COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

ETH101
ETHICS101
LECTURES/HANDOUTS
1ST SEMESTER 2020-2021

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

ETH101
ETHICS101
LECTURES/HANDOUTS
1ST SEMESTER 2020-2021

LECTURE/ HANDOUT 7- HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of lecture handout 7, the student will be able to:

 understand that the 6 stages of moral development is the way an individual

reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral development.
 give guidance to the moral characters of learners and help them to become
the best that they can be.
 aid in socialization process, prevent acting on unchecked urges, instead
considering what is right for society and the community as a whole.
 make sure that over time the learning will evolve to a desire to make the world
a better and more just place for all people.
 Accept that rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly and
believe it is their duty to obey them

INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW

 The main point of Kohlberg about moral reasoning is that it changed as a person
grew older.
 There are three levels of moral reasoning and each includes two stages of moral
development
 People make decisions based on what actions will please others, especially
authority figures and other individuals with high status.
 People look to society as a whole for guidelines about right or wrong.
 People also recognize that rules can be flexible, meaning that if they do not serve
the society’s best interest can be and should be changed.
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What is moral character?

Moral is concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the
goodness or badness of human character. Character is defined as the “mental and
moral qualities distinct to an individual. But in philosophy, the term character usually
denotes to the moral dimension of a person. Moral character refers to the “existence
(or lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.

The Circular Relation of Acts and Character

In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation between acts
that build character and moral character itself. Not all acts help to build moral character,
but those acts which emanate from moral characters certainly matter in moral
development. Hence, there appears the apparent circular relationship between
individual acts and moral character. A person’s actions determine his/her moral
character, but moral character itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue
or vice.
This goes to show that moral development should also be understood in the
sense of human flourishing. This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral
and intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues.’ In the context of developing morally which also
brings about self-realization and happiness, acting in line with virtues is acting in
accordance with reason. Indeed, philosophers like Aristotle hold that the function of
human being consists in activities which manifest the best states of his rational aspect,
that is, the virtues.
Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable and enduring and are not mere
products of fortune, but learning, constant practice, and cultivation. But we have to add
that virtuous traits of character are called excellence of human being because they are
the best exercise of reason, which is the activity characteristic of human beings. In this
sense, the Greek moralists believe, virtuous acts complete or perfect human life.
Nonetheless, the Greek philosophers think that it takes someone of good moral
character to determine with regularity and reliability what individual acts are appropriate
and reasonable in certain situations and that it takes someone of good moral character
to decide with regularity and reliability how and when to secure goods and resources for
himself/herself and others. Aristotle thus states that, it is not easy to define in rules
which acts deserve moral praise and blame, and that, these matters require the
judgment of the virtuous person, that is, someone with good moral character.
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Philosophical Views on Moral Character

What do the great ancient minds think about moral character
A. Confucian Traditions ( Eastern)
The philosophy of moral development is rooted in ancient views. For Confucian
traditions moral development was attributed to “four beginnings” of the human
personality. These four beginnings were considered as seeds of human personality that
will naturally unfold to become human activities. Take note though, that contrary to
Western understanding of personality as a given human condition; personality in
Confucian perception meant- “an achieved state of moral excellence.”
Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four beginnings. However, each of
these do not yet capture the concept of self. However, when the four beginnings are put
together, it may then be perceived in Western understanding as the “pre-self or
“potential self”.
The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are:
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi
Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity. Yi means
righteousness and the respect of duty, that is, respect your position as guardian
towards nature and humanity. Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette,
customs and rituals. Zhi means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing
Jen, Yi, and Li in one’s life.

B. Aristotle and Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence, a
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although
action and consequence are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an
action is right or wrong; nor whether the consequences are good or bad. It is more
concerned with whether the person is acting as virtuous person should act in the
situation.
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Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient Western philosophy,

Aristotle’s discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential
view on the topic. Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be
virtuous and that if a person is focused on being a good person the right actions will
follow effortlessly and you will do good thing
What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle believed that humans have
an essence. He called this essence proper functioning where everything has a
function and the thing that performs as intended is called good when it is able to
fulfill this function. Thus, a scissor is a good scissor if it can cut. A car is good if it
runs and takes you to your destination. A person is also good if he or she fulfills
what nature expects of him or her. Hence, a person needs to sleep, be healthy,
grow, and develop as nature intended. However, aside from its natural instincts, a
person according to Aristotle is also a “rational animal” and a “social animal”.
Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other people is also the human
person’s function. A ‘good’ person is one who fulfills all these functions.
So, what does it mean to be virtuous? Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to
excellence. A man has a virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well,
since playing the flute is the distinctive activity of a flautist. A person of virtue is
someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The principle of
being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”- that moral behavior is
the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices).
When he said “extreme behavior”, it meant the act was either excessive or deficient.
For example, in Aristotelian view eating is a human function as demanded by
nature. When a person overeats (gluttony), this behavior is excessive; while a
person who diets too much (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is
temperance or to eat just the right amount at all times to keep your body nourished
and healthy. Temperance is the golden mean between gluttony and starvation.
Aristotle understood virtue as a character that can be developed, and that this can
be developed by practicing the golden mean ( the doctrine of the Mean). In time ,
good behavior will come naturally.
It is important to note that Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean does not claim that
you behave in moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should only
ever be ‘moderately’ angry. In Aristotle’s philosophy, you should be as angry as the
situation demands which can be very angry or slightly irritated. He concluded that
virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with the right people,
and that this choice is determined by rational principle and practical wisdom. The
virtuous man is the kind of man (note: the term man in Aristotle’s writing is equated
with person and not just as opposed to woman) who is able to satisfy both
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inclinations and rational desires because his or her inclinations and desires are
aligned. The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does it because he/she
derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.
But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, according to virtue ethics is
Eudaimonia. Generally, Eudaimonia can be translated as “happiness”, “well-being”
or the “good life” and that this is the goal of human life. Aristotle believed that to
achieve eudaimonia you need to practice the virtues in your everyday activity all
through your life.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

How did we develop a sense of what is right or wrong? In this lesson, you should
be able to identify the different stages of Moral Development as stipulated by
philosopher and psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg.

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century development psychologist and moral

philosopher. When he was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education,
Kohlberg’s research focused on the moral development of children particularly on how
they develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He observed that
children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral development.
Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting (if controversial)
technique. In his research, Kohlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral
dilemmas in short stories and asked the participants to think out loud so he could follow
their reasonings. The reason for this was that Kohlberg was not interested with the
specific answers to the dilemmas- he wanted to know how the person got to his or her
answer.
The story below is one of Kohlberg’s best- known stories concerns a man called
Heinz:
“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was
one drug that the doctor thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist
in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the
druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the
radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband,
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying
and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: ”No, I
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discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.”
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as: Should Heinz have stolen the
drug? Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? What if the person dying
was a stranger, would it make any difference? Should the police arrest the chemist for
murder if the woman died?
His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has
identifiable developmental stages and each become more adequate at responding to
moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next. Kohlberg
asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice,
and that the process goes on throughout the individual’s lifetime.
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined
three broad levels and six specific stages of moral development.
Level I: Pre-conventional morality
Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral reasoning
is common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior. The
child, having no concept about society’s conventions on what is right or wrong, would
base its judgment mainly on the external consequences of its actions.
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
This is also called the ‘pre-moral stage’ where decisions and actions are
determined by immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value.
The overall goal at this stage is to avoid punishment. For example, “I am going to
study my lessons because mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test.”
Stage 2: Reward Orientation
As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for
negotiation because other people have their own goals to meet and wants that
must be satisfied too. Children learn to behave in a manner based on the
principle,” What’s in it for me”? For example, an older child might reason: If I get
good grades mom and dad will buy me a new smart phone. So, I’m going to do
my homework.”
Level II: Conventional Morality
This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Conventional
morality is to reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner. It
is accepting the rules and standards of one’s group. This means decisions and the
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morality of his/her actions are based on society’s views and expectations. The focus on
this level is the “significant others” or what is also called “Tyranny of the They (They say
this…. They say that…. They say I should….)
Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up
to their expectations. He/ She also now understands the concept of loyalty. Trust,
and gratitude as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind a
particular decision or action. For example, children understand and live by the
Golden Rule.
Stage 4: Authority Orientation
By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is following
the rules, maintaining law and order, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
For example, when someone violates the law, it is morally wrong; culpability is
therefore a significant factor in this stage because it separates what is bad from
what is good.
Level III: Post conventional
This is also known as the ‘principled level’. It is marked by a growing realization
that people are unique and are an independent part of the society. Therefore, the
individual’s own perspective is more significant over what the rest of the society thinks
and that this would sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal principles.
At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question, but
a changeable mechanism. Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view
rules and laws to be important in maintaining peace and order but it only serves as a
guide that needs to be weighed against personal principles and beliefs to uphold one’s
human rights.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
This stage means that individual is aware that much of what is considered
to be moral or good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social
group they belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental values
are actually universal.
The person at this level understands that the world holds different
opinions, rights, and values; thus, different views should be mutually respected.
Laws are also regarded as a matter a social contract with one’s fellow human
beings in order to promote universal values and that decisions are made for “the
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greater good for the number of people. The best example for this level is the
Democratic form of government.
Stage 6: Ethical-Principle Orientation
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes
a personal commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect.
At this stage, an individual already has a principled conscience; and will follow
universal, ethical principles regardless of what the laws or the rules say.
Judgment here is based on abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself
in other people’s shoes.

REFERENCE:

Bulaong, Oscar G.et al 2018 Ethics Foundations of Moral Valuation. Rex Bookstore Inc.
Nicanor Reyes
St. Recto Ave. Manila, Philippines

De Guzman, J.M. et al 2017 Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Mutya

Publishing House Inc. Potrero, Malabon
Manebog, J.DG. Ethics: A primer Appendix A
Plato on Justice http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic

Gallinero, Winston B. et al 2018 Ethics. Mutya Publishing House Inc. Pateros Malabon
City
Pasco, Marc Oliver D. et al 2018. Ethics. C&E Publishing Inc. Quezon City, Philippines