Chapter - 2

A Theoretical Perspective of Elites.

The study of elite theory is an important component of modem

political system. The concept of elite is not new. It is evident in the writings of

Plato and Aristotle. The term Elite is used in different context under varied

conditions for identifying its nature and role in the respective political system.

However, it received serious attention during 19th century because of two

Italian contributors viz., Vilfredo Pareto, a Sociologist and Gaetano Mosca, a

Political Scientist. The Social scientists like Robert Michaels, Harold Lasswell,

James Burnham, C.Wright Mills and Ortega Gasset have developed the 'Elite

Theory' based on sociological, psychological and economic dimension. Karl

Mannheim, Anthony Downs and Joseph Schumpeter are other leading

exponents, who further developed this theory under different political

systems.

Western Concept of Elite:

The term Elite is derived from Latin word 'Eligere' which means to

choose or pick. The term elite was first used in Military administration as a

choice of persons. The Concise dictionary defines the term Elite as choice, pick

or select few. According to Harper's English dictionary it means 'Cream of

Working class'. International Encyclopedia of Social Science describes 'Elite as

a group of persons possessing certain fundamental features of life'. It is used

as 'Choice' in 14th century and 'Best of the best' in the 15th century. "The

28
term elite was introduced to describe standard of excellence and latter

extended to refer superior social groups such as highly successful military

units and upper ranks of aristocracy"1. The nature of elites gradually shifted

from aristocratic and oligarchic elements since 19th century towards

democratic elements. It shifted from Plato's aristocratic rationality and

Aristotle's nobility of ancient period to superior groups of medieval period

and then towards distinct and exclusive quality as the base for elites

identification. The study became scientific with the emergence of liberal-

democratic institutions in the West. The study received serious attention and

recognition in every form of political system and became more popular in

the early 20th century.

Vilfredo Pareto [1842-1923]:

Viifredo Pareto, an Italian Sociologist is regarded as major

exponent of elite theory. He contributed to the 'Theory of Elites and

Circulation of Elites' in the book 'The Mind & Society'. He applied socio-

psychological factors to identify the elites and their nature. According to

Pareto the marked degree of qualities differ from person to person in every

society. In every civilized society only few persons shall have such inherent

quality or marked excellence. In his opinion men are born unequal every

where and unequal physically as well as mentally with regard to their

abilities and capacities. Thus he made social stratification and class distinction

on the basis of psychological traits such as 'superior class people as elites and

the inferior one as non-elites'.

29
 According to Pareto "By elite we mean the small number of individuals

who in each sphere of activity have succeeded and have arrived at a higher

echelon in the professional hierarchy "2. He defines elites as a superior class of

people who possess better qualities and highest indices compared to others in

their respective field. He identified them as the best in a particular field or

branch in each sphere who exercise profound influence in a civil society. The

elites are sizeable in number who occupy the highest positions on the basis of

certain attributes and marked qualities. He divides the society on the basis of

requisite qualities and the function they undertake in civil society in an

organized fashion. Pareto advises elites to possess certain qualities to remain

or maintain themselves in power. He calls the qualities as residues, on

account of which an elite assume top position in a civilized society. "He has

given six kinds of residues: 1] persistence of aggregates 2] sociability 3]

activity 4] integrity 5] sex and 6] instinct of combinations"3. Pareto has given

prominence to 'Persistence of aggregates and Instinct of combinations' to

maintain elite status in a civilized society.

Pareto endorses Machiavellian views regarding the nature of human

beings. In his opinion, man is guided by sentiments and passions. He is

basically a creature of impulses and instincts. Every society has two types of

individuals namely, foxes and lions. Foxes are bold and courageous but not

cautious, yet use cunningness to survive. Lions are strong, conservative,

tradition loving, orthodox and loyal to the ideals of family, religion and

30
country. They prefer to use force but not cleverness. Hence, people get their

rulers from these categories.

Pareto divides civil society as governing and non - governing elites.

He advocates inherent natural qualities and unequal distribution of residues

in a civil society. On this basis, he proposed circulation of elites and nature of

governing elites in a civil society. He argues residues of foxes believe in

cunningness but reluctant to use force. They lack fidelity, hence unable to

form stable society. The lion residue of elites possesses strong loyalty towards

family, tribe, state and nation. They display patriotic fervour, strong

nationalistic sentiment and feeling, rely more on force and manipulate power

for the nationalistic concern. This will enable to overthrow a fox regime and

establish their rule. The lion rule will not survive for longer period of time as

society is dynamic. Hence it needs innovativeness. Here once again fox

residue will come to rule.

According to Pareto "history is a graveyard of numerous fallen

elites"4. There is uninterrupted cycle of rise and decline of elites in history. It

is necessary to combine the elements of fox and lion residue to have a strong

and stable society i.e. Persistence of aggregates and Instinct of combinations.

Hence, the governing elite must have a good balance with combination of fox

and lion residue for social and economic stability to establish social

equilibrium.

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Gaetano Mosca: [1858 -1941]:

Gaetano Mosca, an Italian Political Scientist developed the 'Elite

Theory and Circulation of Elites 'expounded by Pareto in his famous book

'The Ruling Class'. He adopted analytical method in his theory. According to

Mosca 'Elites in a society were nothing other than a ruling class'. He divided

society as ruling and ruled class. The ruling class holds an elite status due to

its ability in an organization. It is sizeable in number and smaller in group

and better organized compared to the unorganized ruled class who are

majority in number. The elites are organized minorities in a society.

Mosca adopted organizational approach for his study. He believed

oligarchy elements as the base for elite recruitment. He quotes "In all societies

from societies that are meagerly developed and have barely attained the

dawning's of civilization down to the most advanced and powerful societies -

the two classes of people a class that rules and a class that ruled. The first

class, always the less numerous, performs all political functions, monopolizes

power and enjoys the advantage that brings. Where as the second the more

numerous class is directed and controlled by the first in a manner that is more

or less legal, now more arbitrary and violent and supplies the first in

appearance with instrumentalities that are essential to the vitality of political

organism"5. The larger the political community, he adds later 'the smaller will

be the proportion of the governing minority to be governed by, and more

difficult it will be for the majority to organize against the minority.

32
 Mosca, firmly believes that an elite holds power in an organization on

the basis of ability and aptitude to command and exercise political control.

They hold and retain power as long as they had aptitude to command and

rule remains constant. Once the ruling class looses the aptitude to rule,

command and control, there is possibility of replacement of elites. In this way

Mosca admits the circulation of elite's theory advocated by Pareto. The ruled

class who are large in number among whom has the ability shall replace the

old, thus new elites emerge says Mosca. In his opinion, the elites who do not

adapt to changing conditions and failed to solve the emerging or new

problems or interests are likely to replace by the new one. Thus, Mosca

advises the governing elites to bring gradual alteration in the political system

in order to make it confirm to changes in public opinion.

Robert Michels [ 1876 -1936 ]:

Michels, the student of Mosca repeated the organizational approach in

his famous book entitled 'Political Parties' [1915]. He defends the 'Iron Laws

of Oligarchy' which provides unchecked and uncontrollable power to elites in

a political system. But his theory of elite differs from Mosca. Michaels admits

the virtue and ability of elites in controlling the political system. He believes

elites as a minority group hold, influence and controls the political system by

virtue of 'Iron Laws of Oligarchy'. According to Michels "Elites consists of

those few persons who are able to control the apathetic, indolent and slavish

people who are susceptible to flattering and obsequious [obedient] in the

presence of strength"6. His argument is based on the supreme power and grip

33
of elite in an organization. According to him, "Organization is simply another

way of spelling Oligarchy"7. In his opinion, even the most democratic modern

societies and within those societies the most advanced parties are unable to

escape from the 'Iron Laws of Oligarchy'. The power of an organization is

vested in the hands of leadership which is exercised by bureaucracy and other

leading politicians of the party. The party hierarchy becomes an established

career, once the leaders reach the pinnacle of power, nothing can bring them

down. The elites power is sustained because of mass - mind, which is

uncareful, slavish, apathetic, inaptitude and politically neutral. The shrewd

leaders use their power, skill and oratory. Thus they dominate and influence

the masses to follow and obey their orders and follow directions "If the laws

are passed to control the domination of leaders, it is the law which gradually

weaken and not the leaders"8 According to Michels, the leadership retains

power simply because it is already constituted and continues so. Thus,

Michel's elite theory proposed conservative nature of oligarchy in modern

democratic polity in a contemporary society.

Harold Lasswell [1902 -1978]:

Lasswell, an American Political Scientist, identifies elites on the basis of

'Power and Influence Perspective'. His book called 'Politics, Who Gets What,

When, How' quotes elites as those persons who get values which include

deference, income and safety. He divided the people into elite and masses.

According to him 'Politics is the study of influence and the influential'. The

influential are those who get the most of what there is to get. He quotes, "The

34
few who get the most of any value are the elite, the rest, and the rank and

file"9. Thus, Laswell divided society as elites and masses.

According to Lasswell, "Elites are the power holders of a body

politic"10. They are the holders of a high position in a given society. In his

opinion elites are the most powerful group in a society who hold highest

position of power in a political system. A person who gets least power is mid­

elite and the least one as masses and the highest one as elite. There may be

several types of elites in a society. The concept of elite is classificatory and

descriptive designating the holders of high positions in a given society. The

elite status is determined by which he terms it as wants which means values.

He gave top priority to elite of power and further classify as elite of wealth,

respect and knowledge. Lasswell postulated value sphere in to 8 characters -

namely power, enlightenment, wealth, well-being, skill, affection, respect and

rectitude.

Lasswell argues that the elite's decision making power and action need

masses back up and support if they need to be effective. Elite may take

authoritative decision backed by force but its fate depends on the support of

masses. If the masses disobey elite's power or decision, he may have to loose

the position, and then the counter elite with backup and support of the people

usurp the position.

James Burnham:

James Burnham's "Managerial Revolution" adopts economic approach

to identify elitism. Burnham like Lasswell admits power as the parameter to

35
identify elitism in a contemporary society. Burnham's approach looks similar

to Marx's views but in reality it differs in several aspects. According to

Burnham the power of elite depends upon degree of control over the

principal means of production and distribution. On the basis of such control

an elite manages to get preferential treatment in the society and able to

prevent the rest of others to enjoy the same position in the society. "Thus the

easiest way to discover what the ruling group is in any society is usually to

see that group gets the biggest income"11. Burnham firmly believes that

political power of the elite is the result of economic power, he enjoys and

experiences in a given society. He explained that capitalist system would be

replaced by a society that is controlled economically and politically by a

managerial - elite as the capitalist had passed in the control of business to

professional managers. The basis of elite (Political power and prestige) was

the control over production. The managerial revolution ultimately leads to the

consolidation of managerial power as the State takes over the industry,

manager and the bureaucrat become interchangeable. Thus Burnham

advocates the power of managerial - elite competent and defends the present

system whereas Marx vests the power in the hands of labour class elites and

totally rejects capitalist society.

C. Wright Mills:

According to Mills, the basis of elite power is economic and social not

just economic as argued by Burnham. He advocates that those who occupy

36
top positions in the institutions are power elites. They move on to positions

of the power in government.

According to Mills "Elites are those who hold the leading positions in

the strategic hierarchies"12. He is concerned with power and rule rather than

legal sources of legitimacy. In his opinion power is not an attribute of classes

or persons but of institutions. His book Power Elites- 1959 adopted

'Institutional Power Approach' for the study of elites. It is the power in an

institution that determines the position, status, authority and influence of elite

in a modem society. The institutional power determines the role of elites and

further empowers them to determine or fix the role of others in a

contemporary society.

Ortega. Y. Gasset [1883 - 1955J:

Gasset provides unprecedented power to masses. He firmly believed

that people choose elites on the basis of their outstanding abilities. They select

their leaders by pouring their vast store of vital enthusiasm, belief and trust

that they may guide and lead the masses in better way. They remain in power

as long as they enjoy the trust and confidence of masses. According to Gasset,

the rule and the ruled, capacity to lead and capacity to be lead is natural and

common in human phenomena. Thus on this belief he has developed masses

backed elite theory.

Gasset defines elite as a person of outstanding ability, who assumes

power with the back up of masses. In his opinion masses recruit and remove

elites. Thus elites are the chosen elements of the population. Masses render

37
support and repose faith in their administration as long as they are satisfied

and feel safe. He quotes, "The masses revolt when aristocracy becomes

corrupt and inefficient, and the motive behind the revolt is not that they have

objection of being ruled by aristocracy but would like to be ruled by more

competent aristocracy. The fact of aristocratic rule thus cannot be lost sight of.

The central concern of Gasset is to tell that when masses are in a country

believed that they can do without aristocracy, the nation inevitably declines.

In the disillusionment the masses again turn to the new leadership and a new

aristocracy emerges"13.

Modem Concept of Elite Theory:

Karl Mannheim, Anthony Downs and Joseph Schumpeter are the other

leading exponents who further developed elite theory under different

political systems. They revised and reconciliated the elite theory by providing

a democratic framework under modern political systems.

Karl Mannheim: [1893 - 1947]: Karl Mannheim initially related elite theory

with Fascism and anti intellectual doctrine and later reconciliated between

elite and democratic theory. The theory of elites proposes the rule of few and

a microscopic minority which is obviously opposed to democratic form of

government. He argues that the nature of society remains democratic, even

though the policy and decision making is in the hand of chosen elites. The

people cannot take direct part in the government but they can make their

aspirations felt at certain intervals and this is sufficient for the government.

"Manheim asserts that though the actual shaping of policy is in the hands of

38
elites, it does not mean that the society is democratic"14. He proposed the

method to narrow the gap between elites and masses for the stable

governance. He insists that selection of elites must be on the basis of merit

and a shortening distance between elites and masses in order to ensure

compatibility between elite rule and government.

Joseph Schumpeter: Joseph adopted institutional method to identify the

nature of elites and forms of government. In his book, 'Capitalism, Socialism

and Democracy' he proposed plurality of elite theory. "According to him the

forms of government should be distinguished by their institutions and

especially by their method of appointing and dismissing the supreme makers

of law and policy"15. The democratic method is the institutional arrangement

for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to

decide by means of a competitive struggle for the votes of the people. This

shows that democracy is not a government of the people or a means to give

effect to the will of the people. The role of people is merely to choose their

rulers from competing elites. The one great merit of democracy is that it does

not allow political leadership to wield absolute power. Leadership must draw

up policies to win over the electorate. The initiative remains in the hands of

the leaders and the people merely to decide which among them want to

represent them. He added an economic input while choosing the competitive

elites in a democratic society.

Anthony Downs: Anthony an author of 'Economic Theory of Democracy'

recognizes the role of economic inputs is a major factor in elite recruitment.

39
Parties in democratic politics writes Anthony Downs "are analogous to

entrepreneurs in a profit seeking economy, so as to attain their profit ends,

they formulate what ever politics they believe will gain the most votes, just an

entrepreneurs to produce politics what ever products they believe will gain

the most profits for the same reason"16

According to Western elite theory protagonists, inequality is largely

found in every society. In their opinion masses lack certain qualities

[residues/values], attitudes and actions which cannot withstand on equal

footing on par with the elites. Such traits and elements distinguish and

demarcate the gap between elite and non - elite. The distinction and the gap

between the two identify their position and status in a society. The chances of

mass becoming an elite is possible in form of circulation or replacement of

elites by acquiring certain attributes or receiving mass mandate, yet the gap

remains and continue in a society.

Elites emerge in every society because of set traditions, socio-economic

status, physical and mental aptitude, charismatic personality and so on. They

are sizable or minimum in number in a given society and normally hold or

usurp power, position and status. They are the microscopic minority of the

society thus hold the elite status due to distinct qualities compared to the rest

such as pre-eminence, prestige, status, ability and capability to deliver the

goods and services. There is distinct gap and between elites and masses who

are non-elites and non power or position seekers or gainers.

40
 Elites and non - elites evolve and constitute social organisation and

compensate each other in an organized society. The elite recruitment differs in

each political system. In a Monarchial form of government, a rule of few

normally belongs to Kinship or upper strata of society who is identified as

elite. In an Oligarchic form of political system, it is a government by the few

privileged who occupy coveted and esteemed position on account of pre­

eminence and status in society compared to the rest. However in democratic

polity, elites are the chosen elements of public through periodic elections held

at regular intervals, still it is the privilege of few to rule or administer,

generally assume the power on account of specific attributes, skill and

strategy. Even though there is provision and opportunity to change or remove

them in their place, similar elite assume the position thus makes it a distinct

and keep the gap that exists before or as it is in relative term. Hence we may

assume that the nature of elite is an organized microscopic minority of a given

society though the nature of political system differs. They command the

willingness, acceptance of the masses even it may be a dictatorial in nature.

The above observations reveal the nature of elitism as,

1) The division of society is natural, rational and functional.

2) Elites agree that society is broadly divided into two categories - elites- and

masses. Elites belong to ruling class or power holders where as masses are the

non - elites belong to ruled class on account of natural differences in terms of

specific qualities and attributes.

3) Elites are an organized minority class in a society.

41
4) Elites hold or manage or secure or maintain power on account of specific

qualities cleverness, strategy and skills.

5) The dominance and pre-eminence of elite is inherent in social

organizations. It is not alterable although there is chance for circulation of

elites more so in democratic polity yet it is elite who ultimately holds the

power and position. The masses shall not get chance to rule or administer.

Karl Mannheim proposes to select or elect elite on the basis of merit to shorten

the distance and gap with non - elites to ensure compatibility yet the rule and

dominance of elite prevail over the non -elite.

The elite theorists' views revolved around distribution of power in a

society. According to them the social background and personal attributes play

significant role in elite recruitment and distribution of power. The direct

influence of social background and distinct attributes of a person is evident in

elite recruitment. The social background, distinct attributes and charismatic

personality do have closer link which identifies the nature of elites and non­

elites and their respective role in society. The social background Such as

heirachy, kinship is powerful indicators in formative political system. Where

as distinct qualities and charismatic personality holds the key in identifying

or choosing elites in democratic polity. They do have positive influence in

elite recruitment. There is no uniform opinion among elite theorists regarding

the distinct type of attributes or traits that an elite should have, but they do

agree that capability, efficiency and professional attitude and approach do

have significant impact while choosing the elite. Modern theorists like

42
Schumpeter and Anthony Downs who are protagonists of plurality of elites

advocated the significance of economic aspects in elite recruitment.

The Western concept of elitism does not exactly suit or identify the

nature of elites according to 'Indian Freedom Movement' context. The Indian

elites are different from the Western elites on certain attributes and features,

yet the two are microscopic minority of a society. The Indian elites came from

professional background such as Lawyers, Doctors, and Teachers and so on.

Here we observe the concept of Pareto who proposed professional hierarchy

as a parameter to identify elites. The Indian elites compose value excellence

such as enlightment, respect and rectitude as proposed by Lasswell in his

theory. The Indian elites received masses confidence and support because of

their outstanding ability as advocated by Gasset. The views of these three

western elite theory protagonists resemble or may be found in Indian elites

during the transition period from a traditional society towards building a

modem India on a secular platform. The net composition of these attributes is

observed among enlightened Indian elites at the time of national movement.

Ranade mentioned specific traits, such as wealth, intelligence, reason and

social status as a parameter to identify elites. He advised the elites to direct

their energy, intelligence and experience and status for social, economic

development of the masses who are unlettered, illiterate and ignorant and

bring political consciousness among them. In this background social status,

educational experience and professional competency in terms of service

43
orientation towards nation building exercise and complex social issues

certainly influenced elite recruitment in India.

The Indian elites are not power holders but ruled by alien government.

Their endeavour is revolved around liberation process of the nation. The

western elites are power holders and seekers where as Indian^the freedom

lovers and seekers. The Indian elites are identified on functional basis and act

in the larger interest of apolitical and unorganized society. They serve with a

vision to bring awareness among masses and emancipate them and the nation

socially, economically and politically on constructive base in a sustainable

manner. Hence the concept of elites according to Indian Freedom Movement

context may be defined as a body of enlightened persons among the newly

educated class who possess excellent pre - eminence with an attitude of work

culture towards national reconstruction compared to others rest in a

contemporary society. Elites are such persons who have better perception of

national issues, socio - economic problems and dedicate their service for the

realization of Swarajya on Swadeshi principles. Elite may be called as an

enlightened person who holds or possess entrepreneurial quality and

dedicate service for nationalistic purpose.

In short 'Elites are the torch bearers of social change and

transformation who not only act in a hostile environment but also educate,

motivate and guide others to join national mainstream concerning national

issues to regain Swarajya on Swadeshi principles'. The nature and operation

of elites in apolitical society of British - India period widely differ compared

44
to the Western concept as they have to operate in hostile environment due to

causative socio - economic and political factors.

Elitism in India: A Historical Perspective:

The elite theories propagated by the Western Scholars cannot be

adapted to Indian condition in 'Toto' because of different socio-cultural

settings and political conditions prevailed during the pre-independence era.

The elite status was determined on the basis of heredity, hierarchy, tradition

and continuity in Monarchy and Aristocratic or religious bent of rule or

governance, since ancient to medieval period in Europe. It was also similar in

India. A gradual shift appeared after 'renaissance and industrial revolution' in

Europe. Since then intellectuals gradually penetrated the kinship patronized

elite corridor. As a result new form of elite recruitment emerged and

mercantile and industrial society took firm root in Western Europe. The

formation of 'Constitutional Monarchy' and establishment of liberal

democratic institutions in Britain brought flexibility to an elite character. The

autocratic and despotic rule in Italy, Germany unification process and the

French revolution changed the complexion of elite character. It was in this

background Western Scholars particularly the Italians advocated elite

theories. In quite contrast, the nature of elites in India remained same, with

Brahmin, Kshatriya followed by Vaishya retaining a dominant position until

the expansion of Mughul rule in India. Even under Mughul rule too, except

few modification elitism was largely revolved around military and feudal

cadre. It was only after the advent and expansion of British rule in India that

45
western influenced educated Indians belonged to upper and middle class

emerged as elites in India. It was observed that socialization process in India

was restricted to upper strata and remained so since millennium largely due

to illiteracy, lack of educational opportunities for the majority of people and

the downtrodden Shudra community. Hence social mobility and power was

.restricted to upper strata of the society. Even though Indian social mobility

was strong but its nature was apolitical. Hence no concrete elite theories

emerged in India or an attempt made to evolve unlike the western scholars.

The above observation provides comparative difference regarding

emergence and nature of elites of two different environment and political

systems. The national - liberal type of elites replaced the monarchial- feudal

nature elites since 16th century in Western Europe. In India the monarchial -

feudal elites evolved since millennium, lost importance and dominance

during British rule. They replaced by reformative and revival forms of elites

in the first phase and later as national -liberal elites since 19th century largely

due to British legacy in India. The marked and a distinct gap of nearly three

centuries for the transformation of an elite structure and nature of political

system between the two indicate the difference and significance. It is observed

that internal factors and conditions influenced a change and circulation of

elites and their structure in western European countries. 'In India, it was

largely due to alien rule, role and impact'. Hence it is important to study the

evolution of elites in India from historical perspective for the research to

46
analyze and review their contribution towards the liberation of motherland

from foreign yoke.

The elite structure in India was based on the ascribed status, since the

ancient period. The ascribed status determined the value of excellence on the

basis of distinct qualities in terms of service rendered by respective 'Varnas'.

The social structure was pre-determined according to the 'Varna-System' as

quoted in Manu - Smruti. The Manu - Smurti legitimized the political,

religious and socio-cultural setting of traditional and conventional society

restricting specific specialized service to the upper strata. The social

stratification composed of Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaishya Varna and

followed by Shudra Varna, bottom strata of society to serve the upper strata

and undertake manual service.

"The Social structure of elites in traditional India was based on the

principles of hierarchy, holism and continuity ... the cardinal values of the

Hindu tradition. King and Priest (Kshatriya and Brahaman) were the

important Varnas, derived their power and role due to their ascribed status in

traditional society. The socio- cultural and moral frame was provided to these

two Varnas to perform their service and activities in a co-operative and

complimentary way"17. The Kshatriya-Varna was entrusted to protect the

territory internally and externally and protect Priestly class, strictly adhere to

Varna - norms and provide congenial environment. The Brahman, a Priestly

class was entrusted to perform moral and religious activities and advise king

to perform and stick to Raj - Dharma. The third kind of elite belong to Vaishya

47
- Varna assigned to perform economic activities who serve as the support

base for self sufficiency and development of entire social system. Shudra, the

last Varna was entrusted the manual work, thus denied and deprived of

important and specific duties although its composition was significant. The

traditional Indian society ascribed upper status to Brahmin, Kshatriya and

Vaishya, on the basis of their inherited distinct qualities in terms of value -

excellence. Manu - Smurti which was treated as the base and foundation of

the Varna system, specify distinct qualities as the base to determine the status

not simply the birth as a parameter to determine the same. Yet it was

determined, identified and continued on the basis of birth in a particular

Varna or Caste on holistic principle as part of convention. Since then the

hierarchy, heredity and holistic and loyalty principles continued and

succeeded and determined the traditional elite structure in India in a closed

net work and designed and assigned duties to perform harmoniously.

The Kshatriya normally a King or Emperor was political elite. He

appointed 'Ministry of Council' belonged to various categories such as

Amatya (Minister), Priest, Senapati (Commander - in - Chief), Yuvaraj,

Samant - Raja, normally on the basis of heredity, loyality and patronage. He

was surrounded and supported by subordinate elites who served as a group

in a co-operative and complimentary way in a closed net-work from top to

bottom. The size of elites depended on the geographical territory of the

kingdom. In Mauryan time the emperor had his own centrally administrated

territory surrounded by 'Vassal - Kingdoms subordinate to him in a varying

48
degrees. "Vassals themselves had Vassals of their own in petty local chieftains

calling themselves as rajas. The relationship of king with his Vassals was not

contractual as in the west; it was governed by arbitrary relationship of power

and conquest"18. It was similar during the Chalukya, Chola and Vijayanagar

dynastic rule in South during ancient and medieval period. The relation and

network between the King or Emperor and the Vassals or Samant remained as

long as the former was able to control his territory. Once he loses or equation

changes the elite structure remains the same but the power and stakeholders

change. Thus the elite structure and it's nature was predominantly

monarchial, feudal and charismatic and remained same. Even the circulation

of elites followed the same path where Varna or may call caste affiliation

which was deeply rooted in the then social system that helped to maintain the

status - quo defended it as a natural or divine right.

The advent and consolidation of Mughal rule modified certain

administrative system but the elite structure was more or less remained the

same. Mughal, to retain their sovereignty and control the vast territory,

appointed prominent elites to the key positions such as Wazir, Diwan,

Subedar, Qazi, Sadar Bakshi etc. The religious functions were delivered by

Ulemmas, a Priestly Class in Emperor's Council. Majority of them were

Muslims and only few Hindu elites appointed for coveted positions in Civil

and Military administration. The Emperor was supreme. His powers were

indivisible and inalienable. He was symbol of unity and preserver of peace

above all expected to rule according to Islamic traditions and obey the

49
commands of Uilemmas. Emperor Akber brought flexibility and introduced

Indo - Persian elements in his administration which synthesized and infused

co -operative role of elites in India. "A more compact feudal structure of elites

emerged with the establishment and consolidation of Moghal Empire"19.

Under their Imperial rule the defeated or accepted native kings became their

Vassal thus maintained their elite structure. The introduction of Manasabadar

system emerged as new feudal nobility during their rule. The Muslim rule

only replaced the persons or officers involved in elite status and not the

system as such it was succession of one class of elites by another in the same

system rather than a change in the structure or functions of elite.

The advent and consolidation of British rule in India provided

avenues and fillip for the emergence of new kind of elites in India. The

national - liberal type of elites replaced the traditional elites during the long

standing British regime. It began with the advancement of British India

Company rule since 1760's by providing a space to local traders and

businessman to serve as middlemen to suit their economic interest initially in

the Presidencies and recruited Sepoys in their Military to retain their

supremacy. With the introduction of reforms in socio-economic and

educational sectors, the new form of professional elites gradually entered the

national mainstream.i.e, Bureaucrats, Social Reformers, Educationalists,

Journalists and Entrepreneurs. Among them quite a few enlightened elites

established 'Voluntary Organizations and Mass - Media' especially at their

respective Presidencies through which undertook national awakening

50
exercises and created patriotic fervour. Since then the freedom movement

began under one common platform, the INC from Presidencies to Provinces

and towards Tehsils to rural areas from 1885 to 1942 under the spirited

guidance of national and local elites.

Indian Concept of Elitism and Nationalism:

Nationalism and Elitism go hand in hand and are co-related as far as

Indian Freedom movement is concerned. In a way they are two faces of the

same coin. Whether nationalism is prior to elitism or vice versa is a debatable

point of view. What is important from the study point of view is to probe and

study their emergence. Here it is believed that the nationalism and elitism

emerged in India due to the legacy of British Raj. The spirit of nationalism

was anti-colonial by nature. This view was endorsed by several scholars

except like Annie- Beasant. But the concept of new form of elitism emerged in

India due to several contributory factors introduced by British in form of

various reforms which cannot be rejected wholly. At the same time the spirit

of nationalism upsurged in India due to the shared experience under alien

rule in different sectors and cannot be denied from holistic point of view.

Here it is important to study and review the views and approaches put

forward by several scholars.

Annie-Beasant:

Mrs. Annie Besant, a noble elite and front runner of Indian freedom

movement endorsed her view that nationalism in India was not born just

because of British rule or grace. It was inherent and evident in Indian history.

51
The cultural heritage of India simply potrays her glimpses in each sector since

millennium which was even unknown to Europeans of that age. She quotes

"Indian national consciousness was not a plant of mushroom growth, but a

giant of the forest with millennium behind it"20. Beasant argues that the

nationalism was embedded in Indian culture since millennium. The British

rule in India had indeed strengthened the nationalistic feeling and prepared

the country for self government. Besant admits that British rule in India has

performed well in educational sector but its imperial record in economic

sector was dismal. British hands had been used to drain the wealth of India.

Beasant claims that "a prosperous and wealthy nation which once had

enjoyed security of property, immense industrial output and a flourishing

merchant class has now been reduced to poverty and wrecked by famine and

starvation......... She believes that deteriorated situation could be arrested by

showing vigor and strength and regain the lost glory of India through Indian

National Congress. India under impetus of nationalism would regain her lost

liberty and become self governing nation"21.

Beasant's views are more spiritual, philosophical and historical in a

sense that potrays the scenario and glory of ancient civilization and depicts

the same that is embedded in Indian culture even in modem period is not

true. Several scholars disagree the views of Beasant's statement that

nationalism never grew or permeated in India on large scale. It was only after

the advent of British that an opportunity raised to infuse the spirit of

nationalism and a need of integrated nation hood. Secondly Beasant speaks of

52
religious integrity and cultural nationalism that bonded Indians since

millennium under common culture thread is true. In reality, India hardly

witnessed political homogeneity except for few occasion as it was ruled by

several Kings, Emperors from time to time, place to place. The loyalty and

obedience was restricted to particular province, kingdom so long they were

protected by the former. The unified political integration as one unit was

hardly visible in India. Hence, Beasant's approach may be rejected on this

background. If nationalistic feeling and sentiments were so deep in peoples

mind, since millennium, how there was no resistance to the foreign rule, why

the elites were silent? Beasant's views do not properly answer to these

questions. In spite of such draw backs, one may find positive elements in her

proposition. Her views of cultural heritage of the past indeed boosted the

morale and spirit for the national movement cannot be overlooked. The native

elites, specially the revivalists like Dayanand Saraswati of Arya Samaj,

extremists leaders like Tilak, Lala Lajapat Rai, Aurobindo and literary

celebrities like Bankim Chandra Chatarjee and Ravindranth Tagore

highlighted the significance of rich cultural heritage of India and sacrifice of

national heroes and their valour, martyrdom which framed and infused the

spirit of patriotism during the freedom movement.

M. N. Roy:

Manabendra Nath Roy, an author of India in Transition (1922)

presents the emergence of Indian nationalism and role of the middle classes

during the British reign. He adopted economic approach in his study. His

53
views relied on dialectic materialism of Karl Marx. According to him, the

nationhood and nationalism concept emerged due to the advent of British

imperialism in India. He rejects the views of Beasant and on the contrary

argued that concept of nation hood was unknown to India. He quotes India

during the days of Hindu and Muslim rule was a mere geographical

expression. Hindu kingdoms that rose were theocratic and patricidal in

nature and what motivated them was "dynastic ambition, pure and simple.

Under Muslim rule although India was brought under one central rule it was

not a nation because the court of Delhi was not the centre of a national

state"22.

Roy argues that feudalism as the basis of social economics received

first death blow with British victories in the middle of eighteenth century and

during the next century. It was progressively weakened with the last vestige

of feudal power shattered by the failure of the revolt of 1857. The middle class

realising the decay of feudal order consciously supported the British to

safeguard their material interest in order to establish a more advanced

economic system. In a way it was reciprocal and beneficial for the both.

British rulers in acknowledgment of this support gave the middle class

opportunities to trade, invest in land and acquire modern education and

professional skills. Roy contends that the British permitted the new learning

on the belief that its products would be their natural ally and oppose any

reactionary upheavals. How ever the result turned out to be quite different,

for modem education was to let loose "that dynamic social force which was

54
destined to prove eventually mortal to British. Not only did the Indian

intellectuals class showed signs of vigour in social and religious reformism,

but more significant its members also became the forerunners of Indian

nationalism"23 who worked to bring about the dissolution of British

imperialism. Roy argued that the intellectuals, land owners and traders desire

was to foster their class interest. British realizing their ambitions perceived

threat in future imposed restrictive measures to check their economic

advancement. On the contrary, the newly emerged class established

associations in respective Presidencies to protect their interest and pressure

the administration to redress the grievances which combined economic and

political elements. They began asserting nationalistic views through agencies

and media to build consciousness and form public opinion. According to Roy,

economic necessity forced the intellectual bourgeoisies to begin political

struggle which was initiated in form of Indian National Congress. The

intellectuals who were the vanguard of the movement proclaimed that the

sovereign power is not vested in individual but in the entire community

united in to a nation. They raised issues such as representative institutions,

Indianisation of Civil Services, the development of home industry and boycott

of foreign goods.

In the opinion of Roy the newly emerged middle class whom he

identifies as bourgeoisie desired to strengthen the capitalist society in India.

The middle class intellectuals, combining land lords and traders main motive

was to strengthen their base and economic interest. Hence they established

55
economic motivated political associations to put pressure on British

administration which has imposed repressive measures, discriminatory tariff

to check their economic advancement. In order to garner the support of

masses, elites of these associations furiously made campaign and made

publicity in the name of nationalism. They have hardly done any good to

peasant community and industrial workers who were the worst sufferers

under the alien regime. Even the Congress an all India Organization

established by these bourgeoisie directed its activities to safe guard the

interest of these associations and did not take up the cause of masses. Thus it

was clear ploy and deception policy of native elites in the name of masses to

cry for nationhood and self rule. He further perceived growing class

conscious among workers pave the way to form trade union to fight for their

rights. As a result, revolution takes in a capitalist society which will be a

setback to national movement as masses withdraw its support to Congress.

Roy's theory relies heavily on Marxist materialistic interpretation of

history towards the emergence of new class [elitism] and the concept of

nationalism. Several scholars criticized his theory as purely based on Marxist

notion and suits industrial societies not the agrarian and plural society like

India. His claim of 'Bourgeoisies State' and Congress purely an economic

motivated organization at All India level to safeguard and promote it's

interest was biased and purely personal opinion. His views discard and hurt

the primary motive of promoters of All India Organization and the national

interest and pride. It overlooked the role and contribution of national elites

56
and the Congress at All India level. Roy's prediction of working class revolt

and diversification from Congress during freedom movement was hardly

visible. He simply filled Marxist inputs as a major determinant factor to the

rise of new economic and social groups to whom he called as capitalists of

modern India. In spite of drawbacks one may find valid point in his concept

that the economic factor played one of the important roles and the British

economic policy indeed created a new class in Indian society. This class

provided valuable inputs to the national movement.

B. T. McCully:

McCully, a Research Scholar published a monograph entitled "English

Education and the Origin of Indian Nationalism" He explained the factors for

the rise and growth of nationalism and emergence of new type of class which

may be termed as elites. In his opinion the word nationalism was truly

unknown to India.

McCully conceives, " English education as the agency through which

nationalism entered India"24. The emergence of new form of educated class

namely the elites are the product of English education which imparted

modern, liberal, secular and common education to Indians. The government

patronage combined with missionary zeal and private enterprise had helped

to produce the educated class in India. They essentially belonged to upper

Hindu caste coming from middle and lower income group belonged to

Presidency Capitals and District Towns. The so called educated sought

employment in government and liberal professions which the Company

57
administration provided to fulfill its needs. As the days progressed the

number of educated increased and the employment opportunities decreased,

thus dissatisfaction against the alien regime began. It was due to their

resentment and aspirations that the seed of nationalism germinated in India.

British policies were responsible for chronic unemployment and deteriorating

situation and the worsening economic condition. According to him it were

these issues that provided fuel for the national agitation.

In the opinion of Me Cully, the newly educated Indians were deeply

influenced by western liberal ideas and rational thought and its democratic

structure. Such impact encouraged and influenced them towards democratic

thinking under the shared experience. Gradually they alienated from rigid

traditions which were harmful to their existence and survival. The secular and

common education imparted a sense of unity consciousness and identity

among the educated class which was able to perceive the common economic

problems. This gradually helped to build class solidarity and narrow the

parochial, regional and caste oriented problems and complexity. The

educational experience and professionalism gave them a psychological edge

and superiority over the masses. They made an endeavour to bring national

consciousness and patriotic fervour among the masses by utilizing various

platforms. This enabled to gain the support of masses to fight against the alien

regime. Thus, he argues that British rule in India produced an atmosphere for

the favourable growth of national sentiment. It was an English education

which alone played significant role from which a distinct class emerged

58
capable of transcending linguistic and caste differences. He quotes "certainly

not religion, not indigenous learning, not traditional forms of social

organization nor all three could have done so. To what extent the new

education imparted by the British provided integrative force which brought

together in a single cause natives of different provinces and localities

speaking different tongues"25.

Me Cully identifies nationalism as modern phenomena which

emerged in India due to British rule. He rejects its existence in pre - colonial

rule. He implicitly advocate that elitism bom in form of educated middle class

in Presidencies and District towns due to British patronization of modern and

secular education which later became a potent weapon in national movement.

The modern liberal and secular education brought uniformity, unity and

integrity. This helped to narrow the provincial, regional, and linguistic and

caste differences which dominated since millennium took back seat and. thus

provided national interest a primary and top priority.

His theory advocates that British educational policy was alone

responsible for the rise of nationalism. English education was a key factor for

the emergence of new form of class which played important role in national

movement. However, he has not given due importance to economic and

social factors and cultural aspects. The British rule indeed brought

educational reforms but its economic policies badly hit the social base of rural

India. The villages lost self sufficiency and indigenous technology. The

repressive economic policies employed against native traders and business

59
community compelled to form economic and political associations to

safeguard their interest which gradually became a platform thus transformed

to establish INC at All India level. He has not highlighted such potent

elements which played crucial role in the movement. Yet his theory highlights

English education and knowledge as a major determinant factor that brought

a secular and modem outlook among the native educates. This focused them

towards national interest and narrow parochial, regional, linguistic, and caste

difference which itself is significant contribution of Me Cully.

In the light of above observations, the emergence of elitism and spirit

of nationalism in India may be summarised as:

1. Elitism in India is the product of alien rule on domestic soil.

2. British liberal education is the key factor for the emergence of new

kinds of elites in India.

3. The alien administration provided avenues for the emergence of new

classes and elites in India, primarily at Presidencies later the same expanded

to other urban segments.

4. The new kind of elite's normally belonged to ascribed or upper strata

of urban society primarily came from upper and middle class with liberal and

rational western educational background. They succeeded in breaking the

conventional traditional kinship elite corridor dominated by aristocratic

elements and feudal lords.

60
 5. The first generation of new elites were revivalists and reformers who

synthesized the good old tradition of ancient culture and the liberal

progressive bent of western culture as a new vista for social change and

transformation to build modern India on humanitarian and secular

principles.

6. The new kinds of elites were the pioneers of Indian renaissance who

stood and served in favour of socio - religious reforms to awaken the masses

who were slumbered in darkness since millennium.

7. The modem elites established voluntary associations and utilized the

service of Mass - Media as a platform for the realization of their vision

pertaining to their respective sectors. The revival and reformative elites paved

the way and laid the foundation and influenced for the establishment of

political institutions at national level. As a result national- liberal elites

became the front runners of national movement who initially began their

career as reformers and later as retaliators due to anti - Indian policies.

Lastly new type of classes and elites emerged in India due to changing

scenario under alien rule, primarily influenced by western education and later

due to shared experience under British, which was a baggage of mixed fruits.

It may be observed that not all the new classes shall be claimed as elites. The

term elite as per the national movement do compose ethical and honorary

connation based on service orientation towards nationalistic issues. Any

person who has directly or indirectly participated or assisted in the political

awakening endeavour which is complimentary to national movement may be

61
called as elites. In other words every freedom fighter is elite because of

unselfish service and sacrifice for national interest. The quite a few among

them offered distinctive service compared to the remaining and guided the

nationalistic activities but the others followed their command as a disciplined

soldiers and accomplished the mission that ultimately led to the realization of

Swarajya. The service and contribution of soldiers cannot be overlooked

hence the generic reference as elites of national movement.

Elite Recruitment in British - India:

The elite recruitment in pre-independent India may be identified on

professional basis with reference to their function towards national

movement. The distinctive service rendered by them towards nation building

exercises on various platforms such as social, cultural, economical and

political sector is a parameter to identify them as enlightened elites. The

sectors look varied and different but inter- related and inter- woven to build

modem India on liberal and rational out look. Here we may believe that the

concept of elites and spirit of nationalism evolved in India due to ground

realities and the prevailed contemporary situations and conditions. The East-

India Company rule provided the occasion and space to the rise of new social

classes especially in strategically located coastal belts of Bengal, Bombay and

Madras. We may observe that the western scientific education and service of

Christian Missionaries provided necessary inputs to the rise of new social

classes. The endeavour of Company administration to seek support and

62
assistance of local traders and native soldiers supplemented and

complimented for the rise of new social classes on professional basis.

The first batch of elites came from Bengal who served as path

finders, free from prejudice and attitude towards any religion and section of

society. They made endeavour for human development index as a solution

and remedy to achieve progress in tune with progressive west. They opted

social reforms of comprehensive base as an approach to realise their vision.

The liberation from ignorance, prevention of social evils and emancipation

and welfare of downtrodden and weaker section of society was their primary

goal. They established voluntary organizations and utilized the service of

media (mass) for the realization of their vision or goal. Bengal and its elites

were in fore front and front runners who influenced and made due impact on

Bombay and Madras Presidency, Punjab and Pune and other important

segments. The reason was obvious. Bengal was the first Indian province to be

exposed to the system of western education and to the influx of western ideas

and socio-cultural values. The benefits and marked a distinctive progress

further expanded it's horizon thus laid a platform to build modern India. It is

aptly quoted and pointed by several eminent scholars that 'The vision of

today's Bengal, is a vision of India tomorrow'. The birth of new social classes

and emergence of elites primarily began from Bengal in a sustainable manner

and gradually expanded to other segments in a similar way with a

progressive note.

63
 In the light of above observation, we may identify the origin of new

social classes of distinctive sector. It is observed that the birth of Asiatic

Society of Bengal in 1784, Fort William College in 1800 and prior to that the

service of Christian Missionaries in education, charitable services and the

earlier encouragement and support to local traders and recruitment of

soldiers in army indeed provided an opportunity to the rise of new social

classes. The 1793 Permanent Settlement Act and subsequent educational

reforms of Lord Macaulay 1813 and 1835 Lord William Bentik and

establishment of Universities at Presidencies and encouragement to Technical

courses were primarily responsible to the rise of new social classes. The major

communities of Bengal especially belong to Bhadralok community coming

from rich [few] middle and lower income groups were the major beneficiaries.

Rise of Professional Classes:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dwarkanatha Tagore, Radhakant Deb and

the effort of British elites such as Robert May, Davis Hare, G.A. Tumball,

Alexander Duff, Henry Louis, Vivian Derozio and service of Christian

educational institutions certainly laid the foundation stone to impart and

study western scientific education along with the native subjects. The

introduction of English as a medium of instruction for higher learning

provided the base. The upper communities belong to rich, middle and lower

income groups realised the need and importance of western learning due to

opportunities offered by alien administration in civil service. They took the

advantage and seized the opportunity. The orthodox family too did not lag

64
behind. The Bhadralok community seized the opportunities and succeeded in

cutting dominance and influence of feudal lords. Keshavachandra Sen,

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Shashiprasad Banarjee. Akshaykumar, Nagopal

Mitra, Rajnarian Bose, Michal Madsudan Dutt and Gajendranath Tagore were

the important few to name as first batch national liberal elites. They made

distinctive service in the national movement. The majority of them were

Brahmo followers who were primarily responsible to spread Brahmo message

and vision in Bombay, Madras, and Punjab Province and expanded the base

in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and even in Karnataka. The long standing

influence of such towering personalities and impact of western education was

evident for the emergence of prominent young nationalists from the Bengal

Presidency. Surendhra Banarjee, W.C. Banarjee, Bipin Chandra Pal, Bankim

Chandra, Aurobindo and Swami Vivekananda were prominent among them.

On similar lines the new bunch of educated intellectuals whom we

may call enlightened elites emerged from Bombay Presidency and Pune in

Maharashtra. The traditional orthodox Chitpavan Brahmin was surprised

beneficiary. The Parsee, Jain and Muslim (few) and Shetias of wealthy back

ground and landlords belonged to the Maratha and Brahmin were the

beneficiaries who too made distinct mark in various sectors. Atmaram

Pandurang, M.G.Ranade, Dadabhai Naoroji, Badaruddin Tyabji, K.T. Telang,

Madam Cama, Narayan Chandavarkar, G.K.Gokhale, G.H.Deshamukh,

Jyotiba Phule, Vishnushastri Pundit and Agarkar and B.G.Tilak were

prominent among them.

65
Rise of Economic Classes:

The Colonial rule provided the rise of new commercial class for

the expansion of her trade "while the Britishers were expanding their trade in

Bengal, they got support from traders in Bengal, and North India. Gupta,

who was an influential trader and money lender helped the British in

consolidating their position both in the economic and in political sphere"26.

The rise of new commercial classes apart from the traditional changed the

elite structure of Vaishya Vama. The upper and middle class belonged to

Bhadrlok community of Bengal and Brahmin, Prabhu and Parsi community of

Bombay, Chettiar and Brahmin community of Madras Presidency became the

influential traders to increase the volume of British trade in India. The

Company administration encouraged these new social classes as they were

beneficial to British economic interest. Similarly these new economic class

collaborated with the British for their economic advancement. It was

reciprocal and beneficial for the two. -t-T-RCS

administration started to impose stiff measures to curtail their progress. The

native business community located in Presidency realisng the threat,

established economic oriented political organization in their respective

location to safeguard their interest. Anil seal pointed out that the collaborator

of the past became the corroborators of alien government. Ironically the

influentive business community generously donated funds towards socio­

religious reforms activities such as Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj to create

66
awareness and consciousness and engage in socio-economic development for

more than one reason. The Bhadralok community of Bengal, Parsee, Jain,

Brahmin, Maratha and Bohara Muslim of Bombay and Western India,

Brahamins and Chettriyars of Madras Presidency were important in this

regard. Incidentally quite a few among them took direct part in national

movement namely, Dadabhai Naoroji, Badaruddin Tayyabji, Phiroj Shah

Mehata,Telang from Bombay, S.N. Banarjee, Anand Mohan Bose, Madan

Mohan of Bengal and P. Anand Charlu,Veera Raghavachari and G

Subramanian from Madras were right on top of among them. The remaining a

lot indirectly supported the movement.

It is believed that industrialist of the period like Bajaj, Tata and Birla's

generously donated funds to socio-economic and charitable services. On the

face it did not appear to be political purpose but indeed contain latent motto.

Dadabhai Naoroji was more vocal and highlighted the grave injustice meted

by British towards the natives in his Drain theory. He even raised the issue as

member of British Parliament in the House of Commons.

Agrarian Classes:

In a similar strain, alien reforms in agriculture sectors contributed the

growth of new agrarian classes. The 1793[Lord Cornwallis] Permanent

Settlement Act, ownership of individual properties, new tenancy rules

sidelined the supremacy and dominance of feudal lords. As a result, land

gentry gradually isolated from national mainstream. The new agrarian classes

emerged and the commercialization of agriculture was encouraged and

67
induced to grow need variety of cotton for British textile industry. The growth

faced dire consequence in the later stages. This led to the growing awareness

among the farming community and rise of new form of elites in this sector to

safeguard their interest against British.

Ranade's elite group was composed of Brahmans, Banias, Zaminadars

and educated middle class.

Rise of Local Elites:

Culture is one of the prime elements of nationalism. It is a force to

reckon which identifies the spirit Of self-dignity and self - respect. The

unscientific territorial division of undivided Dharwad district between British

and Princely States of Maratha and Nizam since 1818 created dissatisfaction.

The division of small Princely State in three pieces and distribution of few but

small villages to distinct location further aggravated the conditions. In other

words they became aliens in their own land with no power, authority and

discretion to seek their welfare or development. Secondly, the economic

policies introduced were quite contrary to their occupation and source of

livelihoods which disrupted the social fabric of rural society. Lastly the

geographical location of the study area, negligent and pathetic attitude of

administration towards the needed development in each sector widened the

gap compared to the adjoining locality. The said issues were primarily

responsible which motivated and compelled local elites to plunge in national

movement.

68
 The national movement and local movement do have similar

background. The two initiators have due influence and impact of western

education. The former gave priority to reform and revival activities as a

means and remedy for the existing social order. However, the local movement

orientation was initiated towards cultural rejuvenation and later opted social

and political awakening programmes. The literary celebrities played vital role

to rejuvenate Kannada language and awoke Kannadigas under the clutches of

Marathi culture and Maratha dominance. The later elites belonged to

Professional sectors who received liberal and rational education and came

under the heavy influence of national elites and political developments of

Maharastra namely Teachers, Advocates and Doctors etc. The literary

celebrities and professional personalities received liberal education and had

an advantage of access to knowledge and experience compared to the rest in

society.

The last type of study area of elites came from socio-economic

background. The socio-economic compulsions witnessed and experienced

under alien rule induced them to plunge into political activities. The visit and

impact of national elites and the prevailing circumstances led them to join

national mainstream. They primarily came from agricultural and its related

sectors namely the wealthy landlords and the weaving communities. These

kinds of significant and distinct freedom fighters were found in the study

area. The important programmes like Swadeshi, Constructive and Combative

were successfully organized by these groups. This reveals the distinct feature

69
during national movement. The majority of elites have come from moderate

and poor background except few who have sound background and

education. It was also noticed in the study area that British rulers have

encouraged local business community to expand their trade and later they

became the Middlemen or Brokers. This in turn gave birth to new class of

elites called commercial or business community.

The expansion of cotton trade encouraged new variety of cotton and

subsequently leads to the establishment of ginning factories, but this in turn

affected the base of local Handloom Sector. Initially the local farmers and

business community received good return but within a decade they faced dire

consequence like drought, famine and plague at local level as well as at

national level. As a result, the awakened leaders of respective community

specially belonged to Devang, Khastriya community rose to the occasion to

resist the alien policies. This showed the means to some farmers and business

men to join hands with national elites. It may be observed that the feudal

background gave priority to pursue better education in order to seek better

employment opportunities. They selected professional courses and became

advocates and doctors. The middle class moved towards teaching profession.

The majority of them belonged to Brahmin community who realized the

significance of rational education. The enlightened among them perceived

British as a threat to the nation and observed the nationalistic activities in

surrounding area, hence determined to offer their service for national

movement. The literary celebrities, doctors, teachers and advocates were the

70
first who took initiation and guided others. The weaving community and the

inter dependant sectors joined the national mainstream due to die socio -

economic compulsion. The professionals who mainly came from major or

dominant caste plunged in national movement as a choice due to their social

and educational background.

Sakkari Balacharya, Narayan and Achuta Huilagol and Garud

Sadashivarao - the literary celebrities, Anantrao Jalihal,Venkatrao

Huilagol,Vasudev Umachagi, Narayan Dambal,Anant Sawakar - the

professionals and, Tirlapur, Bandeppanavar, Harapanahall and Doddameti

from feudal background with relative educational experience and Kolli, Kalli,

Jujagar, Kundaragi, Bakale, Khatawate, Wadone and others from weaving

and other related or dependant sectors and the business community members

related to these professions. Congress activists like Narayanpur, Vaidya may

be defined as enlightened elites who offered their service for national

movement in study area.

71
 References:

1. Jayapalan N, Political Sociology, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors

2. Sharma R.N and Sharma R.K, History of Social Thought, Media

3. Agarwal R.C, Political Theory, S, Chand & Company, New Delhi,2005,

4. Mahajan V.D, Political Theory, S.Chand & Company - 2005, P. 821.

5. Ibid, P.440.

6. Ibid, P.438.

7. Agarwal R.C, Op.cit, P. 441.

8. Ibid, P.441.

9. Ibid, P.441.

10. Ibid, P. 441.

11. Ibid, P. 442.

12. Ibid, P. 438.

13. Varma S.P, Modem Political Theory, Vikas Publications - Delhi 1998, P
233.

14. Ibid, P. 233.

15. Gauba O.P, An Introduction to Political Theory, Macmillan India Pvt Ltd.,
Delhi, 2004. P. 441

16. Agarwal R.C, Op.cit, P. 444.

17. Singh Yogendra, Modernization of Indian Tradition: A Systematic Study of

18. Ibid, P. 132.

19. Ibid, P. 133.

72
20. Suntarlingam R, Indian Nationalism; An Historical Analysis, Vikas
Publishing House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1983, P. 21.

21. Ibid, P. 22.

22. ibid, P. 25.

23. Ibid, P. 26.

24. Ibid, P. 31.

25. Ibid, P. 34.

26. Pradhan G.P, India's Freedom Struggle, Vikas Publishing House,

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