Wave Propagation Fundamentals

(Section 2-1)
Fundamental Wave
Mechanics Principles
 What is Sound?

Sound is a periodic disturbance in a material that propagates, or moves

through, that material.

[[Link]]
 What is a Propagating Wave?
We can think of a propagating wave as a periodically oscillating
disturbance moving through space. A wave changes with both
distance and time.
 Frequency Regimes
Many people are familiar with the electromagnetic spectrum, which classifies EM
waves into frequency regimes…
 Sound Frequency Regimes
Infrasound Human Hearing Ultrasound
(0 – 20 Hz) (20 Hz – 20 kHz) (20 kHz – GHz)

Frequency (Hz) 0 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 …

Male Speech Industrial Power Ultrasonics

Female Guided Wave Inspection
Earthquakes
Speech
Conventional UT

Atomic Bomb Medical Ultrasound

Human Singing
Range
Sonic Boom Bats Acoustic Microscopy

Thunder
 Propagation of Conventional (Bulk) Waves in Solids

Conventional UT
Longitudinal Wave

Conventional UT
Shear Wave

[[Link]]
Speed of Conventional (Bulk) Waves in Solids

The propagation of sound waves through elastic

materials can be thought of as a disturbance in the
elastic structure of the solid, comprised of a network
of springs and masses.

λ, µ: material stiffness constants

ρ: material density

Longitudinal wave speed Shear wave speed

Wave Velocities in Common Materials

Material cL (m/s) cT (m/s)

Aluminum 6,250 - 6350 3,100
Titanium 6,100 3,120
Steel 5,850 3,230
Stainless Steel 5,660 – 7,390 2,990 – 3,120
Glass 5,570 – 5,770 3,430
Plexiglas 2,670 1,120
Water 1,480 --*
* Note that shear waves cannot propagate in non-viscous liquids
 Ultrasonic Wave Velocity

Thickness: d
Arrival time: t

Ultrasonic bulk
wave velocity:
c = d/t

d
Constructive Interference

[[Link]]

Figure Ref. [Link]

Destructive Interference

[[Link]]

Figure Ref. [Link]

 Superposition Principle

1D case

purely constructive purely destructive partially constructive

and destructive

2D
case

[[Link]]
single two sources multiple
source sources
 Wave Attenuation & Damping
Some amount of attenuation, or energy loss, occurs as a wave propagates
through any material. This attenuation is due to a combination of:
• internal friction,
• Viscoelasticity (absorption) of the material,
• grain boundary scattering,
• and other factors.

Displacement
Vibration

[[Link]]
Time
Wave Interaction with
Defects
 Reflection at a Boundary
What happens when an ultrasonic wave impinges on a boundary with another material?
Wave Interaction with a Defect
Three fundamental phenomena can occur
when an ultrasonic wave interacts with a
defect:
1. Reflection
2. Scattering
3. Diffraction

[[Link]]
 Diffraction

If the wavelength of the incident wave is large relative to the object with which it
is interacting, the wave field will either bend around the object (top left) or
spread around through the opening (top right).
Questions?
Conventional (Bulk) Wave Ultrasound and UT
(Section 2-2)
Conventional UT Waves (Bulk Waves) in Pipes

Bulk Waves in Pipes

Guided Waves in Pipes

Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement

Ultrasonic bulk wave velocity: c

Arrival time: t

Thickness: d=c*t/2
 Various UT Inspection Modalities

Pulse echo normal beam Through-transmission normal beam

Pulse-echo angle beam Pulse-echo angle beam Through-transmission

(direct method) (skip method) angle beam
Ultrasonic Bulk Wave Normal Beam
Inspection

Initial pulse Back wall

(main bang) Crack echo echo

Void echo

Voltage
Time
 Conventional UT Defect Sensitivity
• A general rule for conventional UT is that defects on the order of 1 wavelength
can be detected.

• Note that this rule does not apply to guided wave testing.

a a

Undetectable Detectable
 Defect Resolution
Axial Resolution: The ability to distinguish two reflectors along the propagation path of
the ultrasonic beam.

Lateral Resolution: The ability to distinguish two reflectors perpendicular to the

propagation path of the ultrasonic beam.

[[Link]]
 Ultrasonic Coupling

gel couplant
transducer
Coupling is achieved through a viscous or non-viscous
liquid couplant, through a dry coupling material (such as
neoprene), and/or through mechanical pressure.

Test material

Different coupling mechanisms may be used depending on:

• The sensitivity of the surface
• Longitudinal or shear waves
• The details of the application
• The UltraWave system uses mechanical pressure (no couplant
required)
Questions?
 Practice Questions
1. The term frequency, when referring to waves, can be defined as (choose one best answer):
A. The number of times in a given period that a wave oscillates
B. The amount of energy in a wave
C. The period of time between the peaks of a wave
D. The speed at which a wave propagates

2. Ultrasonic bulk wave velocities can be looked up in tables for various materials. This is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

3. The velocity of ultrasonic bulk waves in a material depend primarily on which of the following
factors? Choose one best answer.
A. The density and stiffness of the material and the frequency of the waves
B. The stiffness of the material and the frequency of the waves
C. The density and stiffness of the material
D. The stiffness of the material
E. The density, stiffness, and thickness of the material
F. The density, stiffness, and thickness of the material and the frequency of the waves

4. Ultrasound generally refers to sound waves that (choose one best answer):
A. Have a frequency less than 20 Hz
B. Have a frequency greater than 20 Hz but less than 20 kHz
C. Have a frequency greater than 20 kHz
D. Have a frequency greater than 20 kHz but less than 20 MHz
E. Have a frequency greater than 20 MHz
 Practice Questions
5. “Constructive interference” between waves refers to the phenomenon in which (choose one best
answer):
A. One or more waves of different frequencies interfere
B. Bulk waves are formed and propagate in a material
C. One or more waves interfere in a way that reinforces one another and increases the local
wave amplitude
D. One or more waves interfere in a way that cancels out one another and decreases the
local wave amplitude

6. Wave dispersion refers to the phenomenon in which (choose one best answer):
A. Waves at different frequencies travel at different speeds
B. Waves are scattered by grain boundaries in a material
C. A wave packet spreads out as it travels
D. A and B only
E. A and C only
F. B and C only

7. Dispersive waves may be described by two different velocities known as the “phase velocity”
and the “group velocity”. The velocity at which the peaks and valleys of a wave travel is referred
to as the:
A. Phase velocity
B. Group velocity
 Practice Questions
8. Dispersive waves may be described by two different velocities known as the “phase velocity” and
the “group velocity”. The velocity at which the wave packet as a whole travels is referred to as
the:
A. Phase velocity
B. Group velocity

9. Which type of bulk waves can exist in a solid material? Choose one best answer.
A. Longitudinal waves
B. Shear (transverse) waves
C. Guided waves
D. A and B
E. A and C
F. A, B, and C

10. Bulk wave ultrasonic testing (UT) generally refers to ultrasonic inspection using frequencies for
which the wavelength is (choose one best answer):
A. Much greater than the dimensions of the structure to be inspected
B. Much smaller than the dimensions of the structure to be inspected
 Practice Questions
11. As a general rule of thumb, bulk wave ultrasound is considered to be sensitive enough to detect
defects with dimensions on the order of (choose one best answer):
A. 1 wavelength
B. 2 wavelengths
C. 10 wavelengths
D. ½ the width of the transducer
E. Twice the width of the transducer

12. The ability to resolve two closely-spaced defects along the propagation path of a wave is referred to
as (choose one best answer):
A. Defect sensitivity
B. Wave frequency
C. Lateral resolution
D. Axial resolution
 Practice Questions Answer Key
1. A
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. C
6. E
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. B
11. A
12. D
Guided Waves Theory I –
Guided Waves in Plates
(Section 2-3)
Ultrasonic Guided Wave Overview
 Natural Waveguide Examples

• Plates (aircraft skin)

• Rods (cylindrical, square, rail, etc.)
• Hollow cylinder (pipes, tubing)
• Multi-layer structures Aircraft Skins
• Curved or flat waveguides

Pipelines
Storage Tanks
λ
 Conceptualizing the Formation of Guided Waves
Transducer
Angle beam wedge
Longitudinal
Shear

Multiple mode conversions Propagating modes are created if the

Conventional (bulk) wave region
and interference occurs wave excitation conditions are correct

If the appropriate frequency and angle are utilized, resonance (constructive

interference) will occur, and a guided wave is generated that can propagate over
long distances.
 Dispersion Curves
Guided wave “dispersion curves” simply tell us the relationship between wave velocity and frequency for guided waves in a
particular structure.

For conventional UT, this is unnecessary because the wave velocity is independent of frequency. Thus we typically use velocity
tables for the longitudinal and shear modes.

Guided Waves – Dispersion Curves Conventional Waves – Velocity Tables

Material cL (m/s) cT (m/s)

Aluminum 6,300 3,100

Titanium 6,100 3,120

Steel 5,850 3,230

Stainless Steel 6,525 3,060

Glass 5,670 3,430

Plexiglas 2,670 1,120

Water 1,480 --*

Guided wave velocities (dispersion curves) depend on: Conventional bulk wave velocities depend on:
• Material stiffness • Material stiffness
• Material density • Material density
• Structural cross-section (wall thickness, diameter, etc.)
• Frequency

Guided Waves – Dispersion Curves Conventional Waves – Velocity Tables

Material cL (m/s) cT (m/s)

Aluminum 6,300 3,100

Titanium 6,100 3,120

Steel 5,850 3,230

Stainless Steel 6,525 3,060

Glass 5,670 3,430

Plexiglas 2,670 1,120

Water 1,480 --*

 Frequency Content of Various Pulse Signals

Continuous sine wave Rectangular Hanning windowed tone Spike pulse (time)
(time) windowed sine wave burst (time)
(time)

Continuous sine wave Rectangular Hanning windowed tone Spike pulse (freq)
(freq) windowed sine wave burst (freq)
(freq)
 Wave Dispersion
Wave dispersion is a phenomenon that arises due to velocity differences at different
points on the dispersion curve.

Time

Frequency
 Wave Dispersion
What happens if waves of different frequencies travel at different velocities? This is not
the case for bulk waves in general, but this phenomena will play an important role in
guided waves.

Non-Dispersive Dispersive
 Wave Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when the wave velocity is frequency dependent. This is not
often the case in bulk waves, but is very common in guided waves.

Non-dispersive

Dispersive
Group Velocity vs. Phase Velocity

Phase velocity –
The velocity at which the peaks and valleys of
the wave propagate through a medium.

Group velocity –
The velocity at which the wave energy (at similar
frequencies) propagates through a medium.
Dispersion Curves
 Guided Wave Modes in Plates
• Symmetric (S) waves
• Anti-symmetric (A) waves
• Shear horizontal (SH) waves

A Waves: Vibration mostly in z direction

z
SH Waves: Vibration in y direction only S Waves: Vibration mostly in x direction
x
y
Lamb Wave (A and S modes)
Dispersion Curves

SH Wave Dispersion
Curves
 SH Wave Dispersion Curves
• Zero out-of-plane vibration
• Fundamental mode phase and group velocity are constant and equal (non-dispersive)

Phase velocity dispersion curves for Group velocity dispersion curves

SH waves in an aluminum plate. for SH waves in an aluminum plate.
 Engineering Benefits of Guided Waves

• 100% coverage (through thickness and along structure)

• Inspection over long distances from a single probe position
• Ability to inspect hidden and inaccessible structures
• Beam focusing capabilities
• Cost effectiveness because of inspection simplicity and speed
• Avoid removal/reinstatement of insulation or coatings, except at
location of transducer tool
Questions?
 Practice Questions
1. For a given structure, the frequencies at which guided waves would be utilized is generally
(choose one best answer):
A. Less than the frequencies at which bulk waves would be utilized in the structure
B. Greater than the frequencies at which bulk waves would be utilized in the structure
C. Equivalent to the frequencies at which bulk waves would be utilized in the structure

2. Guided waves cannot be generated with the same transducers used to generate bulk waves.
Only specialized transducers can be used to generate guided waves. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

3. Guided waves are waves that propagate in a waveguide. With respect to guided waves in plates,
the waveguide in which the waves propagate is (choose one best answer):
A. A specially-designed guided wave transducer
B. An angle beam wedge
C. A waveguide structure that is attached to the plate prior to inspection
D. The plate itself
 Practice Questions
4. The three primary types of guided waves in a plate are (choose one best answer):
A. Symmetric, anti-symmetric, and shear horizontal
B. Symmetric, anti-symmetric, and longitudinal
C. Longitudinal, shear horizontal, and shear vertical

5. The velocities for guided waves can usually be looked up in a table based on the material in
which the waves are propagating. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

6. If a dispersion curve is flat in the vicinity of a certain frequency, then guided waves generated at
that frequency will generally be (choose one best answer):
A. Non-dispersive
B. Dispersive
 Practice Questions
7. If a guided wave signal was collected and the distance to a reflector needs to be calculated,
which dispersion curve would you refer to in order to calculate this distance? Choose one best
answer.
A. Phase velocity dispersion curve
B. Group velocity dispersion curve
C. Either group or phase velocity dispersion curves, because they are essentially the same
D. Dispersion curves are not required, because the information could be looked up in a
standard UT velocity table based on the material

8. Symmetric (S) guided waves in a plate can be thought of as (choose one best answer):
A. Compressional-type oscillations
B. Flexural-type oscillations
C. Shearing-type oscillations

9. Anti-symmetric (A) guided waves in a plate can be thought of as (choose one best answer):
A. Compressional-type oscillations
B. Flexural-type oscillations
C. Shearing-type oscillations
 Practice Questions
10. Shear horizontal (SH) guided waves in a plate can be thought of as (choose one best answer):
A. Compressional-type oscillations
B. Flexural-type oscillations
C. Shearing-type oscillations

11. Which of the following are benefits of guided wave inspection? Choose one best answer.
A. Inspection over long distances from a single probe position
B. Much greater sensitivity than other NDT techniques such as UT and radiography
C. The ability to inspect under hidden structures
D. Cost effectiveness due to inspection speed and simplicity
E. A, B, and D
F. A, C, and D

12. Shear horizontal type guided waves in a simple plate have only in-plane displacement (i.e.
displacement parallel to the surfaces of the plate). This makes them (choose one best answer):
A. Highly sensitive to crack defects
B. Insensitive to water on the surface of the plate
C. Attenuate rapidly
D. Travel slower than other guided wave modes
 Practice Questions
13. Screening a given structure for defects with a guided wave system would generally be (choose
one best answer):
A. Faster than scanning the same structure with a bulk wave UT system
B. Slower than scanning the same structure with a bulk wave UT system
C. More likely to miss localized defects than the bulk wave UT system
D. Less likely to miss localized defects than the bulk wave UT system
E. A and D only
F. B and C only
 Practice Questions Answer Key
1. A
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. C
11. F
12. B
13. E
Guided Waves Theory II –
Guided Waves in Pipes
(Section 2-4)
Axial Guided Wave Theory
for Pipes
Axisymmetric Wave
Two Primary Guided Wave Mode Types in Pipes
 Comparisons of Longitudinal vs. Torsional Guided Waves
• Torsional modes are not sensitive to liquid conditions in a pipe because of in-plane vibration
• Torsional waves are purely non-dispersive
• There is generally less mode conversion with torsional waves
• Penetration power of both modes could also vary significantly with frequency and presence of certain
boundary conditions
• The UltraWave system only utilizes torsional waves

Axisymmetric Torsional Axisymmetric Longitudinal

 Flexural Modes
Flexural modes are essentially spiraling wave modes that wrap around the
pipe at some angle depending on the circumferential order. These modes also
cause “bending” or “flexing” of the pipe, which axisymmetric modes do not.

θ φ
r1
r2
 Axisymmetric vs. Flexural Guided Waves in Pipes

Axisymmetric
Longitudinal

Flexural (Non-axisymmetric)
*can be longitudinal or torsional

Axisymmetric
Torsional
Axisymmetric Waves – Corrosion Reflection
Axisymmetric Waves – Elbow
Axisymmetric Waves – Elbow

75kHz L(m,2) wave group

propagating in a 16” schedule
30 elbowed steel pipe
 Pipe Dispersion Curves (3” Schedule 40 steel pipe)
Pipe dispersion curves depend on pipe material, diameter, and wall thickness

Black modes are longitudinal

Red modes are torsional
 3500 • Axisymmetric “parent” modes:
T(0,1) T(0,2) T(0,3) T(0,4) etc.

3000 • Note the “0” should tell you the wave is

T(0,1) and T(n,1)
axisymmetric (think of a circular “ring” of energy
going along the pipe)
Group velocity (m/s)

2500
• Each parent mode has “children”; these are
flexural modes
• T(0,1) parent has children
2000
• T(1,1) T(2,1) T(3,1) etc.
• T(0,2) parent has children
• T(1,2) T(2,2) T(3,2) etc.
1500
• The parent (axisymmetric mode) and its
T(0,2) and T(n,2) children (flexural modes) comprise a mode
“family”
1000 T(0,3) and T(n,3)
T(0,4) and T(n,4)
T(0,5) and T(n,5) • The first number tells us what member of the
family (and if it’s axisymmetric or flexural)
500 • The second number tells us which mode family
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency (Hz) x 10
5
 Separated Longitudinal and Torsional Dispersion Curves
12000 12000
T(0,3) and T(n,3)
L(0,3) and L(n,3) 11000 T(0,2) and T(n,2)
10000 L(0,5) and L(n,5)

10000
Phase velocity (m/s)

8000

Phase velocity (m/s)

9000
L(0,4) and L(n,4)
8000
6000
7000
L(0,2) and L(n,2) T(0,5) and T(n,5)
4000 6000

T(0,4) and T(n,4)

5000
2000
L(0,1) and L(n,1) T(0,1) and T(n,1)
4000

0 3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency (Hz) x 10
5
Frequency (Hz) 5
x 10
(a) longitudinal phase velocity dispersion curves (b) torsional phase velocity dispersion curves

L: longitudinal mode 1st index: circumferential order

T: torsional mode 2nd index: family order
 Separated Longitudinal and Torsional Dispersion Curves
6000 3500

5500
L(0,4) and L(n,4)
5000 3000 T(0,1) and T(n,1)

4500
Group velocity (m/s)

L(0,3) and L(n,3)

Group velocity (m/s)

2500
4000
L(0,5) and L(n,5)
L(0,2) and L(n,2)
3500 2000

3000

2500 1500

L(0,1) and L(n,1) T(0,2) and T(n,2)

2000
1000 T(0,3) and T(n,3)
T(0,4) and T(n,4)
1500 T(0,5) and T(n,5)

1000 500
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency (Hz) x 10
5
Frequency (Hz) 5
x 10
(a) longitudinal group velocity dispersion curves (b) torsional group velocity dispersion curves

L: longitudinal mode 1st index: circumferential order

T: torsional mode 2nd index: family order
 Flexural Modes

There are several key fundamental observations we can make about

flexural guided wave modes:
• Flexural modes are non-axisymmetric versions of their axisymmetric
parent mode
• Energy is not distributed evenly around the circumference of the pipe
for flexural modes
• Flexural modes are dispersive
 Why Do We Care About Flexural Modes?
The UltraWave system only generates axisymmetric guided waves during
the normal inspection, but we need to understand flexural waves because:

• Defect reflections are usually flexural modes

• Active (phased array) focusing requires flexural modes

• Synthetic focusing in pipes requires flexural modes

 Partial Loading
• Partial loading is the application of force to a limited circumferential section of the pipe’s
outer diameter.
• Axisymmetric loading produces axisymmetric guided waves, while partial loading produces a
combination of flexural modes.

Partial Loading = Axisymmetric Loading =

Flexural Waves Axisymmetric Waves
𝑒𝑧ҧ 2L 𝑒𝑧ҧ
2L
𝑒𝑟ҧ 𝑒𝑟ҧ
Guided wave Guided wave
excitation region excitation region
2α 𝑒𝜃ҧ 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑒𝜃ҧ

r2 r2

r1 r1
 Energy Concentration Around the Pipe

High guided wave energy

concentration

Angular profile
 Angular Variation Along Axial Distance

• Flexural guided wave modes are generated by partial loading

• These waves will spiral and interfere in complex ways as they propagate
along the length of the pipe
• This causes the guided wave energy concentration around the circumference
of the pipe to vary as the waves propagate along the length of the pipe.
 Angular Variation Along Axial Distance

Angular profiles of the L(m,1) wave mode group propagating in a 4” sch. 40 steel pipe
using 90˚ circumferential loading at 80 kHz.
 Frequency Tuning (F-Scan)

In order to improve inspection accuracy, the UltraWave automatically sweeps frequency from
15-85 kHz and compiles these A-scans into an F-scan colormap.
• One axisymmetric mode is generated at multiple frequencies
• Increased likelihood of defect detection because the scattering properties of defects
often depend on frequency
• Frequency tuning can also aid in achieving full structural coverage beyond large
structural features such as elbows, branches, etc., which disrupt the axisymmetric
nature of the waves
 Frequency Tuning Beyond Structural Features

• Structural features like elbows can

destroy the axisymmetric nature of
guided waves.
• This can lead to blind spots beyond
that feature and more difficult data
interpretation.
• The locations of these blind spots
change if we change frequency, and
thus frequency tuning can provide
more thorough structural coverage.

75kHz L(m,2) wave group propagating in a 16” schedule 30

elbowed steel pipe
Circumferential Guided
Waves in Pipes
 Circumferential Waves in Pipes
• Circumferential waves can sometimes be generated by the UltraWave collar; this will generally appear as
high-frequency “ringing”.
• Circumferential waves are generated when the spacing of the modules is approximately equal to the
wavelength of the circumferential waves.
• The tight module spacing of the UltraWave module pushes these waves to higher frequencies to allow for
higher-frequency inspection than the competition.
• CW generation is common in thicker pipes.
Questions?
 Practice Questions
1. The dispersion curve solutions for a pipe depend on which of the following? Choose one best
answer.
A. Pipe material, fluid content, and length
B. Pipe material, diameter, and wall thickness
C. Pipe diameter, wall thickness, and length
D. Pipe material, fluid content, and wall thickness

2. The two primary vibration types of guided waves in pipes are:

A. Torsional and flexural
B. Longitudinal and flexural
C. Torsional and longitudinal

3. Torsional waves in a pipe predominantly have which type of displacement?

A. Circumferential
B. Axial
C. Radial

4. Flexural modes in a pipe are grouped into “families” based on their displacement and velocity
characteristics, and each of these families is associated with a primary torsional or
longitudinal wave mode. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
 Practice Questions
5. The velocity of the fundamental torsional guided wave mode T(0,1) is (choose one best
answer):
A. Constant over all frequencies
B. Greater than all other guided wave modes in the pipe
C. Equal to the bulk shear wave velocity in the material
D. A and B only
E. A and C only

6. Fundamental (or primary) longitudinal and torsional modes such as T(0,1), L(0,1), T(0,2),
L(0,2), etc. are:
A. Axisymmetric
B. Flexural

7. For flexural modes, the wave energy is axisymmetric (i.e. uniform around the circumference
of the pipe). This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

8. Flexural modes can be conceptualized as waves that spiral around the pipe as the travel.
This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
 Practice Questions
9. When an axisymmetric guided wave propagates along a pipeline and encounters an elbow, is
the energy still axisymmetric beyond the elbow?
A. Yes
B. No

10. In terms of guided wave pipe inspection, “partial loading” refers to (choose one best answer):
A. Only using partial transducer power to generate guided waves in a pipe
B. Generating only one guided wave mode in a pipe
C. Generating guided waves in only one direction in a pipe
D. Exciting guided waves in the pipe using one or more transducers that do not uniformly
and completely load the pipe around its circumference

11. What reasons might we be interested in using flexural wave modes in pipes? Choose one
best answer.
A. For synthetic focusing
B. For phased array focusing
C. To interpret reflections from non-axisymmetric defects
D. To analyze the effects of partial loading
E. All of the above
F. A and B
 Practice Questions
12. If partial loading is applied to a pipe by only firing the transducers in octant 1 (on the top 1/8th
of the pipe), how will the guided wave energy propagate along the pipe?
A. An axisymmetric wave will propagate along the pipe with energy distributed evenly
around the circumference
B. The guided wave energy will propagate along the length of the pipe and remain
concentrated on the top side of the pipe
C. Flexural guided wave energy will originate on the top of the pipe but spread and spiral
around the pipe as it propagates

13. Which type of guided waves in pipes are less sensitive to fluid within a pipeline?
A. Torsional wave modes
B. Longitudinal wave modes

14. Which type of guided waves in pipes have greater penetration power?
A. Torsional waves
B. Longitudinal waves
C. Flexural waves
D. None of the above; penetration power varies significantly with mode, frequency, and
pipe structure
 Practice Questions Answer Key
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. E
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. D
11. E
12. C
13. A
14. D
Focusing Methods in Pipes
(Section 2-5)
 UltraWave LRT Focusing Techniques
UltraWave utilizes two different methods of guided wave focusing:

1. Synthetic focusing – exciting one axisymmetric mode,

then receiving axisymmetric and flexural modes and doing
post-processing to extract location information
2. Active (phased array) focusing – multi-element array
partial loading excitation with time delay and amplitude
control to actively focus the ultrasonic energy at a certain
point on the pipe
 Synthetic Focusing
• Synthetic focusing is performed during post-processing.
• No actual energy focusing occurs during synthetic focusing.
• In reality, the algorithm is simply trying to perform an inverse calculation to determine what
flexural wave modes were received from an echo and from where on the pipe those modes
must have originated.
– The guided waves are generated by all transducer segments (axisymmetric) and any
echoes are received by all the segments simultaneously and recorded separately.
– A process called “normal mode decomposition” is used to determine which guided
wave modes (axisymmetric and flexural) were received.
– A method called “back-propagation” is used to determine where on the pipe those
waves must have all originated from; this produces the synthetic focusing “unrolled
pipe” image.
• Data collection using this method is rapid since only a single waveform at a single frequency
is required.
• Synthetic focusing uses the axisymmetric data from the F-scan, so no additional data
collection is required and synthetic focusing can be performed at any time, even if the
system is no longer on the pipe.
Sample Synthetic Focusing Results

Defect
Defect

Defect

Defect
 Weld Dead zone Weld T with front and
Weld Weld Weld Weld
Weld back welds

Pipe support Branch Pipe support Pipe support

Try to identify the following features in the synthetic focusing above:
• 3 welds
• 1 elbow
• 1 flange
• 4 defects
 Notes Regarding Synthetic Focusing
• Synthetic focusing is a very powerful tool that can be extremely helpful for analyzing
guided wave pipe inspection data.
• Synthetic focusing should be performed for at least one frequency for every shot to aid in
analysis.
• Performing synthetic focusing at several frequencies can provide additional inspection
confidence and accuracy
• In smaller pipes, synthetic focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Synthetic focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
 Notes Regarding Synthetic Focusing
• Synthetic focusing is a very powerful tool that can be extremely helpful for analyzing
guided wave pipe inspection data.
• Synthetic focusing should be performed for at least one frequency for every shot to aid in
analysis.
• Performing synthetic focusing at several frequencies can provide additional inspection
confidence and accuracy
• In smaller pipes, synthetic focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Synthetic focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
 Effect of Wall Thickness on Dispersion Curves
12in Diameter 1.0in Wall Thickness 12in Diameter 0.25in Wall Thickness
6000 6000
T(0,1)
5500 T(0,1) 5500
T(1,1) T(1,1)

Phase Velocity (m/s)

T(2,1)

Phase Velocity (m/s)

5000 T(2,1) 5000
T(3,1) T(3,1)
4500 T(4,1) 4500 T(4,1)
T(5,1) T(5,1)
4000 T(6,1)
4000
T(6,1)
3500 T(7,1) 3500 T(7,1)
T(8,1) T(8,1)
3000 T(9,1) 3000 T(9,1)
T(10,1)
2500 2500 T(10,1)

2000 2000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
frequency (MHz) frequency (MHz)
2in Diameter 0.25in Wall Thickness
6000
T(0,1)
5500 T(1,1)
T(2,1)
Phase Velocity (m/s)
5000
T(3,1)
4500 T(4,1)
T(5,1)
4000 T(6,1)
T(7,1)
3500 T(8,1)
T(9,1)
3000 T(10,1)
2500
2000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
frequency (MHz)
 Notes Regarding Synthetic Focusing
• Synthetic focusing is a very powerful tool that can be extremely helpful for analyzing
guided wave pipe inspection data.
• Synthetic focusing should be performed for at least one frequency for every shot to aid in
analysis.
• Performing synthetic focusing at several frequencies can provide additional inspection
confidence and accuracy
• In smaller pipes, synthetic focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Synthetic focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
 Active (Phased Array) Focusing
• Active (phased array) focusing is performed as an additional data collection step while the
collar is installed on the pipe.
• Active focusing is true focusing that concentrates guided wave energy at predetermined
locations on the pipe.
• Active focusing uses time delays and amplitude control across the separate octants on the
transducer collar to focus guided wave energy in the pipe.
– Partial loading generates select flexural waves
– Time delay control can be used to control the focal position
– Focusing is conducted at one specific distance at eight circumferential positions
• The strength of the reflections from the different sides of the pipe are compared to
generate a plot of amplitude versus circumference position.
Phased Array Focusing Simulation
Phased Array Focusing Simulation
Cross Section Displacement Distribution
at a Focal Distance
Focal point

Side Lobes
 Focusing Confidence Factors
The confidence factor (CF) ranges from 0-100 and is defined as the ratio between the
energy in the focused main lobe to that in the side lobes in the UltraWave software.

Good Bad

Large side lobes

 Active Phased Array Focusing
An example illustrating the circumferential defect-locating ability of the ultrasonic guided-wave phased-array
focusing technique.
In this example guided-wave energy is focused at 8 different angles at an axial distance of 8.2 ft in an 8” schedule
40 steel pipe.
A peak in reflected energy indicates that there is a defect located in Channel 7 @ 270° at a distance 8.2 ft. from
the location of the guided-wave inspection tool. Large reflections also being found at 225°and 315°mean the
defect is wide.
Axisymmetric A-Scan

Axial Profile
Focus Waveforms

Focus Notes: Provided for the

user to include any information
concerning the active focus scan.
 Full Coverage Phased Array Focusing
• In the UltraWave LRT system, focal regions are overlapped to ensure complete
focusing coverage on the circumference of the pipe

• This sacrifices angular resolution, but adds redundancy

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) single channel angular profile, (b) 8 superposition's of the single channel profile.
 Notes Regarding Phased Array Focusing
• In smaller pipes or at lower frequency, the focusing profile changes more rapidly with
distance (shorter focal zone)
• In larger pipes or at higher frequency, the focusing profile changes more slowly with
distance (longer focal zone)
• In smaller pipes, active focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Focusing quality at a specific distance will vary with frequency; use the CF values to select
frequencies for active focusing
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Active focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
• If active focusing is performed, it should be done with at least 3 or more frequencies per
location to gain a consensus on the focal results
Phased Array Focusing Simulation
 Notes Regarding Phased Array Focusing
• In smaller pipes or at lower frequency, the focusing profile changes more rapidly with
distance (shorter focal zone)
• In larger pipes or at higher frequency, the focusing profile changes more slowly with
distance (longer focal zone)
• In smaller pipes, active focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Focusing quality at a specific distance will vary with frequency; use the CF values to select
frequencies for active focusing
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Active focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
• If active focusing is performed, it should be done with at least 3 or more frequencies per
location to gain a consensus on the focal results
 Notes Regarding Phased Array Focusing
• In smaller pipes or at lower frequency, the focusing profile changes more rapidly with
distance (shorter focal zone)
• In larger pipes or at higher frequency, the focusing profile changes more slowly with
distance (longer focal zone)
• In smaller pipes, active focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Focusing quality at a specific distance will vary with frequency; use the CF values to select
frequencies for active focusing
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Active focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
• If active focusing is performed, it should be done with at least 3 or more frequencies per
location to gain a consensus on the focal results
 Notes Regarding Phased Array Focusing
• In smaller pipes or at lower frequency, the focusing profile changes more rapidly with
distance (shorter focal zone)
• In larger pipes or at higher frequency, the focusing profile changes more slowly with
distance (longer focal zone)
• In smaller pipes, active focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Focusing quality at a specific distance will vary with frequency; use the CF values to select
frequencies for active focusing
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Active focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
• If active focusing is performed, it should be done with at least 3 or more frequencies per
location to gain a consensus on the focal results
 Notes Regarding Phased Array Focusing
• In smaller pipes or at lower frequency, the focusing profile changes more rapidly with
distance (shorter focal zone)
• In larger pipes or at higher frequency, the focusing profile changes more slowly with
distance (longer focal zone)
• In smaller pipes, active focusing at lower frequencies becomes less accurate because
there are fewer flexural modes that can exist in the pipe
• Focusing quality at a specific distance will vary with frequency; use the CF values to select
frequencies for active focusing
• Geometry changes such as elbows, branches, and coatings can cause focusing errors
• Active focusing does not work beyond an elbow.
• If active focusing is performed, it should be done with at least 3 or more frequencies
(preferably 5-6) per location to gain a consensus on the focal results
 Synthetic Focusing vs. Phased Array Active Focusing
Both are useful, but different, and the two techniques can compliment each
other. Generally, synthetic focusing is more important because it:

• Can be done quickly

• Can be done with post processing
• Can be used to generate an “unrolled pipe” image of the entire pipe
• Is accurate more consistently than phased array (active) focusing
Questions?
 Practice Questions
1. Focusing that occurs due to partial loading, which results in the generation of a number of
axisymmetric and flexural modes that combine to concentrate energy around the
circumference of the pipe is known as:
A. Synthetic focusing
B. Active phased array focusing
C. Natural focusing
D. Frequency tuning

2. The focusing method in which an axisymmetric wave sent along a pipe, subsequent
reflections from an anomaly are recorded with an array of transducers, and advanced post-
processing is applied to determine the location of that reflector is known as:
A. Synthetic focusing
B. Active phased array focusing
C. Natural focusing
D. Frequency tuning

3. The focusing method in which partial loading is applied across several transducer channels
with time delays applied to focus the guided wave energy at a certain axial and
circumferential position on a pipe is known as:
A. Synthetic focusing
B. Active phased array focusing
C. Natural focusing
D. Frequency tuning
 Practice Questions
4. The “unrolled pipe” image generated during synthetic focusing is created by simply mapping
the amplitude of the signals from each channel onto the pipe. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

5. The active phased array focusing technique is used to focus guided wave energy at (choose
one best answer):
A. One axial distance on the pipe, evenly distributed around its circumference
B. One circumferential position on the pipe along its entire length
C. One circumferential point on a pipe at a single axial distance along its length

6. Overlapping focal regions can be beneficial for phased array focusing because they (choose
one best answer):
A. Improve focusing resolution by creating a narrower focusing profile
B. Improve the likelihood of focusing on a defect by adding redundancy
C. Focus more energy at each location
D. All of the above

7. The side lobes of a focusing profile refer to the (choose one best answer):
A. Energy that is not focused in the desired angular region
B. Flexural modes that wrap around the pipe
C. Shape of the defect detected by focused guided waves
D. Angular width of the focused guided wave energy
 Practice Questions
8. As pipes become smaller in diameter, the ability to focus at lower frequencies deteriorates
because the flexural modes begin to be cut off and do not exist. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

9. The ability to focus guided wave energy at a given distance in a pipe will depend on
frequency. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
 Practice Questions Answer Key
1. C
2. A
3. B
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. A
8. A
9. A
Long-Range Guided Wave Pipeline
Inspection Concepts
(Section 2-6)
 Wave Propagation Direction Control
Two identical rings of transducers are utilized to control the directionality of guided
waves generated in pipelines by cancelling the reverse-traveling wave and reinforcing
the forward-traveling wave as much as possible by utilizing time delays.
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6

-0.8 -0.8

-1 -1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time(sec)

L
Time(sec)

Ring #1 output Ring #2 output

1.5 1

0.8

1
0.6

0.4
0.5

0.2

0 0

-0.2
-0.5
-0.4

-0.6
-1

-0.8

-1.5 -1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time(sec)

Transducer rings
Time(sec)

Positive output Negative output

 Mid-Frequency Cancellation
Depending on the frequency of actuation, this reverse cancellation can be destructive instead of
constructive for the forward-propagating wave. This creates the low power band in the middle
frequency range.
1.2

Normalized Amplitude
0.8

0.6
30mm
0.4 25mm

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency (kHz)

Wave amplitude with cancellation ring spacing of 25mm and 30mm.

 Low-Power Band
Depending on the frequency of actuation, this reverse wave cancellation can be destructive instead of constructive
for the forward-propagating wave. This creates the low-power band (gray box in the middle frequency range).
 Wave Suppression

• In addition to directional control via time delays, additional “wave suppression” is applied
during post-processing to remove false indications from the reverse direction such as
mirroring and reverberations.
• This can be turned off in the advanced settings. In some circumstances, such as when the
collar is very near a large reflector like a flange or a cut end, wave suppression can create
some false indications and cause the data to look “choppy”.
• Phantom indications due to mirroring and reverberations can be easily identified in the data
without suppression.
 Wave Suppression

Suppression OFF

Suppression ON
 Axisymmetric
Flexural modes are received through the addition/subtraction of waveforms from the appropriate
quadrants (colored sections of the ring). This corresponds to different channel combinations for
pipes having different diameters. Below cross-sectional schematic of the channel layout around
the circumference of the pipe for 4-inch (left) and an 8-inch (right) pipes.

Channel 1 Channel 5
Channel 1 Channel 3 Vertical Flexural Mode + + Vertical Flexural Mode
Channel 2 Channel 6

Channel 3 Channel 7
Channel 2 Channel 4 Horizontal Flexural Mode + + Horizontal Flexural Mode
Channel 4 Channel 8
Sample Horizontal and Vertical Flexural Signals
Defect #1: Vertical flexural Defect #2: Horizontal flexural Weld: Axisymmetric mode is
and axisymmetric modes are and axisymmetric modes are high, horizontal flexural and
high, and horizontal flexural high, and vertical flexural vertical flexural modes are
mode is low. mode is low. low.
 Defect Sensitivity
• Sensitivity will vary based on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the data, which is affected by coupling,
attenuation, and pipe condition.
• The critical sensitivity level will often determine the limit of the acceptable inspection range.
• Generally, a sensitivity level that has degraded to 9 or 10% CSA is too poor, since severe defects could
be missed.
• In some cases, sensitivity to defects as small as 1% CSA is possible.

5% CSA loss. 5% CSA loss. 5% CSA loss.

Examples of various material loss geometries that are all equivalent to 5% CSA loss.
 Notes Regarding Inspection Frequency Selection
• Lower frequency = greater penetration power, less sensitivity
• Higher Frequency = reduced penetration power, greater sensitivity
• General system operation ranges from 15-85kHz for the standard piezoelectric collars
• The length of the “dead zone” in front of the tool also changes in length, depending on
the excitation frequency (lower frequency generally = longer dead zone)
• Attenuation for coated pipes is also a function of frequency, but generally higher
frequencies have greater attenuation.
 Weld Reflector

• Reflections occur at welds because of the differences in material properties and

the CSA increase.
• Guided wave energy from a standard weld is about 20% of the total energy, but
this can be lower or higher in many cases.
 Welds in Pipelines
Almost all pipeline welds will be single-V butt welds,
but weld geometry and quality can affect reflection
amplitude:
• Welding process
• Weld width
• Crown height
• Weld quality
Single -V Double -V
 DAC Curves
In order to determine reflector size, distance-amplitude correction (DAC) curves are
utilized. These curves assume welds cause ~20% energy reflection, which corresponds
to -14 dB. This -14dB line can be calibrated against two weld reflections in a pipe.
 DAC Curves
Two components of the DAC curves can be adjusted:

1. Slope (angle) – steeper slope means more attenuation in the pipe

2. Y-intercept (amplitude) – higher amplitude means stronger signal
 DAC Curve Adjustments
Y-intercept (amplitude) ↑

Slope (angle) ↑ Slope (angle) ↓

Y-intercept (amplitude) ↓
 Causes of Attenuation
• Absorption – the guided wave energy is absorbed by the pipe steel and
internal/external coatings

• Scattering – the guided wave energy is scattered by general corrosion and reflectors in
the pipe

• Leakage – the guided wave energy is leaked into the pipe contents or soil surrounding
the pipe
Sensitivity Measurements with DAC Curves
• Confident flaw detection requires at least a 6 dB (2:1) signal-to-noise ratio
• Our “sensitivity” level can then be determined by the noise floor and the DAC
curves
Sensitivity Measurements with DAC Curves
• Noise level at noise (2.5%) line = sensitivity to 5% flaws or larger (typical min. sensitivity level in standards)
• Noise level at Cat. 2 (5%) line = sensitivity to 10% flaws or larger (possible min. sensitivity level for difficult-to-
access lines)
• Noise 6dB below noise line (1.25%) = sensitivity to 2.5% flaws or larger
• Note that there is no “call line”; any flaws over 6dB SNR can be called
 Sensitivity Measurements with DAC Curves

10% sensitivity 5% sensitivity < 1% sensitivity 5% sensitivity

 Linear Plot vs. Log Plot (A-Scan)
A-scan data can be viewed on a linear or logarithmic plot to concentrate on larger or
smaller reflectors.

Linear Plot for

A-Scan

Log Plot for

A-Scan
 Linear Plot vs. Log Plot (Color Map)
Frequency sweep data can be viewed on a linear or logarithmic plot to concentrate on
larger or smaller reflectors.

Linear Plot for

F-Scan

Log Plot for

F-Scan
 Collar Balance Check (Calibration)
Welds are also used as reference reflectors because they are generally axisymmetric, we can use this to check the balance
of the collar and check for weak uneven coupling.

After collecting data, a collar balance check (calibration) should be performed by moving the vertical cursor to the nearest
weld.
Collar Balance Check (Calibration)

Use the red and blue calibration bar chart to check for:
• General collar balance; all channels ideally within 6 dB
• Dead channels (problem with wiring or pulser/receiver electronics)
• Poor coupling on some channels (prepare pipe surface better and reinstall collar)
• Signal saturation/clipping of weld reflection (reduce gain and reacquire data)
• Low signal amplitude (increase gain and reacquire data)
 Collar Balance Check (Calibration)
The Calibration Bar Graph displays a plot of the amplitude for each channel in ring 1 (blue) and ring 2 (red) in
the UltraWave LRT unit. The dashed horizontal line represents the clipping threshold; If any of the channels
display an amplitude greater than the dashed line, then there will be clipping.

Clipping Threshold

[[Link]]
Ring 1
Ring 2
Factors Influencing Pipe
Inspection
 Features Affecting Guided Wave Pipeline
Inspection
• Pipe diameter and thickness
• Pipe features like branches, elbows
• Defect characteristics such as shape, circumferential extent,
and depth
• Coating type and thickness
• Pipe surface conditions and environment
• Temperature
Pipe Diameter and
Thickness
 Pipe Schedule Chart

• Standard NPS pipe sizes and schedules are

available as options in the UW software
• If the pipe size or schedule is non-
standard, choose the closest option
• Non-standard pipe dimensions can
negatively effect the accuracy of focusing

[Link]
 Effect of Wall Thickness on Dispersion Curves
12in Diameter 1.0in Wall Thickness 12in Diameter 0.25in Wall Thickness
6000 6000
T(0,1) T(0,1)
5500 5500
T(1,1) T(1,1)

Phase Velocity (m/s)

Phase Velocity (m/s)
5000 T(2,1) 5000 T(2,1)
T(3,1) T(3,1)
4500 T(4,1) 4500 T(4,1)
T(5,1) T(5,1)
4000 T(6,1) 4000
T(6,1)
3500 T(7,1) T(7,1)
T(8,1) 3500
T(9,1) T(8,1)
3000 3000 T(9,1)
T(10,1)
2500 2500 T(10,1)
2000 2000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
frequency (MHz)
frequency (MHz)
2in Diameter 0.25in Wall Thickness
6000
T(0,1)
5500 T(1,1)
Phase Velocity (m/s) T(2,1)
5000
T(3,1)
4500 T(4,1)
T(5,1)
4000 T(6,1)
T(7,1)
3500 T(8,1)
T(9,1)
3000 T(10,1)
2500
2000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
frequency (MHz)
 Pipe Size and Frequency Range
Guided wave inspection of thicker walled pipes and larger pipes may be best
in a lower frequency range than pipes with thinner walls.

For instance, inspecting an 16” pipe at 20 kHz is similar to inspecting an 8” pipe

at 40 kHz. This is because the fD product is the same:

fD = frequency*diameter

fD = 20 kHz * 16” = 320 kHz-in

fD = 40 kHz * 8” = 320 kHz-in

This is due to the relative nature of the dispersion curves and can affect:
• Noise levels
• Circumferential wave noise
• Focusing abilities
 Circumferential Waves in Pipes
Circumferential waves are generally excited when the spacing of the modules is
approximately equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength of the
circumferential waves in the pipe at a given frequency.
 Pipe Size and Circumferential Waves

16” sch. 80
Elbows
Defect FEM Simulation of Axisymmetrically Excited @
45kz T(m,1) Waves
Elbows generally destroy the axisymmetric nature of an incident guided wave and can
cause blind spots beyond the elbow in addition to destroying focusing capabilities.
Guided Wave Propagation in Elbowed Pipes with Different Sizes
The severity of the effect of an elbow is related to the diameter of the pipe, the radius of
the elbow, and the wavelength of the guided waves.

75kHz L(m,2) wave group propagating in a 75kHz L(m,2) wave group propagating in a
2” schedule 40 elbowed steel pipe. 16” schedule 30 elbowed steel pipe
Pipe Supports
 Reflections from Pipe
Supports
The primary concern with pipe supports is the degree to which the pipe is acoustically coupled to
the support. This coupling depends on many factors, and several similar pipe supports on a single
section may exhibit different levels of ultrasonic coupling depending on the load they support,
their configuration, and whether or not shifting or damage to padding/insulation has occurred.

Weaker coupling Stronger coupling

Reflection Amplitude from Support

Concrete/plastic support Metallic support

Reflection Amplitude from Support

Softer insulating layer Harder or absent insulating layer

Reflection Amplitude from Support

Unclamped/non-welded support Clamped/welded support

Reflection Amplitude from Support
 Corrosion Under Pipe
Supports
Advanced techniques may be used to detect corrosion under
pipe supports in some cases, but this is an advanced application
for Level 2 or Level 3 guided wave inspectors.
Insulated Pipelines
 Guided Wave Inspection of Insulated Pipes
Shielding/jackets and insulation must be locally removed to attach the collar, but the
insulation itself often has minimal effect of the guided waves and a Level 1 inspector is fully
capable of performing the job.
 Guided Wave Inspection of Insulated Pipes
Standard wool insulation (image on the right) causes minimal attenuation and can
be inspected by a Level 1 operator.
Bonded foam insulation (image on the left) can cause significant attenuation and
may require more experience to inspect.
Other Structural
Features
Flange
Pipe
Supports
 Valve

Flange

Pipe
Support
 Support
Flange Flange Branch

Support
Valve
Structural Features and Sketching
ALL structural features, distances, and dimensions should be included in the
geometric sketch to avoid confusion and misinterpretation of the data by the
inspector or a Level 2 or Level 3 administrator.

The symbols and notation used should be standardized throughout the

company to avoid confusion.
Influence of Pipe
Conditions
Influence of Pipe Conditions on Penetration Power
A number of factors can have strong effects on the penetration power of
guided waves in pipelines, including:

• Pitting severity
• Grain type
• Coatings
• Soil
• Number and types of welds
• Severity of corrosion/damage
• Internal fluids
• Other reflectors such as expanders, T’s, elbows, flanges, etc.
 Pipelines with Pitting

Inspection Range

Heavy Pitting Light Pitting No Pitting

 Inspection Range vs. Grain Type

Sample Grain
Structures of
Carbon Steel

[[Link]/met/[Link]]

Inspection Range

Pearlite‐plus‐ferrite Bainite Martensite Tempered martensite

 Welds in Pipelines
Almost all pipeline welds will be single-V butt welds,
but weld geometry and quality can affect reflection
amplitude:
• Welding process
• Weld width
• Crown height
• Weld quality
Single -V Double -V
 Inspection Range vs. Weld Type

Inspection Range

Weld size: Large weld Medium weld Small weld

Size variation
Joint fillet Various thicknesses Uniform thickness
of jointed
pipes:

Weld material: Grain with large attenuation Grain with small attenuation
 Weld Variation
Pipeline welds may be made manually or with an automated welding machine. Machine welds (and shop
welds) are generally more uniform around the circumference and exhibit less variability along the length of a
section than manual welds.

The appearance of welds should be noted in the drawing if any inconsistencies or abnormalities are visible,
because weld inconsistency will likely show up in the guided wave data and can affect the proper setup of
DAC curves.

Automated welding machine Manual welding

 Seam and Spiral Welds
• The UltraWave can operate on seam-welded and spiral-welded pipes.
• One or more modules can be removed to bridge the welds, if necessary
• These are common on larger-diameter pipes

Seam-welded pipe Spiral-welded pipe

Propagation of 40 kHz Longitudinal Wave in Bare Pipe and Wax
Coated Pipe
Pipe coatings also change the dispersion curves for the structure, which
lead to changes in velocity as well as time delays for focusing.

Direction of Propagation

~ 6 ft.

• Increased attenuation in coated

Bare Pipe
specimen
• Wax Coated Pipe
Slower group velocity in coated
specimen
Buried Pipelines
 Influence of Soil
• Soil adds additional attenuation to coated pipes.
• The attenuation effect caused by soil is more significant for pipes with less
attenuative coatings.
• Guided wave detection sensitivity will be affected by inspection technique,
distance, frequency, coating, soil, etc.
Attenuation Curves for Coated Pipes vs. Coated and Buried
Pipes

Amplitude (mV)
Amplitude (mV)

Distance (ft) Distance (ft)

Coated, Unburied Pipes Coated and Buried Pipes
Typical Attenuation Rate and Test Ranges

Source: ASTM E2775-11

 UltraWave Training Level 1 TM

• Remember that Level 1 operators are not qualified to inspect attenuative pipelines, such
as those with heavy coatings and/or buried lines.

• Analyzing attenuative guided wave data simply takes more experience with guided wave
data analysis in general.
 Influence of
Environments
Environmental Factors Influence GW Inspection

• Raining/snowing

• Water/flood

• Hot weather

• Cathodic protection
Water/Rain
• A wet or muddy pipe environment generally will not
degrade the capabilities of the UltraWave system
• The UltraWave unit, Getac laptop, modules, and other
components are designed to be moderately water-
resistant, but make efforts to keep them as dry as possible
• If any of the connectors become wet, do not pulse the unit
until they have been dried out to avoid damage
• You may cover the collar with a tarp or canopy and collect
data under shelter in some cases
 Extreme Temperatures
• The UltraWave manual provides up-to-date pipe and environmental temperature ratings for the laptop,
UltraWave unit, and collars
• The current battery and CPU temperature can be checked in the software by right-clicking the battery icon in
the upper-right corner
• The unit is sealed to promote water-resistance, and contains internal circulating fans, but its ability to cool
itself is limited
• Overheating of the UltraWave unit can be prevented by wrapping it tightly in a water-proof bag and placing
it in a cooler with ice while in the field (the cables can run out through the lid for use)
• Be aware that a pipe can be far hotter than the air temperature, even if it is empty
• Several sheets of aluminum foil can help reduce heat transfer between a warm pipe and the pipe collar
• Very cold pipes in warm, humid environments may cause the issue of frost build-up, this should be removed
before installing the collar to allow for better coupling
 High Temperature Affects Coatings
• Increased pipe temperature can lead to minor reductions in signal amplitude on bare or painted pipes
• Softer coatings on higher-temperature pipes experience changes in material properties and dramatic increases in
attenuation
 Pipe Contents
• The UltraWave LRT system employs torsional guided
waves that do not leak into fluid.

• However, if a pipeline contains a viscous material, guided

wave energy will leak into the content.

• The maximum inspection distance will decrease when

guided wave energy leakage occurs.
 Cathodic Protection
• Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique in which an external anode is applied
to a metal surface to protect it from corrosion.
• In some systems, the current for cathodic protection may be provided by an
external power source.
• It is possible that a noisy active CP system could cause interference with a
GWT system, but this is not typical.
• GWT can be carried out whether the CP system is on or off.
 Heat Trace

[[Link]]

• Heat tracing system is used to protect pipeline from freezing or to maintain

a particular temperature.
• If there is a heat trace on the pipe surface, some modules may need to be
removed from the UltraWave collar before being put on the pipe surface.
Questions?
 Practice Questions
1. Guided wave propagation direction can be controlled in pipes by (choose one best answer):
A. Using transducers that are larger on one side than the other
B. Focusing guided wave energy at a certain distance by applying active phased array
focusing time delays between transducer channels
C. Using certain frequencies that travel more in one direction or another
D. Applying time delays between the two transducer rings to cancel the reverse-traveling
wave

2. Guided wave directional control in the UltraWave system works equally well across all
frequencies. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

3. Guided wave sensitivity to a defect is greatly dependent on the defect’s percent cross-
sectional area (%CSA), which is defined as:
A. The ratio of the depth of the defect to the wavelength of the guided wave
B. The fraction of the defect’s cross-section relative to the cross-section of the pipe
C. The width and length of the defect
D. The total volume loss caused by the defect
 Practice Questions
4. Which of the following factors can greatly impact the penetration power of a guided wave
inspection system? Choose one best answer.
A. Coatings on the pipe
B. Soil loading on a buried pipe
C. Pipe surface condition
D. Branches, elbows, supports, and other structural features
E. A and B only
F. All of the above

5. Placing the transducer collar on a section of the pipe that is in good condition is
preferable to placing it on a pitted region of the pipe. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

6. Welds are useful reflectors for guided wave inspection because they are generally
(choose one best answer):
A. Axisymmetric
B. Free of defects
C. Similar in size which allows them to be referenced for defect sizing
D. A and B
E. A and C
F. A, B, and C.
 Practice Questions
7. Inspecting beyond an elbow with axisymmetric waves can be risky because blind spots can
occur. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

8. If a cathodic protection system on a pipeline cannot be turned off, then a guided wave
inspection cannot be performed on that pipe. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

9. Which of the following has a greater influence on the active and synthetic focusing
capabilities of the guided wave system for a pipe?
A. Pipe diameter
B. Pipe thickness
 Practice Questions
10. In reference to “DAC” curves for guided wave inspection, the abbreviation DAC stands for:
A. Defect amplitude comparison plots
B. Defect area correlation plots
C. Direct area calculation plots
D. Distance amplitude correction plots
E. Direct amplitude calculation plots

11. A “typical” weld will reflect approximately what percent of the incident guided wave energy?
A. 5%
B. 20%
C. 30%
D. 50%
E. 70%
F. 100%

12. In general, guided waves at lower frequencies will have (choose one best answer):
A. Greater penetration power
B. Less penetration power
C. Greater sensitivity
D. Less sensitivity
E. A and D
F. B and C
 Practice Questions
13. Horizontal and vertical flexural signals are signals collected by generating special horizontal and
vertical flexural guided wave modes. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

14. Consider an anomaly that is detected during a guided wave inspection, and which has a large
amplitude in the axisymmetric signal but a low amplitude in both the horizontal and vertical flexural
signals. This anomaly is most likely:
A. An axisymmetric reflector
B. A non-axisymmetric reflector

15. Different types of welds will reflect different amounts of guided wave energy. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE

16. Active focusing is always more accurate than synthetic focusing. This statement is:
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
 Practice Questions Answer Key
1. D
2. B
3. B
4. F
5. A
6. E
7. A
8. B
9. A
10. D
11. B
12. E
13. B
14. A
15. A
16. B