Unit 1

The Nature of Research

Introduction
What makes human beings different from other forms of Animals?
Human beings are peculiar from other forms of animals due to their inquisitive
nature. The need for acquisition of knowledge usually begins with series of
questions that children start asking their parents as soon as they start to be able to
talk. This could be the implication that why human beings have long been
concerned with their environment to understand the nature of the phenomena it
presents to their senses.
How do people tackle the problems they face or find answers to their question? In
this regard, a number of sources of knowledge or approaches could be sited. The
means by which they set out to achieve these ends may be classified in to three
broad categories. These are: Experience, logical reasoning and systematic study
or what is commonly known as scientific method.
However, the systematic study/scientific method in its process combines both
experience and reasoning, and must be regarded as the most successful approaches
to the discovery of truth and whose form represents what is known as research.
1.1 The Meaning of Research
What is meant by Research?
The term research first derived from a French word “ recherché” meaning travel
through or survey.

 Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific

methodology to solve problems and creates new generally applicable
knowledge.
 Moreover, research is an attempt that helps us to find what is really
happening and the costs and benefits of a certain program so as to make
judgments and best decisions about the program and able to justify these
decisions to anyone seeking information.
 Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information in
order to increase our understanding of a topic or issue (Creswell, 2008).
[

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1.2 Importance of Research

1. Research adds to our knowledge.

– Addresses gaps in knowledge
– Expands knowledge
– Replicates knowledge
– Adds voices of individuals to knowledge
2. Research helps improve practice.
– Educators gain new ideas for their job.
– Educators gain new insights into approaches.
– Educators can connect with other educators.

3. Research helps inform policy debates.

– Research allows people to weigh different perspectives on policy
issues.
– Research enables people to make informed decisions regarding policy.

Particularly, research in education helps to:

- Understand the teaching-learning process and take
actions accordingly.
- Evaluate new instructional programs and draw
lessons for further improvements.
- See how various aspects of school and classrooms
affect learning and other school outcomes.
- Introduce changes for the improvement and
development of educational services.
- Guide educational decision makers in making
decisions and take action without bias and
subjectivity.
- See policy statements and strategies and eventually
assess impacts

1.3 Problems with Research Today

 Contradictory or vague findings

 Questionable data
 Unclear statements about the intent of the study
 Unclear research design and methodology
 Inarticulate rendering of the research problem

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 1.4 Types of Research

Different writers categorize the research types in various ways.

 Best and Khan (1998) stated that all studies fall under one, or a combination of
the following types:
i) Historical research,
ii) Descriptive (qualitative & quantitative) research, &
iii) Experimental research.
 Gay, Mills &Airasian (2009) classified research types based on:
i) Method (qual. & quant. research types) ,&
ii) Purpose/function (Appl. & Basic/fundamental R.types)
 Some other writers also classify research types based on:
i) Method (Historical, Descriptive & Experimental R.)
ii) Purpose/function (Appl. & Basic R. types), &
iii) Nature of data analysis ( qual. & quant. R. types).

Basically, the classification of research into different types depends on

the:
 Nature of the problem
 The appropriate approach to a given study depends on the way the
research problem is defined
 Kind of data to be sought
 Numerical or non numerical data
 Therefore based on these criterion research is divided into different
typed based on the method to be employed and the function it stands
to serve.

1.4.1 Classification of Research by Method

Based on the methods to be employed research is divided in to three types:

quantitative, qualitative & mixed research approaches.

1.4.1.1 The Concept of Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Research

Approaches

i. Quantitative Research
 A type of research in which the researcher decides what to study; asks
specific, narrow questions; collects quantifiable data from participants;

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 analyzes these numbers using statistics; and conducts the inquiry in an
unbiased, objective manner.
 Is the collection and analysis of numerical data to describe, explain, predict
or control phenomena of interest. However this method entails more than just
the use of numerical data.
ii. Qualitative Research
 A type of research in which the researcher relies on the views of
participants; asks broad and general questions; collects data consisting
largely of words (or text) from participants; describes and analyzes these
words for themes; and conducts the inquiry in a subjective and biased
manner.
 Is a collection, analysis and interpretation of compressive narrative and
visual (ie. non numerical data to gain insights in to a particular phenomena of
interest.

Differences between Ql&Qt Research Types WRT some steps in research process (you will learn these steps in
detail in chapter 5)
Qt Research Steps in Ql Research
Research
Process
 Description and explanation oriented Identifying a  Exploratory and understanding oriented
 Hypotheses & procedures stated before beginning research  Research problems & methods evolve as understanding
the study problem of topic deepens
 Begins with hypotheses and theories  Ends with hypotheses and grounded theory  (You will
( you will learn more about hypothesis in Chapter learn more about grounded theory in later sections)
5)
 Focus on:
Setting the
Research
 Focus on:
 Generalizability-large no of participants Purpose  Contextualization 
subjects   Interpretation 
 Prediction   understanding actors' perspectives
 Causal explanations
 Is its Major role  Is its Minor role
 Justification for the research problem and Reviewing the  Justification for the research problem
specification for the need for the study literature
 Specific and narrow Selecting  General and broad…is open to decide
 Measurable observable data participants/  Participants’ experiences
sample
 More rigid procedures Collecting  Less rigid procedures
 Little participant interaction data  Extensive participant interaction
 Predetermined instruments  Emerging protocols
 Numeric (numbered data)  Text or image data/non_numerical
 Large sample size  Small sample size
 Researcher Role  Researcher Role
 Detachment and impartiality   Personal involvement & partiality 

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  Objective portrayal  Empathic understanding
 Assumptions  Assumptions
 Social facts have an objective reality  Analyzing  Reality is socially constructed 
 Primacy of method  and  Primacy of subject matter 
 Variables can be identified and Interpreting  Variables are complex, interwoven, and
relationships measured  data difficult to measure 
 Believes that we live in a stable &  Believes that meaning is situated in a
predictable world that we can particular perspective or context that is
measure, understand, and generalize different for people and groups; therefore,
about the world has many meaning

 Approach  Approach 

 There is manipulation of Context  There is no manipulation of Context

 Conducts statistical analysis  Conducts text analysis
 Description of trends, comparison of  Description, analysis and thematic
groups, or relationships among development
variables  The large meaning of findings
 A comparison of results with  Emergence and portrayal 
predications and post studies  Researcher as instrument 
 Naturalistic 
 Manipulation and control   Inductive 
 Uses formal instruments   Searches for patterns 
 Experimentation   Seeks pluralism, complexity 
 Deductive   Makes minor use of numerical indices
 Component analysis   Descriptive write-up
 Seeks consensus, the norm 
 Reduces data to numerical indices 

 Abstract language in write-up

 Standard and fixed Reporting  Flexible and emerging
 Objective and unbiased  Reflexive and biased

iii) A Mixed Approach

 A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing,

and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research methods in a single
study to understand a research problem.

Why Mixed Method (Rationale for the Design)

It helps to:

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  successfully explain social events & r/ships in their full
complexity,
 better understand the context and reality in breadth & depth,
 obtain a variety of infn on the same issue,
 use the strength of each of the qul&qut approaches to overcome
the deficiencies of the other, &
 achieve a higher degree of validity and reliability (Schulze,
2003;Sarantakos ,1998)

When to Use Mixed Methods Designs

 When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a better

understanding of your research problem than either type by itself

 When on

 e type of research (qualitative or quantitative) is not enough to address the
research problem or answer the research questions

 To incorporate a qualitative component into an otherwise quantitative study

 To build from one phase of a study to another

 Explore qualitatively then develop an instrument

 Follow-up a quantitative study qualitatively to obtain more
detailed information

Key Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs

a. Collecting quantitative (Numeric) and qualitative (Text) data

b. Priority

 Equal weight
 Qt carries more weight than Ql
 Ql carries more weight than Qt

c. Sequence

 Collect both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time

 Collect quantitative data first, followed by qualitative data

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 Collect qualitative data first, followed by quantitative data

Steps for Conducting a Mixed Methods Study

Develop quantitative and
qualitative research
questions. Step Collect quantitative and
qualitative data.
Step 5
Identify the data
collection strategy and Priority
type of design Sequence
Analyze data separately
or concurrently
Step 6
Identify the rationale for Determine if a mixed
a mixed methods study. methods study is
Step 2 feasible Write the report as a
one-or two-phase study
Step 7

1.4.1.2 Types of Quantitative, Qualitative & Mixed Research Methods

1. Types of Quantitative Research Method
These methods include 1. Survey (describe the current condition), 2.correlation
(investigate the relation between two or more variables), 3.experimental and
4.causal comparative studies (provide information about the cause effect
outcomes), and 5.single subject (focus on the behavior change an individual
exhibits as a result of some intervention).
i. Survey Research

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 Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators administer a
survey to a sample or to the entire population of people in order to describe the attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, or characteristics of the population.
 It determines and reports the way things are;
 Involves collecting numerical data to test hypothesis or answer questions about the
current status of the subject of the study.
 One common type of survey research involves assessing the preferences, attitudes,
practices, concerns, or interest of a group of people
E.g. Perception of the community on the quality of TVET.

Challenges facing survey research

 constructing questions that have clarity, consistency and tact
 Participants failure to return questionnaires and willingness to be surveyed and to attend scheduled
interviews
 If the response rate is low, then valid trustworthy conclusions cannot be drawn.
Eg:-100 questionnaire distributed 40 returned all positive. Can we conclude based on these responses
(the 40)? No
When to use a Survey Research?
 To assess trends
 To assess opinions, beliefs, and attitudes
 For follow-up analyses
 For evaluations
The Types of Survey Design

Time of Data Collection

Study over Time Study at One Point in Time

Longitudinal Cross-sectional

Change
Trends in in a subpopulation Change
the same group identified in the
Attitudes
population by a common same and Community Program
over time characteristic over people
Practices needs Evaluation
time over
time

Groups National
Trend Cohort Panel Comparisons Assessment

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 Key Characteristics of Survey Research
 Sampling from a population
 Collecting data mainly through questionnaires & to some extent through
interviews & observations
 Designing instruments for data collection
 Obtaining a high response rate
Reducing Error in Survey Research
 Reducing sampling error: Select large sample from the population as much
as possible
 Reducing measurement error: Use a good instrument with clear,
unambiguous questions and response options
 Reducing non response error: Use rigorous administration procedures to
achieve as large a return rate as possible
Steps in Conducting Survey Research
1. Decide if a survey is the best design to use
2. Identify the research questions or hypotheses
3. Identify the population, the sampling frame, and the sample
4. Determine the survey design and data collection procedures
5. Develop or locate an instrument & pre-test it for validity & reliability
6. Administer the instrument
7. Analyze the data to address the research questions or hypotheses
8. Write the report
ii. Correlation Research
Involves collecting data to determine whether, and to what extent (degree) a
relation exists between two or more quantifiable variables.[

The purpose of CR (study) may be to establish relations or use the existing

relations to make predictions. Correlation refers to a quantitative measure of the
degree of correspondence. The degree to which two variables are related is
expressed as a correlation coefficient (r) whose value ranges from -1 to 1
inclusive. If no relation, then r=0
Note that the results of correlational studies do not suggest cause effect relations
among variables. (You will learn more about variables in chapter II)
Eg. A positive correlation between self concept and achievement does not imply
that self concept causes achievement.
When to Use Correlational Designs
 To examine the relationship between two or more variables
 To predict an outcome:
 Use one variable to predict the score on another variable

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Characteristics of Correlational Designs
 Displays of scores (scatter plots and matrices)
 Associations between scores (direction, form, and strength)
 Multiple variable analysis (partial correlations and multiple regression)
 For Associations Between Two Scores
- Direction (positive or negative)
- Form (linear or nonlinear)
- Degree and strength (size of coefficient)
Nonlinear Associations Statistics
 Spearman rho (rs): Correlation coefficient for nonlinear ordinal data
 Point-bi serial: Used to correlate continuous interval data with a
dichotomous variable
 Phi-coefficient: Used to determine the degree of association when both
variable measures are dichotomous
Degree and Strength of Association
 < .20 almost no relation
 0.20–0.35: When correlations range from .20 to .35, there is only a slight
relationship.
 0.35–0.65: When correlations are above .35 & below .65, they are useful for
limited prediction.
 0.66–0.85: When correlations fall into this range, good prediction can result
from one variable to the other. Coefficients in this range would be considered
very well.
 0.86 and above: Correlations in this range are typically achieved for studies of
construct validity or test-retest reliability
Types of Correlational Designs
i. Explanatory Design
 Correlate two or more variables
 Collect data at one point in time
 Analyze all participants as a single group
 Obtain at least two scores for each individual in the group—one for each
variable
 Report the correlation statistic
 Interpretation based on statistical test results indicate that the changes in one
variable are reflected in changes in the other

ii. Prediction Designs

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  Predictor variable: A variable that is used to make a forecast about an
outcome in the correlational study
 Criterion variable: The outcome being predicted
 Predictor variables usually measured at one point in time; the criterion
variable measured at a later point in time
 Purpose is to forecast future performance

Multiple Variable Analyses: Partial Correlations

Partial Correlations: Use to determine the extent to which a mediating variable
influences both independent and dependent variables

Independent
Dependent
Variable
Variable

Time on Task Achievement

Time on Task Achievement

Motivation

Motivation

iii. Causal – Comparative Research

Definitions of Some Terminologies
What is a Variable?
A variable is an event, a characteristic or an attribute that can be measured (can
be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument) andvaries (can
assume different values or scores for different individuals). The variable must be
able to take on at least two values or scores.

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Example:1. Human being varies in terms of:
 physical characteristics such as ht, wt, etc
 intellectual characteristics such as intelligence, self concept etc.
2. Gender, ethnicity, socio economic status (SES), test scores, age, and
teacher experience are all variables; people differ on these characteristics.

Variables differ in many ways. For instance they can differ by the way they are
represented or measured

i) By the way they are represented

a) Variables and Constructs
 A variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied
way.
 A construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general
way.

Construct Student Achievement

Variable Grade Point Average

ii) By the way they are measured

a) Categorical and Continuous Measures of Variables
 A categorical measure is a value of a variable assigned by the researcher
into a small number of categories. (e.g., gender)
 A continuous measure is the value of a variable assigned by the researcher
to a point along a continuum of scores from low to high. (e.g., age)
b) Quantitative and Qualitative Variables
Quantitative variables exist on a continuum that ranges from low to high, or less to
more. Ordinal, interval and ratio variables are all quantitative variables because
they describe performance in quantitative terms. Examples are test scores, heights,
speed, age and class size.
Nominal and categorical variables don’t provide quantitative information about
how people or objects differ. They provide information about qualitative
differences only. Eg. (eye color, religion, gender, political party) but not different
quantities

Families of Variables in Quantitative Studies

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[[

Probable Cause Effect

(X) (Y) (Z)

Independent Extraneous Dependent

Variables Variables Variables

Control
Variables  Participant Confounding
Variables Variables
 Intervening
Variables
 Organismic
Variables
 Environmental
Variables

 Independent variable:
 An attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an outcome or
dependent variable
 Is a variable that is responsible for the occurrence of behaviour of
dependent variable (DV)
 Can be manipulated and controlled by the researcher so that its effect
can be
seen on the DV
 It can also be referred as classifying, measured, cause, experimental,
manipulated or treatment variable.
 Dependent variables:
 An attribute or characteristic influenced by the independent variable.
 Is the one whose value or occurrence or extent depends on that of IDV
and is affected by ID
 It can also be referred as the outcome, effect, criterion or consequence
variable
E.g. i) In studying “The Effect of Homework Provision on Academic Achievement
of Students”

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 The DV is - academic achievement
IDV is – Homework provision
ii) What is the Extent of an Effect of Reinforcement on Students’ Attitude
Toward School?
IDV = Reinforcement DV = Attitude toward school

Here reinforcement could also be taken as a quantitative variable because it is

likely to be measured on a numerical scale (eg, strongly favorable towards school
could be assigned a higher number, whereas strongly unfavorable could be
assigned a lower one.

If the research question is rephrased as

Eg. Do positive and negative reinforcement affect TVETtrainees’ attitude
toward school?”
IDV = type of reinforcement
DV = attitude toward school

The IDV contains two levels of treatments: positivereinforcement and negative

reinforcement. Because it has two named categories as its levels, it is a categorical
variable and because it is manipulated by the researcher (i.e., the researcher
selected the two types of reinforcement and then assigned participant to experience
one or the other), the type of reinforcement is the IDV.

 Control Variables: Variables that serve as a benchmarking to cross-check the

changes in the dependent variable due to the treatment being manipulated on it.
 Extraneous variables: Are variables that influence in participant selection,
procedures, statistics, or the design likely to affect the outcome and provide an
alternative explanation of results than what was expected
 They could be grouped in two.
i) Variables that can be controlled
A) Participant variables
 These include both intervening variables and organismic variables
 Intervening variable (mediating variable): A variable that intervenes
between or alters the relation between” the IDV & DV but that cannot
be directly observed but can be controlled.
Examples
a) Anxiety, Boredom, etc
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 b) See the following figure

Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable Variable

Convenient office hours Student become willing Student seeks help

for students’ to take risk from faculty

 Organismic variables: Variables that cannot be altered but can be

controlled.
E.g., Sex of participants
B) Environmental Variables: variables that appear in the setting of a study
(e.g., learning materials) that may cause unwanted difference between groups
ii) Variables that could not be controlled
 Confounding variables (spurious variables): Attributes or
characteristics that the researcher cannot directly measure because their
effects cannot be easily separated from the other variables, even though
they may influence the relationship between the independent and the
dependent variable

Definition of Causal Comparative Research

 It is also said to be “ex-post facet” (Latin saying) meaning after the fact
research.
 Attempts to determine the causes or consequences of noted difference that
already exist b/n or among groups or individuals.
 Is a type of research method used to explore not only what educational
phenomena like but also how and why it occurred?
 Its aim is to:
 Compare similarities and differences among educational
phenomenon. In this case, it could be said as associational research.
 Discover what factors contribute to the occurrence of certain events
or practices.
 It is employed when the researcher studies educational phenomena having
factors that:
 Cannot be easily selected, collected and manipulated to establish cause
effect r/ship
 Cannot manipulate IDV to establish controls that are required in
experiments. This may be because a variable:
- cannot be manipulated (such as ethnicity) or
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 - one that might have been manipulated but for one
reason or another not been (such as teaching style)
and sometimes due to ethical constraints.
 CCR attempts to establish cause-effect relationship.
Example:
 How does preschool attendance affect social maturity at the end of the first
grade.
 The grouping variable is the preschool attendance (i.e the variable can
take two or more values students attending preschool and students not
attending preschool); the dependent variable, or effect, is social maturity
at the end of the first grade.
Note: If researcher could not be able to control the independent variable
because the groups are pre-existing, the variable is said to be grouping
variable, instead of an independent variable.
 How does having a working mother affect on child’s school absenteeism?
The grouping variable is the employment status of the mother (again with
two possible values the mother works or does not work); the department
variable is absenteeism, measured as number of days absent.
 Studies of this type usually use statistical correlation to establish r/ship
Weaknesses of CCR
 Because the cause under the study has already occurred, the researcher has no
control over it.
E.g., The effect of smoking on Lung Cancer here the groups are preexisting.
The researcher designs a study comparing the frequency of lung causer diagnosis
in two groups, long time smokers and non smokers. Because the groups are pre-
existing, the researcher could not control the conditions under which the
participants smoked or did not smoke.
This lack of researcher’s control is why the variable is known as a grouping
variable, rather than an independent variable. In this case attempts used to draw
conclusion in the study would be tenuous (weak ) and tentative at the best. Is it
smoking that cause higher rate of Lung cancer?
Is it living in a smoggy area, urban environment or is it some in known
combination of smoking and environment? A clear cause effect link cannot be
obtained. True-causal comparative relation can be determined only through
experimental research in which the researcher maintains control of an independent
variable; but in many cases an experimental study is inappropriate or unethical.
Like descriptive and correlation studies; however causal comparative research does
not produce and provide true experimental research studies.

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 Design of CCR
The basic causal comparative design involves selecting two or more groups that
differ on a particular variable of interest and comparing them to another variable
(s)
No manipulation is involved. The groups are different in one or two ways. The
design can be either of the following two types.

One group either possesses characteristics (often called criterion group designs) are
as follows.

Type of Group IDV DV

Design
I Group possesses Observation( O)
Characteristics © e.g. dropout Measurement
e.g. level of self esteem
A II Group does not possess O
Characteristics (-c)e.g. non Measurement
dropout e.g. level of self esteem
Group Group possess Characteristics O
1 one (c1) e.g. counsellors Measurement e.g. Amount of job
B satisfaction
Group Group possess Measurement e.g. Amount of job
II Characteristics two (c2) e.g. satisfaction
teachers

 An example of case “A”

 A comparison of two groups one composed of children with brain injuries
and the other composed of children without brain injuries

 An example of case “B”

 Individuals who learned algebra in traditional instruction and those who
learned algebra in computer assisted instruct
iv. Experimental Research
 Is a method of research that involves the manipulation and
controlling of variables to see their r/ship
 It is concerned with the “ what will” concept.
 Its purpose is to establish the cause & effect r/ship by exposing one
or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and

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 comparing the results to one or more control groups receiving the
treatment.
Unlike the descriptive/survey research, in which the researcher simply
observes conditions as they occur naturally, the researcher in
experimental research actually sets the steps for the occurrence of the
factors whose performance is to be studied under conditions while all
other factors which might complicate the observation are controlled or
eliminates.
 One way of controlling the variables/ factors is by randomizations
(random assignment) of the subjects of the study
At least one independent variable is manipulated, other relevant variables are
controlled, and the effect of one or more dependent variables is observed. As a
result, it also offers generalizability, or applicability of findings to settings and
contexts different from the one in which they were detained. Unlike the CCR, it
controls independent variable. They can select the participants for the study and
divide them in to two or more groups that have similar characteristics at the start of
the research experiment, and then apply the different treatments to the selected
groups. This type of selection helps them to draw conclusions about cause and
effect. The essence of experimentation is controlled although in many education
settings it is not possible or feasible to meet the stringent (strict) control condition
required by experimental research.
Examples. 1. Is personalized instruction from a teacher more effective for
increasing students’ computational skills than computer instruction?
IDV= type of instruction (with two values): Personalized instruction &
computer instruction
DV = Computational skills
A group of students who have never experienced either personalized
instruction or computer skills are selected and randomly divided in to two
groups.
2. Is there an effect of reinforcement on students’ attitude toward
school?
The IDV is type of reinforcement (with three values: positive,
negative or no reinforcement; the DV is attitude toward school.

When to use Experimental Procedures?

 To establish cause and effect

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  between independent and dependent variables
 when it is needed to control for all variables that might influence the
outcome
 To test theories
 To compare two or more groups

Characteristics of Experimental Designs(6Characteristics)

i) Random Assignment
 Randomly assign individuals at random to conditions or to groups (different
from random selection of participants)
 Random assignment equates groups and distributes variability between or
among groups and conditions
ii) Control over Extraneous Variables
 To minimize such an impact, participants are randomly assigned before
beginning the experiment
 Other control procedures:
 Pre- and posttests
 Matching participants
 Identifying covariates & trying to control them.
E.g.,Type of Instruction---IDV
Rate of Smoking------DV
Parents who smoke----Covariate
 If possible taking homogeneous samples
 Blocking (overcrowding) variables

Activity: Decide the research topic for the above example

iii) Manipulation of the Treatment Conditions

 Identify a treatment variable

 Identify the conditions or levels of the treatment variable
 Manipulate the treatment conditions

iv) Outcome Measures

 Measuring outcome, criterion or effect variables on continuous scale.

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v) Group Comparison
 Compare different groups on a condition
vi) Guard against Threats to Validity

Threats to Internal Validity

Internal validity:
 The observed changes that took place are a result of your intervention or
your program and are not the result of other causes.

Threats
 History  Diffusion of treatments
 Maturation  Compensatory equalization
 Regression  Compensation rivalry
 Selection  Resentful demoralization
 Mortality  Testing
 Interactions with selection  Instrumentation

Threats to External Validity

External validity:
 The degree to which the findings are generalizable to a population
 Is the extent to which the result of the research can be interpreted
accurately.e.g. If the causes effect relationships of two variables are studied,
the influence of the other variable other than the one assumed to be tested
for its causative factor, has to be controlled.

Threats
 Interaction of selection and treatment
 Interaction of setting and treatment
 Interaction of history and treatment

Types of Experimental Research Designs

Selection of a given design influences factors such as whether a control group will
be included, whether participants will be randomly selected and how data will be
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analyzed. Particular combinations of such factors produce different designs that are
appropriate for testing different types of hypotheses. In selecting a design first
determine which designs are appropriate for your study and for testing your
hypothesis, then determine which of these are also feasible given the constraints
under which you may be operating.

There are two major classes of experimental designs:

I. Single Variable Designs and
II. Factorial Designs
I. Single Variable Designs
 Is a design that involves one manipulated IDV.
 Are classified as
 Pre-experimental,
 True experimental and
 Quasi experimental designs, depending on the degree of control they
provide for threats to internal and external validity.
i) Pre-Experimental Designs
Pre- experimental designs do not be a very good job of controlling threats to
validity. These designs do not do a very good job of controlling extraneous
variables. Studies based on a pre experimental design are so questionable and
are not useful for most purposes except, perhaps, to provide a preliminary
investigation of a problem.
This design has three types:
a. The one-shot case study:
This involves a single group that is exposed to a treatment (x) and then protested
(0). No threats to validity are controlled in this design except those that are
automatically controlled because they are irrelevant in this design. The threats
that are relevant, such as history, maturation and mortality are not controlled.
Even if the research participants score high on the post test, you cannot
attribute their performance to the treatment because you do not know what
they know before you administered the treatment.

b. The One – Group Pretest – Posttest Design

This involves a single-group (0) that is protested, exposed to a treatment (x),
and then post tested again. The success of the treatment is determined by
comparing pretest and posttest scores. This design controls some threats to
validity not controlled by the one shot case study, but a number of additional
factors relevant to this design are not controlled. For example history and
maturation are not controlled. If participants do significantly better on the
posttest than on the pretest, the improvement may or may not be due to the
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 treatment. Something else may have happened to the participants that affected
their performance, and the longer the study takes, the more likely it is that this
“something” will threaten validity. Testing and instrumentation also are not
controlled; the participants may learn something on the pretest that helps them
on the posttest, or unreliability of the measures may be responsible for the
apparent improvement.

Statistical regression is also not controlled. Even if subjects are not selected on the
basis of extreme scores (i.e, higher or low), a group may do very poorly on the
pretest just by poor luck. For example, participants may guess badly on a multiple
choice pretest and improve on a posttest simply because, this time, their guessing
produces a score that is more in line with an expected score.

The only situation for which the one-group pretest-posttest design is appropriate is
when the behavior to be measured is not likely to change all by itself. Certain
prejudices, for example are not likely to change unless concerned effort is made.
c. The Static-Group Comparison
This involves at least two non-randomly formed groups, one that receives a new or
unusual treatment (i.e., the experimental treatment) and another that receives a
traditional treatment (i.e, the control treatment). Both groups are post tested. The
purpose of the control group is to indicate what the performance of the
experimental group would have been if they had not received the experimental
treatment. This purpose is fulfilled only to the degree that the control group is
equivalent to the experimental group. The static group comparison design can be
expanded to deal with any number of groups.

In this design, because participants are not randomly assigned to groups and no
pretest data are collected, it is difficult to determine the extent to which the groups
are equivalent.
ii. True Experimental Designs
Control for nearly all threats to internal and external validity. The common
characteristics of true experimental designs that the other designs do not have
is random assignment of participants to treatment groups. These designs
provide a very high degree of control and are always to be preferred

a) The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Requires at least two groups which are formed by random assignment. Both
groups are administered at pretest then receive a different treatment, and both

22
 groups are post tested at the end of the study. Finally, posttest scores are
compared to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.
The combination of random assignment and the presence of a pretest and a
control group serve to control for all threats to internal validity. Random
assignment controls for regression and selection factors; the pretest controls for
mortality; randomization and maturation; and the control group controls for
history, testing and instrumentation.

Testing is controlled because if pre-testing leads to higher posttest scores, the

advantage should be equal for both the experimental and control groups. The only
weakness in this design is a possible interaction between the pretest and the
treatment, which may make the results generalize able only to other pretested
groups. The seriousness of this potential weakness depends on the nature of the
pretest, the nature of the treatment, and the length of the study.

The pretest is used to see if the groups are essentially the same on the dependent
variable at the start of the study. If the groups are not essentially the same on the
pretest (i.e; random assignment does not guarantee equality), posttest scores can be
analyzed using analysis of covariance which adjusts posttest scores for initial
differences on any variable, including pretest scores. There is really no advantage
to this technique however, because any variable that can be controlled through
matching can be better controlled using other procedures such as analysis of
covariance.

b) The Posttest only Control Group Design

Is the same as the pretest-posttest control group design except there is no pretest
participants are randomly assigned to at least two groups, exposed to the
different treatments and post- tested.
c) The Solomon Four Group design
This is a combination of the pretest –post test control group design and the
posttest-only control group design. It involves random assignment of
participants to one of four groups. Two groups are pretested and two are not;
one of the pretested groups and one of the groups not pretested receive the
experimental treatment; and all four groups are post tested. This technique
helps to control the pre-test treatment interaction and mortality.

iii.Quasi Experimental Designs

Quasi experimental designs do not control extraneous variables as well as true
experimental designs but do a much better job than pre-exponential designs.
23
 Sometimes it is just not possible to assign individual participants to groups
randomly. For example, to receive permission to include school children in a
study, a researcher often has to agree to keep existing class rooms intact. In
other words, entire classrooms, not individual students are assigned to
treatments. When random assignment is not possible, a researcher may choose
from a number of quasi experimental designs that provide adequate control.
These designs are used when there is no feasibility to use true experimental
design.

a) The Non Equivalent Control Group Design

Are very much like the pretest-post test control group design discussed
previously. Here two or more treatment groups are pretested, administrated a
treatment, and post tested. This difference is that it involves random
assignment of intact groups to treatments not random assignment of
individuals. For example, suppose a school volunteered six intact classrooms
for a study. Three of the six classrooms may be randomly assigned to the
experimental group (x1), the reaming three assigned to the control group (x 2).
The inability to assign individuals to treatments randomly (as opposed to
assigning whole classes) adds validity threats such as regression and
interactions between selection, maturation, history and testing.

b) Counter Balanced Designs

In these designs all groups receive all treatments but in a different order and
groups are post tested after each treatment. The only restriction is that the
number of groups be equal to the number of treatments. The order in which the
groups receive the treatments is randomly determined. This design is usually
employed with intact groups when administration of a pretest is not possible,
although participants may be pretested.
II. Factorial Designs
Factorial designs are elaborations of single variable experimental designs to
permit investigation of two or more variables, at least one of which is
manipulated by the researcher. After researcher has studied an IDV using a
single variable design, it is often useful to study that variable in combination
with one or more other variables because some variables work differently
when paired with different levels of another variable. For example: One
method of math instruction may be more effective for high aptitude students,
where as a different method may be more effective for low aptitude students.

24
 The purpose of this factorial design is to determine whether the effects of an
independent variable are generalizable across all levels or whether the effects are
specific to particular levels.

The term factorial refers to a design that has more than one independent variable
(or grouping variable), also known as a factor.
In preceding example, method of instruction is one factor and student aptitude is
another. Moreover, method of instruction has two levels-there are two types of
instruction; student aptitude also has two levels, high aptitude and low aptitude.
Thus, a 2x2 (two by two) factorial design has two factors, and each factor has two
levels. This four-celled design is the simplest possible factorial design.

As another example, a 2x3 factorial design has two factors; one factor has two
levels and the other factor has three levels. (e.g; high, average & low aptitude). A
study with three factors - homework (required homework, voluntary homework, no
homework), ability (high, average, low) and gender (male, female) is a 3x3x2
factorial design. Note that multiplying the factors yields the total number of cells
(i.e, groups) in the factorial design. For example, a 2x2 design will have four cells,
and a 3x3x2 design will have 18 cells.
Since the experiments cloud be conducted “between groups” or “within-group”,
the above types of experimental research designs could also be seen in terms of
such classification.

Steps in Conducting Experimental Research

1. Decide if an experimental design fits research problem
2. Form cause/effect hypotheses
3. Select experimental unit and identify study participants
4. Select an experimental treatment and introduce it
5. Choose a type of experimental design
6. Conduct the experiment
7. Organize and analyze the data
8. Develop an experimental research report

Errors in Experimental Research

There are three kinds of errors
i) Type “S” error: related to the sampling of the subjects
ii) Type “G” error: related to research groups
iii) Type “R” error :arises b/n the replication of the experiment

25
v. Single Subject Experimental Research
Rather than comparing the effects of different treatments (or treatment vrs no
treatment) on two or more groups of people, experimental researchers
sometimes compare a single person’s behavior before treatment to behavior and
the behavior exhibited during the course of the experiment. They may also
study a number of people together as one groups, rather than individuals.
Single subject experimental designs are those used to study the behavior
change that an individual or group exhibits as a result of some intervention or
treatment. In these designs, the size of the sample selected from a population for
a study is said to be one.
Example
a) The effect of a training program with and without reinforced directed
rehearsal as a correction procedure in teaching expensive sign language to non
verbal students with mental retardation. (10 students were studied).
b) The effect of instruction focused on assignment completion on the
homework performance of students with learning disabilities.
2. Types of Qualitative Research Methods

Ql/R seeks to probe deeply in to the research setting to obtain in-depth

understandings about the ways things are, why they are that way, and how the
participants in the context perceive them. To achieve the detailed understanding
they seek, qualitative researchers must undertake sustained in-depth research that
allows them to uncover subtle, less overt, personal understandings.

Among the different types of ql research methods the most commonly used are
depicted in the table below. Note that the difference between the different
approaches of qualitative research is due to
 the particulars of the social context examined and
 the participants selected

Common Qualitative Research Approaches

26
 Approach Key Question
1 Case study What are the characteristics of this particular entity,
phenomena, or person?
2 Historical How does one systematically collect and evaluate data to
research understand and interpret past events?
3 Ethnography What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of this group
in its natural setting (Participants behavior and their context)
4 Narrative Describe the lives of individuals
research
5 Grounded theory How is an inductively derived theory about a phenomena
grounded in the data in a particular setting?
6 Phenomenology What is the experience of an activity or concept from these
particular participants’ perspective?
7 Ethno How do people make sense of their everyday activates in
methodology order to behave in socially accepted way?
8 Ethnology How do the origins, characteristics and culture of different
societies compared to one another?

i. Case Study
 Definition:
 Is an intensive investigation of an individual or a certain grouped
 The group may be of a family, a group of delinquents, drop outs etc
 While the aim of survey is to scratch the surface the case study
researches beneath the surface sometimes discovering the cause of
factors exposed by surveys
 It looks at a single instance and aim at identifying the unique features
and interactions with features

 The researcher gathers data about the

- Past experiences
- Present status & how these factors relate to each other
 Its major purpose is to investigate the patterns & sequences of growth
& or changes as a function of time
 In it, a researcher makes in-depth and intensive study on a limited
number of representative’s cases.
 Hence it narrower in scope but more exhaustive/includes every
possible elements/.
Example
a) A problem of students with serious absenteeism in Yabelo SSS of Borena Zone.

27
 b) A study of delinquent/breaks rule/ students in ‘x’ secondary school
Types of Qualitative Case Studies
 Intrinsic Case Study : deals with an intrinsic unusual case
 Instruments' Case Study: deals with a case that provides insight into issue or
theme.
  Multiple Instruments Case Study (also called a collective case study):
deals with several cases that provide insight into an issue (or theme)
Note: Case Study could also be categorized under qt research too.
Activity: Identify the similarities and differences b/n survey Research and Case
Study
ii.Historical Research Method
 It deals with problems & phenomena in the past
 Is concerned with the “what was”
 Establishes facts through meaningful and organized records of events
to give conclusions concerning past events so that clear view of the
present will be possible
 It deals with the interpretation of past events & their relevance
- to present situation and
- what might happen in the future?
Note- It is only in the light of their origin and growth that many educational
problems of the present be viewed carefully
 HR serves to present educational standards of the past and enables to
avoid mistakes in the past
 Its purpose is to find connections b/n events in the past & variables
in the present by means of critical review of evidence

E.g. - Curriculum reform in the pre 1974Ethiopia

- The history of modern education in Ethiopia
Types of Historical Data
Historical evidences may be classified in to three
A) Documents (usually written)

Example:
 Official records, minutes of meeting, legal documents, Court decisions
charter, etc
 Institutional records:
 university bulletins proceedings
 Memories, biography, diaries personal letter, etc
 News papers, periodicals. Journals

28
  Literary material
 Catalogue syllabus etc

B) Relics or Remains
Archeologically remains (such as tools & utensils)
 Buildings, furniture & equipment
 Photographs and other records
 Forms of degree, diploma certificate rewards registers
 Text books, maps, drawings, etc
 Written material
C) Oral Testimony
 Is a spoken account of a witness, or participation in an event?
 Recorded interviews
Sources of Historical Data
 Can be classified in to two categories Namely
a) Primary source of data
 Refers to the original documents and remains which are the first
witness of a fact
 Are the only solid basis of historical research
 Are eye witness accounts and are reported by actual observer or
participant in an event
e.g. Original records kept, eye witness, photographs, minutes of
organization etc
b) Secondarily sources of data
 A record which is one or more steps removed from an original
history
 Here the author reports the observation of others
e.g. Most history books
 Encyclopaedias
Note: Some types of materials may be secondary sources for some purposes and
primary sources for another why? e.g.High school history books

Activity: From examples on the types of data given in 2.2.2.1 above identify those
that can be the examples of primary and secondary sources of data

Criticism on Historical Research

In historical research, the analysis of the data comprises two ways of determining
the value of evidence. Namely; external criticism &Internal criticism
a) External criticism:

29
- It decides the genuineness of the source material
That is, its purpose is to establish the authenticity of the source (through age.
Authorship etc of data
b) Internal Criticism
- refers to the evaluation of the content or the information contained in the source
rather than the source material

 Its purpose is to ascertain the truth fullness or credibility of the data,

its accuracy & worth.

For the detailed Knowledge of the rest types of qualitative research read:
[Gay L., Mills, G & Airrasian,P. (2009). Educational research:
Competencies for
analysis and applications (9th ed).USA:Pearson Ltd]

III. Types of Mixed Research Method

i. Sequential Explanatory Design

 1st Phase 2nd Phase Finally
qt data Collection ql data Collection Integration
& analysis & analysis of all data
tive
 Quantitative(qt ) data is collected & analyzed first than the qualitative
(qltive) data, & finally the two data integrated together for analysis
 Researcher uses the qualitative data result to assist in explaining &
interpreting the results of the quantitative findings.
 It is especially useful when unexpected results arise from the quantitative
study.
 The length of time involved in data collection & analysis in the two phases
is its drawback.

ii. Sequential Exploratory Design

 1st Phase 2nd Phase Finally
ql data Collection qt data Collection Integration
& analysis & analysis of all data
tive
 Qualitative (ql ) data is collected & analyzed first than the quantitative
(qttive) data, & finally the two data integrated together for analysis
 It focuses on initial exploration of the phenomenon & help to get general
picture, pattern & nature of the issue under study

30
  Is appropriate to develop an instrument for qttve data collection since the
existing instruments might be inadequate or not available.
 It helps to use the quantitative data result to assist in explaining &
interpreting the results of the qualitative findings.
 The length of time involved in data collection & analysis in the two phases
is its drawback.

iii. Sequential Transformative Design

1st Phase 2nd Phase

ql data Collection qt data Collection

& analysis & analysis Finally
the two data
OR will be
integrated for
interpretation

1st Phase 2nd Phase

qt data Collection ql data Collection

& analysis & analysis

 Either of the qltive or the qttive data could be collected and analyzed first, &
finally the two will be integrated for interpretation.
 Unlike sequential explanatory & sequential exploratory, this strategy has
theoretical perspective to guide the study
 Shares the strengths & weaknesses of the sequential explanatory &
sequential exploratory strategies
iV. Concurrent Triangulation Design
 Qt & Ql data are collected in one phase concurrently, & integrated for
interpretation.
 It helps to compare the results from the quantitative and qualitative analyses
to determine if the two data bases yield similar or dissimilar results
 Helps to confirm, cross validate or corroborate findings within a single
study.
 Used as a means to offset the weakness inherent within one method with the
strength of the other method.

v. Concurrent Nested/Embedded Strategy

31
Gives priority to one of the qttive or qltivemethods that guide the project for data
collection, & integrates the two data during analysis & interpretation.

 Is applied when a researcher uses different methods to study different

groups---some in qltive& the others in qttive method
 As its limitation, it may result in unequal evidence that may be disadvantage
when interpreting the data.

vi. Concurrent Transformative Design

 The qltive&qttive data are collected simultaneously and be integrated during

analysis & interpretation.
 Shares the specific strengths & weaknesses of both triangulation & nested
designs

1.5.2 Classification of Research by purpose

 In this regard, there are two major research categories namely, basic
research & applied research

I Basic Research
 is conducted so solely for the purpose of developing or refining a theory.
The theory development is through a conceptual process that requires many
research studies conducted overtime.
 is not concerned with the immediate utility of their findings
ii Applied research
 conducted for the purpose of applying or testing a theory to determine the
usefulness in solving practical problems
 Evaluation research and action research are among its subparts.
a. Evaluation Research
Is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data about the
 quality
 effectiveness and
 merit or value of programs products or practices.
Unlike other forms of research that seek new knowledge or understanding, it
focuses mainly on making decisions about programs, products or practices.

Evaluations come in various forms and serve different functions. It may be

formative or summative. Formative evaluation occurs during the design phase
when a program or product is under development and is conducted during

32
implementation so that weaknesses can be remedied. Summative evaluation
focuses on the overall quality or worth of a completed program or product.

b. Action Research
Action research is systematic inquiry done by teachers (or other individuals in an
educational setting) to gather information about, and subsequently improve, the
ways their particular educational setting operates, how they teach, and how well
their students learn (Mills, 2000).
In education it is any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, principals, school
counselors, or other stakeholders in teaching learning environment together
information about the ways in which their particular schools operate, the teachers
teach, and the students learn.
Its purpose is to provide teacher researchers with a method of solving everyday
problems in their own settings.
Its primary role is the solution to a given problem not contribution to science. Its
value is confined primarily to those conducting it. Despite its limitation, it
represents a scientific approach though not detailed one.

When Do You Use Action Research?

 When you have an educational problem to solve
 When educators want to reflect on their own practices
 When you want to address school wide problems
 When teachers want to improve their practices
 When educators want to participate in a research project

Types of Action Research Designs

Action Research

Practical Participatory

 Studying local practice

Involving individual or team-based inquiry  Studying social issues that constrain
individual lives
 Focusing on teacher development and
student learning  Emphasizing “equal” collaboration
 Implementing a plan of action  Focusing on “life-enhancing changes”
 Leading to the teacher-as-researcher  Resulting in the emancipated

33
 Key Characteristics of Action Research
 A practical focus: Researchers study practical issues that will have
immediate benefits to teachers, schools, and communities.
 The educator-researcher’s own practices: Self-reflective research by the
educator-researchers turns the lens on their own educational classroom,
school, or practices.
 Collaboration between stakeholders
 Dynamic process
 Its process spirals b/n thinking, looking & acting
 Does not follow a linear pattern
 Does not follow a causal sequence from problem to action
 A plan of action
 The action researcher develops a plan of action which is formal
or informal that involve a few individuals or an entire community
 May be presenting data to stakeholders, establishing a pilot
program, or exploring new practices
 Sharing research
 Involves groups of stakeholders
 Not specifically interested in publication, but in sharing with
individuals or groups who can promote change
 Flexible and adaptable
 Systematic but lacks rigor and interpretation whereas AP.R is quite
rigorous is its application.
 Its findings do not directly contribute to general body of knowledge
 It assumes little control on the independent variable but AP.R assumes
as much control on the IDV.
1.5 The Ethics of Educational Research
In research, the end don not justify the means, and researchers must not put the
needs or desire to carry out a study above the responsibility to maintain the well
being of the study participants.
Ethics is generally a set of ‘rules, principles and conventions’ that outline
socially acceptable behaviors and social members’ actions (Anderson, 1990, p17).
Regarding social research, ethical issues are then needed to be considered at every
stages of research conduct to minimize potential harms of participants while the
quality of research is maximized (Cohen &Manion, 1994; Anderson, 1990)
McNamara (1994) identifies five ethical concerns to be considered when
conducting social research. These guidelines deal with the issues of informed

34
consent, voluntary participation; respect for privacy, safeguarding anonymity and
confidentiality, and accuracy of report and result. Each guideline is then addressed
and be considered in my study as of the following.
1) Informed Consent
Informed consent from the informants is an ethical requirement for any social
research. It requires the study to provide research informants a detailed
clarification of the research’s purposes, ensuring that they are informed of the
details of research including audiences of output, sponsor of the study, and
voluntary consent facilitation (McNamara, Ibid).

2) Voluntary Participation
Researcher must ensure that participation in the study is on voluntary basis.
However, voluntary participation sometimes conflicts with the demand for high
response rate since low return rate can be seen as response bias (McNamara, Ibid).

3) Respect for Privacy

Literature on research methodology recognizes the essence for researchers to
respect privacy of participants and assert that this should be complied at all costs to
protect them against unwanted interference and potential threats (McNamara, ibid;
Cohen &Manion, 2004; Bryman, 2004). This respect for privacy may also include
avoidance of participants’ embarrassment and discomfort about study and
question.
4) Safeguarding the Anonymity of Participants and the Confidentiality of
Data
To protect the participants’ privacy, the most important practices concern
anonymity of participants (i.e. all information made to public would contain no
identification of participant on the basis of response) and confidentiality of data
(i.e. it deals with the deletion of identifiers from the data publicly disseminated)
(McNamara, Ibid; Pulmer, 2001).
5) Accuracy of report and results
The fifth ethical guideline, as described by McNamara (Ibid), is to accurately
report both the research methods and the results of the study. Because
advancements in academic fields involve dignity, honesty and openness; I assume
the responsibility to report data and result that I perceive as the most accurate. The
researcher is to report problems and weaknesses experienced in the study, as well
as the positive aspects of the study.

35
 Unit Two

The Research Problem

2.1. Selection & Definition of the Research Problem.

A research problem is an educational issue or concern that an investigator

presents and justifies in a research study.

Research is generally considered as a structured inquiry involving a series of

systematic and interdependent steps. As other social science researches,
formulations of steps in educational research vary from author to author, but the
major typical steps are:
Problem identification and definition, survey/ review of the related literature,
formulation of research hypothesis, selecting and defining the research design and
methodology, deciding and validating data gathering tools, analysis and
interpretation of data, summarizing the findings, drawing conclusion and
suggesting possible solutions and taking action.

Before we start explaining the steps to be followed in conducting research first we

have to know the prerequisites for conducting research

2.1.1 Selection/Identification of the Research Problem

Research starts with a question or a problem for which the answer is not available.
In order to identify and define a research problem, a researcher should know the
sources and criterions of selecting the research problem
i) Sources of the Research Problem
The sources of the research problem can be
- Professional experience
- Contact and discussion with people
- Influence from theory (partial application of theories in to
practice)
- Professional literature
- Contemporary social and technological changes, etc

36
ii) Criteria (prerequisites) for selecting a research problem
These criterions can be grouped as external and internal criterion
a) External criterion:

 It should be researchable
- Relevant data should be available
- Can be solved through the process of research
 It should be significant and important (practical implementation of the solution)
 The problem should be new (no research is exhaustively conducted on it)
- Its relevance and practical value
- It should be timely (currently “live” issue)

b) Internal criterion:
 The problem should be feasible
- The researcher should be competent and interested
in problem i.e. the researcher’s intellectual curiosity
and drive.
- Financial, time and administrative conditions
should be convenient
In general, the research problem should be defined in such a way that it reduces
unnecessary and vague concepts.
Example: Why student participation in Oromia is less than that of A.A?
It is vague because:
- Class levels should be specified (KG, primary, Secondary, TVET or College,
etc) - Time should be indicated clearly
The topic should be that it builds on previous researches
- For your topic couldn’t be the first of its kind
duplication should be avoided and replication might
be useful for expanding the validity of the previous
findings.
Note: Even though a research problem is initiated by a felt difficulty; all
educational problems may not be researchable.
2.1.2 Defining the Research Problem
- Having selected the research problem and
ascertained its validity, the next logical step is to
properly define your problem in such a way that it
is amenable for investigation. To define a problem
37
 means to specify it in detail and with precision.
Each question to be answered will be specified. The
limits of the study must be determined.
Advantages of defining research problem:
 Helps you stick to your research objective
 Reduce unnecessary and vague concepts
 Discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant one
 Specify the techniques and research methods to be pursued
The following logical steps could be used when defining a research problem.
i) State your problem in general way
This is possible only when you have a clear picture about your topic. To do this:
. Enter into discussion with those who you think have better exposure and
knowledge in the area.
-Survey the available literature (Note that the techniques and approaches
employed in the previous work may be guiding to sharpen and formulate your
study)
ii) Provide the operational definitions to the concepts employed in your
research topic
For example
“Factors Affecting the Participation of Teachers in Educational Research in
Ethiopia”
In the proposed topic above you may for instance choose to define concepts
such as “factors” as variables influencing teachers, “participation” as the
involvement of teachers in educational research, etc your definition should
be contextual
iii) Progressively sharpen your topic to a manageable level.
As you progressively inspect your proposed study you may eventually realize that
much remains broad and vague requiring sharpening for clarity. For example;
regarding the above topic you may ask:
 Is it possible for me to undertake this study at a national level?
 Is the term research appropriate for the task at hand? (the term
educational research is too broad to address the planned study):- So
classroom research
 Teachers working at what level?
Having made the necessary sharpening; now your topic may become:

Factors affecting the participation of senior secondary school teachers in

conducting classroom research in. East Shoa Administrative Zone.

38
  It is generally suggested that you should keep a balance between generality
and specificity to be feasible in your particular situation

2.2. Formulating the Research Questions/Hypothesis/es& Identifying the

Research Variables

2.2.1 Purpose Statements & Research Questions

Elements of a Quantitative Purpose Statement

 A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their
relationship, and the participants and site for research
 Guidelines for writing
– Use a single sentence
– Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . .
– If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test
– Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,” “describe”) to
describe the relationships between variables
– Independent variable (1st position in sentence)
– Dependent variable (2nd position in sentence)
– Control and/or mediating variable (3rd position in sentence)
– Research site
– Participants
–
Quantitative Research Questions
 Types of quantitative research questions
– Describe results of your variables
– Compare two or more groups on the independent variable in terms of
the dependent variable
– Relate two or more variables
 Guidelines for writing
– Pose a question
– Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why”
– Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control
variables
– Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or
connection among the variables
– Indicate the participants and the research site for the
study/delimitation

39
Designing Qualitative Purpose Statements and Research Questions

 Understand how these statements and questions differ from quantitative

research
 Understand the role of a central phenomenon in qualitative research
 Understand qualitative research as an emerging process

Two Qualitative Research Considerations

 The focus of the research is around a central phenomenon which is an

issue or a process the researcher would like to study.
 Qualitative research is built on an emerging design.

Elements of Qualitative Purpose Statement

 A single sentence
 A statement such as, “The purpose of this study”
 The central phenomenon
 A statement identifying the type of qualitative design
 Qualitative words (e.g., “explore,” “understand,” “discover”)
 The participants
 The research site

Types of Qualitative Research Questions:

 Central question: The overarching question you explore in the research

study
 Sub questions: Divides the central question into smaller, specific
questions
– Issue sub questions: Narrow the focus of the central question into
specific issues
– Procedural sub questions: Indicate the steps to be used in analyzing
the data in a qualitative study
 Interview questions: Questions that are asked during your interview
that are based on your sub questions and central question
Quantitative-more closed-ended

Differences Qualitative-more
between Quantitative and Qualitative Purposeopen-ended
Statements and
 Probable cause/effect
Research Questions
(“Why did happen?”)
 Descriptive (“What happened”)
 Use of theories (“Why did it happen in
view of an explanation or theory?”)
 Interpretive (“What was the meaning to
 Assess differences and magnitude
(“How much happened?”) 40  people of what happened?”)
(“How many times did it happen?”)
(“What were the differences among
 Process-oriented (“What happened over
groups in what happened ?”)
time?”)
Explaining or Predicting Variables Versus Exploring or Understanding a Central
Phenomenon

Quantitative Qualitative
Explaining or Predicting Understanding or
Variables Exploring a Central
Phenomenon

X Y Y

2.2.1.2 The Research Hypothesis

Having identified and defined the research problem, the next logical task in
progress is putting the problem into working hypothesis.

What is Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an educated or calculated guess that shows the likelihood of the

direction where the solution to the problem lies. Hypotheses are tentative
generalizations about the nature of the problem under consideration.
Sources of Research Hypothesis
i) Personal experience. E.g. A teacher in his day to day activities encounter
with students in a class. May attempt to relate the behaviour of students
with many things: teaching method, the curriculum, the school

41
 administration, peers etc, and the researcher may need to attend the
procedures below
 Make observation
 Think about the problem
 Make additional observations
 Formulate a hypothesis
ii) Reading in the area. Despite its newness, the research topic may have
some link with the already attempted research endeavours or
accumulated knowledge in the area.
Importance of Hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages:
 Represents specific objectives, which determine the nature of the data
needed to test the propositions.
 Offers basis for selecting the sample the research procedures and the
statistical analysis needed.
 Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing if from
becoming too broad.
 Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study.

Characteristics of Acceptable Hypotheses

In formulation of hypothesis the researcher has to set an intelligent guess about the
possible results of the research exercise.
In this regard, the hypothesis that the researcher sets should have the following
characteristics.
i) Researchable
ii) A hypothesis must have explanatory power,
iii) A hypothesis must state the expected relationship between
variables
e.g. there is a positive relationship between self-concept and
achievement in civics education
iv) A hypothesis must be testable
e.g. polytechnic education promotes “all rounded development of
secondary school students” All rounded development “ makes this
hypothesis hard to test.
v) A. hypothesis must be consistent with the existing body of
knowledge (known facts or theories)
e.g. Grade ten students with body weight of 50 kg and above show
better achievements in mathematics score than those below 50 kgs.

42
  So far there is no body of knowledge that evidences the
relationship between weight and Achievement in
mathematics.
vi) Hypothesis must be stated as simple and concisely as possible.
 Note that you may need several hypotheses in one study. In
this case, you ought to state a hypothesis for every aspect of
your study. Don’t state two or more aspects together.

Example: Consider the following
- High school students who were taught English
subject through situational approach show better
achievement in reading and spoken skills of the
language from those who were taught through
traditional grammar approach
- Write separately for reading & spoken b/c the
results should be reported separately

Types and Forms of Stating the Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis must be stated in a concise and clear language so as to

indicate a relationship between the variables in the study. Hypothesis can be
determined in terms of how they are derived (ie, inductive Vrs deductive
hypothesis) or how they are stated (Directional vrs Non directional/Null
hypothesis).

a) Inductive Vrs Deductive Hypothesis

 An inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on specific
observations.
Example: A researcher observes that, in some eight grade class rooms, students
who take essay tests appear to show less test anxiety than those who take
multiple choice tests. This observation could be the basis for an inductive
hypothesis.

 A deductive hypothesis in contrast, is derived from theory and

provides evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts the theory.

b) Directional Vrs. Non-Directional/Null hypothesis

43
  A non- directional hypothesis states simply the relation or difference
that exists between variables. It does not specify the direction of the
change in the dependent variable
Example: There will be a difference in test scores on the XYZ
achievement test for fifth-grade boys and girls.

 A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of relation or

difference. It specifies the direction of the change in the dependent
variable that the researcher predicts will take place
Example: Fifth-grade girls will have higher scores on the XYZ
achievement test than fifth-grade boys.

 A directional hypothesis could be presented in +ve or _ve forms.

Example:
 Students whose number is small in a class than students whose number is
large in the same class size will perform significantly better in mathematics
test. (+ve)
 Student whose number is small in a class than students whose number is
large in the same class size will not perform significantly better in
mathematics test. (-ve)
Activity:Write the above example in a null hypothesis form
* Note also that a research hypothesis could also be stated in a question form.
When stated in this form, it is usually referred as a basic question.
Example: Do students whose numberis small in a class than students whose
number is large in
The same class size achieve better results in mathematics test?
The non directional hypothesis predicts a difference between the groups, whereas
the directional hypothesis predicts not only the difference but also the direction of
the difference. A directional hypothesis should be stated only if you have a basis
for believing that the results will occur in the stated direction. Non directional and
direction hypotheses involve different types of statistical test of significance.

The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of choice when a researcher has little
research or theoretical support for a hypothesis. In this case there is no change in
the dependentvariable
Example: There is no significant difference between students whose no is small in
class than
students whose no is large in the same class size in performing better in
mathematics

44
test.
Also statistical tests for a null hypothesis are more conservative than they are for
directional hypothesis. The disadvantage of null hypothesis is that they rarely
express the researcher’s true expectations based on literature, insights, and logic.
Even though few studies can be designed to test for the non existence of a relation,
it seems logical that most studies should not be based on a null hypothesis.

Guidelines for writing Research Hypotheses

– State the variables in this order: independent (first position),

dependent (second position), and control (third position)
– When comparing, explicitly state the groups; if variables are related,
specify the relationship between the variables
– Make a prediction about changes you expect in your groups.
– State information about the participants and the site unless it repeats
information stated in your purpose statement

Activity:
Write any two educational research problems& formulate their
corresponding
hypotheses.

45
UNIT THREE

Sampling Techniques

Under sampling the researcher has to

- Explain the type of population, their number, and
how and from where they are selected.
- Explain the sampling techniques and why they are
selected
Ascertain the representativeness of the sample for the study population
3.1 The Concept and Nature of Sampling
3.1.1 Definitions of some Terminologies.
Population- Specified group of human beings or non human entities (objects,
institutions, geographic areas, etc having one or more
characteristics in common that distinguishes them from other groups.
Sample: - Is representative portion of a population
- The group of participants in a study selected from the target
population from which the researcher generalizes to the target population.
Sampling: - Is a process of selecting samples
Sampling design: - A plan to obtain samples
The Target Population or Sample frame:
- Complete list of members of interacts
- The actual list of sampling units from which the sample is
selected.
3.1.2 Why Sampling? functions of sampling
- to save time & effort required
- to save costs in terms of money & manpower
3.1.3 Steps in Selecting Samples
i) Identifying and defining the population of interest criterion of
- provide valid & reliable information
- your samples should have characteristics in common
ii) Determine the sample frame/target population
- Having a complete list of members (only if manageable)
iii) Selecting representative sample
The sample (-should be unbiased & representative)

46
 (Must provide the whole information about the study
population

3.1.4 Characteristics of Good sampling

* Result in small sample error
* Is economical interims of time, energy & effort etc?
* Where bias can be controlled in better way
3.2 Types of Sampling Designs
Two major types
- Probability/ Random Sampling and
- None Probability Samplings

3.2.1. Probability/Random Sampling

- Based on random selection
- Members have the same chance of being included in the sample
3.2.1.1. Types of Probability/Random Sampling
i. Simple Random Sampling
 Each unit of population has a equal chance of being selected
 involves selecting at random from sample frame
 Comes to be problematic for large & unmanageable population
 It employs population either of following mechanisms
 Lottery system
 coin flipping (for small number of population
 Random number method
- Best method of choosing
- Uses random digit table
E.g. 200 from 2000
- Open the book at any page
- Select one column of numbers
- Start anywhere in the column
- Read- four digit numbers (b/c 2000is 4 digit)
- Say the number is 011723 then we take 0117
or
117 th is selected. If the number is 91234 the
9123
but not in the list.

47
ii) Systematic sampling
- Is used when the population frame is a available procedures:
Procedures:
- Get a complete list of population (N)
- Determine the sample (n)
- Determine the sampling fraction K= N/n
- The 1 st member of the sample s randomly selected from the
list.
- Then every k thmember is selected until the required number
is obtained
E.g. , Population list = 5000 names = N;
sample = 500 = n;
k = N/n = 5000/500 = 10
 Is not used very often, but in some instances it is the only feasible way to select
a sample.
 Is a sampling in which every kth individual is selected from a list. The list
includes all the individuals in the population, and K is a variable determined by
dividing the number of individuals on the list by the number of subjects desired
for the sample. If K =4 then we select every 4 th name. Even though choices are
not independent, a systematic sample can be considered as a random sample if
the list of the population is randomly ordered. One or the other has to be
random either the selection process or the list. Because randomly ordered lists
are rarely available, systematic sampling is rarely as good as random sampling.
Although some researchers argue this pt, the major objection to systematic
sampling of a non random list is the possibility that the process will cause
certain subgroups of the population to be excluded from the sample.

SS involve the following steps:

i. Identify and define the population
ii. Determine the desired sample size
iii. Obtain a list of the population
iv. Determine k by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample
size.
v. Start at some random place in the population list. Close your eye and
stick your figure on a name
vi. Starting at that point, take every Kth name on the list until the desired
sample size is reached
vii. If the end of the list is reached before the desired sample size, go back to
the top of the list
Eg.
48
 i. Population 5000 teachers in Oromia research state
ii. Same = 5000
iii. The list of all teachers is available
5000 number of individual s
iv. K=  10
500 number of subsebjects
v. Select one name by random from the list
vi. Every 10th name is a member of the sample

iii) Stratified Sampling

- Involves population of similar characteristics in to homogenous

subgroups (strata)
- Is appropriate if the study population involves several subgroups
having different characteristics to represent them in proportion
of their size
Three points of emphasis here are
- How to form strata (say sex, age, socio-economic status
educational back ground, etc)
- How to select members from each stratum using simple random or
systematic sampling.
- How many members from each stratum (sample size?)
- involve equal allocation or proportional
allocation (if strata have no equal population)

 Is a way to guarantee desired representation of relevant subgroups within the

sample. In other words some population can be subdivided in to subgroups
known as strata (stratum-singular)
 Is applied to compare the behavior of participants from different subgroups of a
population.
 Proportional stratified sampling is the process of selecting a sample in such a
way that identified subgroups in the population are represented in the sample in
the same proportion in which they exist in the population.
Eg. a population of teachers in a district can be divided by educational level
say:
22% - primary school teachers
33% - secondary school teachers
45% - preparatory school teachers
Then the researcher should take the same proportion of each educational level
The typical variables for proportional stratification included

49
 Demographic variables such as: race, gender, socio-economic status, and level
of education.
 It can also be used to select equal-sized (non proportional) samples from
subgroups if subgroup comparisons are desired.
E.g., To compare student abilities (high, average and low) who are learning
mathematics in two different ways (by teacher and by computer); 1st the
researcher should divided the students by level of ability based on relevant
information and then use stratified sampling to divide then in to two groups.
Note: If no accurate information, proportional sampling cannot work.

Steps for equal sized groups in stratified sampling:

The steps in stratified sampling are the same as that of simple random sampling
except that section is from subgroups in the population rather than the population
as a whole. In other words, stratified sampling includes repeated random sampling
one random sampling from each subgroup. Stratifies sampling involves the
following steps.
i. If identify and define the population
ii. Determine the desired sample size
iii. Identify the variable and subgroup (ie. Strata) for which you want to
guarantee a specific represented.
iv. Classify all members of the population as members of one of the
identified subgroups
v. Randomly select (using a table of random numbers) an equal number of
individuals from each subgroup.

As with simple random sampling after the samples from each subgroup have been
randomly selected, each may be randomly divided in to two or more treatment
groups.
Eg. Take the population of 300 students of grade 8 on two methods of math’s
instruction.
 Say; the desired sample size is 45 in each of the two methods (teaching
mathematics by teacher and computer)
 The variable is ability and the desired subgroups are three levels of ability: high
average and low
 300 students divided (classified) in to the subgroups:
- 45= high ability
- 215 =average ability
- 40=low ability

50
  30 students are randomly selected (with assistance from a tale of random
numbers) from each of the ability groups; that is a total of 90 students are
selected 30 high 30 average and 30 low ability students.
 The 30 students in each subgroup sample are randomly assigned to one of the
two methods of instructions, that is 15 of each 30 are randomly assigned to each
method. Therefore 45 students will participate in each method of instruction 15
high ability, 15 average and 15 low ability students (see the figure below) .

Population 300 eighth Graders

Classification

45 (high ability) 215 (average ability) 40 (low ability)

Random selection Random selection Random selection

30 students 30 students 30 students

Random assignment Random assignment Random

assignment

15 Students 15 Students 15 Students 15 Students 15 Students 15 Students

method method method method method method
A B A B A B

Stratification can be dome on more than one variable

An example of proportional stratification
Take the case of 5000 teachers in the earlier example
 Population 5000
 Desired sample 500

51
 Variable of interest is teaching level with 3 subgroups (elementary, high school
& senior high schoolteachers)
 Say teachers are classified as:
65% or 3150 elementary,
20% or 1000 high, &
15% or 750 population teachers
 We want 500 teachers. Because we want proportional representation
10% 65%of the sample = 315
10% 20% of the sample = 100
10% 10%of the sample = 75 teachers.
 Using table of random numbers, we randomly select 325 out of 3250, 100 from
1000 and 75 from 750 = 500 (10% 5000) will be proportionally represented.
Note SRS and stratified sampling techniques would result in a sample scattered
over the entire district. Thus, since some of the schools could contain two or 3
teachers, the researcher could go and visit many schools. To solve such a tiredness
he could use the techniques known as cluster sampling.

iv) Cluster Sampling

 Is a type of RS where each unit is a collection or a cluster of sample
 Involved when selection of individual members of population is:
- Impractical or too expensive or b/c of large size of
population
 Is used when the
-population is finite but very large
- List of population does not exist
-Geographic distribution of population is not convenient/not easy
 Is a sampling where groups but not individual are randomly chosen.
 Unlike stratified sampling (where every stratum is sampled
- it samples among groups or cluster
- In it the exact sample size may not be known before the
sample is selected

 Here intact groups not individuals are randomly selected

 Any location within which we find an intact group of population members with
similar characteristics is a cluster
 Examples of cluster are classrooms, schools, city blocks, hospitals and
department stores
 Cluster sampling may be the only feasible method of selecting a sample when
the researcher is unable to obtain a list of all members of the population

52
 It is also convenient when the population is very large or spread over a wide
geographic area
 Usually involves less time and expense and is generally more convenient
(though not necessarily a good, as we discuss later) than either SRS or
stratified sampling
 Moreover, is advantageous for educational researchers because they
frequently cannot select and assign individual participants, as they may like

Steps in Cluster Sampling

 Are not very different from those in random sampling
Steps
i. identify and define the population 5000
ii. determine the desired sample size 500
iii. identify and define a logical cluster
eg. neighborhood, school, city blocks school 50
iv. list all clusters (or obtain a list) that make up the population of cluster say
100 schools
v. Estimate the average number of population members per cluster
vi. Determine the number of cluster needed by dividing the
vii. Randomly select the needed number of clusters using a table of random
numbers
viii. Include in your study all population members in each selected cluster
Cluster sampling can be carried out in stages, involving selection of clusters within
clusters. This process is called multi stage sampling.
District  school  class rooms
(to sample class room)

One common misconception about cluster sampling is that it is appropriate to

select only a single cluster randomly. One randomly selected student/school could
not be a representative to all students/school.

Thus the superintendent could conduct interviews at 10 schools and interview all
teachers in each school instead of traveling to a possible 100 different schools.
Although the advantages of CS are evident, it also has several drawbacks
 High chance of selecting non representative sample than the previously selected
technique.
 The smaller the sample since the more unlikely the selected sample could be
representative.

Example:- Secondary school teachers Job satisfaction in Oromia Region

53
 Steps in cluster sampling
1. Identify and define the population - SS teachers
2. determine the desired sample – 500
3. identify & define a logical cluster – school
4. list all clusters comprising the population – 100 ss schools in the region
5. Estimate average member per cluster – 50 teacher
6. Determine the number of clusters dividing the sample size by estimated size
of cluster; 500=
10 x 50
7. randomly select the needed number of cluster – 10 out of 100 schools are
randomly selected
8. Include all population in selected clusters- ( 10 schools, 50 teachers per
school) the designed sample
v) Stage Sampling
 Is an extension of cluster sampling
 Is used for large scale surveys ( at national level)
 In this case the researcher can use more than two clusters like region, zone
Woreda or schools
Example: The opinion of merchants towards the free market investment policy in
Ethiopia
Stage 1- A sample of 5 regions could be selected randomly
Stage 2 -50 sample zones from all listed in 5 regions
Stage 3 – 100 Woredas from all listed woredas in 50 zones
Stage 4 – 70 merchants from all listed merchants in 100 woredas
Note - More than 1 sampling techniques can be used in a single research study

54
 Type Process Advantage Disadvantage
Simple Select desired number Easy to conduct Need names of the
random of members using a strategy requires population members may
sampling table of random minimum knowledge over or underrepresented
numbers of the population to be sample members difficult to
sample reach all selected in the
sample
Stratified Divide population in to More precise sample, Need names of all
random separate levels, or strata can be used for both population difficult to reach
sampling and randomly sample proportions and all selected in sample
from the strata stratification sampling;
sample represents the
desired strata
Cluster Select groups not Efficient clusters are Fewer sampling point make
sampling individuals mot likely to be used in it less likely to produce a
Identify clusters and school researches do representative sample
randomly select them to not need population list
reach desired sample reduced travel to sites
size
Systematic Use list of population Sample selection is All members do not have an
sampling select one name at simple equal chance to be selected
random, then select kth member may be related
each Kth member of the to a periodic order in the
list till the desired population list producing un
sample size representative ness in the
sample

3.2.2. Non Probability Sampling

- There is no way of estimating the chance that every element has of being
included in the sample
- Among the major reasons where random probability sampling may not be
appropriate
- When the researcher has no access to the entire population
E.g. List of all SS graduates in Ethiopia.
- When the generalization of the study may not be of great importance
(when needed to solve immediate local problem say school)

55
 - When there may be a limited number of sites/groups relevant to the study
(say -6 teachers in primary school if researcher is interested about
teaching methodology in that school)
3.2.2.1 Types of Non Probability Sampling
i. Accidental (haphazard or convenience) sampling
- Is based on choosing the nearest individuals to serve as respondents
- Is used when selection is based on availability & willing
- All available samples at that time & space are selected
- It will be biased if no strong evidence indicating their representativeness
- Is the process of including whoever happens to be available at the time.
E.g.,
 Seeking volunteers and b) Studying existing groups just because they are
there Because, the total population is composed of both volunteers and non
volunteers, the results of the study based solely on volunteers are not likely
generalizable to the entire population.
 When a teacher samples his class
ii. Availability Sampling
- Uses available chance
- When the required characteristics is small in no
e.g. Research in delinquency ( of boys)
iii. Purposive sampling
- Sound judgment & suitable strategy is used for they are assumed be rich
in the information
- Particularly appropriate for case studies
iv. Quota Sampling
- When the population has different strata “random sampling is
impractical (get all lists)
- The group variable may be age, race, area, etc
- Do not consider proportion but quota

3.2.3. Difference between probability & non probability sampling

1. On how they are selected-probability sampling is based on sample
representative but non probability sampling is not
2. On the logic of their use-each population members is assumed to be
equivalent date source but in non probability sampling some members are
not
Generally in non probability sampling

56
 - The members are selected on researchers own judgment, expertise or
assumption based on prior identified criterion the researcher should know
their characteristics
3.4. Sampling Error and Sampling Bias

3.4.1. Sampling Errors

Sampling error is an expected chance variation in variables that occur when a

sample is selected from a population. Sampling errors have their origin in sample
selection and a rise due the fact that only a part of a population might be used to
estimate the population parameters. Even after following random procedures of
sampling, there are chances of variation in the population from which they are
being selected. Thus, there are two main source of sampling error: variation in the
population, and the size of the sample. Besides these sources, there may be
different aspects of errors in sample during selection process. The most common
are:
Faulty Selection of sample: Some of the bias may be due to the defective
sampling techniques adopted for the selection of sample unit., e.g., on probability
samplingtechniques.
Substitution: If any difficulty arises in enumerating a particular sampling unit
included in the sample, the research usually substitutes in with a convenient
member of the population. The characteristics of the substituted unit may be
different from those proposed by the original unit. Such substitution may lead to
sampling errors.
Faulty demarcation of sampling units: Defective demarcation of sampling units
may also lead to some errors in sampling thus affecting generalization of the
finding. Improper choice of statistics for estimating the population parameters may
also be a source of error in sampling and selection of the sample units. This further
alters the result leading the errors.
Errors beyond that within the control of the researcher is a reality of random
sampling. Selecting random samples do not guarantee that they will be
representative. Remember random means out of the researchers control & at the
mercy of chance. This chance variation is called sampling error. If the sample is
greatly under represented on a particular variable the researcher should stratify on
that variable (i.e. create a new sample using stratified sampling) b/c stratification
can provide proportional or equal sized samples.

57
3.4.2. Sampling Bias
In contrast to sampling error, which result random differences b/n samples and
populations, sampling bias is systematic sampling error that is generally the fault
of the researcher. That is sampling bias is systematic sampling error. The two
major sources of sampling bias are, samples including only volunteers and
sampling based on available groups. Researchers should be aware of source of
sampling bias and do their best to avoid it. If you decide to continue with the study
with full awareness of the existing bias, such bias should be completely reported in
the final research report. This disclosure allows any reader of the report to decide
for themselves how serious the bias is and how generalizable the findings are.

3.4.3.Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias

Error, beyond that within the control of the researcher is a reality of random
sampling. Selecting random samples do not guarantee that they will be
representative. Remember random means out of the researcher’s control and at the
mercy of chance.

This chance variation is called sampling error. If the sample is greatly

underrepresented on a particular variable, the researcher should stratify on that
variable (i.e create a new sample using stratified sampling) because stratification
can provide proportional or equal sized samples. In contrast to sampling error,
which results from random differences between samples and populations, sampling
bias is systematic sampling error that is generally the fault of the researcher.

Researchers should be aware of sources of sampling bias and do their best to avoid
it. If you deiced to continue with the study with full awareness of the existing bias,
such bias should be completely reported in the final research report. This
disclosure allows any reader of the report to decide for themselves how serious the
bias is and how generalizable the findings are

3.5.6. Sample Size Determination

A sample size of quantitative research data should not be too small for it may not
serve to achieve objectives and also it should not be too large for it may call for
huge cost and wastage of resources. As a general rule, one can say that the sample
must be of an optimum size, that is, it should neither be excessively large nor too
small. Technically, it should be large enough to give a confidence interval of
desired width and as such the size of the sample must be chosen by some logical
58
process before sample is taken from the universe. Size of the sample should be
determined by a researcher keeping in view the following points:
a) Nature of universe: universe may be homogenous or heterogeneous in
nature. If the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can
serve the purpose. But if the are heterogeneous, a large sample would be
required. Technically, this can be termed as the dispersion factor.
b) Number of Classes proposed: If many class-groups (group and subgroups)
are to be formed, a large sample would be required because a small sample
might not be able to give a reasonable number of items in each classes
group.
c) Nature of Study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the
sample should be small. For a general survey, the size of the sample should
be large, but a small sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.
d) Type of Sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in
determining the size of the sample. A small random small is apt to be much
superior to a larger but badly selected sample.
e) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of
accuracy or the level of precision is to be kept high we shall require
relatively larger sample. For doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance
level, the sample size has to be increased fourfold.
f) Availability of finance: In practice, size of the sample depends upon the
amount of money available for the study purposes. This factor should be
kept in view while determining the size of the sample for large samples
result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates.
g) Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of
questionnaires, availability of trained investigators, the conditions under
which the sample is being conducted, the time available for completion of
the study are a few other considerations to which a researcher must pay
attention while selecting the size of the sample.
There are two alternative approaches for determining the size of the sample.
1.The first approach is “to specify the precision of estimation desired and then to
determine the sample size necessary to ensure it” and the second approach “ uses
Bayesian statistics to weigh the cost of additional information against the expected
value of additional information.” The first approach is capable of giving a
mathematical solution, and as such is a frequently used technique of determining
“n”. The limitation of this technique is that it does not analyze the cost of gathering
information vis-à-vis the expected value of information. The second approach is
theoretical optimal, but it is seldom used because of the difficulty involved in
measuring the value of information. Hence, we shall mainly concentrate here on
the first approach.
59
Knowing the sample should be as large as possible helps, but this knowing does
not give any specific guidance as to an adequate size. In general, the minimum
sample size depends on the type of research involved.

Some researchers cite a sample size of 30 as guidance for CR, CCR and True
Experimental Research. For CR at least 30 participants are needed to establish the
existence or non existence of a r/n. For CCR and True Experimental Researches a
minimum of 30 participants in each group (e.g., treatment and non treatment
groups) is recommended, although in some case, it is difficult to attain this
number. However, with larger samples, the researcher is more likely to detect a
difference b/n the d/t groups.
For survey research, it is common to sample 10-20 % of the population although,
this guideline can be misleading. In reality, the appropriate sample size depends
on such factors as the specific types of research involved, the size of the
population, & whether data will be analyzed for subgroups.

For survey research as well as for other qualitative research methods, statistical
techniques and related software are available for determining sample size in a

precise ways that takes in to account relevant variable. However, the following
general rules are helpful in determining sample size:
- The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of population required
to get a representative sample.
- For smaller populations, say N=100 or fewer, there is little point in sampling;
survey the entire population.
- If the population size is around 1,500, 20% should be sampled.
- Beyond a certain point (about N=5,000) the population size is almost irrelevant
and a sample size of 400 will be adequate.

60
 UNIT FOUR
Data Sources & Data Collection Tools

4.1. Types of Data Sources

Information sources are usually classified in to two broad categories. These are
primary and secondary sources of data.

Primary Sources: These are eyewitness accounts. They are reported by an actual
observer or participant in an event. These include-documents such as diaries of
eyewitness, court records and statistics,
- Remains or Relics such as Fossils, skeletons, tools, weapons,
buildings, pictures, coins, art objects, examinations, History
textbooks, etc
- Oral Testimony obtained through interview
Secondary Sources: These are accounts of events that were not actually witnessed
by the reporter. The reporter may have talked with the actual observer or read on
account by an observer, but, but his or her testimony is not that of an actual
participant or observer. History textbook, news papers, reports of an event not
written by eyewitness, biographies and other second hand descriptions are
examples of secondary sources of data. The distortions created when passing
information is the limitation in secondary sources of data

4.2. Types of Data Collecting Instruments/Tools

In conducting research, appropriate and reliable instruments of data collection that

should be employed must be decided and explained briefly together with the
reasons why they are selected. Moreover, the selected tools should be checked use
validity & reliability(pilot) test. What is pilot Test (left as an exercise for you?).
Once the data collection tool is designed and tested, the next logical step is to
collect data in the field through observation, survey, testing and experimentation.

There are different data gathering tools or techniques. These techniques will be
discussed as follows

4.2.1 Questionnaire

61
 A questionnaire is a formalized schedule for collecting data from respondents. It
consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a from (or
set of forms)
 Questionnaires can be used to measure
- Past behaviour
- Attitudes, and
- Respondent characteristics.
4.2.1.1. Components of a Questionnaire
 A questionnaire typically has five sections
- Identification of data: typically occupy the first section on a
questionnaire data regarding the researcher’s address
- The request for co-operation: is an opening statement designed to
enlist the respondents’ help regarding the questionnaire. This
statement first identifies the investigator or the inquiry
organization. Next, the purpose of the study is explained and the
time required to complete the questionnaire is given. Finally it
ends in discussing the confidentiality that the respondent in no
way will be asked for filling the questionnaire.
- The instructions: Refer to comments to the respondents about how
to use the questionnaire.
- The classification of data: concerns the characteristics of
respondent.
- The information sought forms: these are the major portions of the
questionnaire.

4.2.1.2. Types of Questionnaire

i. Open –ended Questionnaire:

This form of the questions is unstructured and no clues are provided to t he

respondent. E.g. what do you think the contribution of TVET to development?

Advantages of open-ended Questions

- Allow general attitudes to be expressed which can aid in
interpreting more structural questions

62
 - Respondents are not influenced by a predetermined set of
response alternatives and can freely express views divergent from
the researcher’s expectations
- .provide the researcher with insights, comments and explanations,
which are useful in developing a feel for the research findings.
ii. Close-ended Questionnaire
- These include a set of questions to which respondents can reply in
a limited number of ways. The respondent is invariably permitted
to reply only with “yes” or “no” option or is requested to select an
answer from a short list of possible responses.
Advantage of close-ended questions
- Overcomes many of the disadvantages associated with open-
ended questions
- Reduces bias and the cost and time associated with data
processing.
- Reduce time associated with answering the questions by the
respondents.
Disadvantages of Close-ended Question
- The design of effective close ended questions requires
considerable time and cost
- Close-ended questions tend to bias the data by the order in which
the response alternatives are given to the respondent.

4.2.1.3. Considerations in Constructing Questionnaire

- Avoid ambiguous and imprecise words in your question
- Don’t ask questions which ask for information that the
respondents may not know or may not have readily to mind?
- Double question should never be asked
- Avoid leading questions because they cause a constant
measurement error in the research findings.
- Avoid presuming questions because they are sources of error in
questionnaire.
- Don’t ask hypothetical questions
- Avoid offensive questions and questions covering sensitive issues.
4.2.1.4. Question Sequence
- Use a simple and interesting opening question
- Ask general questions first
- Place un interesting and difficult questions late in sequence
- Arrange questions in logical order
4.2.1.5. Measuring responses to questionnaires
63
A questionnaire could be designed in a way that its responses could be measured
using different types of scales. Among the commonly used measuring scales used
in educational research include: Likert scale; rating scale; ; responses such as: Like
(L), Dislike(D) or Indifferent (I); responses such as Yes, No or Not sure; etc.

A. Likert scales
A Likert scale requires an individual to respond to a series of statements by
indicating whether she/he strongly agrees (SA), agrees (A), is undecided (UD),
disagree (D) or strongly disagree (SD). Each response is assigned a point value and
an individual’s response is determined by adding a point value of all the
statements.

B.Rating Scales
Used to measure respondents attitude toward self, others, activities, institutions, or
situations. One form of rating scale provides description of performance or
preference and requires the individual to check the most appropriate description.
A second type of rating scale asks the individual to rate performance or preference
using a numerical scale similar to a likert scale. E.g., Circle the number that best
describes the degree to which you state lesson objectives and before teaching a
lesson 5 = always, 4 = almost always, 3 = about half a time, 2 = rarely; 1 = never
1 2 3 4 5

4.2.2. Observation Method.

- Observation involves the recording of the respondent’s behaviour.
It is the process of recognizing and recording the behaviour of
people, objects and events. It is used to evaluate the over behaviour of
individual in controlled and uncontrolled situation s.
4.2.2.1. Type of Observation
Observational techniques can be classified into six different ways:
i. Natural or contrived observation: Natural observation involves observing
behaviour as it takes place normally in the environment. Contrived
observation involves creating an artificial environment and observing the
behaviour pattern exhibited by persons put in this environment.

ii. Disguised or undisguised observation: This refers to whether or not the

respondents are aware about the case why they are being observes.
iii. Structured or unstructured observation: Structured observation is
appropriate when the decision problem has been clearly defined and the
specification of information needs permits a clear identification of the
64
 behaviour patterns to be observed and measured. Unstructured observation is
appropriate in situations where the decision problem has yet to be formulated
and a great deal of flexibility is needed in the observation to develop hypothesis
that could be useful in defining the problem and in identifying opportunities,
iv. Direct or indirect Observation: Direct observation refers to observing
behaviour as it actually occurs; indirect observation refers to observing
some record of past behaviour. Here the effects of behaviour are
observed rather than the behaviour itself
v. Human or Mechanical observation: In some situations it is appropriate to
supplement or replace the human observer with some form of mechanical
observer.
vi. Participant or non-participant observation: In the participant observation
the observed becomes more or less take part in one of the groups under
observation.
In the non- participant observation, the observer takes a position white his
presence is not disturbing to the group.
4.2.2.2. Recording and Interpreting the Observation
The recording of the observation data may either be simultaneous or soon
after the observation. In viewing, classifying and recording behaviour
causes the observer must take utmost care to minimize the influence of
his biases, attitudes and values on the observation report
4.2.2.3. Advantages & Disadvantages of Observation
Advantages of Observation
- It can be useful in location data about non-readers, young
children, people with mental handicaps and laboratory animals
- Interaction between the observer and subject can be initiated and
carried on
- The procedure can identify level of skill development
- It provides a record for future comparisons.
- It provides rationalization and artificial presentation
- It does not require a special laboratory setting.
Disadvantages of observation
- It is time consuming
- It is costly to collect data
- Procedures of collection may alter natural ongoing
- The data may reflect observer’s bias
4.2.3. Interviews
 Interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subject
or interview gives the needed information variably in face to-face situation

65
  Interviews are classified as “structured”, “semi structured” and “
unstructured” interviews.
 A structured interview is one in which the procedure to be followed same
type of questions is presented in the same order to each interviewers and
wording of the instruction to the interviewees is specified
 Unstructured interviews provide greater flexibility. Although, the series of
questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided upon
beforehand, the interviewers is largely free to arrange the form and timing
of the questions to his/her list.
 Unstructured interviews are usually labelled as focused, depth and non-
directive.
4.2.3.1. Advantages &Disadvantages of the Interviews Method
Advantages of the Interviews Method
- It provides an opportunity to the interviewer to question thoroughly
certain areas of inquiry.
- Permits greater depth of response, which is not possible through any
other means.
- Enables an investigator to get information concerning feelings,
attitudes or emotions in relation to certain question
Disadvantages of the Interview Method
- It is time consuming
- The effectiveness depends greatly upon the skill of the interviewer.
- There is a constant danger of subjectivity on the part of the interviewer,
- Some interviewees will not respond freely, frankly and accurately
4.2.4. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Focus group discussion is an important yet structured discussions in which a small
number of participant (usually six to twelve), guided by a moderator or facilitator,
talk about topics of special importance to a particular research issue.
Social, intellectual and educational homogeneity are important for effective
participation of all group members.
The typical focus group interview last ½ to 2 hours this period of time is needed to
establish rapport with the respondents and explore in depth their beliefs, feeling,
ideas and insights regarding the discussion topic.
The number of group sessions to be conducted depends on the nature of the issue at
hand.
4.2.4.1. Advantages & Disadvantages of focus group discussion
Advantages of focus group discussion

- Synergism: The combined effect of the group will produce a wide

range of information, insight and ideas than will the accumulation of
66
 the responses of a number of individual when these replies are secured
privately.
- Snow balling: A bandwagon effect often operates in a group discussion
situation in that a comment by one individual interview with regard to
the topics covered and the depth with which they are treated.
- Speed: since a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same
time, the group interview speeds up data collection and analysis
process.
- Scientific scrutiny: The group interview allows closer scrutiny of the
data collection process in that several observers can witness the session
and it can be recorded for later playback and analysis.
Disadvantage of focus group discussion
- Un properly planned group discussion is time consuming.
- Domination of the discussion by some of the group members could
affect getting correct information
4.3.Pre-Testing Data Gathering Instruments
All data gathering instruments should be tested on how long it takes recipients to
complete them, to check that all questions and instruction are clear and to enable
you remove any items which do not yield usable data. To check this we should
conduct the so called validity & reliability tests

a) Validity of data gathering Instruments

Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to
measure and consequently permits appropriate interpretation of scores is the most
important consideration in developing and evaluating tests.
The validity of data gathering Instruments could be judged by experts or
professionals regarding the issue under the study.

b) Reliability of data gathering instruments

 In everyday English, reliability means dependability or trust worthiness.
 Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it is
measuring.
 Is expressed numerically, usually as a reliability coefficient, which is obtained
by correlation.
 It tells about the consistency of scores produced; and appropriateness of a test.
 It could be checked through what is known as a pilot-test using statistical
instruments like Cronbatche’s Alpha Test. That is if the result of the estimate is
nearer to 1 or its percentile approaches to 100, then it could be said to be
reliable instrument

67
Both V and R are important for judging the suitability of a data gathering
instrument. However, although a valid test is always reliable, a reliable test is not
always valid. In other words if a test is measuring what it is supposed to be
measuring it will be reliable, but a reliable test can consistently measure the wrong
thing and e invalid!.

UNIT FIVE

Steps in a Research Process & Preparation of the Research

Proposal

5.1 Components of Research Proposal

A research proposal is a systematic “blue print” that brings to focus the

preliminarily planning that will be needed to fulfil the purpose of the proposed
study. More specifically, the research proposal

 Forces you think through every aspect of the study

 Facilitates the evaluation of the intended study by you and others
 Provides a guide for the actual condition of the study.
 Reduces the probability of costly mistakes for it is a plan of a research work.

Even though there are different forms of writing a research proposal, the following
are some of the elements that require inclusion in it.
A) Cover page
The Title of the research proposal should incorporate the following issues.
 A good research should be short, accurate and concise
 Avoid too length titles. Note that the proposed study cannot be
fully presented in the title
 The title shouldn’t be too brief. A study should be worded in
such a way that it could give sufficient information about the
nature of the study.
 It should make the central objectives and variable clear to the reader
(reviewer)
 It should provide the key words for classification and indexing of the
project

B) The inside part

1. Introduction
68
The introduction section deals with the background of the study, statement of the
problem, objectives of the study, significant of the study, delimitation of the study,
limitation of the study, definition of basic terms and organization of the study.

1.1. The background provides some general theoretical basis or justification for
conducting research and focuses on:
 What is the context of the research at hand from global to local level
 What policies exist pertaining to the issue under study (if any)
 What researches have been conducted and findings obtained in the area of
you study.
 What is the general goal of study

1.2. Statement of the Problem

 Why is the study being conducted?

 What causes the study
 Under the statement of the problem, you need to justifies the need for the
study and also develop hypothesis or key research question, which may help
show the direction of the whole exercise.

1.3. Objectives of Study

The statements of objectives are the direct reflection of your hypotheses/basic

questions or are simply the operationalization of the answers to the formulated
hypothesis. It refers to what you are going to do in your research. Objectives could
be stated in the form of general & specific objectives.
 General Objective
- It should describe the kind of knowledge the study is expected to obtain.
- It should give a clear notion of what is to be described, determined,
identified and compared in relation to the hypothesis
 Specific Objectives
- Try to give the preliminary views of the research design
bydisaggregating the
general objective in logical way

1.4. Significance of the Study (Application of Results)

69
  Identify the beneficiaries of the study, justify the importance and urgency
of the study as to how the results of the study will be useful to them
 Demonstrate why it is worth of time, effort and expense in carrying out
the proposed study.
 Some of the points needed to be stressed in the justification include:
- A wide time gap b/n the earlier study & the present one need for
new knowledge,
techniques or conditions will necessitate for replicating the study
- The need for the present investigation could be to help address
those
areas that remain untouched or inadequately treated.
- Lack or shortage of information about the problem
- Academic, policy & awareness significance of the study
Note: Most common benefits of a research study could be for professional
literature,
practice & policy implications
1.5. Delimitations of the Study

Your research proposal should indicate that the study is delimited both in scope
and depth to manageable size including tangible reasons. Specifically, the
boundary of the study should be set with regard to.
 The relevant areas which the research effort will not include but to which
conclusion will be confined.
 The procedural treatment including sampling procedures, the technique of
data collection and analysis, the development of measuring tools and their
use in the study.
Note: Based on the nature if the research problem, the delimitation of a given
research
activity could comprise all or some of the following: Area, issue and time
delimitations

1.6. Limitation of the Study (Optional at the proposal stage)

The fact that your research is properly designed does not guarantee that it is free
from constraints. The limitations (uncontrollable variables that confront
investigation & affect conclusions) surrounding you study and within which your
conclusion may be confined will be of different sources.
The possible sources of limitation include:
 Practical weaknesses in the methodologies you adapted
70
  Lack of access to the right data
 Poor choice or delivery of instruments
 Sampling restriction
 Lack of up to date literature in the area
 Unusual time borne situation in the study site.
Note that the compromises you make as a result of the constraints shouldn’t be
those results in to completely change the proposed study.

1.7. Definition of Basic Terms used in the Study (Optional at the proposal stage)

In this part of the study, definitions to the basic concepts (technical terms, words or
phrases) having special meanings employed in the study need to be defined
operationally by the researcher or with the help of Authorities (books, dictionaries,
references, etc)

1.8. Organization of the study (Optional at the proposal stage)

The researcher has to organize systematically how the study is to be presented.
Among other things, he/she has to explain how the study is divided in to various
chapters.

2. The Research Design and Methodology

The method section mainly deals with the Research Design and Methodology.
Under this part the following major issues should be included
2.1 The Research Methodology.
- Describe in general terms the method to be employed to achieve the
study
objectives & justify why this method is used.
- The method could be quantitative, qualitative or the mixed
approachcould be used

The method section typically includes a description of the experimental design for
experimental research, whereas the design and procedure section may be combined
in a plan for a descriptive study.

2.2 Sources of Data

- Discuss the primary and secondary sources of data.
- For the primary data identify the population from which data will be
collected (Their
type, their number, how & from where they are selected)
71
 2.3 Sampling Techniques
- Explain the sampling technique that should be employed and discuss
why they are selected
- Determine the sample & discuss the representativeness of the selected
Sample
2.4 Data Gathering Tools
- Discuss the different data gathering tool to be employed and give
reasons
why these tools have been chosen.
2.5 Procedure of Data Collection
- Describe the steps to be followed in collecting data from the field
2.6 Method of Data Analysis
-Describe the different data analyzing and explain the reasons why these
tools have been selected tools
 Note that the “Research Design and Methodology” part of the proposal will
be presented as chapter three in the final research document

3. Work Plan
Give cost and time breakdown that is needed to conduct the study
3.1 Time schedule
One requirement of your proposal is the preparation of a realistic time schedule
for completing the study with the time available. The information helps you to
seed how much time would be needed to bring the research into completion and
to provide opportunities for periodically evaluating the development of the
study

3.2 Budget schedule

If you are going to apply to government or non-government organizations for

financial assistance, you should also include a budget schedule in your proposal.
This is a financial breakdown that helps estimate the cost of the study. For most
researcher carried out at the school level this may be unnecessary.

4 Bibliography

 A bibliography is a list of all the works referred in due course of your

investigation in alphabetical order. At the proposal stage, you can include all
the works that you already referred and which will be referred while you are
implementing the research project. Thus, it is a tentative bibliography.

72
UNIT SIX
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS
6.1 Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis
Regarding the qualitative approach, ; the opinions gathered through open ended
questionnaires; interviews, focus group discussions and observations; and, the
information obtained from relevant documents will be transcribed. Then after,
through content analysis the data will be coded and be classified into major
categories (themes) and minor categories and be discussed.
In doing so:
 Inspect the sample responses and decide the possible responses that can be
given by the subjects/respondents
 Form categories for responses, code these responsesand finally discuss
For instance, in the case of open ended questions, since the responses of some
respondents could be similar and others could be different, when analysing the
data, we should categorize these responses accordingly.
For Example: The question could be why female TVET trainees dropout of
TVET institutions?
The possible responses for this open ended question could becategorized as:
i) Family problem,
ii) Lack of interest,
iii) Academic problem,etc
Note:
 Coding categories should be independent/mutually exclusive/
E.g. – living independently
- living with parents
- living with relatives
Thus, living with relatives is not mutually exclusive

73
  Coding categories should allow exhaustive classification of all possible
responses.
6.2 Quantitative Methods of Data Analysis
6.2.1 The How to OrganizeQuantitative Data
 Organization of data is determined by the:
 Types of questions asked and
 Nature of data that is collected
 Data organization involves editing, classification, tabulating, coding, and
preparing data for analysis & Interpretation.
 Editing: checking the gathered data for accuracy, usefulness and
completeness
 Classification: Dividing the data in to different categories, classes,
groups, etc
 Coding Information:
- Denotes representing data interims of numbers or categories
to make analysis easier.
- Coding can be used for both closed-ended and open ended
[
questions
 Tabulating: putting the data in tables or Preparing Data Matrix

See the example on data matrix in the table below.

Subject Sex Age qualification Experience in
[[[
teaching
Chaltu F 22 Dip 2
Abebe M 21 TTI 4
Okelo M 23 Degree 6

In the case of closed ended questions, assume that 4 statement (s 1, s2, s3 and s4)
were given to 8 individuals to respond to the question given below and to
categorize their responses as strongly agree (5), agree (4), cannot decide (3),
disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1)

For Example, the question could be to rate on the following problems related to
TVET implementation.
S1- lack of qualified manpower
S2- Lack of awareness of society

74
 S3- Lack of job opportunity for TVET graduates
S4- TVET institutions failed to work with private sectors
 The coding of the responses could be arranged as hereunder.

Subject S1 S2 S3 S4
A 4 5 1 3
B 2 3 5 4
C 1 1 2 2
D 3 5 1 3
E 4 2 3 2
F 5 5 3 4
G 4 3 5 2
H 3 1 2 1

Activity: Read about FrequencyDistribution, How to Form Classes and

Determine Class Width, and Graphical Representation of
Quantitative Data

6. 2.2Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is used to describe the characteristics of a sample or
population in total.
Among others, the following are the commonly used types of descriptive statistics:
Measures of Central Tendency;
Measures of Variability /Dispersion/ Spread; and
Measures of Relationship
6. 2.2.1 Measures of Central Tendency
- Indicate central position of a distribution
- Can be determined for both grouped and ungrouped data
- They include: the Mean, Mode and Median
Measure
s of Definition & Concepts Formula for
central Ungroup Data Group Data
tendency
Mean - Is the arithmetic average n
xi
x 
of a n n
xifi
i 1
x 
Distribution i 1 n

75
Median - When scores are If number of

arranged in Med.= (n+1)
members is odd, it is
order from lowest to 2
the middle value
highest
If number of
or vice versa, it is the 
middle value that members is even it is
divide the average of the
distribution in two two middle values
equal
parts
- Is used when the mean
is
highly affected by
extreme
values.
Mode The most frequent or The most frequent The most frequent
common value in a value value
distribution
 Note: A distribution can
have more than one mode
KeY: xi = ith score; n = total number of score; fi = frequency of the ith term.
Examples:
A. For Ungrouped Data.
Given the following scores (out of 20%) of 13 students of theDepartment of
Drafting in Adama University in Micro Teaching. Find the mean, median and
mode.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 15 10 9 14 15 18 16 15 17 16 15 20
1
xi
a) Mean = m n
191
m  14.69
13
b) Median = n = 13  odd - middle term = 15 (you should firs arrange in
increasing
or decreasing order)
c) Mode = 15

B. For Grouped Data

76
 The data of the table in example (A) above can be grouped as follows:
Total
Xi 9 10 11 14 15 16 17 18 20 -
Fi 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 13
Xifi 9 10 11 14 60 32 17 18 20 191

 xifi  191  14.69

a) Mean
 fi 13
 N  1 th term  13  1 th
b) Median=  7 th term  15
2 2
c) Mode = 15

Activity
1. Find the mean, mode & median of the following distribution

X 4 3 2 1
F 1 2 3 4
2. If 5 pts were added to each score in a distribution, how would this change
each of the following? Mean Median and Mode.

 What will be the formula of mean, median and mode, when

distributions are given by class intervals?

Measure Formula Procedures Remarks

central
Tendency
Mean Take the mid points of each Xi= midpoint of each class
 xifi class as observed scores
a) m
n

- Assign randomly a value A.M= Assumed Mean
zero to any class interval w= class width
b) m=A.M+ (see x' in the table below)
 xifi .w Take the midpoint of
n interval assigned the value
zero = A.m.
Take W.

Assign- ve values below

0 starting from 1 to
77
 positive above 0.
Find the product xi’fi

Find  x ifi

Apply the formula

Median n 
  F .w
Decide the interval where F= sum of frequencies

L
2  th below L
 n 1
f   value exist. i.e. f= observed frequency of
 2 
the
the median class
median class
Take the exact lower limit
 W= class width
of the medium class (L) n= total number of scores
Apply the formula

Mode fm  fi 1  f m  f1 L= exact lower limit of the
L .w
2 f m  f1  f 2  2  f m  f1 modal class
or fm= fr. of modal class
l
1
.w
f1 = fr of class interval
1   2 before modal class
f2 = fr of c.I after the
modal class

Example: For the data in the table below, find the mean, mode and median

Class Mid points Fi Xifi x i x i fi

Intervals (xi)
0-4 2 4 8 -2 -8
5- 9 7 3 21 -1 -3
10 -14 12 5 60 0 0
15 - 19 17 6 102 1 6
20 - 24 22 2 44 2 4
N = 20  xifi  235 Xifi=-1
i) Mean ---- using method (a) x
 xifi  235  11.75
n 20

(b) x  A.M 
 x ifi   1 5 
.w  12     11 .75
n  20 
n 
  F
ii) Median = L 
2  .w
f

78
 th
 n 1
The median class =   term = 10.5th term = 3rd class
 2 
 L = 9.5, f = 5, F = 7, w = 5, N = 20
 median = 12.5
f m  f1 (6  5)  5
iii) Mode = L+ 2 f  f  f .w  14.5  2(6)  5  2  15.5
m 1 2

Note: The responses of the respondents of given research on closed ended

questionnaires and on other related measurements could also be analysed using

percentages (%).

Activity: Readabout the Properties, Merits and Demerits of Mean, Median and
Mode

Comparison among Mean, Median & Mode

i. A distribution where mean = mode = median is called symmetrical
distribution.
ii. In the case of positively skewed curve the mean will have the highest value,
the mode the lowest & the median will be about one = third the distance b/n
the mean & the mode. On the other hand, for negatively skewed curve, the
mean will be the lowest, mode will be the largest & the median will be
approximately at one-third distance from the mean towards mode.
iii. In the case of moderately skewed curve, the empirical relationship would be
represented by Mode = 3 times median = 2 times mean.
The Weighted Mean
Sometimes investigations have to use the numbers with weights depending on the
significance of the number. When the data are not on a similar way, weights are
provided to make them systematic and analyzable.

79
 The weighted mean may be computed as follows.
 wx
X = w

E.g. The scores of psychology examination are weighed two times as much as the
scores of sociology & economics of a student in the examination and the
scores are60,
wx40 (& 40 respectively.
1)( 40)  (1)(40)  2(60) 200
   50
Then X= w 11 2 4

Weighted mean is useful when we want to compute the mean of means. If we are
given two arithmetic means, one for each of two different series, in respect of the
same variable, and are required to find the arithmetic mean (AM) for the two
series, weighted arithmetic mean is the only suitable method in its determination.
E.g. The AM of daily wages of two manufacturing firms A &B is $5 and $7
respectively, their average daily wage if the number of workers is 2000 &
4000 respectively, is given by:
X=  wx  (5 x 2000)  (7 x 4000)  38000  6.333
w 2000  4000 6000

6. 2.4 .2Measures of Variability/ Dispersion/ Spread

- Are used when two groups of scores have identical mean or median.
Example: If all students score 50%, then the group mean and median will be
the 50. But in a second group if one student scored 100% and the other scored 0%,
then the group mean and median will also be 50.
Tell about the dispersion of scores in the distribution

Include range, standard deviation & variance


Measure of Definition & Concepts Formula Remark

variability
Range - The difference b/n the Highest score-lowest

80
 highest score and the score
lowest score
S.D - The measure of the S.D =  x i  m 2 S.D = s dev
average distance that n Xi = ith score
each distribution is m = mean of
away from the mean Or when frequency scores
distribution is given n = total number
 fi x i  m
2 of score
n

Variance - Is an average of how V= (S.D)2

the scores are dispersed When frequency V= variance
from the center of the distribution is given;
score. V= ( x i  m) 2
-A square of the
f i
n
standard
deviation
- Is amount of spread
among scores
- When V is small,
scores come to be close
to each other and far
from each other
otherwise

Note If frequency distribution is given in the form of class interval take the mid
point of each class interval and use the above formulas for both SD & V.
Example: Given the following scores: 1, 8,4,6, 2 and 9. Find the range, S.D &
V

a) Range = 9-1=8
1  8  4  6  2  9 30
b) S.D First find M.  5
c) Variance 6 6

Xi xi-m (xi-m)2
1 -4 16
8 3 9
4 -1 1
6 1 1

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 2 -3 9
9 -4 16
(xi-m)2 = 52

V=52/6= 8.67
S.D = =( xi  m) 2 52
 2.946
n 6
Interpretation: The scores in the distribution differ from the mean by 2.946 units
on average.

Note: - larger S.D -More variability in score. Smaller S.D - the scores are closer to
each other or more similar
For instance, given scores
A. = 1,2,3,4,5 and B= 1,3,5,7,9
Then SDA = 1.41 SDB = 2.83
 Scores in A are closer to each other than those in B.

Activity: Read about the Properties. Merits and Demerits of Range, S.D &
Variance, as
well as about the Normal Curve

Activity:
1. Find R, S. D & V for the following distribution

Xi 2 5 8 11
fi 4 3 10 3

2. If 5 pts are added to each score in a given distribution how would this change
the
Range, S.D. & V
6. 2.4 .3Measures of Relationship
i) Correlation
The degree of relationship between two variables can be measured using what is
known as correlation coefficient (r).
Formula

82
r= N  xi yi   xi  yi
N  xi
2

   xi  N  yi 2    yi  2
2

r = correlation coefficient
xi = values in one of the variables
yi = values in the 2nd variables.
N= total number of cases (subjects)

Example: For the data in the table below, find ‘r’ and interpret the result.

Teachers Experience Scores of

jobs
satisfaction
A 2 5
B 3 6
C 4 4
D 6 2
E 7 1

ii) Regression Equation and Regression Line

 Regression equation is the formula to compute the probable value of paired

correlated variable known as Y from the value of X variable or vice versa.
 On the basis of the obtained regression equation, a line or a curve could be
formed.
 When line is formed the relation is said to be a linear
regression (represented as Y= a + bX
 If it takes the shape of a curve it is known as curvilinear
regression.

83
  The prediction of values of one variable (dependent) is purely based on its
correlation with the other variable (independent).
 Higher correlation facilitates accurate prediction.
Based on the number of independent variables involved, regression analysis is of
two types—simple regression and multiple regression.
In simple regression, the criterion is a function of a single independent variable
whereas, in multiple regressions the criterion is a function of two or more
independent variables. ( In our case we will treat Single regression)

Simple Linear Regression

Simple linear regression expresses the dependent variable y as the linear

function of the independent variable X. This form of relationship can be
expressed as
Y = a + bX, where Y represents the dependent variable, a is the y intercept, b is
the slope of the line and X is the independent variable. Applying the above
equation we can predict the value of Ý for given value of X.

Two separate regression equations will be worked out for each pair of variables X
and Y. One of these is the regression equation of Y on X, which predicts the Y
scores on the basis of X scores. The other one is the regression equation of X on Y,
which predicts the scores of x on basis of scores.

The linear regression of Y on X is given as follows:

Where: y’ is the predicted Y scores on the basis of actually measured X score,

84
 ayxis constant which is called as Y-intercept because when a line is
plotted on a graph, It is the value of y at the point where line crosses the
y axis,
byxis the slope of the line. The slope represents the change in y for per
unit change in x.
Thus, byxrepresents the effect of X on Y. The effect may be either positive or
negative. Numerically it is expressed as the ratio of the convenience of scores of
both variables and the variance of scores of the predictor as stated below

Thus, byx may be computed by using any one of the above formulas.
ayx may be computed by applying the following formula:

Therefore, the regression equation of y on x will be as follows:

Similarly, the regression equation of x on y may be expressed as follows:

85
Note that regression equation could be derived using the formula of
Covariance or the formula for correlation coefficient “r”
Example: Suppose we have given a 10-point quiz in statistics class during the
fourth week of the semester and another during the eighth week. Twelve students
have taken the quizzes. The scores are as follows:

Quiz 1 Quiz 2

X X2 Y Y2 XY
8 64 7 49 56
6 36 7 49 42
7 49 8 64 56
0 0 0 0
0
9 81 9 81 81
4 16 2 4 8
2 4 2 4 4
0 0 1 1 0
4 16 5 25 20
3 9 3 9 9
7 49 5 25 35
10 100 9 81 90
X = 60 X2 =424 Y = 58 Y2 = 392 XY = 401
We can use the calculated relationship between the quizzes to predict Quiz 2 scores
from Quiz 1 scores.

86
First calculate byx

byx =
n å XY - å X å Y
n å X2 - (å X)2

Mean of X = X/n = 60/12= 5 and Mean of Y=Y/n =58/12=4.83

Then byx = n å XY - å X å Y= 12(408)-60(58)

n å X2 - (å X)2 12(424)-60(60)

= 4812-3480 = 1332 =0.89

5088-3600 1488

And ayx = Mean of Y- byx (Mean of X)

= 4.83-0.89(5) = 0.38

Therefore, the equation of the regression line will be

Y=0.89X+ 0.38

For example, if a student’s score on the first quiz was 8, what score would we
predict for this student on the second quiz?

Y= 0.89(8) + 0.38 = 7.5

Example: Work out a linear regression for the given data.

Regression equation of academic achievement (y) on IQ (x) would be

87
Activity: Read about Multiple Regressions
6.2.5 Inferential Statistics
6. 2.5.1 Tests of Significance
Definitions of some Terminologies
 Level Significance:

88
 Refers to statistical level of probability at which we can confidently reject the
null hypothesis.
 Is the percentage of error you allow to occur.
 In education, the most commonly used alpha levels are  = 0.05 & =
 0.01, and some researchers may also use =0.1
 Its purpose is to indicate how much risk we are willing to take if the
decision we make is wrong.
 To conduct a test of significance, we determine a pre selected
probability level, known as level of significance (or alpha " " ).
The smaller the probability level, the less likely it is that this
finding would occur by chance.
How confident we are, depends up on the probability level at
which we perform our test of significance.
 Critical value (tc):
A standard value of "t" obtained from a table based on a level of
significance "" and a degree of freedom (df).
 Degree of Freedom (df)
Degree of Freedomis the no of observations free to vary around a
parameter.
For instance, you may be asked to name five nos& you say 1,2,3,4,5,
i.e., you have 5 chances (freedom) to choose.
But,if you are asked to name five nos,& after you named, 1,2,3,4 & you
are also told that their means must be 4; then you must only choose
10.That is you have only 4 chances to choose freely.
Each test of significance has its own formula for determining degrees of
freedom.
But most commonly, df is value obtained by subtracting 1 from the total
number of each of the sample groups.

89
Activity: Read about Two – Tailed and One – Tailed Tests; and Type I &
Type II Errors
6.2.5.2 Inferential Statistical Tools to test Level of Significance b/n
Variables.
In this section, among others, the t-Test, Carl Pearson Product Moment
Correlation, Analysis of Variance and Chi-Square will be treated briefly,
i) The t-Test
A “t-test” is used to test the significance of the difference between
- A sample mean & a population mean,
- Two sample means,
- A sample proportion & a population proportion or two sample
proportions, etc
 To conduct a t-test we, first have to formulate a null hypothesis (Ho) and an

alternative hypothesis (H1).

Thus T- Test helps to prove or disprove Ho
 If Ho is true, you accept it
 If Ho is not true, you reject Ho& accept H1
To decide whether a null hypothesis (Ho) is accepted or rejected, we
compare the calculated or observed value of t(tob) with the critical or
table of value of t(tc)
Observed "t-value (t ob) - A value of t’ obtained by using a
formula
If the observed t-test value (tob) is  the table of value(tcr) for the
required df&, then we reject the null hypothesis, otherwise we fail to
reject.
A) The t-Test for Independent Samples

90
 The t test for independent samples is a parametric test of significance used to
determine whether at the selected probability level, a significant difference
exists b/n the means of the two independent samples.
 The difference between two such groups’ mean may be
estimated by the t-test in different ways according to the nature of samples of
groups which are discussed in (a) - (c) below.
a) For independent samples of small (n30) and unequal sizes

91
df=7+7-2= 12
The value of t (0.312) is not significant at =0.05 level of significance. (Why?)

b) For both small (n30) and large (n0) independent samples of equal size:
 If two independent samples have the same sample size “n’ and have been
drawn from population having the same variance, then t may be
calculated by the following formula:

c) For large (n ≥ 30) samples of unequal sizes: When both the sample sizes are
large, but not identical, the t score is computed for the difference between sample
means, using SDs of the individual samples as shown in the following formula.

92
B) The T-Test for Non Independent Samples
Is used to compare
 Groups that are formed on some type of matching, or
 A single group’s performance on a pretest, post test or on two different
treatments.
For example, in a certain research work, if we want to know if students’ reading
scores improved from the beginning of the year to the end of the year & if we find
fall & spring scores for each student, we could say that the sample has non-
independent scores. B/c the reading scores are from the same student at two
different times, they are expected to correlate positively with each other-students
with high score in the fall will likely have high scores in the spring & conversely.
 When the scores are non independent, a special t-test for non-independent
samples is needed. The error term of the t-test tends to be smaller than for
the independent samples, and the probability that the null hypothesis will be
rejected is higher.

ii) Carl Pearson product moment correlation coefficient

a) For Large sample (n > 30). Note: Such a large sample is rarely applied in
correlational researches.

93
Example: The correlation between immature birth and intelligence was found to be
0.35 for a sample of 80. Test whether this value of correlation is significant or not?
Here r = 0.35, N = 80

The calculated value of Z is 3.18 which is greater than the tabulated value of Z (.01)
Thus, null hypothesis is rejected. It is inferred that immature birth and IQ are
positively significantly correlated.
b) Small samples (n < 30)
For small samples having n < 30, the following formula is used to test the
significance of correlations:

Example: The correlation obtained between vocabulary and IQ among 20 persons

is .60. Test whether the value of correlation is significant or not?

Here, t0.01(18) = 2.10

94
The calculated t value 3.15 is greater than the tabulated t (.01) value. Thus null
hypothesis is rejected and it is inferred that vocabulary and IQ are significantly
positively correlated.
Activity: Read about Point-Biserial Correlation, Partial Correlation, Multiple
Correlation and Rank Correlation
iii) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
ANOVA is an extension and generalization of student t test but is relatively
more powerful.
It helps in minimizing experimental errors b/c experiments have to be
designated more rigorously to fulfill its assumptions
ANOVA tests the difference b/n variance rather than means.
Whereas t-test is an appropriate test of the difference b/n the means of two
groups at a time (e.g., boys & girls, teachers & students, teachers &Woreda
education office workers, or etc), ANOVA is the test for multiple group
comparison.
Three or more means are very unlikely to be identical; the key question is
whether the difference b/n the means represent true (significant differences) or
chance differences (sampling error).
To answer this question, ANOVA is used: That is, an F ratio is
computed.
Although it is possible to compute a series of t tests, one for each pair of
means to do so raises some statistical errors, it is certainly more convenient to
perform one ANOVA than several t tests.
 For example, to analyze four means (X1, X2, X3 & X4) six
separate t tests would be required: (X1 –X2), (X1-X3), (X1-
X4), (X2-X3), (X-X4) & (X3-X4); ANOVA is much more
efficient and keeps the error rate under control.
95
Rationale for use of ANOVA
 The main purpose of the analysis of variance is to determinethe probability
that the means of three or more groups of scores differfrom one another
because of sampling error.
 The analysis of variance partitions the variability in such a way that two
estimates of the variances of the scores in the population are computed:
 One of these estimates is based upon the deviation of group means
from the grand mean.
- This variance is influenced by the variability of the individual
subject
as well as the difference between group means.
- This is known as “between group variance”.
- “Between groups variance” considers, over all, how the
individuals
in a particular group differ from individuals in the other
groups
- They are what researchers are usually interested in.
 The second estimate of variance of the scores in thepopulation isbased
upon the deviation score of their respective mean.
- This estimate is influenced by the random variability of the
individual
subject with each group with respect to mean of their own group.
- This variance is known as “within group variance”.
- The “within group” variance considers how students vary
from
others in the same group.

96
 Therefore, ANOVA provides an opportunity to determine the probability that
two variances differ from each other, only by random or sampling error, by
taking the ratio of two variances, i.e.

 This ratio is known as theoretical F distribution.

 Under null hypothesis these variances estimate the same population value.
 If the F ratio is large then one assumes that the additional influence of
difference between group means has inflated the value of S2 between, making
the F value too large. In this condition null hypothesis is rejected.
 If the variance b/n groups are much greater than the variance within groups,
greater than would be expected by chance, the ratio will be large, and a
significant effect will be apparent.
 If on the other hand, the variance b/n groups and the variance within groups do
not differ by more than would be expected by chance, the resulting F ratio is
small; groups are not significantly different.
To summarize, the greater the difference in variance, the larger the F-ratio;
larger Fs are more likely to reflect significant differences among groups.
However, a significant finding tells the researcher only thatthe groups are
not all the same.

 Any ANOVA layout score is written with two subscripts, i.e. xij.
 The first subscript “i" denotes the subject’s number within its group,
and
 The second subscript “j” denotes the group to which the subjects
belong.
 Thus, X31 is the third subject in the first group.

97
  The “s” subscript runs up to ni for the first group, where niindicates
the total number of subjects in the first group. Similarly, nj the jth
group.
 There are K groups so the number of subjects in last group would be
nK.
 The total of all scores in group “i" is denoted by x j and the mean of
the jthgroup as xj(xj/nj) and the grand total is denoted by X and grand
mean by x¯
Computational Procedures
Following steps are involved in the computation of F
The first step is to find the sum of the squared deviations

Sum of squares within groups (SSwg) = (SStotal) — (SSbg)

A sum of square is actually a sum of squared deviations.
The next step is to compute degree of freedom for variation between groups
and within groups.
98
 The degree of freedom (df) for between group is symbolized by dfbg.
dfbg = K — 1, where K = number of groups.
The degree of freedom for within groups is symbolized by dfwg.
dfwg = N — K, here N is the total number of observations
The final step is to compute mean sum of squares b/n groups by dividing the
sum of squares (SS) b/n groups by their corresponding degrees of freedom.

Then F ratio is computed by dividing the between sum of squares to within sum of
squares,

Finally, the significance of F ratio is seen by referring to the F table.

 First we move along the top row where degrees of freedom for greater
mean square are provided and from that point
 We move downward to find the row entry corresponding to the degree
of freedom for error variance.

99
  In the F table, the values of F significant at 5% and 1% levels are
usually given in lightface and boldface, respectively.
 If the obtained value of F exceeds the critical value given in the table,
the null hypothesis is rejected or otherwise it is accepted.

Classification of ANOVA
 The methods of analysis of variance differ according to the number of
independent variable(s) involved in the experiment. Basically, the analysis
involves three methods namely, single factor design and multi-factor design,
and analysis of covariance. ( In this section, we will treat single factor design
only)
(i) Single Factor Designs (Simple or One Way Analysis of ANOVA)
 Simple or One way ANOVA is a parametric test of significance used
to determine whether scores from two or more groups are significantly
different at a selected probability level.
 One-way ANOVA is used to investigate the effect of a single
independent variable on a single or more dependent variable.
 The number of levels of the independent variable determines the
number of groups in the experiment, and replications of each level
determines the size of each group.

General layout for a single factor analysis of variance “with between” subjects

100
Example: The achievement motivation scores obtained by three groups of students
on three levels of independent variable are given below. Find whether the
difference among these three groups is due to different levels of in dependent
variable or random factors.

1. Correction factor computation

101
6. Calculate the mean sum (MS) of squares

102
The critical value of F corresponding to 2 and 12 df at p = 0.01 is 6.93. Since
obtained value of F which is equal to 7.14 far exceeds the tabulated value, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Therefore the null hypothesis that, these three are similar in
terms of achievement motivation is rejected.

Strength of Association
The significant F indicates that observed differences between means are not by
chance but true differences are there.
It does not provide any idea about the strength of treatment effects on
dependent variable.
The strength of treatment effect W2 is calculated by using the following formula
& by taking the scores in the example above.

103
 Thus, approximately 45% of the variance in dependent variable (group
difference) is accounted for the difference levels of achievement motivation.
Activity: Read about Multi-Factor Analysis Design

iv) Chi-Square

 In a given research, the results obtained from a sample may not comply with
the theoretical assumptions of probability rules.
 Though theoretical assumption makes us think of occurrence of heads and
tails 50 times each, if a coin is tossed 100 times, it is rare to have such
results. Thus, there are always some discrepancies among the observed
frequencies and the expected frequencies of the events. This holds true for
the scientific researches too.
 Chi-Square is a nonparametric test of significance appropriate when the data
are in the form of frequency counts or percentages & proportions that
can be converted to frequencies.
 X2 test does not assume that population is normally distributed, and is
applicable to very small samples. ( Not <10 & at least 50).
 Applies only to discrete (counted) data rather than measured values

 Is used in statistical tests of hypothesis concerning

- Variance,
- independence of two characteristics &
- goodness of fit
 Is a test of independence i.e. the idea that one variable is not affected by or
related to another variable
 Is not the measure of degree of relationship and also of cause-effect
relationship but exhibits the existence of quality of independence
 It is merely used to estimate the likely hood that some factor other than
chance (sampling error) accounts for apparent relationship
 It is used to compare frequencies occurring in different categories or groups.

104
  It compares the computed frequencies with the expected ones (in the
standard table).
 Chi-square value increases with the increase in the difference b/n observed
frequency (fo) & expected frequency (fe) increases.
 Chi-square can be zero if fo= fe, but due to sampling errors it cannotbe zero.
 Larger chi-square values indicate statistically significant differences.
 The larger the expected frequency than the observed one reflects the null
hypothesis of no difference.
X2 may be defined as the sum of ratios of squared deviations of observed
frequencies (fo) from the corresponding expected frequencies (fe). It can be
depicted in the following equation:
  f0  fe  2 
X =  
2  , where fo&fe are the expected and the observed frequencies

 f e 

respectively.
If the calculated value of X2 that is X2ob is < the critical value that is X2cr, then the
null hypothesis is accepted, and is rejected otherwise (X2ob> X2cr.)
Basically, Chi-Square test is conducted to test the goodness of fit of a given
distribution or to test independence of two variables. (In our case, we will treat the
latter case).

Chi-Square Test of Independence

A x2 test of independence examines whether or not two variables are significantly
independent of each other in a given sample.
The null hypothesis tested by the X2 test for goodness of fit is the distribution of
observed frequencies across the categories of the sample is equal to the distribution
of expected frequencies as predicated by theoretical distribution.
Ho = foi = fei
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 If X2ob<X2cr, then the fit is considered to be good one. i.e., the divergent b/n fo&fe is due to fluctuation of sampling. And
If X2ob> X2cr, then the fit is considered to be not good one. i.e., the divergent b/n fo&fe is not due to fluctuation of
sampling but ______.

The alternative hypotheses are:

H1 = foi¹fei (Non – directional)
H1 = foi>fei(Directional)
H1 = foi<fei (Directional)
The degree of freedom for X2 depends on the nature of the proposed theoretical
distribution and is limited to the number of classes in the distribution of which
frequencies are free to vary. For example, for a normal distribution df = k — 3,
because three degrees of freedom are lost to keep n, mean and SD constant. For
binomial and Poisson distribution df = k—2, because n and mean are kept constant.
Since probability distribution does not involve any parameter, only one df is lost;
df = k — 1, where k is the number of classes in the distribution.
If computed x2 value> table (critical) value  we reject Ho or assume
independence at  = 0.05 or at  = 0.01 level of significant Thus,
  f0  fe  2 
X =  
2 ,

 f e 

wherefe=
 f colum n x  f raws . But in our case we read fe from the table
grand total

Example: About 80% people living in a city are smokers. A sample of 100 persons
was randomly selected and 70 persons were found to be smokers. Find out whether
the sample fits with the population distribution or not.

Group fe fo fo — fe
Smokers 80 70 —10

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Non-smokers 20 30 10

The critical value from the x2table;x2.05 (1) = 3.84, and x2.01(1) = 6.64.
The computed x2 of 6.25 is higher/lower than the critical x2.05(1)/ x2.01(1). So it is
significant/not significant at .05/0.01 level. Therefore the observed frequency
distribution does not fit/fit with population distribution.
Steps:-
First, the discrepancies among observed frequencies and expected frequencies (fo
— fe) were computed. Second, differences were squared and then divided by the
corresponding expected frequencies. Then the products of division were summed.
To find out the significance, critical value in chi square table at the obtained df
level is to be matched.
Example: A random sample of auto drivers revealed the relationship between
experience of those who had taken a course in driver education and those who had
not as shown below.

Driver education Reported No Total

accident accident
Had drivers education 44 10 54
No drivers education 81 35 116
Total 125 45 170

Computation of the above formulais presented as hereunder:

Driver education Reported accident No accident Total

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 Had driver Fe(44) = 54 x125
 40 fe(10) = 54
education 170 54 x 45
 14
170

Had no driver 116

education 116 x125
Fe(81)= 170  85 Fe(35) =
116 x 45
 31
170

Total 125 45 170

Note: Degree of freedom for x2 in the case of two variables is obtained by using
the formula df= (number of raws-1) (number of columns-1)
In the above case a 2x2 table has one degree of freedom i.e.
df= (number of raws -1)(number of columns -1) = (2-1) (2-1) = 1
Fo Fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe)2/fe
44 40 16 0.40
10 14 16 1.14
81 85 16 0.19
35 31 16 0.52
 = 2.25

  fo  fe  2 
Computation of x value i.e x =  
2 2 

 f e 
x2 = 2.25 <tc= 3.84
 No significant relationship between the course in driver education and
the no of individuals who had recorded auto accidents at  = 0.05 level
of
significance,
 They are independent
Activity

1. Check the above example at  = 0.01 level of significance

2. Is there any relationship between self-esteem & gender in the following

hypothetical data (use  = 0.05)

108
 Low Middle High Total
S.E

Gen
M 10 15 5 30
F 5 10 15 30
T 15 25 20 60

UNIT 7

THE RESEARCH REPORT

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 7.1. Layout of the Research Report

It consists of three sections: The preliminary section, the main body, and Sources and
bibliography.

I. The Preliminary Section

This section includes:
a. The title page
b. Acknowledgement
c. Table of contents
d. List of tables and figures
e. Abstract

A. The title page

The title should be briefly typed in capital letters and centered between the right
and left margins of page in an inverted pyramid style   
 The title page includes:
o The title
o The name of the researcher
o The name of the institution to which the researcher is to be submitted.
o The degree (if any) for which the research is to be submitted.
o Date of submission

Example

THE ATTITUDE OF TVET TEACHERS TOWARDS

CONTINUOS ASSESSMENT IN
OROMIA REGIONAL STATE

BY
CAALA GEDA

A RESEARCH REPORRT PRESENTED FOR

OROMIA EDUCATION BUREAU

June, 2005

110
B, Acknowledgements
Provide credit (praise) to those who assisted you in the study. It must be simple
and restricted to those who had significant contribution in the course of the
study.

C. Table of contents

 This contains five logical chapters (1-5 ) indicated in the table of contents
below.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Acknowledgement ……………………………
Tables of contents ……………………………….
List of tables &figures ………………………… use numbers such as i, ii, iii,
iv, etc
Abstract………………………………………… 

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ……………… ……………………

1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………
1.2. Statement of the Problem…………………………………………
1.3. Objectives of the Study……………………………………………
1.4. Significance of the Study………………………………………….
1.5. Delimitations of the study…………………………………………
1.6. Limitations of the study……………………………………………
1.7. Definition of Basic Terms…………………………………………..
1.8. Organization of the Study…………………………………………
CHAPTERS 2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE………..
2.1
2.2
.
.
.
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 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY………..
3.1. The Research Method………………………………………………..
3.2. Sources of Data……………………………………………………
3.3. Sample Population and Sample Techniques……………………………
3.4. Data Gathering Instruments/Tools……………………………………
3.5. Procedures of Data Collection………………………………………….
3.6. Method of Data Analysis………………………………………………
CHAPTER 4 Data Analysis, presentation & Interpretation………………
CHAPTER 5 Summary, Conclusion & Recommendations………………
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………..
APPENDIX……………………………… use numbers such as i, ii, iii, iv, etc

ii. The Main Body

It includes issues under chapters one to five

iii. Sources and bibliography

Important points to be noted when writing: review of the related literature; data
analysis,
presentation and interpretation report; summary, conclusion and recommendations;
sources and bibliography; and appendices

 The Review of the Related Literature( RRL) ( Chapter Two)

Basically, the RRLshould involve the systematic identification, location and

analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem/title.
It is also used to describe the written components of a research plan or report that
discusses the reviewed documents. These documents can include articles, abstracts,
reviews, monographic Theses/Dissertations, books, other research reports and
electronic media efforts. It helps to explores, interprets synthesizes and discusses
what has been done (researched and documented in previous works) and what
needs to be donewith respect to your study.

 The purpose of the review of related literature

 Provide insight into methods
 Suggest different sources of data
 Avoid unproductive approach
 Avoid duplication
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  Delimit the research problem and define it better
 Create linkage between your study and the accumulated knowledge in the
area.
 Provide recommendation for further research.
 Helps to discover research strategies and specific data collection approaches
that have or have not been productive in investigation of topics similar to the
study at hand

 How and where to start a search for the literature to be reviewed

 If you have impressive picture of the problem consult books such as
encyclopaedias, and handbooks. Such sources can be help you as a stepping
stone in directing you to bibliographies, indexes and abstracts which deal
with specific aspects of your topic.
 The search will be done either by hand or computers as it is convenient to
you

 At what point during the research project should you survey review of the
related literature

 Normally you need to survey review of the related literature as soon as your
problem has been selected and delineated. However, reviewing the literature
is not something that is done, completed put aside and forgotten, it is a
process that continues till you come up with your final research document.

 Note taking strategies.

 One way or the other, a review of the related literature requires note taking
 While taking notes, allow yourself a systematic approach. Keeping a proper
card index is the most vital task to this effect.

 What is a card index?

 A card index is a collection of lined cards of various sizes which is
meant to keep review notes and reference information. For convenience
and standardization, 4x6 inch card is usually a preferable size.
 A sample card with appropriate bibliographic details may look like the
following

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 No____________________________

Author(s) __________________________________
 Title of the book/article_________________
 Date of publication____________________
 Place of publication____________________
 Volume Number ______________________
 Page Number _________________________
 Publisher ____________________________
 Edition Number _______________________
 Issue Number _________________________

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

 On the rest of the card you can take notes which you made while
reading the book or an article in question. If the notes require you
additional page, use supplementary card and attach it to the first.
 Basics for writing the section on review of the related literature
 Arrange your review by topic
 Use your hypothesis to help serve as framework to organize the review.
 Do not be tempted by mere quantity of facts and findings.
 Begin with the most recent studies in the area and then work backward
through earlier works.
 Read the abstract on summary section of report first in order to help
determine whether it is relevant to your topic
 Before reading the material, skim over the contents in order to locate
the section which is pertinent to your work.
 Evaluate the usefulness of the review

 How do you organizer your discussion of the review of the literature.

114
  Develop an outline on which discussions of a review of a related
literature follows.
 Begin your discussion from a comprehensive perspective. This
means broad and general studies will review first and followed by
specific and local studies.
 At the end, a brief summary should be made.

 When do you stop reviewing the related literature?

 A sense of being saturated signals the end of the search. When you
begin to come across familiar sources and have stopped finding
significant new references, it is time to quit.
 But note that it is a process that continues till you come up with your
final research document.

 Data Analysis, Presentation and Interpretation ( Chapter 4) :

 Data will be presented in tables and figures. They should be clear and self-
explanatory.
 Some consideration in construction of tables
 A table should be simple.
 Too much data should not be included. Consider the following points.
a) If a table is large enough to cover more than a half page, it should
be placed on separate page and be attached to the appendix.
b) In the text (discussion) when you need to refer to a table to the
reader identify atable by its number not by such expressions as the
above table or the following table, etc.
c) Every table must be given a number and must have a title or a
heading at the top. You can use arable number (1,2…) or capital
roman Number (I.II….)
d) In the title the word " TABLE" and the beginning of words in the
title should be in capital letters.
e) Titles should not be complete sentences, also avoid "Table
showing," Distribution of, " " Frequency of" etc.
Example: Table I: Table showing Means and standard Deviations of
Boys and Girls in the Attitude scale(Poor title)
 Also not the following points when setting a table
 Include important points about figures
 Figures should be simple, clear and understandable
 Figures should be used some times. Avoid using too
many figures

115
 f) Tables have to be placed on a separate page.
g) They should come following some discussions about the
information they contain.
h) Label a figure in a text by its number (as fig 1 shows …) rather
than by such phrases as "As the figure below shows…etc.
i) Number of figures should be written in Arabic number.
j) The title of the figure should not be a complete sentence. It should
be placed below the figure and labeled as figure or fig.
 Give a short restatement of the problem.
 For quantitative research, indicate the statistical tool used to analyze each
hypothesis
 Describe the procedures followed in the study and its findings.
 No new thing is added here.
 Present the study from its beginning to its end in a very short manner.
 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations ( chapter5):
 The results (the findings) should be discussed) & interpreted,
 Conclusions should be drawn,
 The theoretical & practical implications of the findings should be
discussed, &

 Recommendations should be made for future research or future

actions

 Acknowledging Sources and Bibliography

 Acknowledging Sources
 Plagiarism: Is the act of using another person's ideas in your writing without
acknowledging the sources.
 Citing sources: the usual style of acknowledging your source is keeping
brief parenthetical citation in the text which refers to an alphabetical list of
works that appear at the end of your research.
For example
 Quality and standard are in fact relative matters relative to the particular
time and place, and particular learners and their circumstances (Combs,
1985:107),or 
 Combs (1985:107) stated that quality and standard are in fact relative
matters relative to the particular time and place, and particular learners and
their circumstances.
 Bibliography:
 It is the record of sources and materials that have been used for the study.
116
  If the number of reference is large, you may divide the bibliography into
various sanctions;
 One for books
 One for journals
 One for unpublished Theses/Dissertations
 Possible one for reports and special documents.

 i. Books
A) Books with Authors
 Basic entry: Author's name, year, title of the book, publication
information(Name of the City & Publisher)
a) Author's name: reveres the authors name and add comma after the last name.
 Omit titles, affiliations and degrees (Dr, Phd, MA, professors)
b) Title of the book: State full title including subtitles
 Put colon directly after the main title if it has subtitle
 Place a period after the title.
 Underline the whole title or make it bold typed
c) Publication information:-
 Write city of publication
 Use a colon between the place of publication and the publisher, a comma
between the publisher and the year.
 The year may be placed after the author's name in the bracket.
 If several sites are listed in the book, use only the first.  
 Citing a book with more than three authors, you will name only the first
author and add "and others" or etal.
For example,
 Silman, S., et.al. (1993). Hysteria Beyond Freud. Berkely: University of
California.
 When the authors name is not indicated, start with the title of the book.

For example,
 The Constitution of the Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia. Addis
Ababa: Bole printing press, 1991.
B) Books with editor (s)
Entry:
 Author's name (reverse it)
 Title of article in quotation
 Name of the editor (reverse it) and add (ed)
 Publication information (city, agency and inclusive page numbers of the
article).
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For example,
 Marshal, J.(1986). “Women Managers." In Mumy, Ford A.(ed). Hand Book
of Management Development. Alders hot: Goveler publishing company,
358-373

ii. Journals
 Entry:
 The name of the author
 The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the journal underlined.
 Volume number, issue number and total pages of the article.

For example.
 Rosner, B. (1991). “Women in Management”.Harvard Business Review.
Vol.69, Num.3, pp 100-152 
iii. Unpublished Theses/Dissertations

 Essential entries are:

 The name of the writer
 The title of unpublished work enclosed in a quotation
 Description about the source.
For example
 Jeilu, O. (2001). “Decentralization of Educational Management: A Case
Study in Oromia National Regional State”, Master’s Thesis: AU. (Un pub).

iv. For Reports and Special Documents

A) News papers
 Entry:
 The name of the author
 The title of the article in quotation mark
 The name of the newspaper underlined
 The date and page number.
For example, 
 Abebe, A. "Attacking unemployment in Ethiopia. " The Ethiopian Herald,
September 4,1974, p.8.

B) Government publication Entry:

 Name of the organization
 Year of publication
 Title of the book underlined
118
  Publication information.

For example,
 Ministry of education. (1993). Basic Education Statistics. Addis Ababa:
Educational Management and Information Systems.

General points to be considered when writing a bibliography

1. When the author's name is not indicated, alphabetize the book by its title
(Ignore article a, an or the; to alphabetize).
2. When the same name (a person or an institution is referred to more than
once in your bibliography, give the name in the first entry only. Then in the
place of the names use bars (_________________).
3. If several works by the same author appear, they must be alphabetized
among themselves by title.
4. When the same author produce two or more publication in a year,
alphabetize them using sequential letters (a,b,c) next to their publication date
……… (1973 a, 1973b).
5. When the author is an Ethiopian, names cannot be inverted.
Note:
1. Underlining or making bold letters of books’ title could be replaced by writing it
in an Italic style.
2. Using “. …..” for journals could be replaced by writing it without Italic style.

3. For more recent information about Acknowledging Sources and Bibliography;

refers APA style from internet.

 Appendices:
 All important but not essential materials to be included in the main body are
presented in the appendix.
 These materials may include:
 Tools used in the research
 Questioner
 Interview questions
 Observation checklist 
 Maps
 Photographs
 Statistical procedures, formulas, long tables and figures
119
  Copies of letters used
 Evaluation sheet
 Tests
 Long tables and figures

Non –probability sampling

This technique is less strict and makes no claim for representativeness. Non probability
sampling is any procedure in which element will not have equal opportunity of being included
in a sample. That is limiting the chances of representation in the sample by the basis of different
criteria.
In fact, non –probability sampling is difficult, if not impossible to even describe the population
from which a sample was drawn and to whom results can be generalized. It is used when either
the number of elements in a population is known or the elements cannot be individually
identified.
Advantages of Non – probability sampling
 It is not complicated
 It is less strict and no claim for representativeness.
 It is considerably less expensive

Disadvantages of Non- probability sampling

 It is impossible to specify what probability each member of the population has of being
selected for the sample.
 The finding cannot be generalized to the total sampling population.
 Obtain biased sample
 There are around four types of non- probability sampling procedures. The
procedures do not use rules of probability theory and do not indicate
representativeness, and are used for exploration and qualitative studies. Some of
the non –probability sampling techniques are the following.
1. Convenience
 It is also referred to as accidental sampling and haphazard sampling.
 It basically involves including in the sample whoever happens to be available at the
time.
 It is primarily guided by easy, accessibility, geographical proximity, known contacts,
ready approval for understanding the study or being a part of the group is primarily
selecting a place where you are likely to find you potential respondents, which place
may/ may not be most convenient to you, and if a person of interest comes along, you
collect the required information till either you have collected the information from the
specific number of respondents or have reached the saturation point.

Example
A teacher using his/her pupils who came to the school on Saturday morning.

120
A medical Doctor when uses his/her out- patients who came to the hospital on Monday morning.
2 .Purposive sampling

In this sampling procedure the researcher aims at selecting subjects who in his/her opinion, is
thought to be relevant to the study. It is more of judgmental in making decision with regard to
the sample, In this way, the researcher builds up a sample that is satisfactory to his/her specific
needs. In other terms, the researcher selects a sample base on his/her experience or knowledge
of the group to be sampled
Example.
To conduct a study on the relevance health education to be taught either as an independent or
integrated subject, the researcher purposefully select
 Science teacher
 Home economic teachers
 The health of assistant of the school

Note that- the main weakness of purposive sampling is the potential for inaccuracy in the
researchers criteria and resulting sample selection.
 It is useful when you want to construct a historical reality, describe a phenomena or
develop something about which only a little is known,
 It is more common in qualitative research When you use it in qualitative research, you
select predetermined number of people who , in your judgment are best positioned to
provide you with the information needed for you study.

3 .Quota sampling
In this techniques the researcher sets a; Quota, of subjects to be selected from specific population
group by defining the basis of choice.
(Eg, Gender, Marital status, Education, etc). and determine its size. That is, choosing sample
units according to thin proportion in the target population.
It is the most used in survey research when it is not possible to list all members of the population
of interest.
 When quota sampling is involved, data gatherers are given exact characteristics of and
quota of persons to be interviewed.
 When Quota sampling is use, data are obtained from easily accessible individuals. Thus
people who are less accessible (more difficult to contact more reluctant to participate)are
underrepresented.

However, any sampling bias present in a study showed be fully described in the final
research report.

Example; Suppose a school teacher may attempt to study

 The effect of gender on language acquisition and its product.

 Let the number of female and male pupils in the school is 400 and 680 respectively.
 Let 10% from each group is included in the study( i.e. 40 and 68 for the respective
groups)

121
  The total sample number is 108.
 In this selection process the subjects do not have equal chance to be selected.

Advantages of quote sampling

 It is the least expensive way of selection a sample.

No need of any information, such as a sampling frame, the total number of element, their
location or other information about the sampling population
 It guarantees the illusion of the type of people you need.

Disadvantages of Quota sampling

 The finding cannot be generalized to the total sampling population.
 The most accessible individuals selected from one location might have characteristic that
an undue to then and hence might not be representative of the total sampling population.

4. Snowball sampling
In this type of sampling the research begins the study with the few subjects who are available to
him /her.
He/she subsequently asks these subjects to recommend any other person who meet the criteria of
the research and who might be willing to participate in the study.
This process continues until the sample is saturated.
In other words , it is the process of selecting a sample using networks .To start with, a few
individuals in a group or organization are selected and the required information is collected from
them .
They are then asked to identify other people in the group or organization, and the people selected
by them become part of the sample. Information is collected from them , and these people are
asked to identify other members of the group and ,in turn, those identified become the basis for
further data collection.

This process is continued until the required member or a saturation point has been reached,
interns of the information being sought.
The Advantage of snowball sampling
 It is useful if you know little about the group or organization you wish to study, as you
need only to make contact with a few individuals, who can then direct you, to the other
members of the group. It is useful for studding communication patterns, decision making
or diffusion of knowledge whit a group.

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

The choice of the entire sample rests upon the choice of individual at the first stage. If they
belong to a particular fun lion or have strong biases, the study may be biases. Also it is difficult
to use this technique when the sample become fairly large

122
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