M.Sc. B.Sc.

Meaning and definition of Insolation

Solar constant
Albedo of earth
Distrubution of insolation
Factors affecting the distribution of insolation
Distribution of temperature
Factors affecting distribution of temperature.

Heath budget of the earth and atmosphere

Effects of atmosphere: Scattering, Diffusion,
Reflection and absorption

Insolation:
The term insolation(in + sol + ation)is derived from the words incoming solar
radiation.Insolation specifically applied to radiation which is arriving at earth’s atmosphere
first and then earth surface.The heat is derived from solar energy,it is normally calledsolar
radiation. Insolation' is the solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface. Generally
insolation is expressed in two ways. One unit is kilowatt-hours per square meter (kWh/m2)
per day [1] which represents the average amount of energy hitting an area each day. Another
form is watts per square meter (W/m2) which represents the average amount of power hitting
an area over an entire year.

By knowing the insolation levels of a particular region we can determine the size of solar
collector that is required and how much energy it can produce. An area with poor insolation
levels will need a larger collector than an area with high levels. Moreover, insolation data
also helps to know in planning the architecture of the buildings in particular area. 

Insolation levels change throughout the year, lowest in winter and the highest in summer.
Close to the equator the difference throughout the year is minimal whereas at high latitudes
winter can be a fraction of summer levels. 
Solar Constant:
The Sun is constantly radiating energy. It has some cycles involving sunspots, flares, plages
(bright spots) and other disturbances, which cause some minor fluctuations in radiation, but
in general, the output of energy stays about the same. If it changed significantly, life on Earth
would not be possible!
We live on a fairly comfortable planet. The Sun provides all of the energy that powers life on
Earth's surface, and life, as we know it, is only possible because of Earth's distance from the
Sun. If Earth was any closer, it would be way too hot for life to thrive. If it were farther from
the Sun, it would be way too cold. Earth's distance from the Sun is 'just right.'
Distance, area, and time are important variables in understanding how much energy Earth
receives from the Sun. All three variables are factored into the solar constant, a value that
describes how much solar energy hits Earth's atmosphere.
The amount of energy Earth is receiving from the Sun also influences our weather and
climate.
The orbit of Earth around the Sun is elliptical therefore distance between the Sun and the
earth keeps on changing. When the sun is close to the earth (Perihelion-January) it receives
more energy and when it is far from the earth (Aphelion-July) it receives less energy. In order
to correct this factor the distance between the earth and the sun is shown as the average and
accordingly the Solar Constant is calculated.

Solar constant: (Definition):

The average amount of solar energy received per second by one square meter area of the
near earth space (at the top-edge of atmosphere or outer layer of the atmosphere) at an
average distance between the sun and the earth is called as Solar constant. The value of
solar constant is 1.4 kilo joule or 1.366 kilo watt per second. The solar constant is the most
accurately measured by the satellites when atmospheric effects are negligible. The solar
constant is fairly constant increasing by only 0.2 percent at the peak of each 11 year cycle.

Distribution of insolation:

On an average, the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface decreases from
equator towards the poles but there is temporal variation of insolation received at different
latitudes at different times of the year.

Factors Influencing Insolation:

Solar constant:
The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays:
Duration of the day/ Duration of sunshine:
Earths Distance from Sun:
Reflectivity of the Atmosphere and Ground:
Angle of the Sun's rays
Rotation of the earth on its axis:
Cloud cover/ Transparency of the atmosphere:
Distribution of the insolation:

On the basis of distribution of insolation earth’s surface as a globe is divided into three
zones:

1: Low latitude zone: (23.30 N to 23: 30 S)

2: Mid latitude zone: (23.30 to 66: 30 N and S)
3: High latitude zone: (66. 30 to 90 N and S)

Albedo of earth:

The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30–

35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of
different geological and environmental features.

Albedo (/ælˈbiːdoʊ/) (Latin: albedo, meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the diffuse

reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g.
a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black
body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident
radiation).
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity to the irradiance (flux per unit area) received by
a surface.[1] The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but
also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
[2]
 These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of
the Sun).
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of
solar radiation.[3] Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most
solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible
light (0.39–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees
absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects
most radiation).
Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g.,
as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable
rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary
albedo, is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because
of different geological and environmental features. [4]

An object with a high albedo reflects a significant amount of the incoming light.

An object with a low albedo does not reflect much light. With an albedo of 100%
all incoming radiation is reflected while it is 0% if it is all absorbed. In almost all
cases the albedo will not be perfectly 100% or 0%. 

Albedo of the earth:

Several factors affect terrestrial Albedo of Earth such as

 Snow:
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to
about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. [37] Over Antarctica snow
albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms,
snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt
because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive
feedback).

 Trees:
 Trees and forest have low albedo. Because incident solar radiations are used for
photosynthesis and the radiations are trapped because of the canopies of trees or
forests. The albedo of the tress depends upon the types of trees, leaves, structure,
area and the wavelength of the incoming solar radiation. Wavelength that are used
for photosynthesis are used decreasing albedo and the wavelength not suitable for
photosynthesis are reflected back showing high albedo. Forest vegetation with
multilevel canopy has a low albedo because the incident radiation can penetrate deeply
into the forest canopy where it bounces back and forth between the branches and leaves
and get trapped by the canopy.

 Water:
 Water has an interesting property in that the amount of reflection
depends greatly on the state (liquid or frozen) and the angle the
radiation is striking it.

Liquid:
Water has a higher albedo when the sun angle is low. For example, just
after the sun rises the sun angle will be low and much of the radiation will
be reflected by the water. This has important implication in locations the
sun angle is low such as in high latitudes. High latitude locations where the
sun is near the horizon will reflect more solar radiation away than at low
latitude locations. This is one reason that high latitude locations are colder
(with the main reason being that the sun's energy is spread over a larger
surface area in high latitude regions).

When the sun is well above the horizon (30 degrees to directly overhead)
then water has a low albedo and absorbs a great deal of solar radiation. The
middle latitude and tropical oceans absorb an enormous amount of solar
energy.
Most of these albedos are sensitive to the angle at which the sunlight hits the surface; this is
especially true for water. When the Sun is at angles of 40° and higher relative to the horizon, the
albedo of the water is fairly constant, but as the angle decreases from 40°, the albedo increases
dramatically, so that it is about 0.5 at a Sun angle of 10° and 1.0 at a sun angle of 0°. You are
aware of this in the form of glare coming off the water in the early morning or in the evening
before sunset.

 Clouds:
 Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different
types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a
minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of
Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds
keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap
warmth.
 Human activities:
 Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo
of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global
scale is difficult.

Land soil:
Soil albedo is a complex feature, which is determined by many soil dependent and independent
(environmental) characteristics.The most significant factors affecting the soil albedo are the
type and condition of the vegetation covering the soil surface, soil moisture content, organic
matter content, particle size, iron-oxides, mineral composition, soluble salts, and parent
material. For example Changes in soil moisture content change the absorbance and reflectance
characteristics of the soil. Increase in soil moisture content increases the portion of the incident
solar radiation absorbed by the soil system. Clayey soils can maintain high moisture content in
the presence of water supply, while the sandy textured soils drain and dry out much more
rapidly. Due to the differences in the resulting soil moisture content between the texture
classes, there are differences in the reflectance and absorbance characteristics and so in the
albedo.

Aerosol effects: (microscopic solid or liquid particles)

Aerosol direct effect, Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The
scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can
cause atmospheric warming.

Climate and weather:

Cloud cover, humidity, aerosols etc also affects albedo of earth.