MODULE

MODULE IN
IN
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
DESCRIPTIVE TITLE

CE 2121

Civil and Geodetic Engineering Department

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 CE 2121

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should
be able to:
1. Apply the basic surveying
concepts, principles and theories
on distance and angular
measurements as well as area
computation.
2. Solve for distances, elevations and
areas from a provided set of survey
data.
3. Apply the basic surveying
concepts, principles and theories
on determining horizontal and
vertical distances using stadia.
4. Compute for the missing data from
incomplete traverse data.
FUNDAMENTALS OF 5. Acquire a working knowledge in
design and lay- out of horizontal or
SURVEYING vertical curves in highway or
railway.
6. Determine and use the
appropriate methodology in
calculating earthworks in various
civil engineering constructions.

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 CE 2121- FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

“FAILURE is CENTRAL to ENGINEERING.

EVERY SINGLE CALCULATION that ENGINEER MAKES is a
FAILURE CALCULATION.
SUCCESSFUL ENGINEERING is ALL ABOUT
UNDERSTANDING HOW THINGS BREAKS or FAIL”
-HENRY PETROSKI

Dear Future Civil Engineers,

In this course, you will learn about the Concepts and Principles of Fundamentals
of Surveying as a sub- discipline of Civil Engineering. This course deals with:
Measurement of Distance and Distance Correction, The Use of Surveying
Instruments, Area Computations, Balancing the Traverse, Elevation
Determination and Leveling. Stadia Surveying, Topographic Surveying,
Triangulation and Trilateration, Missing Data, Irregular Boundaries, and Global
Positioning System.

As a result of your educational experiences in the course CE 2121, you should be

able to:

ü Understand the basic concepts and principles of Surveying- introducing

different theories, fundamentals, and using appropriate equations as an
actual solutions to applied Surveying problems.
ü Understand the important topics and informations under Elementary
Surveying such as- Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Distances,
Measurement of Angles and Directions, and Traverse Analysis including Area
computations.
ü Solve problems under Higher Surveying topics such as- Tacheometry, Omitted
Measurement Computation, Topographic Survey, Control Survey, and
Introduction to Hydrographic Surveying.
ü Understand the important concepts on Route or Engineering Surveys as
preparation to Highway and Railroad Engineering.
ü Master all the generated topics in Fundamentals of Surveying.

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 Your academic experience as a Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this
course. To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning
outcomes at the end of the semester, this module is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION to SURVEYING – This aims to give you an overview of

the course, particularly its specific definition; in regards to its wide application in
the world of civil engineering. The different structures and or systems wherein
SURVEYING principles is applied as its main analysis.
MODULE 2: MEASUREMENT of HORIZONTAL DISTANCES – This aims to give you an
overview and understanding in solving problems involving Horizontal distances
and Tape Corrections and Errors in measurement.

MODULE 3: MEASUREMENT of VERTICAL DISTANCES – This will give you a thorough

understanding on how to measure vertical distances, methods and instruments
used, types of leveling, earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
MODULE 4: MEASUREMENT of ANGLES and DIRECTIONS – This will provide you a
detailed solution on how to measure angles and direction, methods and
instruments used in measuring horizontal angles, methods and instruments used
to define direction of lines, the Engineer’s Transit, description, use and
adjustments, bearings and azimuths, magnetic declination.
MODULE 5: TRAVERSING – This will explain and illustrate how to balance a
traverse using Compass Rule and Transit Rule, Traverse Area Computations by
DMD and DPD Method.
MODULE 6: TACHEOMETRY – This aims to give you a brief explanation and
understanding the methods and uses of tacheometry; stadia leveling, stadia
interval factor, measurement by stadia for horizontal distance, vertical distance
and inclined distance.
MODULE 7: OMITTED MEASUREMENTS–This will provide you a detailed
explanations and calculations on how to compute for omitted measurement
following it’s different cases: one side completely missing, two adjacent sides
missing, two non-adjacent sides missing.
MODULE 8: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY – This will explain and illustrate the uses of
topographic map, methods of plotting contour lines, characteristics of contours,
types of contours, and topographic map symbols.
MODULE 9: CONTROL SURVEY – This will explain and illustrate how to compute
triangulation and trilateralization as part of control survey under horizontal
control points.

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 MODULE 10: HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY – This aims to give you an introduction to
Hydrographic Surveying, explain and illustrate how to compute hydraulic
discharges and area of channel computations by virtue of surveying.
MODULE 11: INTRODUCTION to ENGINEERING SURVEYS – This will provide a brief
description on Engineering Surveys. Identify the operation/ stages in locating a
railroad or highway.
MODULE 12: HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT – This aims to analyze, compute and lay
out Horizontal Curves such as Simple Curves, Compound Curves, Reverse
Curves, and Spiral Curves.
MODULE 13: VERTICAL ALIGNMENT – This aims to analyze and compute Vertical
Parabolic Curves.
MODULE 14: EARTHWORKS and VOLUMES – This aims to analyze earthwork
computations and solve earthwork problems and haul estimates.

Review the course study guide and study schedule for your guidance.

Sincerely,

ENGR. ROMSAN D. LOPEZ ENGR. LOVELY L. RAŃOSA

Course Facilitator Course Facilitator

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 COURSE STUDY GUIDE

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time
management skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently,
intelligently, and independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules
specified in the learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student
outputs, and mastering the different technologies and procedures required in the
delivery and feedback for this course, will instil in you important qualities you will
need in the future as an engineer practicing your profession.

The following course guides and house rules are designed for you to practice
decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic
environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence,
cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors throughout
the conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing
visual cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders
(electronically, online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily
activities that take up your time, not to mention other courses you may be
concurrently taking. Choose a time of day when you are most likely to
maximize learning. Communicate your schedule to other members of your
household so they could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a
dedicated space in your residence conducive for learning.

2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an

academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in
the distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a
face-to-face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already
been answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or
provided. Acts like these will reflect your poor focus and uninspired
preparation for this course. Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in
group chats, open forums, and similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and
spelling, and complete sentences acceptable in an academic
forum. Avoid text-speak, slang, all caps, and other informal
expressions in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the
conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of
the discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of
other participants.

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 e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute
your microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus
on the main speaker.

3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered

making use of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis
University. It would be worthwhile on your part to devote some time and
effort to learn the applications you will need to access your course
materials, interact with me and your classmates, and submit course
requirements. Applications of note are Google Classroom, Google Drive,
and Google Meet. There are also available alternatives to Microsoft Office
tools you might want to explore. Certain requirements will require you to
take a video on your smart phone, save it, and submit it electronically.
Work on this skill as well. If you are offline, identify the most convenient
means for express mail correspondence and inform me as early as possible
so we can make the necessary arrangements ahead of time.

4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course

learning outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected
competencies you are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit
you from performing beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work
reflects the amount of thought and care you put into the process of
completing it. It provides a very tangible measure of how much of the
competencies you have developed and fully obtained throughout this
course.

5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline
modes to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the
needed learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either
from me or from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in
touch and updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of
this document and will be made available and widely disseminated to
enrolees of this course.

6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in

electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable
digital footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your
sources properly for referenced statements you decide to use in your own
work. Attribute statements by persons other than you by using terms like
according to, he said/she said, and the like.

7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else.
All assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure
your competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at
your disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is
going to be your independent work that will be judged against the
standards set for this course. The only way for you to maximize this course

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
 to your advantage is to learn as much from it as an individual. Make it
count.

8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow

in the conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally
accepted norms of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal
and family time. Unless of utmost importance, please refrain from any form
of communication between 8:30 PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole
day on Sundays and official holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to
this guideline myself. This will allow us all to dedicate personal time and
space to other aspects of our life and maintain a healthy work-life/study-
life balance.

9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based
on the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and
Evaluate). The following icons will help you find some of the most critical
areas in the units of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.

Part of the module unit that contains detailed

discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous stage.

Part of the module unit that expounds on the

ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper
into the finer details of the topics.

Part of the module unit that gives us the

opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
 Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

• If you are a student opting for the correspondence-based learning (CBL)

mode, you will be tasked to send back the accomplished requirements
at given stages of the course through express mail correspondence to
me, on or before the scheduled date. I will provide you with the
feedback on your submissions at the soonest possible time through any of
the available means of communication.
• While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements,
continue doing the tasks in the succeeding units of the module.
• If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any
available means.

This module was prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently.
Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course in
accomplishing the given activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning
skills which you will be very proud of as a responsible learner.

In this course, you will explore and learn to analyze and solve Surveying Problems which
will be needed by Civil Engineer in developing conceptual designs for the various
features which interacts with surveying and highways such those surveying systems. You
are therefore encouraged to:

1. Go over the main references for this course:

ü Ghilani, Charles D. Elementary Surveying: an introduction to geomatics.
Fourteenth edition, Global edition
ü Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying: Principles and Applications (9th Edition),
2014
ü Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying with Construction Applications (8th Edition),
2015
ü Surveying: Theory and Practice by James M. Anderson and Edward M.
Mikhail, (7th Edition), 2002
ü Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R., Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
ü Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007
ü La Putt, J. P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint

2. You are encouraged to dedicate at least fifteen (15) hours for the lecture and
nine (9) hours for the laboratory, per week to this course throughout the short
semester.

3. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every part of the
module. Read it over and over until you understand the point.

4. Study how you can manage to do the activities of this module in

consideration of your other modules from other courses. Be very conscious

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
 with the study schedule. Post it on a conspicuous place so that you can
always see. Do not ask about questions that are already answered in the
guide.

5. Do not procrastinate. Remember, it is not others who will be short-changed if

you will not do your work on time. It will be you.

6. Before you start doing your tasks, read and understand the assessment tools
provided. Do not settle with the low standards, target the highest standards in
doing your assigned tasks. I know you can.

7. You are free to browse and read the different units of the module even prior
to doing the tasks in each unit. However, you need to ensure that you will not
miss any part of the module and you will not miss to accomplish every activity
in every unit as scheduled.

8. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back through
correspondence the accomplished and scheduled modules for midterms to
me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media
available for you.

9. While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished modules, continue

doing the task in the succeeding units of the module that are scheduled for
the finals.

10. If needed, do not hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available
means. Remember, if there is a will, there is a way.

11. In answering all the assessment and evaluation activities, write legibly. It will
help if you will not write your answers in the module if you are not yet sure of
your answers. You must remember that all activities in the module are
academic activities, which mean that the relevant academic conventions
apply.

12. Lastly, you are the learner; hence, you do the module on your own. Your
family members and friends at home will support you but the activities must
be done by you. As Louisan, we always need to demonstrate our core values
of competence, creativity, social involvement and Christian spirit.

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
 STUDY SCHEDULE
DATE/S TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME UNIT LECTURE ACTIVITIES
MODULE 1
Nov. 19- Engage: Pre-assessment
Explain the basic concepts and
2020 Explore: Module 1
principles of surveying, sources
Explain: Introduction to Surveying
of survey information, kinds of 1,2
Elaborate: Discussion and Research
surveys and proper use and care
Evaluate: Discussion and Problem
of Instruments.
Solving.
MODULE 2 and 3
Nov.20- Solve problems involving 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 Horizontal distances and Tape Explore: Module 1 and 2
To Corrections and Errors in Explain: Measurement of Horizontal and
Nov.21- measurement. Vertical Distances.
2020 Explain how to measure vertical Elaborate: Problem solving.
distances, methods and Evaluate: Discussion and Problem
instruments used, types of Solving
leveling, curvature and
refraction.
NOV 23, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDTERM QUIZ 1
MODULE 4 and 5
Nov.23- Explain and illustrate how to 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 measure angles and direction, Explore: Module 4 and 5
To methods and instruments used Explain: Measurement of Angles and
Nov.25- in measuring horizontal angles, Directions, and Traversing.
2020 methods and instruments used Elaborate: Problem Solving
to define direction of lines, the Evaluate: Research and Problem Solving.
Engineer’s Transit, description,
use and adjustments, bearings
and azimuths, magnetic
declination.
Explain and illustrate how to
balance a traverse using
Compass Rule and Transit Rule,
Traverse Area by DMD and DPD
Method.
MODULE 6
Nov.26- Explain and illustrate the 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 methods and uses of Explore: Module 6
tacheometry; stadia leveling, Explain: Tacheometry
stadia interval factor, Elaborate: Problem solving.
measurement by stadia for Evaluate: Prob. Solving and Evaluation.

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 horizontal distance, vertical
distance and inclined distance
MODULE 7
Nov.27- Explain and illustrate how to 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 compute for omitted Explore: Module 7
measurement: one side Explain: Omitted Measurement
completely missing, two adjacent Elaborate: Problem solving.
sides missing, two non-adjacent Evaluate: Problem Soving and
sides missing. Evaluation.
MODULE 8
Nov.28- Explain and illustrate the uses of 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 topographic map, methods of Explore: Module 8
plotting contour lines, Explain: Topographic Survey
characteristics of contours, types Elaborate: Research
of contours, and topographic Evaluate: Evaluation on your answers.
map symbols.
MODULE 9 and 10
Nov.30- Explain and illustrate how to 1 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 compute triangulation and Explore: Module 9 and 10
trilateralization. Explain: Control Survey and Hydrographic
Explain and illustrate how to Survey.
compute hydraulic discharge. Elaborate: Discussion and Problem
Solving
Evaluate: Problem Solving and
Evaluation.
DEC. 01, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDTERM QUIZ 2
DEC 02, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: MIDTERM EXAMINATION
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR BEFORE
DEC 04, 2020
MODULE 11 and 12
Dec.03- Identify the operation/ stages in 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 locating a railroad or highway. Explore: Module 11 and 12
To Analyze, compute and lay out Explain: Introduction to Engineering
Dec.10- Horizontal Curves. Surveys, and Horizontal Alignment
2020 Elaborate: Outline Discussion and
Problem Solving.
Evaluate: Problem Solving.
DEC 11, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: FINAL QUIZ 1
MODULE 13
Dec.12- Analyze and compute Vertical 1,2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 Parabolic Curves. Explore: Module 13
To Explain: Vertical Alignment.
Dec.15- Elaborate: Problem solving.

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 2020 Evaluate: Evaluation on your answers.
MODULE 14
Dec.16- Analyze earthwork computations 1, 2 Engage: Pre-assessment
2020 and solve earthwork problems. Explore: Module 14
To Analyze haul and cost estimates. Explain: Earthworks and Volumes
Dec.18- Elaborate: Problem solving.
2020 Evaluate: Evaluation on your answers.
DEC. 19, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: FINAL QUIZ 2
DEC. 21, 2020 : SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: FINAL EXAMINATION
SUBMIT YOUR ACCOMPLISHMENTS TO YOUR COURSE LEARNING FACILITATOR ON OR BEFORE
DEC. 21, 2020

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY CALENDAR FOR THE FIRST SEMESTER AY 2020-2021

Registration: August 3-7, 2020

Start of Classes: November 19, 2020
CICM Day: November 26, 2020
Bonifacio Day: November 30, 2020
Midterm Examination: December 2, 2020
Immaculate Conception: December 8, 2020
Final Examination: December 21, 2020

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 EVALUATION

TO PASS THE COURSE, YOU MUST:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities and problem sets
2. Submit two graded quizzes for midterms and finals.
3. Submit the final project (portfolio) for the laboratory class
4. Take the Midterm and Final Examination.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Formative Assessment
Formative assessments such as pre-assessment forms, self-assessment activities and
problem sets aim to enhance and deepen your understanding of the course. The
requirements will be posted upon the upload of the modules and you are expected to
submit your output by the scheduled due dates. Submission may only be done once
and you are not allowed to edit and re-submit your work. You are required to complete
these tasks to complete the course.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall
always be a part of all requirements submitted online.

Summative Assessment

Quizzes and Examination

The two graded quizzes will be posted one week before its scheduled date. The two
graded quizzes are 20-item multiple choice type of google quiz. You will be required to
finish the quiz within the given timeframe and you will not be allowed to edit your
answers once submitted.

Midterm and Final Individual assessments will be conducted as scheduled. Students will
be assigned a problem/question to be answered within the given timeframe and are
not allowed to edit their answers once submitted.

All submissions are automatically time stamped and recorded. The honor pledge shall
always be a part of all requirements submitted online.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
 TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will be needing the following
software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, Publication, and Spreadsheet. All
materials and activities will be facilitated through Google Suite Applications particularly,
Google Forms, Google Hangouts, Google Meet, and Google Doc. These are all
available in the Google Suite package subscribed by Saint Louis University for you.

Students are required to have a cellphone/laptop/personal computer capable to

download the google classroom application, save pdf/word/ppt files; scan/take
photos of written documents; and view YouTube videos.

REFERENCES

1. Ghilani, Charles D. Elementary Surveying: an introduction to

geomatics. Fourteenth edition, Global edition
2. Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying: Principles and Applications (9th Edition), 2014
3. Kavanagh, Barry F. Surveying with Construction Applications (8th Edition), 2015
4. Surveying: Theory and Practice by James M. Anderson and Edward M. Mikhail,
(7th Edition), 2002
5. Ghilani, C. D., and Wolf, P. R., Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics (13th Edition), 2011
6. Schofield W. and M. Breach, Engineering Surveying, (6th Edition), 2007
7. La Putt, J. P., Elementary Surveying (3rd Edition) 2013 Reprint

CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

ENGR. Romsan D. Lopez, CE

FB account/messenger: Romsan Romrom Lopez
E-mails: [email protected]
Mobile No.: 09976737231

ENGR. Lovely L. Rańosa, MAEHP, MSCE

FB account/messenger: Lovely Lorenzo Rańosa
E-mail: [email protected]
Mobile No.: 09328838827

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 MODULE 1
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION to SURVEYING

This module will explain the basic concepts and principles of surveying, sources
of survey information, kinds of surveys and proper use and care of Instruments.

Pre- assessment: Recall your knowledge on Engineering Physics by answering the

following questions, which is part of the Surveying Measurements topic on this Module.

How many Significant Figures are present in the following?

1. 100
2. 0.001
3. 12345
4. 32.25
5. 155.28
6. 12.3
7. 0.24
8. 3.6
9. 0.0024
10. 0.000005

Read: Introduction to Surveying

Uploaded Module

(You have a PDF File of the Module in your USB packet)

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 DEFINITION of SURVEYING

ü “Surveying is the art of determining the

positions of points on or near the earth’s
surface by means of measurements in the
three elements of space; namely, distance,
direction, and elevation.” – Rayner and
Schmidt.

ü “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal

and vertical distances between objects, of
measuring angles between lines, of
determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.” – Davis,
Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.

ü “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points
on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial
features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.” –
Clarke.
ü “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of
determining area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of
the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the
whole on paper.” – Webster.
ü “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to
determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the
earth, or to establish such points.” –Breed, Hosmer, and Bone.
ü “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above,
on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Binker and
Wolf.

Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane and geodetic.
1. Plane Surveying- is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a
flat surface, and where the distances and areas involved are of limited extent
that the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying- are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of

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 high precision, and related calculations involve the solving spherical
trigonometry, calculus, and some applications of the theory of the least squares.

TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban
and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the
boundaries of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions.

2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land,
and preparing maps.

3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction

site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of concern
to engineers, architects, and builders.

4. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest

management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest
lands.

5. Hydrographic Surveys – refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors,

oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines,
chart the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of
streams. They are general importance in connection with navigation,
development of water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation, production
of hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.

6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of

surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, lay-
out and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.

7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries
of mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for other related mining work.

8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of photographs

taken with specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.

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 9. Route Surveys – involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork
quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the
planning, design, and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals,
transmission lines, and other linear projects.

10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.
The features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes,
relief of the ground surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads, buildings,
ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.

SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. Telescope – The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to

Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations. However, it was only when cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were
introduced, that the telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

2. Transit – The invention of transit is accredited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in 1830.

3. Plane Table – used in field mapping. It consists of a board attached to a tripod in

such a way that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

4. Vernier – a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an

instrument, by means of which refractional parts of the smallest or least division of
the main scale can be determined precisely without having to interpolate. It was
invented 1631 by a Frenchman name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instrument employ
either a direct or retrograde vernier.
5. Compass – The magnetic compass came into wide use during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It was first

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 introduced for use in navigation. The compass consists of a magnetized steel needle
mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to
point toward magnetic north and gives a reading which is dependent upon the
position of the graduated circle.

SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

ANGULAR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Ø Sexagesimal Units- units of angular measurement are the degree, minute,

and second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree which is
defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute
equals to 60 seconds.
Ø Centesimal Units- many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the
centesimal system where grad is the angular unit. The grad is divided into 100
centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is subdivided into 100
centesimal seconds or 0 degree 00 minute 32.4 seconds.

THE CONCEPTS OF MISTAKES, ERRORS, ACCURACY, AND PRECISION.

MISTAKES. Are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some
aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused
by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the
surveyor. A large mistake is reffered to as a blunder.

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 ERRORS. An error is defined as the difference between the true value and a
measured value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation
from the true value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.

TYPES OF ERRORS-
1. Systematic Errors
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and magnitude
as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing
field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude of error,
however, the sign remains constant. A systematic error will repeat itself in
other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error.

2. Accidental Errors
These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such errors
are matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and may
tend in part to compensate or average out according to laws of probability.
There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for
an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a second
observation.

ACCURACY. Indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true

value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations. The difference between the measured value
of a quantity and its actual value represents the total error in the measurement. As
the measured value approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the error
becomes smaller and smaller; and as the magnitude of the total error is decreased,
the accuracy of the measurement increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed
less accurate if it deviates by a significant amount from its expected value, and it is
more accurate if the deviation is relatively small.

PRECISION. Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which
any physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another
of a set of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is
closely clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high
precision. Since precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the
observer or to the capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise
instruments under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

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 Make an outline discussion on how to minimize or reduce errors and or mistakes in
measurement.

Relate your course to your subject by giving a detailed application and importance of
your course to your field of specialization or to the civil engineering field.

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 MODULE 1
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION to SURVEYING

This module will explain the basic concepts and principles of surveying, sources
of survey information, kinds of surveys and proper use and care of Instruments.

Pre-assessment: Site atleast three instances in real life scenario wherein mistakes,
accuracy, and precision applies especially in measurement. Explain the details wherein
these 3 principles acquired.

Read: Introduction to Surveying

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 THEORY of PROBABILITY. Probability is defined as the number of times something
will probably occur over the range of possible occurences. The theory of probability is
useful in indicating the precision of results only in so far as they are affected by
accidental errors. It does not, however, in any way determine the magnitude of
systematic errors which may also be present.

A. MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)

The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under
similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which,
based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

Illustrative Problems.
1. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from
accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solutions:

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

mpv= (250.25+ 250.15+ 249.90+ 251.04+ 250.50+ 251.22)/6

mpv= 250.51m (the most probable value of of the distance measured)

2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed values. 130°15’20”,
142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.

Solutions:

a) Determining the correction to be applied.

Sum= θ1+θ2+ θ3= 130°15’20”+ 142°37’30”+ 87°07’40”
= 360°00’30’’ (sum of the angles observed about point Q)
Disc= 360- 360°00’30’’
= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)

b) Determining the most probable values.

correction= Discrepancy/ n= -30”/3= -10”
corrected θ1= 130°15’20” + (-10”)= 130°15’10’’

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 corrected θ2= 142°37’30” + (-10”)= 142°37’20’’
corrected θ3= 87°07’40” + (-10”)= 87°07’30”

c) Solution Check.
130°15’10’’+142°37’20’’+ 87°07’30”= 360°
B. RESIDUAL (v)

Sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any

measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or
"
v= X- 𝑿

v is the residual in any measurement, X is a measurement made of a particular

quantity, and 𝑿" is the most probable value of the quantity measured.

C. PROBABLE ERROR (PE)

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus
sets.

∑𝒗𝟐
PES = ±0.6745$𝒏$𝟏

∑𝒗𝟐
PEm = ±0.6745$𝒏(𝒏$𝟏)

PEs = probable error of any single measurement of series

PEm= probable error of the mean

n = number of observations

D. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (RP)

Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having

the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of the measured
quantity in the denominator. The relative precision (RP) would be expressed as
0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.

E. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS

It is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements
taken for a particular quantity, and by assuming that the weights are inversely
proportional to the square of the probable errors

F. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS

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 In some instances it is required to determine how the final results is affected when
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental error. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the
product of errors.
F.1. Summation of Errors

PEs= ±$𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐

PEs is the probable error of the sum and 𝑷𝑬𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝑬𝒏 𝟐 are the probable
error of each measurement.

F.2. Product of Errors

PEp= ±)(𝑸𝟏 𝒙𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 𝒙𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐

PEp is the probable error of the product, Q1 and Q2 are the measured quantities, and
PE1 and PE2 are the probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.

Illustrative Problems.

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Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
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 Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20
meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4 respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and
probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:

1st set of measurements = 1201.50± 0.02m

2nd set of measurements= 1201.45± 0.04m

3rd set of measurements = 1201.62± 0.05m

Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

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