1

1. Понятие международных организаций.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
The History of International Organizations
In the mid-19th century, economic development gave rise to a need to rely on
international law in regulating a wide range of new spheres of interstate relations. Initially,
this was accomplished through bilateral treaties, but then States began to conclude multilat-
eral agreements, whose implementation has produced a substantial number of international
organizations called international administrative unions.
The earliest major international administrative unions include the International
Telecommunication Union (1865), the Universal Postal Union (1874), the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875), the International Union for the Protection of
Industrial Property (1883).
International administrative unions were actually the first permanent international
organizations. In terms of their competence they were of a non-political character.
The first permanent political international organization, the League of Nations, was
established in 1919. Its Covenant was drafted at the Paris Peace Conference, and was a
component part of the 1919 Peace Treaty of Versailles. The aim of the League of Nations
was to maintain peace and security. In 1940, the League of Nations actually ceased to exist,
which was formalized in 1946.
The creation of the United Nations Organization marked a decisive stage in the history
of international organizations. The UN Charter was signed in June 1945 at a conference held
in San Francisco. The United Nations is a universal political organization for maintaining
international peace and security.
Simultaneously with the creation of the United Nations, a number of
intergovernmental organizations appeared that were called specialized agencies. They are
linked with the United Nations by special agreements. They include the World Health
Organization (WHO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), etc.
The Cold War led to the formation of a number of closed military groupings. They
included: the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the South-East Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO), the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), Australia-New Zealand-
US Defence Pact (ANZUS), and SEATO, which was established in 1954 in accordance with
a treaty on the defence of South-East Asia, and which comprised the United States, Britain,
France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines. It ceased to exist in
1974.
The abolition of colonial system and the resulting formation of a large number of
newly-independent sovereign States have not only greatly increased the membership of the
world's major organizations, but also led to the formation of a number of new international
organizations, such as the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
The continuing internationalization of economic life and the intensification of
international economic, scientific and technical relations, as well as the growing importance
of today's global problems whose solution requires joint efforts by all States, are all factors
that tend to increase the number of international organizations and enhance their role in the
system of international relations.
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The Concept of International Organizations

An international (intergovernmental) organization is an association of States
established on the basis of a treaty and in accordance with international law in order to
achieve specific objectives. It possesses a system of organs and rights and duties that are
distinct from those of the member-states.
One may thus refer to the following five attributes of the concept of an international
organization: 1) its treaty-based character; 2) specific purposes; 3) an organizational
structure; 4) independent rights and duties; and 5) its creation in accordance with
international law.
The Treaty basis means that a treaty (usually a multilateral one) is the constituent
instrument and charter of the international organization.
There are cases, however, of international organizations being created not on the basis
of treaties, but of corresponding resolutions by organs of international organizations. The
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), and the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) were established in this way within the
framework of the United Nations. These organizations were formed in accordance with the
right of the United Nations General Assembly (Article 22 of the United Nations Charter) to
establish subsidiary organs.
Specific purposes are an important attribute of the concept of an international
organization. The purposes of an international organization are important in establishing its
legitimacy, the legitimacy of its organizational structure and of the competence that it has
been granted.
The organizational structure refers to a system of standing organs constituting the
mechanism through which States cooperate within the Framework of the international
organization.
The independent rights and duties are distinct from the rights and duties of member-
states. In the constituent instrument (charters) of international organizations, some articles
are addressed directly to the member-states, while others are addressed to the particular
international organization as represented by its organs.
The ability of an international organization to have rights and duties distinct from
those of individual member-states establishes it as a legal person possessing its own legal
will. It also makes it a derivative subject of international law, providing that these rights are
directly linked with its international legal personality. In particular, these rights include the
right to conclude international agreements, the right to privileges and immunities, and to
representation.
Creation in accordance with international law refers to the legitimate character of the
international organization and to the correspondence of its Charter and activities to the
generally recognized principles and norms of international law, and especially those of jus
cogens.

1. Find in the above text the English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations. Make sentences using them.
1) Конференция ООН по торговле и развитию (ЮНКТАД); 2) международная
межправительственная организация; 3) право на привилегии и иммунитеты; 4)
договорная основа; 5) система постоянных органов; 6) права и обязанности
 3

государств-членов; 7) право на представительство; 8) правомерный характер между-

народной организации; 9) международная правосубъектность;
10) учреждение в соответствии с международным правом;
11) учредительный акт (документ); 12) Организация Объединенных Наций по
промышленному развитию (ЮНИДО); 13) создавать вспомогательные органы; 14)
право на заключение международных договоров; 15) в рамках международной органи-
зации

2 Translate the following table into English and speak on the Classification of
International Organizations.
Классификация международных организаций
по виду статуса межправительственные
неправительственные

по сфере и характеру универсальные

деятельности
региональные

локальные

по предмету деятельности политические

экономические

специализированные (наука, культура и др.)

3. Study the text below and give English equivalents for the words and phrases in bold.
The organizational structure of international organizations
An international organization 1) обычно состоит из следующих звеньев: the highest
organ; an executive organ; an administrative organ; committees and commissions on special
issues. Certain organizations also provide for 2) создание юридических органов.
The highest (plenary) organs are represented by all member-states. In 3) общих
международных организациях each State generally 4) имеет один голос, irrespective of
the size of its population or of its economic power. The highest organ considers all important
issues relating to the activity of the organization, including 5) выборы исполнительных
органов, генерального секретаря, утверждение бюджета организации.
Executive organs. In universal organizations, membership in these organs is limited.
Their members are States. Elections to these organs 6) осуществляются в соответствии
two criteria: 7) критерий справедливого географического распределения и критерий
специфических интересов.
Administrative Organs - secretariats. Secretariats 8) возглавляется генеральным
секретарем (директором). Secretariat staff members are divided into three categories: a)
senior administrative officials, b) specialists, c) service personnel. The Secretary-General is
selected by the highest organ for a term of three to six years, with the possibility of re-
election. Other members of the secretariat are appointed by the Secretary-General. The
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selection of the staff 9) должен производиться на широкой географической основе с

учетом их квалификации.
Committees and commissions on special issues. Some of these are provided for in
charters. Others are created as 10) вспомогательные органы, either on a temporary basis or
as permanent bodies. The composition of their members varies in number and character.

4 Read the text and give opposites for the highlighted words.
Some legal Aspects of International Organizations
The sphere of competence of international organizations
International organizations are created by States to serve concrete purposes and tasks.
They are accordingly given a strictly specified competence that is recorded in their
constituent instrument.
Activities of an organization are lawful when they fall within its sphere of
competence. The competence of an international organization is expressed in that of its
organs. Two aspects of competence of international organizations and of their organs should
be distinguished, namely, their object competence, which determines the range of issues
falling within their competence, and their jurisdictional competence, which determines the
legal force of their acts with respect to individual issues within its object competence.
Since the constituent instrument of an international organization, which forms the
basis for its sphere of competence, is an international treaty, any change in its competence,
or the redistribution of that competence among its organs must take place on the basis of a
treaty in accordance with corresponding rules provided for in the constituent instrument.
Resolutions of international organizations
The resolutions of organs of international organizations usually fall into two types,
depending on whether or not they are mandatory: binding decisions and recommendations.
Decisions are taken on issues relating to an organization's internal activities, such as
the adoption of rules of procedure, the approval of the budget and the distribution of
expenditure among the members, admission to membership, expulsion from membership,
and elections to its bodies, etc. In all international organizations decisions on organizational
issues are binding on all member-states.
As for resolutions on matters concerning the substance of an organization's activities,
they are generally recommendations. For example, in accordance with Article 10 of the
United Nations Charter, resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly are
recommendations. This does not, of course, affect the political and moral force of General
Assembly resolutions.

Functions of International Organizations

It is important to distinguish between such concepts as the purposes, tasks and
functions of international organizations.
The purposes of international organizations differ. The United Nations was created to
maintain international peace and security; ICAO - to study problems of international civil
aviation, elaborate international norms and rules for civil aviation, and contribute to the
safety of flights on international airlines; and the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) - to provide international protection of copyright, etc. The concrete tasks that follow
from such purposes are carried out by international organizations through specific actions
 5

whose aggregate constitutes the functions of these international organizations. They include
information, norm-creating, control and operational functions.
The information function is one of the oldest functions of international organizations.
It has two aspects: first, each organization publishes a series of documents relating directly to
its structure, purposes and basic lines of its activity; second, it publishes special materials,
such as papers, surveys and abstracts on matters with which it is concerned.
The norm-creating function has two meanings: 1) the direct participation by an
international organization in the creation of norms of international law, 2) the participation
by an international organization in the norm-creation process of States. Today the
participation by international organizations in the norm-creating process of States is
widespread. Many intergovernmental organizations of the United Nations system are
engaged in this type of norm creation.
The control function has developed considerably after the Second World War. There
are many international legal acts - charters, multilateral conventions, pacts, covenants -
establishing various forms of control over the implementation of the norms contained in
these documents, and also providing for the creation of special organs to exercise this
control.
The operational function is a new function of international organizations, and one that
is a particular characteristic of the United Nations and specialized agencies. The operational
functions of the I 'lilted Nations include United Nations operations in maintaining in-
ternational peace and security; the provision of technical assistance by ihc United Nations
and specialized agencies to newly-independent, developing States, etc.
A specific characteristic of the operational function of an international organization
compared with other functions, is that the latter include measures intended to induce States
to promote its objectives by exerting on them a certain political pressure, while in
performing operational functions it itself pursues its own objectives, mainly with the help of
manpower and material resources at its own disposal. The appearance of international
organizations, such as INMARSAT and INTELSAT, possessing specific commercial-
operational functions, indicates that the operational function of international organizations is
developing.
All functions of international organizations must be performed in accordance with
their charters.

5. Match the words with their definitions.

1) competence a) to have a positive opinion
f
2) mandatory b) acceptance for a position, office, etc
3) approve c) to work out in detail; develop
4)expend d) formed of separate units collected into a whole; 1 collective; corporate
5) admission e) (the act of) forcing someone, or being forced, to leave somewhere
6) expulsion J) the ability to do something to a level that is acceptable .................
7) elaborate g) help; support
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8) aggregate h) to share or give (something) out to several people, or to spread, scatter or

supply (something) over an area ..............
9) assistance i) to use or spend (esp. time, effort or money)
10) distribute I j) obligatory; compulsory

6. Give the word families of the following words.

e.g. to mutilate(v) - mutilationfn) - mutilated (adj)
competence(n) mandate (n)
jurisdiction (n) distribute (v)
aggregate (v) expend (v)
elaborate (adj) disposal (n)

7. Answer the following questions.

1) Why do States create international organizations?
2) The resolutions of organs of international organizations usually fall into three types, don't
they?
3) What does object competence mean?
4) What does jurisdictional competence mean?
5) Are in all international organizations decisions on organizational issues binding on all
member-states?
6) What was the United Nations created for?
7) What are the tasks of the International Civil Aviation Organization?
8) What was the World Intellectual Property Organization created
for?
9) The information function is one of the oldest functions of international organizations, isn't
it?
10) How many aspects does the information function have?
11) What is the norm-creating function?
12) Many intergovernmental organizations of the United Nations system are engaged in the
type of norm creation, aren't they?
13) When did the control function begin to develop?
14) Is the operational function a new function of international organizations?
15) Must all functions of international organizations be performed in accordance with their
charters?

8. Consult your dictionary for the right stress in the following words and memorize their
meaning.
Uruguay, barrier, licensing, guidance, plurilateral, subsume, subsidy.
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2. Межправительственные организации.

An intergovernmental organization or international governmental organization

(IGO) is an organization composed primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member
states), or of other intergovernmental organizations. Intergovernmental organizations are
often called international organizations, although that term may also include international
nongovernmental organization such as international nonprofit organizations or multinational
corporations.
Intergovernmental organizations are an important aspect of public international law.
IGOs are established by treaty that acts as a charter creating the group. Treaties are formed
when lawful representatives (governments) of several states go through a ratification
process, providing the IGO with an international legal personality.
Intergovernmental organizations in a legal sense should be distinguished from simple
groupings or coalitions of states, such as the G8 or the Quartet. Such groups or associations
have not been founded by a constituent document and exist only as task groups.
Intergovernmental organizations must also be distinguished from treaties. Many
treaties (such as the North American Free Trade Agreement, or the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade before the establishment of the World Trade Organization) do not establish
an organization and instead rely purely on the parties for their administration becoming
legally recognized as an ad hoc commission. Other treaties have established an
administrative apparatus which was not deemed to have been granted international legal
personality.(fact|date=March 2016}
Types and purpose
Intergovernmental organizations differ in function, membership and membership
criteria. They have various goals and scopes, often outlined in the treaty or charter. Some
IGOs developed to fulfill a need for a neutral forum for debate or negotiation to resolve
disputes. Others developed to carry out mutual interests with unified aims to preserve peace
through conflict resolution and better international relations, promote international
cooperation on matters such as environmental protection, to promote human rights, to
promote social development (education, health care), to render humanitarian aid, and to
economic development. Some are more general in scope (the United Nations) while others
may have subject-specific missions (such as Interpol or the International Organization for
Standardization and other standards organizations). Common types include:
Worldwide or global organizations - generally open to nations worldwide as long as
certain criteria are met. This category includes the United Nations (UN) and its specialized
agencies, the Universal Postal Union, Interpol, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the World Customs Organization (WCO),
World Nature Organization (WNO), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Regional organizations - open to members from a particular continent region or other
specific region of the world. This category includes the Council of Europe (CoE), European
Union (EU), Energy Community, NATO, Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, African Union (AU),
Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
Islamic Development Bank Union of South American Nations, Asia Cooperation Dialogue
(ACD), and Pacific Islands Forum.
 8

Cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical organizations - open to members

based on some cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical link. Examples include the
Commonwealth of Nations, Arab League, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie,
Community of Portuguese Language Countries, Turkic Council, International Organization
of Turkic Culture, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS).
Economic organizations - based on economic organization. Some are dedicated to free
trade, the reduction of trade barriers (the World Trade Organization) and International
Monetary Fund. Others are focused on international development. International cartels, such
as OPEC, also exist. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) was founded as an economics-focused organization. An example of a recently
formed economic IGO is the Bank of the South.
Educational organizations - centered around tertiary level study. Academy of
European Law offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-
house counsel and academics. EUCLID (university) chartered as a university and umbrella
organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries and United Nations
University efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are the concern of the United
Nations, its Peoples and Member States.
Health and Population Organizations- based on the common perceived health and
population goals and to address those challenges collectively. An example is the
intergovernmental partnership for population and development"Partners in Population and
Development.
Examples
United Nations
Mission
To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective
collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the
suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by
peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach
of the peace;
To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal
rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen
universal peace;
To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an
economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race,
sex, language, or religion; and
To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these
common ends.
Membership
193 Member States. Membership is "...open to all other peace-loving states which
accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the
Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations."
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Mission
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"The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the
Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all
governments. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and
civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and
the rule of law. They seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area.
They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defense and for the preservation of
peace and security. They therefore agree to this North Atlantic Treaty."
Membership
"NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries."
World Bank
Mission
To end extreme poverty, the Bank's goal is to decrease the percentage of people living
with less than $1.25 a day to no more than 3 percent by 2030.
To promote shared prosperity, the goal is to promote income growth of the bottom 40
percent of the population in each country.
Islamic Development Bank
Mission The Islamic Development Bank is an international financial institution
established in pursuance of the Declaration of Intent issued by the Conference of Finance
Ministers of Muslim Countries held in Jeddah in Dhul Q'adah 1393H, corresponding to
December 1973. The Inaugural Meeting of the Board of Governors took place in Rajab
1395H, corresponding to July 1975, and the Bank was formally opened on 15 Shawwal
1395H corresponding to 20 October 1975.
Membership
188 member countries made up of government-owned organizations.
INBAR
INBAR evolved from an informal network of bamboo and rattan researchers set up in
1984 by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada. In 1993 the
network was formalized under its present name, but remained a project of IDRC. Work to
launch INBAR as an independent organization started in 1995, and was completed in 1997
when INBAR became an independent organization with its headquarters in Beijing, China –
the first intergovernmental organization to be headquartered in the People's Republic.
Membership and structure
Membership
42 member countries make up this organisation.
History
While treaties, alliances, and multilateral conferences had existed for centuries, IGOs
only began to be established in the 19th century. Among the first were the Central
Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, initiated in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars,
and the future International Telegraph Union, which was founded by the signing of the
International Telegraph Convention by 20 countries in May 1865. Of notable significance
was the emergence of the League of Nations following World War One, designed as an
institution to foster collective security in order to sustain peace.
Expansion and growth
Held and McGrew (2002) counted thousands of IGOs worldwide, and this number
continues to rise. This increase may be attributed to globalization, which increases and
encourages the cooperation among and within states. Globalization has also provided easier
 10

means for IGO growth, as a result of increased international relations. This is seen
economically, politically, militarily, as well as on the domestic level. Economically, IGOs
gain material and non-material resources for economic prosperity. IGOs also provide more
political stability within the state and among differing states. Military alliances are also
formed by establishing common standards in order to ensure security of the members to
ward off outside threats. Lastly, the formation has encouraged autocratic states to develop
into democracies in order to form an effective and internal government.
Participation and involvement
There are several different reasons a state may choose membership in an
intergovernmental organization. But there are also reasons membership may be rejected.
These reasons are explored in the sections below.
Reasons for participation:
Economic rewards: In the case of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), many different countries receive economic benefits from membership in the free
trade agreement. For example, Mexican companies are given better access to U.S. markets
due to their membership.
Political influence: Smaller countries, such as Portugal and the Netherlands, who do
not carry much political clout on the international stage, are given a substantial increase in
influence through membership in IGOs, such as the European Union. Also for countries with
more influence such as France and Germany they are beneficial as the nation increases
influence in the smaller countries' internal affairs and expanding other nations dependence
on themselves, so to preserve allegiance
Security: Membership in an IGO such as NATO gives security benefits to member
countries. This provides an arena where political differences can be resolved.
Improve democracy and the likelihood of democratic survival: It has been noted that
member countries experience a greater degree of democracy and those democracies survive
longer.
Reasons for rejecting membership:
Loss of sovereignty: Membership often comes with a loss of state sovereignty as
treaties are signed which require cooperation on the part of all member states.
Insufficient benefits: Often membership does not bring about substantial enough
benefits to warrant membership in the organization.
Privileges and immunities
Intergovernmental organizations are provided with privileges and immunities that are
intended to ensure their independent and effective functioning. They are specified in the
treaties that give rise to the organization (such as the Convention on the Privileges and
Immunities of the United Nations and the Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the
International Criminal Court), which are normally supplemented by further multinational
agreements and national regulations (for example the International Organizations Immunities
Act in the United States). The organizations are thereby immune from the jurisdiction of
national courts.
Rather than by national jurisdiction, legal accountability is intended to be ensured by
legal mechanisms that are internal to the intergovernmental organization itself and access to
administrative tribunals. In the course of many court cases where private parties tried to
pursue claims against international organizations, there has been a gradual realization that
alternate means of dispute settlement are required, as states have fundamental human rights
 11

obligations to provide plaintiffs with access to court in view of their right to a fair trial.
Otherwise, the organizations' immunities may be put in question in national and international
courts. Some organizations hold proceedings before tribunals relating to their organization to
be confidential, and in some instances have threatened disciplinary action should an
employee disclose any of the relevant information. Such confidentiality has been criticized
as a lack of transparency.
The immunities also extend to employment law.[14][15] In this regard, immunity from
national jurisdiction necessitates that reasonable alternative means are available to
effectively protect employees' rights; in this context, a first instance Dutch court considered
an estimated duration of proceedings before the Administrative Tribunal of the International
Labour Organisation of 15 years to be too long.
Strengths and weaknesses
These are some of the strengths and weaknesses of IGOs:
Strengths:
 They hold state authority.
 Their institutions are permanent.
 They provide a forum for discussion.
 They are issue specific.
 They provide information.
 They allow multilateral cooperation.
Weaknesses:
 Membership is limited. Prohibits the membership of private citizens. This
makes IGOs undemocratic. In addition, not all IGOs allow universal
membership.
 IGOs often overlap resulting in a complex network.
 States have to give up part of their sovereignty, which weakens the state's ability
to assert its authority.
 Inequality among state members creates biases and can lead powerful states to
misuse these organizations.
 They can be deemed unfair as countries with a higher percentage voting power
have the right to veto any decision that is not in their favor, leaving the smaller
countries powerless.
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1 Read the following text and explain the meaning of the words and phrases in bold.

International Economic Organisations

The GATT arose out of an international conference held at Havana in 1947 at which it
was decided to establish an International Trade Organisation. The organisation did not in fact
come into being. However, a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had been
agreed shortly before the conference, involving a series of tariff concessions and trade rules,
and this originally temporary instrument continued. The arrangement operated on the basis
of bilateral approach to trade negotiations coupled with unconditional acceptance of the most
favoured nation principle (by which the most favourable benefits obtained by one state are
passed on to other states), although there were special conditions for developing states in this
respect. A series of tariff and trade negotiating rounds were held under the auspices of the
GATT, which thus offered a package approach to trade negotiations, and a wide variety of
tariff reductions was achieved, as well as agreement reached on mitigating non-tariff
barriers. The eighth such round, termed the Uruguay round, commenced in 1986 and
concluded with the signing at Marrakesh on 15 April 1994 of a long and complex agreement
covering a range of economic issues, such as agriculture, textiles and clothing, rules of
origin, import licensing procedures, subsidies, intellectual property rights, and procedures on
dispute settlement. In addition, the agreement provided for the establishment of the World
Trade Organisation on 1 January 1995 as a permanent institution with its own secretariat.
The organisation consists of a Ministerial Conference, consisting of representatives of all
members meeting at least once every two years; a General Council composed of
representatives of all members meeting as appropriate and exercising the functions of the
Conference between sessions; Councils for Trade in Goods, Trade in Services and Trade
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights operating under the general guidance of the
General Council; a Secretariat and a Director-General. The organisation's main aims are to
administer and implement the multilateral and plurilateral trade agreements together making
up the WTO, to act as a forum for multilateral trade negotiations, to try and settle trade
disputes and to oversee national trade policies.
The GATT of 1947 continued until the end of 1995, when it was effectively
subsumed, with changes, as GATT 1994 within the WTO system.

2. Match the words in column A with the appropriate words in column B.

A В
1) intellectual с a) settlement
2) trade b) state
j 3) dispute c) property
| 4) package d) concessions
5) developing e) reduction
6) trade f) barriers
| 7) tariff g)rule
8) tariff h) procedure
9) non-tariff i) approach
10) licensing j) negotiation
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3. Fill in the correct prepositions, then choose any five items and make sentences.
1) to arise......the situation; 2) to come ... being; 3) ... the basis ... smth; 4) trade negotiations
coupled ... unconditional acceptance; 5) benefits obtained ... one state are passed......other
states; 6) ...this respect; 7) to be held ... the auspices ... the GATT; 8) the round
commenced ... 1986; 9) the round concluded ... the signing ... Marrakesh ... 15 April 1994 ...
an agreement; 10) General Council composed ... representatives ... all members;

4. Which of the statements are true to the above text?

1) The GATT arose out of an international conference held at Ottawa in 1947 at which it was
decided to establish an International Trade Organisation.
2) A series of tariff and trade negotiating rounds were held under the auspices of the GATT.
3) The agreement provided for the establishment of the World Trade Organisation on 11
February 1995 as a permanent institution with its own secretariat.
4) The World Trade Organisation consists of a Ministerial Conference, consisting of
representatives of all members meeting at least once every three years.
5) The GATT of 1947 continued until the end of 1996.
5 Read the text and choose the most suitable sentence from the list (A -G) for each gap.
There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. There is an example at the
beginning.
A The Permanent Committee was set up in Vienna in 1993 to assist in regular decision-
making. В There is also an Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, which is
responsible for the promotion of human rights and democracy in the OSCE area. С It
played no meaningful part in the Gulf wars and crises from 1980 to 2003.
D The OSCE has established a variety of Missions to assist in dispute settlement and has
been assigned a role in the Bosnia peace arrangements.
E. To complete the transformation of the CSCE, it was renamed the Organisation for
Security and Cooperation in Europe as from 1 January 1995.
F. The Final Act was not a binding treaty but a political document, concerned with three
areas or 'baskets', being security questions in Europe; co-operation in the fields of
economics, science and technology, and co-operation in humanitarian fields.
G It was only really after the changes in Eastern Europe in the late 1980s that the CSCE
began to assume a coherent structure.

The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

The Organisation was originally created in 1975 following the Helsinki Conference of
European powers (plus the US and Canada). The Helsinki Final Act laid down a series of
basic principles of behaviour among the participating states, including sovereign equality;
prohibition of the threat or use of force; inviolability of frontiers; territorial integrity of
states; peaceful settlement of disputes; nonintervention in internal affairs and respect for
human rights. [ 1 - F\. The Conference itself (at the time termed the CSCE) was a diplomatic
conference with regular follow-up meetings to review the implementation of the Helsinki
Final Act, together with expert meetings on a variety of topics including human rights,
democratic institutions, the environment and the peaceful settlement of disputes. [ 2 ].
The Charter of Paris for a New Europe signed in 1990 provided for the first standing
institutions. These were the Conflict Prevention Centre in Vienna, the Office for Free
Elections in Warsaw (now renamed the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human
 14

Rights) and the Secretariat based in Prague. The Paris Conference also established a system
of consultation and decision-making bodies being regular summit meetings of Heads of State
or Government; the Council of Ministers, consisting of the Foreign Ministers of participating
states, and the Committee of Senior Officials to deal with day-to-day business. In December
1992, the post of Secretary General was created, while a strengthened Secretariat was
established in Vienna. [ 3 ].
Further institutional steps were taken at the Budapest Summit in 1994. [ 4 ]. The
Council of Ministers (now termed the Ministerial Council) constitutes the central decision-
making and governing body of the Organisation, while the Senior Council has the function
of discussing and setting forth policy and broad budgetary guidelines. The Permanent
Council is the regular body for political consultation and decision making and can also be
convened for emergency purposes and is composed of the permanent representatives of the
participating states meeting in Vienna. There is also a Forum for Security Cooperation which
meets weekly in Vienna to discuss and make decisions regarding military aspects of security
in the OSCE area, in particular confidence- and security-building measures, and the Senior
Council/Economic Forum which convenes once a year in Prague to focus on economic and
environmental factors that affect security in the OSCE area [ 5 ].
Overall responsibility for executive action is exercised by the Chairman-in-Office,
who is assisted by the Troika (i.e. the present, preceding and succeeding Chairmen). The
High Commissioner on National Minorities was appointed in 1992 and there exist a variety
of personal representatives of the Chairman-in-Office and ad hoc steering groups in order to
help the work of the Organisation. [6 ]. A Parliamentary Assembly was established in 1991.
In March 1995, the Final Conference on the Pact on Stability in Europe adopted a Final
Declaration, which together with some 100 bilateral and regional cooperation agreements,
constitutes an attempt to mitigate tensions in the region. The Declaration contains a
commitment to act against intolerance and discrimination, while the agreements include
those dealing with cross-border co-operation, economic, environmental and minority
protection issues. The Pact is supplemented by measures to be taken by the European Union
and is integrated within the OSCE system. It has been agreed that in the event of difficulties
over observance of the agreements, the states participating in the Pact would rely on existing
OSCE institutions and procedures for settling disputes peacefully, including the Court of
Conciliation and Arbitration. There are currently fifty-five participating states in the
organisation.

6. Solve the crossword puzzle using the information from the above text.
1) a state or other political entity with political, industrial or military strength - POWER
2) the region of a country bordering on another or a line, barrier, etc., marking such a
boundary;
3) unity; wholeness;
4) a meeting of chiefs of governments or other high officials;
5) a group of three people, esp. government officials;
6) to have a conversation about; consider by talking over; debate;
7) to act or work together for a particular purpose, or to help someone willingly when help is
requested;
8) a method of helping the parties in a dispute to reach agreement, esp divorcing or
separating couples to part amicably;
 15

9) a situation or condition of hostility, suspense, or uneasiness;

10) to get information or advice from (a person or book with special knowledge on a
particular subject).

7. In the above text find the English equivalents for the following words and word
combinations and make your own sentences using them.
1) Организация по безопасности и сотрудничеству в Европе; 2) демократические
учреждения/институты; 3) соблюдение прав человека; 4) встреча в верхах (на высшем
уровне); 5) министр иностранных дел; 6) верховный комиссар; 7) соглашение о со-
трудничестве; 8) невмешательство; 9) внутренние дела (страны); 10)территориальная
неприкосновенность, территориальная целостность; 11) нерушимость границ; 12)
суверенное равенство; 13) ряд основных принципов; 14) Заключительный акт
Хельсинки; 15) Европейские державы; 16) когерентная структура; 17) глава
государства; 18) руководящий орган; 19) акт исполнительной власти; 20) триумвират.

8. Use ex. 10 and speak on the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

9. Match the English phrases in A with their Russian equivalents in B. Learn the
following collocations.
A В
1) regulations of the organization а. суверенное равенство всех членов организации;
2) running of the organization b. OPEC Организация стран-экспортёров нефти,
ОПЕК
3) sovereign equality of all the справила организации
members of the organization
4) permanent head of an or- d. межправительственные организации
ganization
5) Organization, for Economic е. межправительственные военные организации;
Cooperation and Development,
OECD
6) to join an organization f. создание международных организаций;
7) to disband an organization; to g. постоянный глава организации;
walk out of an organization
8) Organization of Petroleum h. международные неправительственные организации
Exporting Countries, OPEC
9) to walk out of an organization i межправительственные административные
организации;
10) consultative organizations j. участвующие организации, организации-члены
11) foreign trade organizations к. общественные организации
12) intergovernmental 1. региональные организации
organizations
13) intergovernmental т. консультативные организации
administrative organizations
 16

14) intergovernmental military п. вступить в организацию, присоединиться к

organizations организации;
15) intergovernmental political о. общественно-политическая организация
organizations
16) general international or- p. Организация экономического сотрудничества и
ganization развития, ОЭСР;
17) creation of international q. всеобщая международная организация;
organizations
18) office of an international г. правовая организация международного сообщества
organization
19) legal organization of the s. межправительственные политические организации
international community
20) member organizations t. политическая организация
21) international non- и распустить организацию
governmental organization or-
ganizations
22) political organization v. отделение международной организации;
23) public organizations w. внешнеторговые организации
24) regional organizations х. выйти из (состава) организации
25) socio-political organization у. функционирование организации; руководство
организацией

10. Translate the following text into Russian.

The Organization of American States (OAS)
The OAS was created on the basis of the Pan American Union. In 1947, an Inter-
American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance was signed in Rio de Janeiro, and in 1948 the
OAS Charter was adopted in Bogota. In 1967, a number of alterations were introduced. At
present the OAS includes 35 States.
The Organization of American States was formed as a regional organization. Its
Charter contains provisions for the collective security of its member-states. An act of
aggression by any State against the territorial integrity or political independence of any one
of its members is viewed as an act of aggression against all other members as well, and
provides grounds for the use of armed force.
The OAS has the following organizational structure.
The General Assembly is its highest body in which all member-states are represented.
It is convened annually. The General Assembly determines the policy, activities and budget
of the Organization and the structure and functions of its organs.
A Consultative Meeting of Foreign Ministers was established to consider urgent
problems of concern to all member-states. This could be an armed attack on a member-state
of OAS, and for this reason, an Inter-American Defense Board was created within that body.
The OAS's executive body is its Permanent Council, which consists of representatives
of all the member-states, and which has set up a number of subsidiary councils and
committees.
The OAS's General Secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General elected for a term of
five years.
 17

A considerable number of regional specialized agencies function within the OAS. Its
headquarters are located in Washington.
19. Summarize the information of the unit and be ready to speak on International
organizations. The first step to be done is to write the plan of your future report.

Render the following text into English.

МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЕ МЕЖПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВЕННЫЕ ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ
Международные межправительственные организации - постоянные объединения
государств, созданные на основе разработанного и одобренного государствами
международного соглашения или иного учредительного акта в целях координации
усилий правительств по решению определенных международных проблем и
содействия развитию всестороннего сотрудничества государств с различным
социальным строем. Международные межправительственные организации обладают
рядом специфических особенностей, позволяющих выделить этот сравнительно новый
институт международного права. Прежде всего в деятельности органов таких
организаций участвуют официально назначенные правительствами представители и
делегации их государств-членов, а сами органы международных
межправительственных организаций, занимаются обсуждением и согласованием
усилий государств по содействию решению многообразных проблем политического,
экономического, социального и культурного характера, которые внутри государств
относятся к ведению соответствующих правительственных учреждений и ведомств.
При этом все определеннее проявляется тенденция развития международных
отношений последних лет, когда все большее число вопросов, которые традиционно
относились к внутренней компетенции государств, становятся предметом
рассмотрения на международном уровне, что в свою очередь ведет к появлению новых
международных межправительственных организаций. Функции и полномочия
организации и ее органов обычно определяются по соглашению государств т. наз.
конституционным документом этой организации (уставом, статутом, конвенцией,
соглашением и т. д.). Международные межправительственные организации обычно
имеют следующую структуру: периодически созываемое собрание представителей
всех государств-членов, исполнительный орган (совет, исполнительный комитет и
др.), а также, как правило, постоянный секретариат.
Специфическими чертами международных межправительственных организаций
являются постоянный или регулярный характер деятельности, метод
функционирования (многосторонние переговоры, открытое обсуждение вопросов),
процедура разработки и принятия решений (обсуждение и голосование) и характер
принимаемых решений, не имеющих, как правило, обязательной силы и основанных
на принципе "одна страна - один голос" или на финансовом взносе и экономическом
положении соответствующих государств-участников. Международные межправи-
тельственные организации - важная составная часть системы межгосударственных
отношений на современном этапе. Различают международные межправительственные
организации всемирные (ООН, ЮНЕСКО, МОТ, МСЭ, ВМО и др.) и региональные
(ЛАГ, ОАЕ и др.). Государства участвуют в деятельности таких организаций путем
направления делегации или назначения специальных представителей
соответствующих министерств и ведомств. При ряде организаций существуют
специальные представительства государств (напр., Постоянное представительство
 18

России при ООН и др.). РФ активно участвует в деятельности международных

межправительственных организаций, являясь членом большинства из них.
 19

3. Негосударственные международные организации.

Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created
by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term
originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that
do not form part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases
in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-
governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the
organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue some wider social
aim that has political aspects, but that are not overtly political organizations such as political
parties. Unlike the term "intergovernmental organization", the term "non-governmental
organization" has no generally agreed legal definition. In many jurisdictions, these types of
organization are called "civil society organizations" or referred to by other names.
The number of internationally operating NGOs is estimated at 40,000. National
numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs; India is estimated to have around 3.3
million NGOs in year 2009, which is one NGO for less than 400 Indians, and many times the
number of primary schools and primary health centres in India
Definition of NGO
NGOs are difficult to define and classify due to the term’s inconsistent use. NGO,
non-profit organizations within defined boundaries excludes NGOs that fall outside each
specific boundary. Additionally, it is beneficial for NGO networks to create a classification
that allows similar organizations to exchange information more easily. To attempt a
classification of NGOs requires a framework, that includes the orientation and the
organization's level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities an
organization takes on. These activities might include environmental, development, or
advocacy work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization
works on, like the difference in work between an international NGO and community or
national NGO.
One of the earliest mentions of the term "NGO" was in 1945, when the UN was
created. The UN introduced the term "NGO" to distinguish between the participation of
international private organizations and intergovernmental specialized agencies. According to
the UN, all kinds of private organizations that are independent from government control can
be recognized as "NGOs." "NGOs" cannot seek to diminish a nation's government in the
shape of an opposing political party; NGOs also need to be non-criminal and non-profit.
Professor Peter Willets, from the City University of London, argues the definition of NGOs
can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s
context. He defines an NGO as “"an independent voluntary association of people acting
together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government
office, making money or illegal activities." In this view, two main types of NGOs are
recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational and campaigning NGO’s.
Although Willets proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate
the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that they have more similarities
than differences. Their activities are unrestricted; thus operational NGOs may need to
campaign and campaigning NGOs may need to take on structural projects.
NGO consultative status with ECOSOC:
 20

A In order to be eligible for a consultative status, an NGO must have at least two years
of existence, which requires to have been properly registered with the respective authorities
and government. The organizations must have a democratic constitution, representative
authority, established headquarters, accountability for transparent and democratic decision-
making and be independent from government control.
NPOs and NGOs
Common usage varies between countries - for example NGO is commonly used for
domestic organizations in Australia that would be referred to as non-profit organizations in
the United States. Such organizations that operate on the international level are fairly
consistently referred to as "non-governmental organizations", in the United States and
elsewhere.
There is a growing movement within the non-profit organization/non-government
sector to define itself in a more constructive, accurate way. The "non-profit" designation is
seen to be particularly dysfunctional for at least three reasons: 1) It says nothing about the
purpose of the organization, only what it is not; 2) It focuses the mind on "profit" as being
the opposite of the organization's purpose; 3) It implies that the organization has few
financial resources and may run out of money before completing its mission. Instead of
being defined by "non-" words, organizations are suggesting new terminology to describe the
sector. The term "social benefit organization" (SBO) is being adopted by some organizations.
This defines them in terms of their positive mission. The term "civil society organization"
(CSO) has also been used by a growing number of organizations, such as the Center for the
Study of Global Governance. The term "citizen sector organization" (CSO) has also been
advocated to describe the sector — as one of citizens, for citizens. These labels, SBO and
CSO, position the sector as its own entity, without relying on language used for the
government or business sectors. However, some have argued that CSO is not particularly
helpful, given that most NGOs are in fact funded by governments and/or profit-driven
businesses and that some NGOs are clearly hostile to independently organized people's
organizations. The term "social benefit organization" seems to avoid that problem, since it
does not assume any particular structure, but rather focuses on the organization's mission.
History
International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least
1839. It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. International NGOs were
important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and
reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. However, the phrase
"non-governmental organization" only came into popular use with the establishment of the
United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the
United Nations Charter for a consultative role for organizations which are neither
governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of "international
NGO" (INGO) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is
defined as "any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty". The
vital role of NGOs and other "major groups" in sustainable development was recognized in
Chapter 27 of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship
between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations.
Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a
result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state. Further globalization of that
 21

process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the
Washington consensus.
Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many
problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international
organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of
capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to
emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development. A
prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the
World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World
Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from
more than 1,000 NGOs. Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of
what should belong to popular movements of the poor. Others argue that NGOs are often
imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world
countries, and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial
era. The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.
Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive.
Types of NGOs
NGO type can be understood by orientation and level of co-operation.
NGO type by orientation
 Charitable orientation;
 Service orientation;
Participatory
Empowering orientation;
NGO type by level of co-operation
 Community- Based Organization;
 City Wide Organization;
 National NGOs;
 International NGOs;
Apart from "NGO", often alternative terms are used as for example: independent
sector, volunteer sector, civil society, grassroots organizations, transnational social
movement organizations, private voluntary organizations, self-help organizations and non-
state actors (NSA's).
Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. A long list of acronyms
has developed around the term "NGO".
These include:
 BINGO, short for Business-friendly International NGO or Big International
NGO;
 National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one
country. This term is usually rare due to the globalization of Non-governmental
organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country.
 CSO, short for civil society organization;
 DONGO: Donor Organized NGO;
 ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF
 NNGO, short for Northern non governmental organization.
 IDCIs, short for international development cooperation institutions.
 22

 SNGOs, short for Southern nongovernmental organizations

 SCOS, also known as social change organizations
 GONGOs are government-operated NGOs, which may have been set up by
governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote
the interests of the government in question;
 INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD INSTITUTE OF PEACE
AND DEVELOPMENT "A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives" ;
 QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not
purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is
represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the 'most broadly
representative' standardization body of a nation. That body might itself be a
nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in
ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the
federal government. However, other countries can be represented by national
governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe.)
 TANGO: short for technical assistance NGO;
 TNGO: short for transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to
the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community.
TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only
one country, but exist in two or more countries.
 GSO: Grassroots Support Organization
 MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO
 NGDO: non-governmental development organization
 USAID refers to NGOs as private voluntary organisations. However many
scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs
are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional
staff.
NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of
their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment,
encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or
representing a corporate agenda. However, there are a huge number of such organizations
and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also
easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations.
Environmental NGOs
Environmental NGOs work on cases related to the environment. An example of an
ENGO is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs) Just like other TNGOs networks,
transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing
information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact
information. Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like
public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more
difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than TNGOs campaigning directly
for human rights issues.
Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after
the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of
 23

Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). After the UN was formed in 1945, more
environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental
issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was
created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration
among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the
Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among
environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of
UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971. In 1972, the UN Conference on the
Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for
international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized
nations.
Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but
one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back
to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due
to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and
after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources
section.
During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing
program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to
urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups.
Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of
UNESCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the
Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living
in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs
were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program.
Due to the leverage that the U.S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the
financial aid to the Polonoreste Program. The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian
case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor
vulnerable to international pressure.
Even though environmental NGOs (ENGOs) might have common goals relating to
issues on the environment, its exploitation, and how to protect it, these organizations are very
diverse and lack a central form of international hegemony. There is, however, a clear
distinction between the interests and goals among those ENGOs located in industrialized
countries--often referred to as the states of the north--and ENGOs from nations located in
developing countries--referred to as states of the south (or southern states). On one hand,
Northern states are mainly concerned with issues deriving from poverty, the increasing
populations in developing countries, and economic development in the north. On the other
hand, southern states blame the developed nations for over consumption and pollution
resulting from industrialization. NGOs from the poorer nations blame the industrialized
world for sustained inequalities in the international economic system, and criticize these
industrialized nations for establishment of companies which become primary polluters in the
southern states.
There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific
socioeconomic issues related to the environment. The Women’s Environment and
Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender
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inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit. Other groups might focus on issues that
include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds.