market premium was leather. With many individuals

not fully comprehending why numerous commodities of theirs were being limited, various

educational films were distributed to be played in theaters for the general public, aiming to

educate civilians as to why these commodities were being rationed.

Films such as, “How to Use Your Ration Coupons,” were provided to educate consumers

how to properly use their books and make the most with what they were offered. Typically,

countries treated their citizens as students, aiming to educate them on how to live their lives

while using the bare minimum, maintaining the zeitgeist of making due without. This was done

mostly through propaganda, using pamphlets and short films, urging citizens to unify for their

country’s best interest (The National WWII Museum, New Orleans, n.d.).

In 1916, the United Kingdom found itself confronting an enemy whose harmful aspects

appeared not in the form of artillery, but as emaciation (MacGroger, 2006). To combat the

nationwide epidemic, the Minister of Food Control was formed to aid those starving on the

homefront. Initially, the rationing program was introduced in 1917, first being used to control

sugar. Eventually, other food products were regulated including rice and meat. These obscure
WAR ON NUTRITION 7

meats would often be cooked into stews to make their taste more appealing. The Minister of

Food Control was initially seen as a “success, but eventually food prices rose by 130%, and the

ration coupons were often useless, as the supply of items just was not there to meet even the

coupon-limited demand,” (Oulton, 2011, Paragraph 1). Over 100,000 civilians lost their lives

from malnutrition during this conflict, presenting a clear and obvious failing of such an

industrialized nation. Carrying this burden, the British government began planning again for

wartime rationing in 1936 with the newly named Ministry of Food, and William Morrison was

designated as the Minister (Oulton, 2011). Ration booklets were printed and given to every

household in Britain while the government took control over food stocks. Ration books

contained the allotted amount of specific food items which could be purchased by an individual

or family. On April 3, 1940, Neville Chamberlain (then Prime Minister) replaced Morrison with

English businessman and politician Baron Woolton. Woolton felt it was not enough to just ration

food and limit what people ate. Rather, he proposed a method of treating the British public as

consumers (Oulton, 2011). By explaining nutrition in simple terms, he assured that the public

would get the most nourishment out of the available food despite the excessive rations.

On January 8, 1940, the British government began rationing imports and exports to cope

with wartime shortages. One of the primary strategies of the opposing powers was

to intercept shipments of food headed for Great Britain to essentially starve them. Due to this, the

U.K. was forced to ration almost all food products. Commonly rationed items amounts were one

egg, eight ounces of cheese, and twelve ounces of margarine per person per week (MacGroger,

2006). While eggs were rationed, powdered eggs were not due to such a large sum being

important to Great Britain.

WAR ON NUTRITION 8

The Ministry of Food issued three forms of ration books, each being a different color to

show sellers what items they were to receive based on their category. Buff-colored (sand) ration

books were the most common book with most adults having this color (The National WWII

Museum, New Orleans, n.d.). Green ration books were given to pregnant women, nursing

mothers, and children under the age of five. These books gave mothers the first choice of fruit, a

daily pint of milk, and double the quantity of eggs. Blue ration books were for children between

five and sixteen years of age. It was important that children had fruit, the full meat ration, and

half a pint of milk a day. The Ministry of Food not only restricted what could be purchased by

consumers, they also restricted the maximum cost of meals served in restaurants and hotels to

five dollars a person.

Each meal was also limited to three courses. Along with the courses, the amount of

drinks served per person was also controlled by the Ministry. Restaurants were also not allowed

to be open past 10, aiming to restrict alcohol consumption (Gumey, 1942). By this control of

meal charges, the Ministry of Food hoped to make a more even distribution of "luxury" foods

and cut off any temptations of frivolous spending. Rather than relying on technological

innovations to help stretch food supplies, the British government simply expanded the regions in

which farmers could grow their crops.

The expansion of farmland was part of the Ploughing Up Campaign, a campaign aimed to

reduce the necessary quantities of food imports, particularly from America (Collingham, 2012).

Instead of focusing on raising meat livestock to feed people, farmers were encouraged to grow

bread and potatoes – foods which fed more and were higher in carbohydrates – in comparison to

meat. This push to grow more crops was also encouraged by the League of Nations (Collingham,

2012), an international association, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The League of

WAR ON NUTRITION 9

Nations formed after the First World War to provide a medium for resolving global debates. This

administrative body highly encouraged Britain to not repeat their mistakes during the First World

War. Britain’s main misstep in WWI was to cut back on food production to prevent a surplus.

The Ministry of Food agreed with the League of Nations and sought out the aid of several food

scientists and biochemists to learn ways for farmers to effectively produce the greatest yields

possible. These biochemists also made sure civilians were receiving the nutrients they needed to

maintain their energy. They did so by infusing whole meal flour with calcium and fortifying

margarine with vitamin A and D. While the United Kingdom rejuvenated their Ministry of Food

in the second World War, America was also reigniting an organization to implement the “new”

concept of rationing to Americans.

Shortly after America entered World War I in 1917, the U. S. Food Administration was

established to manage war supplies and the transportation/conservation of food across the

homefront. Propaganda posters were distributed and hung in shops and businesses, urging

citizens to restrict their consumption of particular foods and the use of certain products. Several

campaigns were created to urge citizens to restrict their food purchases - such as “Meatless

Tuesdays” and “Wheat-less Wednesdays” which implored Americans to voluntarily adjust their

eating habits in order to increase shipments to soldiers. While Americans did prevail through

World War I, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt knew the extreme conditions brought on by

World War II were going to push American’s food restriction further than they had before. In

WWII, restrictions were placed on imported and home-produced foods. On January 30, 1942, the

Emergency Price Control Act approved the Office of Price Administration to authorize set price

limits and ration most foods. The Office of Price Administration regulated an excess of foods,

ranging from bacon to tea. In just a few months, meat, cheese, fats, canned fish, canned milk, and
WAR ON NUTRITION 10

other processed foods were added to the list of rationed provisions, along with sugar and coffee.

The OPA determined a single person was allotted, per week, four ounces of bacon, two ounces

of butter and cheese, one fresh egg, three pints of milk, eight ounces of sugar, and two ounces of

tea.

In 1942, coffee became rationed in America. The rationing of coffee was not because of a

lack of the beloved commodity. Coffee beans were readily available in South America, but

access to these beans was seen as unnecessary because coffee was deemed as a luxury item.

Under rationing circumstances, families were allowed one pound of coffee every five weeks.

Citizens were extremely desperate for their cup of Joe, using any type of bean they could to

reinvent coffee – for example, acorns (Sarah, 2019). In 1943, coffee became the first product to

be removed from the rationing system. Simply cutting off food supplied to grocery stores was

not a viable option for the American government, for they knew an act of this nature would put

people in a frenzy and lead to a first come, first served basis.

Each American was given their own war time ration books, filled with stamps which

could be used to purchase restricted goods. In only a few weeks, more than 91 percent of the

United States’ population had registered to receive these ration kits. By the end of the war, nearly

5,600 local rationing boards staffed by over 100,000 citizen volunteers were administering this

coast to coast program. The Office of Price Administration allotted a definite amount of points to

each food item based on its availability. The public was allowed to use 48 ‘blue points’ to buy

canned, bottled or dried foods, and 64 ‘red points’ to buy meat, fish and dairy each month - that

is, if the items were in stock at the market (Schumm, 2018). The OPA determined the sum of

points needed for goods based on accessibility and demand, the points’ values could openly be

raised or lowered accordingly. While the government bodies which rationed food were structured
WAR ON NUTRITION 11

and operated differently in each country, their procedures of rationing and educating civilians

were relatively analogous.

Throughout the course of World Wars I and II, almost all food products were allocated by

weight, excluding meat and fish. Fresh fruit and vegetables were not regulated but were in short

supply, with imported varieties of fruit all but disappearing from market shelves. Bananas and

lemons became unavailable for most of the war. Oranges were still sold but grocers regularly

reserved them for children and pregnant women, who could prove their status by showing their

distinctive ration books. Although fish was not rationed, prices increased dramatically as the war

waged on. The government initially allowed this, since fishermen would need to be able to

collect a payment for their catch. The nature of their profession put them at risk of enemy attack

while at sea, but prices were inevitably controlled in 1941. Like other non-rationed items, fish

was rarely available, as supplies dropped to 30% of pre-war levels (Macgrogor, 2008). During

this time, many families still felt their country was depriving them and not allowing them to eat

the foods they once enjoyed. Along with rationing food in both countries, the U.K. and U.S.A

used propaganda as means to educate, inform, and persuade their citizens to cooperate with the

government as they limited their needs.

The Ministry of Food and the Office of Price Administration used not only pamphlets to

educate their citizens, but educational videos as well. These videos would be played in theaters

and on a few TV stations. One such film distributed throughout the United Kingdom and the

United States was “Wartime Nutrition,” an American program aimed to emphasize how

Americans should look to Britain for healthy eating habits and how to work together to feed a

nation (CBGP News, 2013). This specific film discussed how margarine’s vitamin content was

enriched and how wheatmeal loaf should be consumed due to its high iron content – to boost
WAR ON NUTRITION 12

their nerves. “Wartime Nutrition” took it a step further to emphasize the flaws in American

rationing tactics by emphasizing how Americans starved not for lack of food, but due to poor

eating habits. Many Americans ate the same food every day, reducing the variety of nutrients

they could consume. “Wartime Nutrition” was only one of many short films produced during the

war to encourage American citizens to eat nutritious food in order to play a part in preventing

malnutrition.

News reports, advertising campaigns, trade publications and propaganda strategies

showed the media played an instrumental role in activating civilian support. In both nations,

women were the target audience for these campaigns due to their role in the household during

this period (Yang, 2005). It was during this time Women’s Pages garnered popularity due to their

treatment of women as students eager to learn, rather than individuals who play a non-significant

and elementary role in the home. Housewives were the first and foremost target of the OPA.

With most husbands gone, it became the women’s job to provide security for her family. Most

women took on the role of leader and true patriot of the family. The government knew family

members would actively participate – willingly – with rationing and planting of their own

Victory Gardens if they felt they were being exceedingly patriotic. Women quickly were called

“Kitchen Patriots” for their work in the home, with it being a mother’s civic responsibility to

fend for her family while her husband fended for her nation. This tactic proved successful as the

OPA received support from most Americans, especially women, who felt they were choosing to

help in their country’s own patriotic way, by feeding their family through rationing, canning, and

gardening.

Ration booklets, in both weakening countries, went as far as to suggest families turn their

lawns into gardens, as part of the Dig for Victory campaign, since it was believed that this was
WAR ON NUTRITION 13

the smartest alternative to buying the already scarce food at the markets. The Ministry of Food

went a step further to not only help the buyers, but educate the sellers, on which foods would be

the most financially beneficial to their markets. Markets were told to get their stock from the

nearest wholesaler or maker of the item, in order to lessen circulation costs. The OPA in America

similarly had propaganda campaigns encouraging families to plan their own “Victory Garden,”

as to help feed themselves, so they would not have to purchase groceries already in short supply.

During the war, many families were growing their own Victory Gardens.

Not only did ration booklets aim to motivate the average consumer and educate them on the

process of growing their own Victory Garden, but companies did as well. In 1942, the Sears

Catalogue used a full page to encourage their agitated customers.

You also serve -- you who stand behind the plow, pledged to feed the Soldier, the Worker,

the Ally, and, with God's help, all the hungry victims of this war! You also serve -- you who

farm, you who pray and sacrifice. You'll feed the World even if it means plowing by lantern

light, and harvesting by hand -- even children's hands -- even if it means putting up the trucks

and going back to covered wagons once again (p. 100).

Quotes like this aimed to make Americans feel if they cooperated with the government and ate

what was rationed, they were not just saving food, but serving their part in the war efforts and

doing what was most patriotically possible.

Amid every governing body, flaws exist which offer insight into how to potentially crack

a seemingly flawless system. In America, once the OPA announced what items would soon be

rationed, people flooded the markets buying the designated item in bulk, as to prevent only being

able to acquire the bare minimum allotted to them (The National WWII Museum, 2019). This

often led to shortages, leading those with ration coupons unable to purchase what was initially
WAR ON NUTRITION 14

being allotted. To fight this battle, merchants often required customers to bring in empty cans of

containers, showing they were only purchasing what they needed. The purpose of this solution

was to prevent hoarding of desired foods and people from purchasing a surplus of food before it

became limited. Once items became rationed, they automatically became atypical items, and

when a large percent of the population wanted atypical items, special markets formed (The

National WWII Museum, 2019).

In America and Britain, black markets formed in the cities where individuals could afford

the abnormally elevated prices. In Britain, where farmland was limited, a gap of food

consumption formed between those who had land to nurture yields and those who could not.

Quite often, slashed points without a slashed price indicated the item was available “under the

table (Cokeley, 2016). The Ministry of Food examined complaints against those suspected of

being involved in the black market and the consequences for those caught could be severe, a fine

of 500 pounds (approximately 617 dollars in U.S. currency) and a possible two year prison

sentence. Calculating the rise of inflation, 617 dollars in 1943 is almost 10,000 dollars in today’s

market. Those who were caught buying from the market also had to pay upwards of three times

the value of what they had been attempting to purchase illegally. The government fought a

never-ending battle with the criminals involved in the black market. After appointing 900

inspectors to enforce the law, these rarely surfaced due to both parties involved having no

incentive to come forth with their crimes. Individuals not only partook in illegal black market

activities, they also used their personal wits to scam local markets (Trueman, 2019). While many

foods were in short supply, potatoes and bread were seen as surplus. With the Ploughing Up

Campaign, potato production increased by 87 percent, which is now seen as non-efficient use of

farmland due to the faith that even though people could eat potatoes instead of bread, they would
WAR ON NUTRITION 15

rather have bread (Collingham, 2012). This revelation came rather late because after the war

Britain produced too many potatoes, leading to massive waste.

Ration books were made extremely cheap, leading stamps to often fall out, giving room

for people to lie about losing stamps. People would often lie about “losing” ration coupons in

order to purchase more food from grocers (Ames History Museum, 2019). With no evidence to

prove these customers were lying, stores would have no predisposed reason to deny someone of

the food allotted to them, so they permitted everyone to purchase their allowances. Although

these instances of cheating the system and buying foods on the black market were prevalent, the

impact rationing had on Britain proved to be more constructive rather than destructive. Although

the Lend-Lease Program proved to be astoundingly beneficial, not only to America, but to the

British Empire as well, this program led to exceptionally unsavory foods being produced. One of

these undesirable foods was dehydrated eggs.

With the United Stated over producing eggs, and dried eggs being great for shipping due

to taking up only twenty percent of the shipping space required for fresh eggs, an abundance of

dried eggs were shipped to Britain. While powdered eggs were edible…they rarely acted the way

which eggs are meant to – especially in cakes and omelets due to their lack of whip-ability.

Among dried eggs, other dried and powdered food products were imported from America. Quite

often, parents used powdered banana and other powdered foods as retribution for when their

children misbehaved (Collingham, 2012). This import of powdered foods directly led to many

food imitations, branded as ‘mock’ food products. Most mock foods were disliked by the general

public, especially mock desserts – which rarely compared to their authentic and flavorful

counterparts. Lower class citizens tended to be creative with their recipes, making mock crab

from a mixture of dried egg, cheese, and salad dressing, however, the upper echelon had a rather
WAR ON NUTRITION 16

difficult time adjusting to now enforced diets that were much different than what they once

knew.

In Great Britain, with the trials and tribulations people faced throughout the war, civilians

learned how to be exceptionally independent from the government and not need financial aid

from their governing body. Citizens, too, were extremely aware of how frivolous they had been

before the war, leading them to be more conscious of their spending habits on clothes,

ingredients, and general luxuries. The pursuit of efficiency in all aspects undeniably aided the

war effort, and it is not unreasonable to say that the Ministry of Food saved the day by making

Britain the healthiest they have ever been and may be. According to Hutchinson, Watt, Cade, and

Strachan (2016), these tactics implemented by the Ministry proved to be resoundingly successful,

making Britain an overall healthier nation than before the war. Ration booklets provided a

guaranteed source of sustenance in a struggling economy and showed imperative nutritional

information. During the war, most Brits were consuming over 3,000 calories – calories not from

empty calorie foods but rather nutrient dense vegetables, meats, and fruits. Though Britain ate

more calories than before the war, they subsequently lost weight – with each person losing

between three to five pounds, in large part due to the consumption of sugar and fat being cut by

almost 50 percent (Macgrogor, 2008). British citizens were treated as impressionable students

during the war and because so, the general public in Britain left the war extremely aware of how

important it is to eat healthy foods which provide energy and countless health benefits. Across

the pond, America was taking its own strides to leave a progressive impact on a reinvigorated

and thriving nation.

In a fruitful attempt to educate citizens to emulate Britain’s efforts, Extension Offices

gained popularity, especially in rural America. In 1914, the Smith–Lever Act founded the
WAR ON NUTRITION 17

coordination of cooperative extension services with the primary goal to inform people about

current changes in agriculture, home economics, civic government, and leadership roles.

Through agents, the Cooperative Extension Service gave individuals access to the resources at

land-grant universities across the nation. Each county within the United States had an Extension

office, which was staffed with agents who worked closely with university-based Extension

specialists to deliver answers to questions about gardening, agriculture, and pest control (Spring,

2017). During the war, these agents worked hand in hand with families, specifically mothers,

who were dedicating most of their time to gardening, keeping track of family rations, and raising

children. One particular activity many extension offices taught consumers was the art of canning

(Spring, 2017).

Food preservation during the war became one of the main focuses of the United States

government. Housewives were encouraged to can their fruits and vegetables from their own

Victory Gardens. Canning, similar to gardening, was presented in official propaganda as a

“patriotic and unifying act,” linking soldiers’ deeds to women’s responsibilities in the kitchen

(Spring, 2017). In 1943, canning reached its peak – in alignment with garden yields. The United

States Department of Agriculture estimates approximately 4 billion cans and jars of food, both

sweet and savory, were produced that year, in large part because of the 6,000 canning centers

operated throughout the country. However, this was not guaranteed to continue and was based on

supplies. Sometimes women could not obtain this additional amount due to sugar shortages in

some towns. After the war, Extension Services in rural communities continued the OPA’s and

USDA’s goal to educate Americans about food production and preservation (Spring, 2017). The

Ministry of Food and Office of Price Administration both proved to be successful in feeding a
WAR ON NUTRITION 18

nation in their differentiated, yet similar, ways – with Britain having heavy influences on the

United States, and America helping feed Britain during their time of need.

The Women’s Land Army (WLA) was an organized launch by the British government for

women to work in the agricultural fields to fill the void men left behind when they so valiantly

went to war. The WLA was first established in 1917, during World War I, but disbanded at the

end of the war and remained disbanded during peacetime. The Women’s Land Army reformed in

June 1939. Over 80,000 women worked for the WLA, with a quarter of the members aiding in

dairy production. The WLA was the inspiration for the Women’s Land Army of America, the

WLAA, where nearly 3.5 million women and some men, worked in agriculture (Mason, 2018).

The women of the WLAA were known as 'farmerettes,’ a term derived from suffragettes and

originally used derogatively, but ultimately becoming positively associated with patriotism and

women's war efforts. Not only did Britain influence America with the creation of the WLA, the

tactics implemented by the Minister were ones which heavily influenced the Office of Price

Administration – especially with the government treating their citizens as students, who were

willing to learn how to better themselves and their country.

While America was influenced on how to effectively keep a nation nourished from the

United Kingdom, the U.S.A did help Britain stay nourished with the Lend-Lease Act. The war

required not only American families to feed themselves, but Britain, as well, which was achieved

through the Lend-Lease Program. The agricultural sector of the U.S. economy grew significantly

from these added demands (History, 2019). The Lend-Lease Act, formally designated the Act to

Promote the Defense of the United States, (enacted March 11, 1941) was a program where the

United States supplied the United Kingdom with food and other commodities. Common foods

imported from America were luncheon pork, canned fish, dried egg, canned and dried milk, dried
WAR ON NUTRITION 19

fruits, fats, oils, and several wheat products. These imports allowed British civilians to eat more

than food grown from their own backyard and explore more flavorsome foods other than bread

and potatoes. 56 percent of British citizen’s caloric intake came from imported goods from

America due to the Lend-Lease Act (Collingham, 2012).

Although the Lend-Lease Program helped feed Britain, the United Kingdom did not

solely need this act to survive, but rather, lighten the load of civilians doing their part to grow

Victory gardens and cooperate with the rationing system in place. With Britain having a

prevalent influence on the Office of Price Administration – from their reinvigoration to the

Woman’s Land Army, it is arguable Britain was more successful in terms of rationing,

community cooperation, and the education of its citizens about the importance of a well-balanced

diet during World War II. The Ministry of Food revolutionized how to not just manage food

allotments, but established the importance of enlightening citizens so they leave the war knowing

the importance of a healthy lifestyle, the now contemporary way most governments treat their

peoples. In the 21st century, this form of public education on health can be seen with the use of

MyPlate in America – a modern way to promote the importance of consuming nutrient rich foods

in a balanced diet to better manage an individual’s health, weight, and overall welfare (Bachman,

Christaldi, Tomasko, & Castellanos, 2016).

WAR ON NUTRITION 20

METHODOLOGY

To gain a greater understanding of rationing in American and Britain during World War

II, a thorough literature review was done. A study of individuals and their perceptions and

experiences of living through that time would help to create more knowledge about war-time

rationing, educating the public, and the effect of programs and policies on individuals and

families.

Research Design

This study was a qualitative study which collects data that is non-numerical in nature.

Qualitative data is collected through methods of observations, one-to-one interviews, conducting

focus groups and similar methods. I formulated my questions to address different areas which

were analyzed in the literary review. Some of the areas were propaganda and Victory Gardens.

Questions were also asked to determine if the individual’s eating habits changed drastically after

the war ended and life resumed as “normal.” See appendix B for interview questions. Interview

questions were formed to better understand the effect rationing had on individual families and

better flesh out the problems faced by families throughout World War II. Other questions asked

about how the interviewees’ family survived within their means during the war.

Review of Selected/Related Literature

Once a rough outline of all the aspects of rationing was formed, dissimilar academic

journals and media outlets which relate to rationing during World War II were explored. Internet

searches were the primary mode of researching the topic; historical based websites, such as the

AMES History Museum and Historic UK, were sources of scholarly work on the topic. U.S.

Conn Library at Wayne State College provided the other resources for this search. Research

journals and books can be accessed through U.S. Conn Library’s Classic Catalog. Keyword
WAR ON NUTRITION 21

searches, such as “food rationing and "world war, 1939-1945,” proved to be the most effective in

locating research articles on an online database. The data most frequently used was Eric (via

EbscoHost).

Population and Sample

The population of my research study was made up of five individuals who lived through

the rationing during World War II and experienced wartime life. They were residents of America

and Britain, or at least, Americans who knew Brits or military men who were stationed in the

United Kingdom. The interviewees were in their eighties and nineties. Four of the people lived in

the Sutton Community Home while one lived on her own. Three of the five people were men

while two were women.

Instrumentation

A structured interview was used with the population. Interviews are a good way to collect

information about the experiences and beliefs of a population. Interview questions were formed

to coincide with the literature review in order for the results summary to have a similar flow to

the literature review. These questions followed a similar format to those asked in The

Supersizers Go… Wartime (MacGrogor, 2008). See interview question list in Appendix B.

While the interview is being conducted, a brief summary was written for what each person says

while they are speaking – as a rough draft to follow when reviewing each individual forum. Each

interview session was conducted solely by the interviewer and the interview, with no guests so as

no one is speaking over the interviewee. All sessions will be recorded with an audio recording

device from the Instruction Resource Center at Wayne State College.

WAR ON NUTRITION 22

Procedures

Sophie Carlson, Activities Coordinate of Sutton Community Home, was contacted on

February 13, 2020 to select participants who would best serve as interviewees. Participants

signed their consent form on February 23, 2020 prior to the interview being conducted on

February 23, 2020. See Appendix A for consent form.

Data was collected by having a one-on-one interview between each individual and the

interviewer on February 23, 2020. To minimize risk during the interview, a pseudonym was

referenced when interviewing, as well as the interviewee being referenced as he or she. The

interviewer had a chance to explore their past, learn how rationing was implemented, and listen

to how it felt to be living within these limits. The interviewee had a chance to share their story

which will be used to educate others about this time period. Once the interview was complete, a

short debriefing occurred.

Once data was formally collected and systematically organized, an evaluation of each

interview took place. Each person’s responses were organized in order of the questions asked to

better help evaluate everyone’s answers. The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis

was conducted. The data was coded to identify themes which were uncovered during these

forums. This form of thematic analysis is an inductive approach, where data is allowed to

determine the themes. An example of a realized theme could be how rationing directly impacted

families based on where they resided. A deductive approach may also be utilized for there is an

understanding that no person lived the same experience, but they all were all working for the

same cause. Once the themes were all uncovered, the results were written up and analyzed.
WAR ON NUTRITION 23

Data Analysis

Once data was formally collected and systematically organized, an evaluation of each

interview took place. Once complete, the interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was

conducted, the data was coded to identify themes which were uncovered during these forums.

This form of thematic analysis is an inductive approach, where data is allowed to determine the

themes. A deductive approach was also utilized for there is an understanding that no person lived

the same experience but most were all working for the same cause. Once the themes are all

uncovered, the results were written up and studied.

WAR ON NUTRITION 24

RESULTS

The individuals selected for this forum provided me with excellent personal anecdotes

which directly correlated to the research I had conducted prior to the interviews. Four of the

interviewees lived in rural areas on small farms while one lived in the urban city of San Diego.

Each of the individuals who lived on rural farms stated how they spent little time fretting

where they would locate their next meal. In rural areas, such as the Midwest, most farm families

did not have an arduous time coming by their preferred meals and beverages (Subject D,

personal communication, February 23, 2020). On the farms though, sugar was a commodity

which was in short supply and treated like gold. Subject B said the absence of sugar made food

exceptionally bland (personal communication, February 23, 2020). To obtain extra sugar,

someone could submit a request to attain up to 20 pounds of additional sugar to be used in

canning their own food (Subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020). While residents of

rural areas were often only short of coffee, sugars, and meats, inhabitants of cities were limited

on their food supplies, often only eating what was rationed to them each week.

In metropolitan areas, where sizable zones of soil were and are still scarce to find, tenants

of apartments and duplexes would come together and tear up cement to propagate their own

gardens (Subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020.) Subject B discussed how their

parents had their own Victory Garden, readily using the produce grown in an attempt to add

flavor to their somewhat flavorless meals (personal communication, February 23, 2020). Due to

cities holding a sizable population in a dense area, food shortages often occurred even with the

Office of Price Administration and Ministry of Food rationing out almost all goods and

commodities. This was often due to the fact people were shoplifting or buying products under the

counter – reducing stores’ stock. To fight this battle of stolen goods, the OPA allowed only
WAR ON NUTRITION 25

mothers to acquire milk through designated grocery stores, which led children to be the ones who

were obligated to go to the grocery store to secure the milk (Subject E, personal communication,

March 4, 2020). Whether in the city, a rural country, America, or Great Britain, meat was also

limited. Subject A said their spouse, who was raised a few miles outside of London, rarely

consumed meat, but when they did, they ate kidney, liver, or beef (personal communication,

February 23, 2020). Spam served as the supplement for fresh meat. As a consequence of World

War II rationing and the Lend-Lease Act, Spam gained prominence in both America and the

United Kingdom. Spam's chief advantages were affordability, accessibility, and extended shelf

life. At the time it was introduced, it was the only canned meat product on the market that needed

no refrigeration (Subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020). Due to an apartmen’ts

compact area, tenants’ only had small cellars to store their cold foods – making spam the perfect

cuisine. When a family would have fresh or canned meat, they often made stews or other food

concoctions to incorporate their surplus of potatoes. Subject E revealed how they had potatoes

incorporated into almost every meal, with it quite often being served as the main dish in a stew

alongside baked beans (personal communication, March 4, 2020).

Eating these bland meals together became somewhat of a tradition and fond memories of

each of the individuals I spoke with. During the war, many family traditions were created due to

shortages of goods. For some families, it became an unorthodox tradition to save and collect half

smoked cigarettes so once a full carton was collected, this carton would be mailed to a family’s

husband or son fighting overseas. This was just one of many traditions to illustrate how a family

back home was missing their soldier (Subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020).

Along with food, other goods were regulated, such as rubber and gasoline.
WAR ON NUTRITION 26

Quite frequently, individuals would buy run-down cars solely due to the fact they were

equipped with comparatively new tires (Subject B, personal communication, February 23, 2020).

Gasoline was rationed as well for its use in the planes and Willys ME, a standard army jeep

utilized between 1941 and 1945. Farmers were allotted a “C” card which meant they could

purchase eight gallons of gas per week. Quite often farmers would use this allotted gasoline on

their personal vehicles, which was against the regulations set by Congress (subject E, personal

communication, March 4, 2020). Leather was another good in great demand – in part because

almost all shoes were made of leather rather than plastic and other textiles. A plethora of children

would use cardboard on the inside of their shoe soles as one pair of shoes was expected to be

used for nearly a year (subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020).

Whether across the pond or rural America, families seldom protested about the

concerning lack of food, goods, and commodities. Children were encouraged to support the

cause by rummaging for rubber while parents read their supplementary aids and planted their

Victory Gardens (subject E, personal communication, March 4, 2020) - all efforts for persons

and families to show their patriotism and loyalty to their republic.

WAR ON NUTRITION 27

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study was to look at the United States of America and the United

Kingdom and determine if these nation’s procedures to better educate their citizens on the

importance of maintaining a well-balanced diet were prosperous at the end of the war – in terms

of not simply maintaining, but elevating the food, nutrition, and health standards on the home

front. This study was conducted over, approximately, the period of seven months with the

utilization of several academic sources, journals, TV series, and five individuals which were

interviewed. From these interviews, a few themes arose which required recognition and

explanation.

The first major theme which seems to stand out from the interviews conducted was the

common fact that rural farmers and city dwellers lived exceptionally different lives during these

times. Many farmers were able to rely on their crops for most of their food while those in the city

could often only eat what was allotted to them. This created somewhat of a socialization gap,

where many urban dwellers felt they had it harder than others. While these arguments are

predominantly valid, both those in rural counties and cities felt it was their patriotic duty to

cooperate with the government – leading to a second discovered theme. Whether rummaging for

rubber, planting a Victory Garden, or eating Spam, people knew any effort they made for the war

effort was a respectable one. With most everyone taking part in some way to help aid the war,

many people felt a sense of community with those around them, with those whom they knew and

did not know.

Another noted theme was the importance of family traditions. Before the war, many

people spent the holidays together but while the war was taking place, many fathers and sons

were off fighting or daughters aided in the medical field – leaving fewer people to reside in
WAR ON NUTRITION 28

homes once filled with many. Because of the large number of people absent from family

gatherings, innovative traditions had to be formed. One of these traditions was to collect

cigarettes to be shipped to those overseas. Another tradition was to come up with different food

creations, following the trend of mock foods. Many citizens tended to be creative with their

recipes. For example, making mock crab from a mixture of dried egg, cheese, and salad dressing.

A theme which was often discussed when reviewing World War II literature and was proven to

be prevalent in these interviews was how resourceful people had to become when they had very

little.

Mothers had to become exceptionally resourceful during these times, often making

children clothes out of potato sacks or by having their children rummage for cardboard to be

used for shoe soles. Housewives also were resourceful when they would preserve foods because

they knew canning meant they would be allowed more sugar than the average consumer.

Another specific instance of people being resourceful was when Subject B bought a rather run

down care simply due to it being equipped with new tires made of rubber – an item in scarce

supply.

To ward off the horrors of starvation as experienced in The Great War, Britain

reestablished the Ministry of Food and America established the Office of Price Administration,

which in turn set up several programs to lighten the menace of malnutrition. The stress of the

second World War and the ways in which Great Britain and North America dealt with the

subsequent turmoil proved to be efficient and effective. With the pursuit of productivity in all

aspects it is not unreasonable to say that the Ministry and OPA saved the day.

In a comparison of these two prosperous organizations, one must draw the conclusion

that the Office of Price Administration did a successful job of educating American citizens on
WAR ON NUTRITION 29

the importance of not simply maintaining, but elevating the food, nutrition, and health standards

on the home front. The Ministry of Food, as well, was exceptionally successful in treating their

citizens as consumers who are looking to learn how to prevail through such treacherous times.

This success can be seen due to the fact British citizens were consumers more calories during the

war than they had before, approximately 3,000. The prosperity of these two countries can be

understood through the formation of the Woman’s Land Army, the Dig for Victory campaign,

and the Lend-Lease Act. The Ministry’s success directly influenced the OPA’s rationing and

propaganda tactics and the Lend-Lease Act helped keep Britain from going hungry – proving the

cooperation of such powerful nations is essential for the success of countries going through a war

which would change the face of the world.

While the OPA and Ministry may seem outdated in the year 2020, these regulating bodies

utilized a plethora of policies which could effectively be implemented in times of crisis. One

effective policy would be the rationing of foods deemed essential so everyone gets a fair share.

With rationing, each person gets an allotted amount of goods based on their individual health and

family size, unlike in times of crisis when many people stockpile foods or products, leaving little

for other consumers.

During times of trepidation, citizens either come together and cooperate to show their

patriotism, or civilizations crumble into smithereens. America and Britain, individually and

collectively, came together to reestablish the Office of Price Administration and Ministry of

Food to save their people from looming malnourishment – one can only have confidence these

nations do the same now.

WAR ON NUTRITION 30

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE

It is often said those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Product

shortages have occurred before, such as the energy crisis in the 1970’s where the Western world,

particularly the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, faced substantial petroleum

shortages, as well as elevated prices. While oil is essential to travel, food is essential to live.

When food shortages occur, it truly shows the level of fear and potential chaos a society is in.

During World War II, American and Britain found themselves in unforeseen circumstances,

circumstances not seen since – until 2020.

The themes deliberated in this literature review, on initial perusal, may seem old-

fashioned and unserviceable to the average consumer today, but these themes are currently more

applicable than before. Unprecedented events, contrary to definition, do occur in a society with a

population of nearly eight billion. Wars and natural disasters are practically day-to-day

manifestations. Contagious physical illness in humans is also a phenomenon which may cause a

society to experience crisis. History classes often reference the Black Death, more commonly

known as the Plague, and merely a few years ago, Ebola and Zika wreaked havoc and mayhem

on 1st and 3rd world countries. COVID-19, Coronavirus, is the current pandemic in 2020 which is

sweeping nations – spreading widespread panic, leading to businesses closing, mass self-

isolations, and copious quantities of goods and foods, which were once universally accessible,

now scarce.

Throughout the USA and UK, hundreds of people have lost their lives to COVID-19 and

the death toll is still rising. Self-isolation is a fundamental way for a person to prevent

themselves from catching this virus. Governments have been advising their citizens to remain

indoors – leading to swarms of people crowding supermarkets and grocery stores in an effort to
WAR ON NUTRITION 31

stock up on supplies. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommends having enough

food in your home to last for two weeks (NewportRI, 2020), compelling individuals and families

to plan how to make their food supply last longer than they are used to. Store shelves have been

bare for weeks and companies cannot seem to produce goods fast enough to meet the

inconceivably high demand.

To combat these mass deficiencies of essentials (bread, milk, eggs, and toilet paper),

stores have begun to ration how much customers are able to purchase. The standard limit an

individual or family can buy from local grocery stores across America and Britain have been

(approximately): two dozen eggs, two gallons of milk, and one package of toilet paper (Ziady,

2020). For some families, this is plenty but for others, this allotment is far from adequate. Some

families have several children while other people live alone – giving them no reason to buy two

dozen eggs. With no true regulations in place, this system is exceptionally inconsistent and lacks

reliability, suitability, and effectiveness. In a perfect society, a plan would be in place where

civilians are given food allocations based on their family size, much like the United States and

Britain during World War II. With such an effective system once used, one must ask themselves

why these countries, as well as others, are not looking back on their history to move forward

with the most applicable and efficient strategy to feed their nations?

Education seems to be a contributing factor to these mass shortages and mass

pandemonium. This lack of education cannot be placed solely on the individuals though, but too

on the governments for which they live under. At one period of time, many governments made it

their mission to educate their people on proper food preparation and planning for events such as

this. When told to stock up on food, countless people simply do not know what to buy. Particular

populaces may buy large quantities of fruit snacks while others go straight for the fresh produce
WAR ON NUTRITION 32

– each exceptionally flawed strategies to keep a family properly nourished for an extended

period of time. Of course, a person should eat their fresh produce, but in times like these –

produce will not keep a person nourished for weeks on end when it is heavily advised for them to

not leave their home to simply get mail. Many people, too, are stocking up on cartons of milk,

while powdered milk has a longer shelf life and offers an equal volume of nutrients as milk from

a carton. This also can be said about cartons of eggs, when liquid eggs moreover have an

exceptionally lengthier shelf life than those which are fresh. From this extensive research, it was

shown the Office of Price Administration and Ministry of Food knew to focus on educating

civilians on the importance of consuming foods which were not just nutritious, but had a

particularly extended shelf life.

Consumers who feel it is necessary to overstock on food are principally doing so due to

panic of running out of aforementioned goods and having a personal deficiency of food

preparation skills (Eufic, 2011). During World War II, if a person lacked knowledge of food and

food preparation, this was not a problem – for Extension offices were formed to educate people

on these basic, but indispensable, skills. Citizens, as well, observed an overabundance of

educational films which focused on food preparation techniques and how to cooperate with the

government when shopping. Utilizing Extension offices to further educate consumers about how

to successfully feed a family and run a home is just one policy from World War II that could be

implemented in today’s society.

When the second World War began, America and Britain knew they needed to have a

plan of action prepared to keep their nations running as smoothly as possible. Many U.S. citizens

feel America does not have an effective plan in place like they believe existed (Kayyem, 2020).

Aggressive steps are essential to protecting the public from a deadly virus. Even if the United
WAR ON NUTRITION 33

States were far more ready for COVID-19, the consequences could still be grievous. Adequate

preparation means having the plans, money, equipment, and expertise in place to avert all but a

minute percentage of the harms that might otherwise occur. Yet, because of the nature of

pandemics, even a level of preparation that looks robust to homeland-security experts could still

fail to prevent thousands of deaths. For the Coronavirus, some may feel the United States wasted

their opportunity by downplaying the risk – rather than efficiently implementing extreme plans

of actions. One element the Ministry of Food and OPA used in their plan of action was to fully

educate their citizens. This was done by keeping people in the loop and actively telling them how

they could stay safe and why their participation was important. This was predominantly done

through propaganda and ration pamphlets. The OPA and Ministry, too, felt it essential for

citizens to have a strong sense of nationalism, something potentially lacking in America where a

constant war seems to exist between the Republican and Democrat parties. Despite the fact that

rationing systems are sometimes necessary as the only viable option for societies facing severe

consumer goods shortages, they are usually extremely unpopular with the general public, as they

enforce limits on individual consumption. A sense of nationalism makes the general public more

willing to cooperate with extreme regulations.

While to some, the idea of the government limiting their food supply may seem drastic

and invasive, food rationing was done before and done successfully. Food prices are rising

exponentially, a concerning state prevented by food rationing because rationing can be

complementary to price controls. An example of rationing in the face of rising prices took place

in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis

(History, 2010). The amount of food allotted to a family was based on the family’s size and ages
WAR ON NUTRITION 34

of children in the 1940’s. While the exact rationing plan used in World War II would not

potentially work in a modern society, it can be refined to work for the 21 century.

Moving forward, analyzing how the U.S.A. and U.K. kept their nations from starvation

would better help these and other countries prevent nationwide malnutrition from potentially

occurring again. While limitations may not be needed on every product, essentials, such as milk

and bread, could be constricted to prevent widespread chaos; chaos which seemed to occur in

March, 2020 when dairy coolers were left bare and eggs more than doubled in price. Some

families walked away from stores with four gallons of milk while others were left with none – an

issue which never occurred during World War II. In WWII, the OPA and Ministry of Food

successfully regulated food, allocating different amounts to each family based on their size – an

ordinance which should be studied in greater detail by the government so as if a situation like

this were to occur again, these governing bodies can properly implement rationing once again.

To effectively implement food rationing in 2020, these governments would need to ask

essential questions to form the most effective strategy conceivable. Some potential questions for

research are: why did people feel the need to purchase large quantities of only particular foods,

why were American and British citizens so underprepared when the time came to spend more

time at home, is it feasible to implement food rationing on products deemed essential, and did

families take into account the nutritional value of the foods they stock piled? Another essential

question the government would need to answer would be what propaganda techniques were the

most successful in educating people on the significance of consuming a nutrient dense diet with a

high quantity of carbohydrates and protein in order to keep populaces invigorated longer?
WAR ON NUTRITION 35

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

The results of this study illustrate the incredible effectiveness of the policies and

procedures implemented by the Office of Price Administration and Ministry of Food aimed to

keep their people from starvation. Looking forward, similarities and variances may exist between

how these governments acted in two somewhat parallel times of crisis. These comparisons will

need to be further analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the Trump Administration’s tactics

– in regards to the precautions taken on food.

Further study will be required to fully understand how the OPA and Ministry determined

just how many rations would be given to a family. It is understood a family size determines how

much food, but what were the exact ratios and formulas used to determine how much food would

be allocated?

Another procedure governments could use from the past is the practice of educating

citizens so they are more aware of their own circumstances. Extension Offices were once used

heavily to educate people, predominantly women, about home economics. During the war,

extension home economists taught farm women – who traditionally maintained the household –

good nutrition, surplus food canning, gardening, home poultry production, home nursing,

furniture refinishing, and sewing – skills that helped many farm families survive the years of

economic depression and drought. These Extension Offices were essential for small community

survival during WWII and were they essential yet again? Another imposing question which

relates to Extension Offices is how can technology be used to educate consumers who are

encouraged to stay home?

Another tactic these governments seemed to lack was a strong sense of nationalism.

When a large sum of individuals have a strong sense of nationalism, they feel like they are a
WAR ON NUTRITION 36

holistic group working for a common goal. During WWII, the United States and Great Britain

knew this and used this knowledge to the best of their ability. If everyone feels they are essential

for success, they are more willing to accept their depraved circumstances and work efficiently

together. In the current climate, a divide seems to exist between political parties. This divide

must be minimalized to effectively address crises now and in the future and during Coronavirus,

was the divide minimalized?

Certain families overprepared for food shortages while others had barely enough to last

mere days, these methods of food preparation will require further research seeking an answer for

the question – were families educated enough to be fully prepared on how to form food

stockpiles which could last up to several weeks? While mass food shortages did not last

exceptionally long, bare shelves did cause the general public to go into a slight panic, potentially

due to their lack of knowledge of food preparation of product shelf-life.

In World War II, taxes were raised, the cost of living went up (slightly), and prices of

goods inflated as well (McMahon, 2020). Further qualitative analysis will need to be conducted

to determine how the cost of goods was affected due to such a high demand for specific products.

Products to consider when looking at inflation include eggs, milk, bread, flour, and gasoline.

Perhaps the most imperative question for further research is what similarities are

observable between the United States and United Kingdom policies implemented in 2020 and

how they compare to the policies used to help these two nations survive a treacherous war.
WAR ON NUTRITION 37

CONCLUSION

To ward off the horrors of starvation as experienced in The Great War, America and

Britain established the Office and Price Administration and the Ministry of Food, which in turn

set up several programs to alleviate the threat of undernourishment. The stress of the second

World War and the ways in which these countries dealt with the subsequent turmoil proved to be

efficient and effective. The pursuit of productivity in all aspects undeniably aided the war effort,

and it is not unreasonable to say that the OPA and Ministry saved the day. This productivity was

visualized in the literature review through the success of the prevalence of Extension Offices, the

Lend-Lease Act, and the undisputable sense of nationalism being felt throughout these countries.

Through the interviews conducted, success was shown through the Dig for Victory Campaign in

metropolitan areas and the ways families utilized what was rationed to them in the most

resourceful way comprehendible. The dedication and determination of the Allied forces during

World War II is only matched by that of those at home.

WAR ON NUTRITION 38

REFERENCES

America Historical Association. (2018). The story of propaganda. Retrieved from

https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-

roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-2-what-is-propaganda-(1944)/the-story-of-propaganda

Ames History Museum. (2019). World War II rationing on the U.S. home front. Retrieved from

http://www.ameshistory.org/content/world-war-ii-rationing-us-homefront

Bachman J., Christaldi, J., Tomasko, A., & Castellanos, D. (2016). Translating MyPlate into

food selections that meet dietary guidelines recommendations. Journal of Human

Sciences and Extension, 4(3), 111-123.

Barrow, M. (2013). Introduction to rationing in Britain during World War 2. Retrieved from

http://www.primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/war/rationing.htm

CBGP News. (2013, June 8). Wartime nutrition (1943) - World War II allied propaganda [Video

file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xc2j7nbZcto

Cokeley, S. R. (2016). Hometown heroes. Military History, 33(1), 52-57.

Collingham, L. (2012). The taste of war: World War II and the battle for food. Penguin Press.

Ginn, F. (2012). Dig for victory! New histories of wartime gardening in Britain. Journal of

Historical Geography, 38(3), 294-305.

Gumey, A. (1942, May 14). British food control. Army News. Retrieved from https://

trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/38329257

Herold, D. (2018). A difficult time for the United States – US rationing of goods during WWII.

War History Online. Retrieved from https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war

ii/rationing-goods-us-wwii.html
WAR ON NUTRITION 39

History. (2019). FDR introduces the lend-lease program. Retrieved from https://

www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fdr-introduces-the-lend-lease-program

History. (2010). Energy crisis (1970s). Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/1970s/

energy-crisis

Hutchinson, J., Watt, F., Cade, E., & Strachan, K. (2016). Evaluation of the effectiveness of

the Ministry of Food cooking program on self-reported food consumption and confidence

with cooking. Public Health Nutrition, 19(18), 4417-3427.

Imperial War Museums. (2018). What you need to know about rationing in the second world

war. Retrieved from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-you-need-to-know-about

rationing-in-the-second-world-war

Kayyem, J. (2020). The U.S. Isn’t Ready for What’s About to Happen. Retrieved from https://

www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/03/us-isnt-ready-whats-about-happen/607636/

MacGrogor, H. (Director). (2008). The supersizes go… wartime [Television series episode].

United Kingdom: British Broadcasting Cooperation.

Mason, A. (2018). What was the women’s land army? Retrieved from https://

www.womenshistory.org/articles/food-rationing-and-canning-world-war-ii.

National Geographic. (2019). Jan 8, 1940 CE: Britain begins wartime rationing. Retrieved from

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jan8/britain-begins-wartime-rationing/

National Park Service. (2016). Sacrificing for the common good: Rationing in WWII. Retrieved

from https://www.nps.gov/articles/rationing-in-wwii.htm

National WWII Museum, New Orleans. (n.d.) Rationing. Retrieved from https://

www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/rationing

Oulton, R. (2011). Cooks info. Retrieved from http://www.cooksinfo.com/british-wartime-food

WAR ON NUTRITION 40

Pearl Harbor Visitors Bureau. (2019). World war II and rationing in the U.S. Retrieved from

https://visitpearlharbor.org/wartime-rationing-in-the-us/

Sarah, S. (2019). Make it do – Coffee rationing in World War II. Retrieved from https://

www.sarahsundin.com/make-it-do-coffee-rationing-in-world-war-ii-2/

Schumm, L. (2018). Food rationing in wartime America. Retrieved from https://

www.history.com/news/food-rationing-in-wartime-america

Speaks, D., A, & Clift, R. (2016). Eat Tennessee in World War II. The History Press

Spring, K. (2017). Food rationing and canning in World War II. Retrieved from https://

www.womenshistory.org/articles/food-rationing-and-canning-world-war-ii

Thatcher, R. (2020). Food for thought: Grocery shopping in ‘the new normal’ of Newport.

Retrieved from https://www.newportri.com/foodanddining/20200415/food-for-thought

grocery-shopping-in-the-new-normal-of-newport

Trueman, C. (2019). The black market. Retrieved fromhttps://

www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ world-war-two/world-war-two-in-westerneurope/

britains-home-front-in-world-war-two/the-black-market/

Wilson, S. (n.d.) Rationing in World War Two. Retrieved from https://www.historicuk.com/

CultureUK/Rationing-in-World-War-Two/

Yang, M. (2005). Creating the kitchen patriot: Media promotion of food rationing and nutrition

campaigns on the American home front during World War II. American

Journalism, 22(3), 55-75.

Ziady, H. (2020). Panic buying is forcing supermarkets to ration food and other supplies.

Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/18/business/supermarkets-rationing

coronavirus/index.html
WAR ON NUTRITION 41

Appendix A

Consent Form

Invitation to Participate: You are invited to participate in a study of personal

experiences during World War II and their involvements with rationing and wartime propaganda,

being conducted by Wayne State College Undergraduate Honors student Andrew Christ. You

have been selected for participation in this study because you lived through 1939 – 1945 and

experienced food rationing in your homes. Your participation is completely voluntary.

Overall Purpose of Study: In recent years, a debate has arisen in regards to which

country did an above superior job nourishing their citizens during World War II – The United

Stated or Great Britain. The purpose of this research project is to determine an answer to this

debated topic. From interviewing subjects, I will be gathering personal information about how

specific families functioned during this time – comparing how the families from different

countries functioned under these restrictions and regulations.

Explanation of Procedures: If you decide to participate, you will be asked to do the

following things: A casual one on one interview will be conducted where and when the

interviewee feels most comfortable. Andrew shall ask personal questions regarding your life

during WWII. This interview will take approximately 30 – 40 minutes.

Potential Risks and Discomforts: You may experience some emotional discomfort due

to some personal experiences which may be held to your life during this time. The weight of this

subject will vary from person to person – which means you may not experience any emotional

discomfort at all. A counseling center is located within the Sutton Community Home for which

you may visit if you feel any discomfort during the interview.
WAR ON NUTRITION 42

Potential Benefits: As a benefit, you will have a chance to explore your past and learn

why rationing was implemented and how the government treated/manipulated the average

consumer. You too will have a chance to share their story which will be used to educate others

about this time period.

Assurance of Confidentiality: Your name shall not be tied with any of the responses and

your personal responses shall not be shared outside of this research project and during the

interview, a pseudonym shall be used. The audio data will be recorded on a digital recording

device then transferred to a USB. No one other than Andrew Christ will hear the audio. The

recording and transcription will be stored on a USB drive for five years. The recording and

transcribed notes will be stored in a filing cabinet in Dr. Carol Erwin’s personal office.

Future Research: It is possible that identifiers may be removed from the identifiable

private information and that, after such removal, the information could be used for future

research studies or distributed to another investigator for future research studies without

additional informed consent from the subject or legally authorized representative.

Withdrawal from the Study: Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect

your current or future relationship with Wayne State College, Andrew Christ, and Dr. Carol

Erwin. If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue

participation at any time.

Offer to Answer Questions: You are free to ask questions now and at any time during

the study. If you have questions, you can contact Andrew Christ (402) 410-1468 or Dr. Carol

Erwin (402) 760-2789. If you have questions about human subject’s research, subject rights, and

research-related injury as well as complaints regarding human subject’s research, contact the

Wayne State College Institutional Review Board at [email protected] You may also submit your
WAR ON NUTRITION 43

questions/comments through the link on the IRBs web page

http://libguides.wsc.edu/connlibrary/irb

Consent Statement: You are voluntarily making a decision whether or not to participate.

Your signature indicates that, having read and understood the information provided above, and

you have decided to participate. Thank you for your participation and cooperation.

You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep.

________________________________________

Print Name of Participant

________________________________________ ____________________

Signature of Participant Date

________________________________________ ____________________

Signature of Investigator Date

WAR ON NUTRITION 44

Appendix B

Interview Questions

1. Tell me a little about yourself, where was your family from?

2. Did you have any siblings growing up?

3. What did your father and mother do for work during the war?

4. Do you remember any propaganda ads in your neighborhood?

5. Do you remember you parents using ration books?

6. Did you ever go with your parents to get groceries while using provided ration books.

7. What was it like growing up in your neighborhood during the war?

8. What did your family mainly eat during the war?

9. What foods did you rarely eat during the war?

10. Did your mother plan a Victory Garden?

11. Would you say your family ate well during the war?

12. What precautions did your family take to help make food last longer in your household?

13. What were your families eating habits like after the war? Did you eat less, more, or the

same amount and did you eat a wider variety of foods?

14. What were some takeaways you have from rationing during WWII?