Edexcel IAL Chemistry A-level
Topic 5: Alkenes
Detailed notes
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Introduction to Alkenes
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They are
part of a homologous series with the general formula CnH2n. Cycloalkenes are a type of alkene
hydrocarbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a closed ring.
Structure and Reactivity
The carbon double bond is an area of high electron density making it susceptible to attack from
electrophiles (species that are attracted to ∂-areas). It consists of a normal covalent σ bond and a
π bond.
Example:
Test for Alkenes
Bromine water is used to identify an alkene double bond and other unsaturated compounds.
Alkenes cause bromine water to change colour from orange-brown to colourless. This is
because the C=C bond can ‘open up’ to accept bromine atoms, and thus become saturated.
Geometric isomerism
Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers have the same structural formula but have a different spatial arrangement of
atoms and bonds. E-Z isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism, which occurs due to the limited
rotation around a double carbon bond. The limited rotation means that groups attached to the
C=C can either be ‘together’ or ‘apart’. The E isomer (german for ‘entgegen’ meaning apart) has
these groups apart. The Z isomer (german for ‘zusammen’ meaning together) has these groups
together on the same side.
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Example:
Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) Priority Rules
There is a priority of different groups in molecules that can display E-Z isomerism. The atom or
group on each side of the double bond with the higher Ar or Mr is given the higher priority.
These groups are used to determine if it is the E or Z isomer.
Example:
This molecule is the Z isomer as the highest priority
atoms are on the same side (both on the top).
Cis- and Trans- isomers
Stereoisomers can be named in the same process as above, but instead using Cis- for when the
groups are on the same side and trans- for when they are different sides. Cis- and trans- differs
from E/Z isomerism in that cis- and trans- can only be used when there are hydrogen atoms to
compare the two other groups to. When there are more groups present, you have to assign E/Z
isomerism by using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules described above.
Reactions of alkenes
The carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes makes them reactive. During their reactions, the
double bond opens up to form single bonds to other atoms.
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Alkanes
Alkenes can undergo electrophilic addition with hydrogen to produce alkanes. The C=C bond
opens up and forms single bonds to each of the hydrogen atoms. This reaction requires a nickel
catalyst.
Example:
Halogenaoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes are organic compounds with single carbon bonds only and halogen functional
groups. Alkenes undergo addition reactions with halogens to form di-substituted
halogenoalkanes, and with hydrogen halides to form mono-substituted halogenoalkanes. The
mechanism for this reaction is given on the following page of these notes.
Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds with a hydroxyl functional group. Alkenes undergo addition
reactions with steam to form alcohols. This reaction requires an acid catalyst, such as phosphoric
acid.
Example:
CH2CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
Diols, alcohols with two hydroxyl functional groups, can also be formed from alkenes through an
oxidation reaction. The double bond is oxidised by acidified potassium manganate(VII)
(KMnO4). The manganate ions must be cold, dilute and acidified.
Example:
CH2CH2 + H2O + [O] → CH2(OH)CH2(OH)
Electrophilic Addition
Alkenes undergo electrophilic addition about the double bond.
Electrophiles
These are electron acceptors and are attracted to areas of high electron density. Some of the
most common electrophiles are:
● HBr
● Br2
● H2SO4
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Electrophilic Addition
Electrophilic addition is the reaction mechanism that shows how electrophiles attack the double
bond in alkenes. When the double bond is broken, a carbocation forms. This is a carbon atom
with only three bonds, meaning it has a positive charge.
Mechanism: Alkene + Halogen → Dihalogenoalkane
The π bond causes the bromine molecule to gain a temporary
dipole so that electrons are transferred.
Mechanism: Alkene + Hydrogen Halide → Halogenoalkane
Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to ethene
Example: Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to propene
Hydrogen bromide is polar due to the difference in the electronegativities of hydrogen and
bromine. The electron pair in the double bond attracts Hδ+
, forming a covalent bond between
carbon and hydrogen. This produces a positively charged carbocation intermediate which
attracts the negatively charged bromide ion. The hydrogen joins to the carbon atom which is
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bonded to the most hydrogen atoms. The bromide ion bonds to the carbon atom which is joined to
the most carbon atoms. This is why 2-bromopropane forms more often than 1-bromopropane in
the mechanism of propene with hydrogen bromide. Further explanation of stability is given below.
Inductive effects of alkyl groups
When a hydrogen halide bonds to an unsymmetrical alkene, there are two possible products. The
quantities of each product produced depends on the stability of the carbocation intermediate.
Carbocations with more alkyl groups are more stable. This is because alkyl groups have a
positive inductive effect on the carbon atom and feed electrons towards the positive charge. The
more stable carbocation
is more likely to form so
there will be higher
quantities of this
product. It is often
referred to as the major
product.
Addition Polymers
Addition polymers are produced from alkenes, where the double bond is broken to form a
repeating unit. Alkenes are short chain monomers which join together to form long chain
polymers.
Example:
The repeating unit must always be shown with extended bonds through the brackets, showing
that it bonds to other repeating units on both sides.
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Uses of Polymers
Polymers are unreactive hydrocarbon chains with multiple strong, non-polar covalent bonds.
This makes them useful for manufacturing many everyday plastic products such as poly(ethene)
shopping bags.
However, the unreactive nature of the bonds in addition polymers means they are not
biodegradable and cannot be broken down by species in nature.
Disposal of Polymers
Addition polymers are non-biodegradable which means disposal of them can be difficult. Waste
polymers can be processed in different ways. Some can be recycled, some are used as
feedstock for cracking and some are incinerated to produce energy for other industrial
processes. Incineration can release toxic gases which must be removed to reduce the impact on
the environment.
Scientists are developing biodegradable polymers to overcome the various disposal issues.
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