Textbook Chemjstry Grade 10

CHAPTER CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE

1

1.1 CHEMISTRY AS CENTRAL SCIENCE

Chemistry is an area of knowledge remarkable for its breadth and depth. Knowledge of
chemistry is essential to improve the quality of our lives. For instance, faster electronic devices,
stronger plastics, and more effective medicines and vaccines all rety on the innovations of
chemists throughout the world. We cannot truly understand or even know very much about
the world we live in or about our own bodies without knowing the fundamental concepts of
chemistry.
Climate change, water contamination, air pollution, food snortages and other societal
issues are regularly featured in the media. However, did you know that chemistry plays a
crucial role in addressing these challenges? As the 'Central Science', chemistry is woven into
the fabric of practically every issue that our society faces today.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
• describe the various branches of science and how society is impacted by them;
• recognise the role and impact of chemistry in daily life;
• discuss the importance of chemistry in daily life;
• distinguish and compare the branches of chemistry;
• develop and practice higher order thinkJng skills such as reasoning, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation.

Chemistry plays a central ro\e in science and is often intertwined with other branches
of science.

MolccnJur Biololl) Em•ironm~niJtl

and Generic~

\ l1 /
Sdence
Agr iculture

Biochcnti~lry Fo~:c.ro~ '-'"'""'~

Science ~ ~ Archllcoloey

~sics
~!~;~:~: 1 ~
Forcnstc

S:·ic.ncc ,
_
..----:;/

~
"'7"
!istry ~
Chem 1\l:ltbcmatic•

1 oxtcology

Materials
~kiencc
/
7
Nunosdencc
/
\

Chemical
En::inl-ering Nuclear
Comrurcr
Science

Nanotechnology Scicnc~

1
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Just what is chemistry anyway? The usual de·finition is that chemistry is a study of
matter and the changes it undergoes. What is matter? It is anything that has mass and occupies
space. We change matter to make it more useful. Some matter we change to extract a part
of its energy; for example, we burn gasoline to get energy to propel our automobiles. We
practice chemistry everyday.
We practice chemistry when we cook in the kitchen, when we clean our house or
paint our room, when we apply cosmetics, and when we take medicine or treat an injury.
Our body takes oxygen from the air and combines it with part of the food we eat to provide
us with energy for every activity we undertake. These are just a few of the ways in which
chemistry impacts our daily Jives.
So what is chemistry? It is a science that touches our life every moment. It deals
with matter from the tiniest parts of atoms to the complex human body. It goes beyond the
individual to affect society as a whole, shaping our civilisation.

1.2 MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry as a discipline has been around for a long time. The history of chemistry
is an interesting and challenging one. In fact, chemistry is known to date back to as far as
the prehistoric times. There are four categories that classified chemistry on the time line.
• Prehistoric time to the beginning of Christian era (about 300 BC) is classified as
black magic period. The ancients believed the world made of 'four elements', which are
earth, air, water and fire. The Greek philosophers were perhaps the first to formulate theories
explaining the behaviour of matter without confirming their theories by experimentation.
However, their philosophic point of view of nature, which can be attributed mainly to Aristotle,
dominated the Greek culture. They used fire to bring about chemical changes. Examples
include: extraction of metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and
wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making of tat into soap,
manufacture of glass, and making of alloys like bronze and so on. These things and many
others were accomplished without an understanding of the scientific principles involved.
• From about 300 BC to the end of 17'11 century, the experimental roots of chemistry are
planted in alchemy, a mystical chemistry that flourished in China and Europe. Alchemists made
several attempts to turn cheaper metals to gold, using the substance called the Philosopher's
Stone. They also wanted to find an elixir that would enable people to live longer and cure all
ailments. Alchemists never achieved these goals, but they discovered many new chemical
substances and techniques such as distillation and extraction that are still used today. In
1661, Robert Boyle (1627-1691) developed the basic ideas about the behaviour of gases.
His research progress was made in putting chemistry on a basic foundation.
• The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700's. Traditional chemistry
period started by the end of l7'h century up to the middle of 19'h century. ln 1774 Joseph
Priestley discovered a gas, later named oxygen. The chemistry was introduced to the science
in 1768 by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1 794), who explained the law of
conservation of matter based on the experimentation method. From this onward, scientists use

2
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

the experimentation method, also known as scientific method, rather than logical and theoretical
method of the ancients. ln 1803 John Dalton postulated Atomic Theory, which states that all
matter is composed of atoms, which are small and indivisible. Amedeo Avogadro (1776 -
1856) laid the groundwork for a more quantitative approach to chemistry by calculating the
number of particles in a given amount of a gas, which we use today as Avogadro's constant.
• Modern chemistry starts from the middle of 19th century to the present time. The
beginnings of modern chemistry were coming with the emergence of the experimental
method when the works of scientists were characterised by a reliance on experimentation.
Scientific facts remain the same, no matter who does the measuring. These facts are verified
by repeated testing.
Few of the areas that have emerged as being especially important in modern
chemistry are Synthesis, Separation techniques, Identification and assay, Materials, Polymers,
Nanochemistry, Biochemistry, Molecular biology, Green chemistry, and Combinatorial
chemistry.
Much of 20th century technology has grown out of scientific discoveries from
radioactivity to artificial intelligence. Technological developments are used by scientists
as tools for more discoveries. These developments in science and technology together with
innovations are the basic current roots of the changing modern world.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is important because everything you do is chemistry. Chemical reactions
occur when you breathe, eat, or just sit there reading. You are surrounded by materials and
substances, all chemicals. Even your body is made of chemicals. The air you are breathing is
a mixture of elements like oxygen and nitrogen. The book you are reading is made from wood
pulp or cellulose which has been bleached and treated with various chemicals. The clothes
you are wearing are probably made from synthetic chemicals called polymers, such as nylon
or terylene. The seat you are sitting on is perhaps a plastic polymer, with polyurethane; foam
seat padding and metal support. The room you are in is made from cement, plastics, concrete
and glass, all ofwhich are chemicals. Chemicals provide. us with luxuries and improve our
leisure time.
Some chemicals are toxic. Some causes cancer. Some chemicals are also beneficial.
Some can save lives. Many are useful. All matter is made of chemicals, so the importance
of chemistry is that it is the study of everything. Chemistry deals with everything. Perhaps
a better understanding of chemistry would enable us to control the uses of chemicals so that
we could maximise their benefits and minimise the risk involve.d in their use.

1.4 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

There are many branches of chemistry or chemistry disciplines. The. different
branches focus on different aspects of matter. The five main branches are considered to
be Organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry, Physical chemistry, Analytical chemistry,
and Biochemistry (Table l.l ). In addition, Nuclear chemistry, Environmental chemistry,

3
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Industrial chemistry, Polymer chemistry, Materials chemistry, Nanochemistry, Green chemislry.

Agricultural che,mistry, Theoretical chemistry, etc., are other branches of chemistry.
Table L 1 Branches of Cbemistry

Branch Areas of emphasis Exa mples

most carbon-containing chemicals

organic chemisLry which are hydrocarbons and their pharmaceu lical, plaslics
derivatives
in general, matter that does not deal minerals, metals and non-
inorganic chemistry
with hydrocarbons metals. semi-conductors
the behaviour and changes of matter reaction rates, reacti on
physical chemistry
and the re lated energy changes mechanisms
food nutrients, qual ity
components and compositions of
analytical chemistry control (QC) and quality
substances
assurance (QA)
matter and processes ofliving
biochemistry metabolism, fennentation
organ1sms

1.5 UNOERSTANDING CHEM ISTRY

By studying and understanding chemistry. you will become a global citizen in the
twenty first century where you have to live and act more intellectually. mature and with
greater understanding and satisfaction in a11 increasingly complex civilisation. To justify
why we have to study chemistry, there are several reasons:
• Chemistry is clearly very broad. lt is so important to the future oJ life on this planet
that every educated citizen should have some knowledge of its scientific basis.
• The principles of chemistry are needed to understand the nature of every form of
matter. for example, metals, drugs, gasoline, foods, the earth's cmst. water. atmosphere.
radioactive materials and the human brain cell, all hav·e properties detem1ined mainly
by chen'lical principles.
• Furthennore, a course in chemistry can be a fascinating experience, because it helps
you to understand yourselves and your suJToundings in everyday living. Consume,r
aspects of chemistry and the che-mistry of common things can also be known from
the fundamental ideas of chemistry.
• Agriculture also uses d1emistry in many areas. Chemistry is very important for the
food and beverage industry and medical industry. Chemistry has helped in establishing
industries which manufacture utility goods, such as acids, alkalis, soaps, detergents,
dyes, polymers~ metals~ e,tc. These industries contribute in a big way to the economy
of a nation and generate employment.

4
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Chemistry is also required for many fields of study. For example, courses in Pharmacy
and Medicine require applicants to have knowledge of chemistry; cutting~edge
of today's digital technology requires knowledge on the principles of chemistry.
lt is for these reasons, the fact that chemistry is everywhere and does affect all aspects
of our lives, that it is necessary to study it. Understanding basic chemistry and chemical terms
will help to make your material world more meaningful.
Chemistry is considered as an experimental science. You should recognise that
the principles and laws of nature are the results of extensive observations and speculative
analyses refined over many investigations. Basic process skills such as observing, classifying.
infeJTing, communicating (thro ugh diagram, graph, chart, etc.), measuring, predicting and
using numbers will be developed if you study chemistry.
You are expected to enhance the development of these skills and use them to construct
your chemical knowledge, and hence engage in life-long learning.

1.6 THE PRlNClPAL GOALS IN BASIC EDUCATION HlGH SCHOOL

CHEMISTRY
Basic chemistry is the branch of science that studies the preparation, properties.
structures and reactions of material substances. Chemistry contributes to a large extent in the
development and growth of a nation. A developing country. like Myanmar. needs talented
an d creative chemists. To be a good chemist, one n eed s to tmderstand the b asic concepts
of ch emistry. On this context, there are six main themes in Basic Education High School
Chemi stry Course: Particulate nature of substances, Perio(iicity~ Chern ical calculations,
Chemistry of reactions, the Environment and Organic chemistry. Knowledge of these
chemistry principles w ill help you to better understand the benefits and hazards to m anki nd
and enable you to make intelligent decis1ons i.n the future. The door ·c hemistry Grade I o·
is open to you. ln your career it will not be in vain. it will become a beneficial asset.

EXERCISES
I. Match each of the items given in List A with the appropriate correct item shown in List B.
List A ListB
(a) Aristotle {i) discovered the gas. oxygen
(b) Robert Boyle (ii) postulated the atomic theory
(c) Joseph Priestley (iii) laid the background for a more quantitative
approach to chemistry
(d) Antoine Lavoisier (iv ) very early chemist tried to tum cheaper metals
to gold
(e) John Dalton (v) explained the Law of Conse:rvation of Matter
(f) Amedeo Avogadro (vi) formulated the theories on the beha viour of
matter
(g) Alchemist (vii) developed the basic ideas about the behaviour
of gases
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

2. Fill in the blanks with suitable words and apply these words to solve the puzzle given
below.
Across
( 1) Chemistry is a study of and their changes.
(3) Organic chemistry is an area of study on _ _ and their derivatives.
(4) The behaviour and changes of matter and the related energy are studied in _ _
chemistry.
(7) An area of study on matter not deal with hydrocarbons is _ _ chemistry.
(8) Plastic is a synth etic _ _ used to make a variety of products such as water
plastic bottles.
( I 0) Chemical _ _ occur when you breathe, eat. sit or read.
( 11 ) Paper is made from _ _
( 12) The air you breathe is a mixture of nitrogen, etc.
Down
(2) Every activity, i.e., breath·ing, eating, reading, sitting, involves _ _..
(5) Analytical chemistry is a study of components and _ _ of substances.
(6) Chem istry is also considered as an experimental _ _ since it is based on the results
of observations and analyses through many investigations.
(9} A synthetic polymer, _ _ is used for clothing.
( 13) A study of matter and processes of living organisms is known as _ __
( 14) Burning gasoline gives _ _ to propel automobi les.
( 15) Fennenting wine is _ _ change.

~
_.:;__

I I I T I I
r--s
4 I I I I I I 8 I I I I I
~ r--r f- r--t) f-
f-
I l I I I
I'--
e--n
~ r--- r--- tO t5 l I I
12 I r--- r--- f-
f- f- f- f-
f- '------ f- f-
f- f-
r--- T I I I I I I I '------
....__
- I II I I I I I I
-
~
.....__

3. How does the study of chemistry relate to other areas of study in science?
4. In what ways does chemistry afrect your life?

6
Textbook Chemistry Grade lO

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

nuclt:&r, en• ironmenta l, indu~trial,

pol) ml'r, matl'riatb, nuno, grl'l'n,
llj!ricullural chemisll'), pharmaccut ic;~ls,
theoretical chemist!")'• eu~. pha,tic~

minera l,, metal~,

non-metals.
semi·conductors

bch:l\ iour a nd
cha nge., of matter,
tht' r~lated enef10

relict ion nates &

r-eaction
ml'chu ni~m~

ba•i c concepb 'IIHiit\ rtlatrd tu

or chem ist f)
com ponenh & ~~-----
.....
contain cumpu,itiun' ur food indu~l ries.
\ Ub, tance\ QC and QA

si' main themes in

OEHS t hcmisl l")
matter & pruct'l>>eS
uf lh in~: u~ani•ms
are
concern
'llitb
• pa rticullllt' nlltu~ uf,ubslllnth
- pcr-iodicil)
meta bolism
- chemical ca lculntions
fermentation
- chemist I') of reaction~
- en• ironment
- o~a nic chemist I')

7
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER MATTERAND SOLUTIONS

2

Chemistry is after all the study of all matter, its composition, its properties, and its
transformation from one form to another. What is matter? This word is used to cover all
the substances and materials from which the physical universe is composed. There are many
mil lions of different substances known and all ofthem can be categorised as solids, liquids
or gases. Nowadays, there is a fourth state known as 'plasma' which is a hot ionised gas
containing charged particles.

Leuning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, students will be able to.
• explain the theory of matter,
• identify the states of matter based on the arrangement and movement of atoms and
molecules;
• analyse the changes of state based on changes in the arrangement and movement of
atoms and molecules and the level of energy;
• discuss the charactetistics ofand the distinctions between elements, compounds and mixtures:
• diJferentiate between physical and chemical changes;
• compare the characteristics of. behaviours of and connections between a solute. solvent
and solution;
• solve the solubility of substances and the effect oftemperature on it;
• describe sepa ration techniques as applied to mixtures.

All substances are matter. Matter is made up of tiny particles. These can be atoms
or molecules (groups of atoms), and elements or compounds. This includes the air, the sea,
the Earth, all living creatures and even the galaxies.
The air (gas), the sea water (liquid), and alloys (solid) are not pure SLtbstances; lhey
are mixtures. Many mixtures contain useful substance mixed with w1wa.nted materiaL In order
to obtain these useful substances, chemists often have to separate them fi·om impurities. Different
methods of separation depend on whether the substances to be separated are solids. liquids or
gases. Adding sugar to lea or cotfee is a solid-liquid mixture. This lype of process involves
solute, solvent and solution. What other examples can you think of where this type of process
takes place?

2.1 STATES OF MATTER AND ARRANGEMENT OFPARTICLES IN MATTER

The most common states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Water is a substance,
which exists in all three states of matter: ice (solid), water (l iquid) and steam (gas). The
properties of eacl1 state of matter depend on the forces of attraction between the particles
which can be weak or strung.

8
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(a) Solids
The particles in a solid are packed
very tightly together with strong forces
between one another. Therefore, they have 11so
llttle freedom of movement and can vibrate
about a fixed position. SoJids have a definite
shape and volume. They have different colours and different properties. Some solids are
hard while others are soft. Some are dense while others are light. However, all solids have
common propetiies, i.e., unlike gases they cannot be compressed and do not flow. Solids do
expand slightly when heated.
(b) Liq uids
c -....,
Liquids are composed of particles which are not fixed
in any defu1ite positions as :in the solids. The particles are able .-----·
to move freely throughout the liquids but not as independently
as the gases so that the liquid can take up the shape of the !'"'-
container. Liquids can have a definite volume, because the
particles in liquid are held together more strongly than those
in gases. Some liquids have colours. However, unlike gases
they cannot be compressed but they can flow easily.
(c) Gases
The particles in a gas are in constant and rapid motion
because of weak attractive forces between gaseous particles.
They move freely in all d irections until they hit the walls of
the container. The gas in a container spreads out to occupy
the whole space of the container taking its shape and volume.
Hence, gases do not have a definite volume and shape of their
own.
Gases can have different properties. Some gases have
a smell while others are odourless. Some gases have colours
while others are colourless. However, al l gases can easily be
compressed and spread in aJI directions. lt can be clearly visible
in particles of smoke suspended in a gas. It is because of the
effect known as Brownian motion .
(d) Pa rticles of Matter: Diffusion Process
Diffus ion can be explained by the Brownian motion .
The particles of matter are too small to be seen directly.
It can be explained by indirect ways to show that matter consists of particles. One method
is by a process called d iffusion.

9
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

ln diffusion, the particles of one substance mix w ith

and move through the particles of another s ubstance. Diffusion
is mainly seen in Llquids and gases. Some examples are given
below:
A drop of food co louring matter diffuses throughout the
water in a glass so that, eventually, the entire content of the g lass
will be coloured.
When a few drops of perfume are released into a room, the particles of perfume move
through the air and spread the room. Anyone in the room would be able to s me ll the perfume
eventually.
The speed of diffusion of particles is affected by the mass of particles and by the
temperature.
- The bigger the mass, the s lower the particles diffuse. The smaller the mass, the faster the
particles diffuse.
- The higher the temperature, it enables the particles to ditTuse faster.

C hemistry in D a ily Life

• Matter is everything that we come across in our lives, like the air you breathe, the clothes
you wear and the water you drink.
• The most common states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Some are in so lid (ice,
sugar, salt, iron, copper, etc.), some are in liquid (water, oil, juice, etc.), some are in
gaseous (air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.) states.
• Diffusion of particles can occur in many ways . Preparing lea using tea bag in hot
water, smelling perfume, aroma of foods, aroma therapies etc. are some examp les of
diffusion.
-~-

Re\'iew Ouesliuus
(1) Distinguish among the solid, liquid and gas.
(2) Which states can you seethe following matter in our envi ronment as solid or liquid or
gas?
(a) iron (b) water (c) mercury (d) argon (e) gold (t) copper (g) v inegar

Key Terms
• Matter is made up of tiny particles, and has mass and takes up space. Three common
states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
• Brownian motion is the continuous random movement of small particles suspended
in a gas or liquid, whi ch arises fro m collisions with the gas or liquid particles, e.g.,
the motion of pollen g ra ins on still water, movement of invisible dust in a room.

10
Textbook Chemjstry Grade 10

2.2 CHANGES JN MATTER

The materials around us are subject to constant change. Plants and animal materjals
decay~ metals corrode, and land areas erode. Moreover, evety substance - for example, water,
sugar, salt, gold or silver - has a set characteristics or properties that distinguish it from all
other substances and gives it a unique identity. One way to classify properties is based on
whether or not chemical composition of an object is changed by the act of observjng the
prope11y. Changes in substances can be classifi.ed as either physical or chemical.
(a) Physical Changes
A physical change is a change in which no new substances are founed. For example,
when ice melts :fi:om solid to liquid, or when sand is ground to a fine powder, no new substance
is formed. Melting, boiling, fi·eezing, evaporation, vaporisation, condensation and sublimatjon
are considered as physical changes.

Melting Vaporisation

w ~~~
melts, at 0"~ \a~
freezes, at 0 C
boils, at IOO"C

:[)~condenses,
at
lOO't:
i~ wa~r s~am
Freezing Condensation
In a solid the particles attract one another. There are attractive forces between the
particles which hold them close together. The particles have little rreedom of movement and
can only vibrate about a fixed position. When a sol id substance is heated, the particles oftbe
solid vibrate more strongly. Finally, these particles are able to overcome the forces that hold
the particles in their fixed position. The solid then turns into a liquid. This is called melting.
The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.

heat heat energy at

energy melting point

solid the vibration get stronger liquid

When heating is contjnued, the particles of the liquid gain more energy and move
more quickly as the temperature is increased. Eventually, the particles have enough energy
to completely break the forces holding them together. Then the liquid particles escape from
the surface to the space above the liquid. The particles are now able to move :fi·eely and get
farther. A gas is formed. This is called vaporisation . Vaporisation is the process that OCCLLrS
when a chemical or element is converted from a liquid to a vapour.

11
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Evaporation is tbe process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous

state due to an increase in temperature and I or pressure.
Boiling is the rapid vaporisation of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to
its boiling point.

heat energy at
boiling point

solid liquid gas

An unusual change of state can also occur, i.e. , change of solid state to gaseous state
and vice versa. For example, iodine solid changes to iodine vapour, where heat is absorbed.
This is known as sublimation. Water vapour turns to fTost is an example of deposition.
You can readily see that there is no new chemical substance formed in these changes.
Tt is known as physical change; for example, sugar being dissolved in water, moulding si lver
and gold, passing electricity in electric bulb.
(b) Chemical Changes
A chemical change is a change in which one or more new substances are formed.
Examples of chemical changes are cooking of rice from rice grains, green mangoes ripening,
burning of a match, and burning of candle.
Chemical changes occur via chemical reactions such as dissociation, neutralisation,
precipitation, etc. For example,
-Heating of limestone or marble (dissociation or decomposition)
-Use of magnesia to treat gastric patient (neutralisation)
-Passing carbon dioxide into limewater (precipitation)

Chemistry in Daily Life

• Freezing, melting, boiling and dissolving, cutting and moulding ofthe substances,
etc. are physical changes.
• MothbaiJs sublime into vapour of deodorant for toilets and bathrooms. It is also a
physical change.
• In our daily life, cooking the foods, burning the candle, iron rusting, vegetables rotting,
bui lding a fire, photosynthesis reaction, making soaps and detergents, etc. are chemical
changes.

Rc.•' ie'' Qucsrion '

(I) Is squeezing juice from lime a physical change or chemical change?
Give reason for your answer.

12
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(2) Classify the following changes into physical change and chemical change:
(a) boiling an egg (b) mixing sand and water (c) making jelly
(d) evaporating alcohol (e) souring of milk (f) baking a cake
(g) digesting food (h) crushing a can (i) breaking a glass
(j) mixing green and red marbles
(3) State the change of each of the following processes:
(a) When iodine, a solid, is gently heated it forms directly into a purple gas.
(b) Frost is formed when water vapour is cooled.
(c) Lime water becomes cloudy when carbon dioxide gas is passed into it.

Key Terms
• The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid state at one atmospheric pressure
is called melting point of that solid.
• The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure of the surrounding is called the boiling pojnt.
• Vaporisation is the process that occurs when a chemical or element is converted
from a liquid to a vapour.
• Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous
state due to an increase in temperature and I or pressure.
• Freezing is the process in which a liquid becomes sufficiently cold to change into a
solid. Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid.
• Condensation is the change from a gaseous state to its liquid state.
• Sublimation is the change of solid state directly into gaseous state without melting.
• Deposition is the direct solid ification of a vapour by cooling; the reverse of
sublimation.
• A physical change is a change in which no new substances are formed. There may
be a temporary change in colour, temperature and state of the substances but no new
substances are formed in the physical change.
• A chemical change is a change in which one or more new substances are formed.
The substances change in colour, temperature and state but they also change into a
new substance or substances in the chem ical change.

2.3 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

All samples of matter can be divided into two categories: pure substances and mixtures.
A pure substance is a form of matter that always has a definite and constant composition.
Pure substances are classified as either elements or compounds. At the beginning of the 19'11
century, John Dalton proposed the theory of matter: that all matter was composed of atoms,
which were invisible and indivisible. Today, the atom is still considered as the basic unit of
any element. An atom may combine chemically to form molecules; the molecules become
the smallest unit of any substances that possesses the properties of that substance. Modern
experimental ev idence has shown that atoms are divisible to create either lighter or heavier
atoms.

13
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

{a) Elements
Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom, e.g., carbon element is made
up of carbon atoms. Atoms are the smallest partjcles .into which an element can be divided.
There are 92 known elements which occur naturally, either .in the fi·ee or combined
state. Some elements are sol ids such as copper, iron, zinc, silver, gold, carbon and phosphorus.
Some elements are liquids. They are mercury and bromine. Some elements are gases such
as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine. Substances like these, which cannot be broken
down into a simpler substance by chemical means, are called elements.
On the basis of their properties, elements may be classified into two groups, metals
and non-metals (Table 2.1 ).
Table 2. 1 General Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Metals Non-metals
Metals show metallic Juster. Non-metals do not show metallic Juster.

Metals have high density. Non-metals have low density.

Most of the metals are malleable and ductile. Non-metals are usually brittle.

Metals are good conductors of heat and Most of the non-metals are poor
electricity. conductors of heat and e lectricity.

( b) Compounds
The atoms of some elements are joined together in sma ll groups. These small groups
of atoms are cal1ed molectJies.
Molecules exist in elements as well as compmmds. A molecule of an element (molecular
element) consists ofatoms of the same kind. A molecule of a compound (molecular compound)
consists more than one kind of atoms. The atoms of different elements in the molecule of a
compound are combined in a definite ratio.
Most substances on Earth occur as compounds, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO), water (HzO),
marble (CaC03), glucose (C6H 120), ethanol (C2H~OH) and ammonia (NH ). Although there
3
is only small number of elements, there are millions of compounds.
Fommlae and types ofson1e compounds are described in Table 2.2.
Two or 1nore different elements may combine together to form compounds. Some
compounds occur naturally but some are made in l'aboratories, e.g., water occurs in nature
and ethanol is a man-made compound.
The compounds can be classified in various ways. They can also be c lassified based
on the combination of the number of atoms or the number of different elements. Hydrogen
molecule is formed by two atoms of hydrogen. So, it is a diatomic molecule. Water is formed by
combir1ing two different elements: Hand 0. So, it is a triatomic molecule (binary compound).

14
Textbook Chenustry Grade 10

Carbon dioxide is fo nned by the combination of two different elements, C and 0. So it is a

triatomic molecuJe (binary compound). In ammonia, there are more than three atoms from
two different elements: Nand H. So, it is a polyatomic molecule (binary compmmd). In
ethanol , there are more than three atoms from three different elements: C, H, 0. Therefore,
it is a polyatomic molecule (ternary compound) (Table 2.2).
The most obvious difference is that an element cannot be broken down i.nto other
substances by chemical means whereas a compound can be broken down into other substances
by chemical means.
Table 2.2 Name, Formula and Type of Compounds

Type of
compound
How the atoms
Name Element Formula (based on Occurrence
are joined
number of
atoms)

triatomic
hydrogen molecule
water H,O (binary natural
and oxygen
compound)

triatomic
carbon carbon and molecule
C02 natural
dioxide oxygen (bi nary
compound)

polyatomic
nitrogen @ molecule
am moni a and @N NH 3
(binary
m an-made
hydrogen @ compoLmd)

polyatomic
carbon,
molecule
ethanol hydrogen C: H50H man-made
(ternary
and oxygen
compound)

(c) Mixtures
MLdures consist of two or more different substances that are mixed p hysically but not
chemically combined. They do not have well defined specifi c properties and the substances
are not in fixed ratios.

15
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

The substances in a mixtw·e may be solids, liqujds or gases. For example, brass, a
solid, is a mixture of the elements copper and zjnc; sea water is a mixture of compounds
incJuding mainly water and sodiwn chloride; air is a mixture of gases containing nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour. The mixtures may also be heterogeneous or
bomogeneous (Table 2.3). Therefore, the mixtures can be classified as two main categories:
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Table 2.3 Ditierent Types of Mixtures

Physical state Type of mixture Exam ple

solid-solid homogeneous stainless steel (mixture of iron and chromium)

so lid-solid heterogeneous flour and rice powder

solid-liquid homogeneous sugar solution (sugar and water)

so lid-liquid heterogeneous salt and oil

solid-gas heterogeneous dust in air

liquid-liquid homogeneous vinegar (mixture of acetic acid and water)

Iiquid-1 iquid heterogeneous oil and water

soil drink (carbon dioxide gas dissolved in sterilised

liquid-gas homogeneous
water at high pressure)

liquid-gas heterogeneous fossil fuel (mixtLLre of crude oil and natW'al gas)

gas-gas homogeneous air (mixture of ditlerent gases)

Apart fi·om alloys containing two metals, solid-solid mixtmes are heterogeneous.
Some heterogeneous mixtures cannot be recognised by the naked eyes, such as a mixture of
magnesium ox ide and calcium oxide. However, solid~solid mixtw-es can be recognised by
microscopic examination, whereas we cannot do so with homogeneous solutions. Therefore,
we are able to differentiate between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture
by visual exam ination.
(d) Separation of M ixtm·es
Most substances are naturally found as mixtures; therefore the separation methods
shown in Table 2.4 indicate how the physical states of components in the mixture can be
separated into pure substances.

16
Textbook Chenustry Grade 10

Table 2.4 Some Separation Methods of Mixtures

Types of mixtures Separation method

glass rod ------7 _

a liquid and a solid mixture such 1 \ r~ sediment (sand)
as a suspension (sand/ water)
~ water
decantation

filter paper ;:;_

· _
\. .. suspension of

a solid from a liquid fLmnel ~¥-____ chalk in water

(chalk dust from water) II . - - - - cha lk dust

beaker -U- water

(the filtrate)
filtration

solute from its solution

(sod ium c hloride, NaC I sa lt
from its solution) the water evaporates
leaving the salt behind

evaporation

~ Jt t
w~1er

~
evaporating
~-busin
NuC I
s1 ir to d issoJvl· N:•C' I t
heal
(I ) 'I he NaC1 is dissolved ( 21 1'11C sal< so lotion is he~1cd to
in a :>olveot. evaporate mosl orthe5olvem.
a solute crystal from its solution
(sod ium c hl oride, NaC I salt
f rom its so lution)
NaC I \
crystals ~
j

(3) r he hot solution is gl"ddual ly

NnCI
sal1c1~
/*'
l4) i hf' cold solutun is p<>ured
Iilier paper

allowed 10 cool. llle NnCI ulflt> ob111in the NaCI s:lit

salt appears as pure crystals. cryst-a ls.Tlt~ c:ry~tals may b~
d1·icd by pres:ling rhem between
slt ce\S or fi lLer paper.

crystallisation

17
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Continued from Table 2.4

Types of mixtures Separation method

(\~ magnet

X
to attract magnetically
susceptible materials
(sulphur and iron mixture)

sulphur iron filings

magnetic separation

a solvent from a solution

(pure water from sea water) sea water
water in Il_d..-
I
t
heat
pure water

simple distillation
rhetmomeler water out
condenser
fractionating
column
liquids from each other
round-bottomed
(separation ofpetroleum) ·flask
t
heat
fractional distillation

before

a solid from a liquid

(mi lk, blood)

centrifugation

m~
s·olvent front
different substances from a paper
solution • coloured spols
ink
• base line
(separation of ink by paper
wateJ·
chromatography)
chromatography

18
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Chemistry in Daily Life

• Gold, s11.ver and copper have been used co make ornamental objects and jewellery for
thousands ofyears. Special properties of gold make it perfect for manufacturing jewellery.
• Mercury is used i.n thermometers and trad it iona l blood pressure monitors. Mercury is
a very toxic substance. When it accumulates in the body, it causes damage to the brain,
kidney and lungs.
• Calcium carbonate is a compound made up ofthree elements-calcium, carbon and
oxygen. Chalk is one fonn of calcium carbonate.
• Examples of homogeneous mixtures include sugar solution, which is the mixture of
sucrose and water, and gasoline wh ich is a mixture of dozens of hydrocarbon compounds.
• Colloidal mixtures (heterogeneous) have components that tend not to settle out. Milk
is a colloid or fat globules suspended in water.
• The mixture of gasoline I kerosene and water is an example often cited as a safety hazard.
Decanting a mixture containing Ram mabie solvents can be dangerous as the flammable
material evaporates and forms dangerous fumes.
• When rain touches the ground it mixes with d irt, rocks and so on, i.e., it cou ld become
a mixture.
• Sediment rrom the fermentat ion process of wine can produce an undesirable taste. Wine
is separated fTom the sediments by decantation.
• P lasma can be removed from blood by decantation after centrifugation . ,,

Jh~' i&.•\\ f}uesfiono;

(1) When attempts are made to break down substance A by chemical methods, the same
orig ina l substance is always fo rm ed. Is substance A an e lement or a compound?
(2) When a substance is broken down by chem1cal means, two substances with different
properties are fonned. Is the original substance an element or a compound?

Key Terms
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other simpler substances
through chemical means. Every element is made up of its own type ofatoms. Therefore,
it has a unique position in the Periodic Table.
A compound is a substance containing two or more ditferenl elements chem ically
joined together in a fixed ratio.
A molecule is the simplest unit of the chemica l substance, usually a group of two or
more atoms.
Molecules exist in elements as well as compounds. A molecule of an element (molecu lar
element) consists of atoms of the same kind. A molecule of a compound (molecular
compound) consists of more than one k1nd of atoms. The atoms of different elements
in the molecule of a compound are combined in a definite ratio.

l9
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

• Diatomic molecules are molecules composed of only two atoms of same or different
elements.
• Triatomic molecules are molecules composed of only three atoms of same or different
elements.
• Polyatomic molecules are mo lecules composed of three or more atoms of same or
different elements.
• The compounds formed by the combination oftwo elements are called binary compounds.
• The compounds formed by the combination of three elements are called ternary
compounds.
• A mixture is a combination of more than one substance, where these substances are
not bonded to each other. It consists of two or more substances which may be present
in any proportion by weight. The constituents of the mixture do not combine chemically.
• A heterogeneous mixture is one that is non-uniform, and where the different
components of the mixture can be seen. The components separate, and the composition
varies.
• A homogeneous mixture is one in which the composition of its components are
uniformly mixed throughout. The components cannot be seen separately on visual
or microscopic examination.
• Alloy is a substance made by comb ining two or more metallic elements, especiall y
to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion.
• Filtration is a method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. When a mixture
of sand and water is filtered, the sand remains as res idue on the fi lter paper and
the water, wh ich is also called filtrate, passes through the fi lter paper.
• Crystallisation is defined as a process by which a chemical is converted from a liquid
solution into a solid crystalline state.
• Decantation is a process to separate mixtures. Decanting is just a llowing a mixture
of so lid and li qu id or two immisc ible liquids to settle and separate by gravity.
• Magnetic separation is used to separate the components of a mixture when at least
one of them is magnetic in nature.
• Simple distillation is a procedure by wh ich two liquids with different boiling points
can be separated. It is used to separate solvent from a solution.
• Fractional distillation is a method for separation of a liquid mixture into fractions
with different boiling points (and hence chemical composition) by means of distillation,
typically using a fractionating column.
• Centrifugation is a technique used for the separation of particles from a solution
according to their size, shape, density, viscos ity of the medium and rotor speed.
• Chromatography is a separation method of the mixed substances that depends on
the speed at which they move through special media, or chemical substances. It
consists of a stationary phase (a solid) and a mobile phase (a liquid or a gas).

20
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

2.4 SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

A solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances. The ocean
is a vast water solution containing different compounds extracted from the minerals of the
Earth's crust. Nutrients are carried in water solution to all parts of a plant.The production
of many useful materials by the chemical industry involves chemical reactions in which the
reacting substances are dissolved in water, ethanol (ethyl alcohol), etc. Solutions play an
important part in many processes that go on about us.
(a) Solutions
Some solids such as copper(II) sulphate, sugar and common salt are soluble in water
but some solids such as sand, charcoal and chalk are insoluble in water. Some solids such as
iodine are slightly soluble in water. When you mix sugar with water, it seems to disappear.
That is because its particles spread all through the water particles. The sugar has dissolved in
the water, giving the mixture called as a solution. Sugar is the solute, and water is the solvent.
Some liquids can mix with one another in all proportions (miscible liquids), while
some liquids do not mix (immiscible liquids). Thus for example, ethanol, acetic acid and
sulphuric acid are soluble in water but petrol and oils are insoluble in water.
Some gases such as hydrogen chloride and ammonia are very soluble in water. Some
gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are not very soluble in water.
Solutions may be gaseous, solid, or liquid in nature. Dry air is a familiar example
of a gaseous solution. Brass (copper and zinc) is an example of a solid solution. Liquid
solutions may contain solid, liquid, or gaseous solutes. Salt water is a familiar example of a
solid dissolved w ithin a li quid. Vinegar is a solution contain ing two li qu ids, acetic acid and
water. Carbonated water contains carbon dioxide gas molecules existing between molecules
of water.
Solutions hav ing water as the solvent are referred to as aqueous solutions. Many
reactions including those vital for life processes occur in aqueous solutions. Blood and sali va
are some ofthe more familiar solutions of biological importance.
(b) Solubility
Some solid is added to a certain volume of water in a beaker with stirring until all of
it dissolved. If some more sol id added can dissolve with stirring, this solution is known as an
unsaturated solution. A saturated solution forms when no more solute can be dissolved in
the given amount of solvent at that temperature even if it is stirred. The amount (in grams)
of the so lute in 100 g of water to give a saturated solution at that experimental temperature
is known as the solubility of that solute. If the solution contains more solute than it should
have at room temperature, it is a supersaturated solution.
Effect of temperature on solubility
Solubility of the solute depends, in part, on the temperature of the solvent. When the
temperature of the solution is increased the solubi lity of the solute increases (Table 2.5 and
Figure 2.1).

21
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Table 2.5 The Solubility of Potassium Nitrate in Water at DiJferent Temperatures

Temperature ec) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 IOU

Solubmty
21.2 3 1.6 45.3 6 1.4 83.5 106 135 167 203 245
(g / 100 g water)

From the solubility data of the potassium nitrate in the above table, a graph is drawn
w ith temperature on the hori zonta l ax is and solubi lity on t he vertical ax is as shown in
Figure 2.1 .
There are some exceptions. The solubility
of all gases and some solids such as calc iwn
hydroxide and calciwn sulphate decreases when 250
temperature of the solution is increased. Tt is, 200
8....
therefore, necessary to specifY the temperature at 150
which the solution is saturated. A good example ~

is opening two cans of soda, one cold one and .£ wo

:a
o ne warm o ne. Comparing the reactions will ~ 50
demonstrate that more gas is released from the "
OL-~--~~~~~~
warm pop than from the cold pop. 0 2 0 40 60 80 100 120
When a saturated solution at a hi gher Temperature (C)
temperature is cooled, the so lubil ity decreases.
Figure 2.1 The Solubility of Potassium
So the excess solute, i.e., the d ifference in the
Nitrate in Water at Different
solubility of the two temperatw·es, will come
out as solid. Temperatures

Chemistry in Daily Life

• Solution can be found almost everywhere on the earth, from the oceans to the sky.
Every ocean and every lake on earth is a so lution, because the water has mixed wHh
di1t, salt and vatious substances.
I
• When you stir sugar in a cup of coffee, you are making a solution.
• Solubili ty has many practical appli cations in our lives such as purifying water and
making drinks.
-- - - -

~ C\ i~ '' Q ut!sticms
( I ) Give two examples for each of the following:
(a) solids that d issolve in water (b) insoluble solids in water
(c) solvents other than water
(2) 20 g of a soluble substance is d issolved in water to fmm 100 g of the solution. 25 g of the
so lut ion is taken and evaporated to dryness. How n1any grams of the so lid w ill be
obtai ned?
(3) The so lubil ity of copper(Il) s ulphate at 60 °C is 40 g I 100 g, and at 90 °C is 67.5 g / I 00 g.

22
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

A saturated solution of copper(Jl) sulphate in I 00 g of water at 90 oc is cooled to 60 °C.

Calcu late the amount of copper(ll) sulphate which would come oul of the solution.

Key Terms
A soJute is a substance which dissolves in a solvent to give a solution.
• A so]ventis a substance, mostly liquid, in which another substance dissolves to give
a homogeneous mixture.
• A soJutioo is a clear homogeneous mixture obtained when a substance dissolves in
a solvent. Ln a solution the solute is uniformly distributed throughout the solution.
Solubility of a substance at a given temperatw-e is the mass in grams of the substance
which will saturate I 00 g of water, at that temperature.
A saturated solution is one in which no more solute will dissolve at the given
temperature, in the presence of excess solute. A solution i.n which more of the solute
can dissolve at the given temperature is called unsaturated solution.
The solution that retains more solute than that required to saturate the solution
at room temperature is called a supersatu t·ated solution.

EXERCISES
1. This question is about ways to separate and purify substances. Match each term from
List A with the correct desc1iption from List B.
List A ListB
(a) evaporation (i) a solid appears as the solution cools
(b) condensing (ii) used to separate a m.i xture of two liquids
(~) filtering (iii) the solvent is removed as a gas
(d) crysta lli sing (iv) this method allows you to recycle a solvent
(e) distillation (v) a gas changes to a liquid, on cooling
(f) fractional distillation (vi) separates an insoluble substance from a liquid

2. The following diagram shows the three states of matter and how they can be interchanged.
(a) Name the changes of A to F.
(b) Name a substance which will undergo changes from solid
so lid to liquid to gas between 0 °C and J 00 °C.
(c) Describe what happens to the particles ofthe solid ~~
li4uid C gas
dur\ng change E. D
(d) Name a substance which will undergo change E.

3. (a) Why solids do not undergo diffusion? Explain why diffus.ion of gases is faster than
Jiquids.
(b) Give two examples for diffusion of gases and liquids found at home.

4. When ajar of coffee is opened, people in all parts of the room soon notice the s mell.
Explain how th is happens.

23
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

5. The heating curve for a pure substance is g iven. It shows how the temperature rises over
time, when the substance is heated until it melts, then boils.
(a) What is the me lting po int of the . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
substance? Temperature/ 11C
(b) What happens to the temperature while
the substance changes state?
(c) The graph shows that the substance
takes longer to boil than to melt. Suggest
a reason for this.
(d) How can you te ll that the substance
is not water? Time/min
(e) Sketch a rough heating curve for pure ~.--------------~
water.
6. The solubility (g I 100 g water) of three substances at different temperatures are given
below.
Temperature °C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Potassium chlorate 3.3 5.0 7.3 10.0 14.0 18.$ 24.0 30.2 37.5
Calcium hydroxide 0.13 0. 13 0.12 0. I 1 0. 10 0.00 0.08 0.06
Sodium sulphate 5.0 9.0 20.5 41.0 48.0 47.0 45.0 44.0 43.0
(a) Plot the solubility curve of each substa nce.
(b) Describe the change in solubility with the temperature for each substance.
(c) What is the solubility of each substance at 25 °C?
(d) What happens when each solution at 70 °C is cooled down to 30 °C?
7. The solubility of sodi um ni trate at 40 °C is 104 g I 100 g water.
(a) How much sodium nitrate wi ll be obtained if2 5.5 g of saturated sol uti on at40 °C
is evaporated to dryness?
(b) What is the maximum amount of solid that can be dissolved in 250 g of water at
40 °C?
8. The solubility of solid A at 60 °C is 24 g I I 00 g water.
(a) What is the amount of solid required to saturate 30 g of water at 60 °C?
(b) What wi ll be the amOLmt of saturated so lution obta in ed at 60 °C when 12 g of
the solid A is used to prepare a saturated sol ution?

24
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

classi lied as

the amount of solute (g)

in J00 g of water at separated by sepnrated by
a given temperature
- decantation (s/l) - crystallisation (s/l)
- filtration (s/l) - rustillation (1/1)
- evaporation (s/1) -fractional disliUation (Ill)
- magnetic separation (s/s) -chromatography (s/s)
-centrifugation (colloidal, s/1)

25
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS

3 AND PERIODIC TABLE

In Chapter 2, we have seen the word 'atom', which

is the smallest particle of an element. ln this chapter we
will learn that the arrangement of atoms in the element can
be explained by the new model. Atoms very rarely exist by
themselves. Th.ey are usually joined together in groups by 0 electron
chemical bonds. Two types of chemical bonding: ionic and
covalent, will be explained in this cl1apter.

We know that chemical elements play

electronic structure 2.1
a vital role in our daily lives and are crucial
tor humankind, our planet, and our industries.
J protons The development of the Periodic Table of
the elements is one of the most significant
4 neutrons achievements in science. The Periodic Table
second shell L( 1) gives insights into the elements and helps us
to understand the characteristics of e lements.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, students will be ab le to:
• describe the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons;
• define isotopes and isobars, and explain them with respect to atomic nwnber and mass
number;
• explain U1e electronic structure or atoms;
• explain how the Periodic Table is organised based on atomic structure;
• classify elements based on electron configurations;
• describe the periodic properties of common elements~
• discuss the general trends in meta ll ic and non-metallic character, electronegativity,
sizes, ionisation energy and electron affinity of elements within lhe periods and groups
of the Periodic Table;
• compare the different types of bonds that form between atoms when molecules are
formed .

3.1 STRUCTURE O F AT O M
All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are so tiny that it was not realised that atoms
were in fact made up of charged particles until about I 900 AD. The old model of the atom
was publ ished by Dalton in 1803. However, based on the experimental evidence. Dalton 's
atomic model has been replaced by the new model.

26
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(a) Arrangement of Sub-atomic Particles in Atom

Atoms consist of three sub-atomic patticles called proton, neutron and electron. They
are also known as ftmdamental particles. The properties of ftmdamental particles of an atom
are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Properties of Fundam.ental Patticles

Pa·rticle Symbol Relative mass Relative charge

proton p 1 positive (+ 1 )
neutron n 1 neutral (0)
electron e 1/1837 negative (-1)
A proton is a particle carrying a positive charge. A neutron is a particle carrying
no charge and having a mass similar to proton. An electron is a particle carrying a negative
charge and having a very small mass. The mass of an electron is approximately 1/1837 t imes
the mass of a proton.
In a neutral atom, the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons. Atoms are identified
nudeus
by the number of protons in it. The proton number _ ~ containing
is referred to the number of protons in the atom and J protnnsand
neutron~
is often referred to as the atomic number (Z) of the ,.egion wl-,~re _...;i
electrons m·e
element. Different elements have a different proton found
number or atomic number from each other. ._____________.,.
The atom has a small, dense, positively charged Figure 3.1 Atomic Structure of an
center call ed nucleus. It contains prot.on(s) and Atom
neutron(s). The total number of these two particles is
also known as the nucleon number or mass nu mber (A). Outside and around lhe nucleus,
electTons rapidly move in circular or near circular orbits. lt can be represented in Figure 3 .I.
We can describe any elements
mass number •
in a short way like this: X symbol of element
atomic number

For example, 15C, '~0 and ~~Cl

(b) Isotopes
Not all atoms of an element are necessarily the same. All atoms of the same element
have the same number of protons. However, some atoms of an element have different number
of neut1ons. For example, although all carbon atoms have six protons, not all carbon atoms
are identical. Some have more neutrons than others.
Most of carbon atoms have 6 neutrons but some carbon atoms are found with
7 neutrons or 8 neutrons as shown in the diagram (Figure 3.2). These three different carbon
atoms are called isotopes of carbon.

27
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Carbon - 12 Carbon - 13 C arbon ~14

Unstable atom
F ig ure 3.2 Isotopes of Carbon
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number ofneutrons.
In other words, isotopes are the atoms of the same element with different masses.
With the help of the mass spectrometer, some of the elements were found to consist
of a mixture ofthe atoms having different masses. Mass spectrometer is a device used to find
out the masses of isotopes and their relative abundance. It becomes a mean of measuring the
ionisation energy of all elements.
Jsotopes ofthe same element have the same chemical propetties but there are some
small differences in phys ical properties. For example, the three hydrogen isotopes, lH, IH
and ~ H have slightly different boiling points.
Some isotopes are radioactive whereas some are non-·radioactive. A carbon- 14 atom
is radioactive but carbon-12 and carbon-13 are not radioact1ve. Radioactive isotopes produce
radiation. Some radiations are ham1ful but some can be used for good. Most isotopes in the
air and grow1d are not radioactive.
(c) Isobars
Some of the diilerent elements have same nucleon
number. That is, different elements with different proton ~@
number and same nucleoi1 number. An example of a series
of isobars would be 40Ar, 4°K and 4 \JCa.
00
r-
Chemistry in Society
Up to the early 2QLh century, uraniwn was used in making an attractive yellow glaze
for pottery. This was ended when people realised that uranium is radioactive, making the
pots rad ioactive too. When nuclear reactors were invented, scientists were able to make
nuclear bombs from radioactive plutonium.
There are many radioisotopes which are mainly used in the treatment of hazardous
diseases. Cobalt-60 (Co·60) is used in radiotherapy and in food preservation. P-32 and
Sr-90 are used to treat skin cancer. Na-24 is used to detect tumors and blood clots and
also detect the leakage from underground p ipes. Similarly, 1- 131 is used to investigate
the thyroid glands. C-14 is widely used in estimation of the age of ancient artifacts by
radiocarbon dating method.
- ~ ,. ~ ...-:

28
Textbook. Chenustry Grade 10

R ll\ h.'\\ C)IWH8htU\

( 1) How many electrons, protons and neutrons are present in the following atoms?
16 39 1 07
8
0 ' 19
K and 82
Pb
(2) Se lect isotopes and isobars fi·om the following atoms. Give reasons.
J9K
19 ,
13~tU
n 27Al
13
16Q
R
mu
92
l<>CJ
17

Key Terms
• Atoms are the smallest particles into which an element can be divided.
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as atomic number (Z)
of an element. The atomic number never changes.
• The mass number (A) of the element is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons or the total number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
• The nucleon number of an element is total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of its atom.
• Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different number
ofneutrons are called isotopes. They are the atoms of the same element with different
masses.
• Isobars are the atoms with same mass number but different atomic number.

3.2 ELECTRONIC ST RUCT URES (E LECTRO N CONFI GU RATIONS)

The way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom is ve1y
impottant because the electron atTangernent detennines the chemical properties of the atom.
The an-angement of electTOns in an atom was suggested in 19 13 by Niels Bohr.
(a) Main Shells
Electrons move round the nucleus in deilnite shells or orbits. Each shell is numbered
I, 2, 3, 4, and so on, going outwards fi'om the nucleus. They are also known as K shell , L
shell , M shell, N shel l, and so on, as shown in Figure 3.3. Each shell has different energy
levels and can contain a limited number of electrons. In general, the closer the shell is to
the nucleus, the lower is its energy. The maximum number of electrons in each shell which
could contain can be calculated by the form ul a 2n~!, where n is the shell number.

shell number I 2 3 4
main shell K L M N
maximum number of
2 8 18 32
electrons

Figure 3.3 Diagrammatic Representation ofthe Nucleus and

the Electron Shells in an Atom (not to scale)

29
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(b) Sub-shells
Each main shell is again divided into a number
of sub-shells (orbitals), s,p, d and/ The letters
used for sub-shells notations: s stands for sharp;p
for principal; d for diffuse andjfor fundamental.
The maximum number of electrons in s,p, d andf
sub-shells is 2, 6, I0 and 14, respectively. The shell
number L (K shell), has only s sub-shell, the shell
number 2 (L shell) bass and p sub-shells, the shell
nwnber 3 (M shell) s, p and d sub-shells and the
shell number 4 (N shell) s, p , d andfsub-sbells and
so on. Therefore, the order offilling the sublevels
is given as: ls1 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s 2 4d10
Figure 3.4 Order of Occupancy of 5p 6 6s2 4/ 4 5d 111 6p6 ••• .
The order in which the sub-shells fill is shown
Sub-shells
in the Figure 3.4, which is ananged so that it is
easiJy remembered. One simply lists the sub-she1ls in order, starting each shell with a new
line. The order of filling them is found by crossing them with diagonal arrows.
(c) Anangement of Electrons
The electronic structures
of smne e lements (auangement of
electrons in an atom ofO, Na and C l) \
described as integer as well as complete
and essential electron configurations
are shown in Figure 3.5.

integer form: 0 (2.6) Na (2.8. 1) CJ (2.8.7)

complete electronic structure:

essential electronic structure:

Figure 3.5 Electronic Structures of Oxygen,

Sodium and Chlorine

This is the arrangement of electrons in shells arow1d the nucleus. Each shell can
hold a certain maximum number of electrons. The e lectrons always go into the shel l nearest
to the nucleus wh ich has lowest energy. Once the shell is fi lled up, the electrons go into next
available shell and so on. Hence, the first shell (K) can hold up two electrons wh ich fil l up
ins sub-shell, subsequent shell (L) up to eight electrons in which nvo ins sub-shell and six
in p sub-shell and so on.

30
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(d) Valence of the Elements (Combining CapacHy)

The shell which is furthest from the nucleus is called the oute1· sbeU. It is also called
the valence s bell. The electrons in this shell are known as oute-1· electrons (or) valence
electrons. These electrons are involved in chemical reactions.
TI1e number of outennost shell electron S 4, Valence= number of outennost shell electrons
The number of outetmost shell electron > 4, Valence= 8- number of outennost shell electrons
For example,
The complete electronic structme of sodium is ls2 2s 2 2p6 3s 1•
The essential electronic structure of sodium is 3s 1•
The outennost shell electron is J and valence is l.
ln the case of fluorine, the essential electronic structure is 2s1 2p', the outennost shell
electron is 7 and its valence is therefore I, i.e., 8 - 7 = 1.

Use Periodic Table to complete the following table:

Integer Essential
Complete electronic
Element electronic electronic Valence
structure
structure structure

Li ls! 2s 1 2s 1

B ls1 2s 2 2p 1 3
Na 2.8.1 3s 1
AI 2.8.3 Ls2 2s?. 2p6 3s1 3p 1

2 .8.8. 1 4s 1
2.8.7 3s1 3p5

Key Terms
The distribution ofelectrons in an arom of an element is called the electronic structure.
• The arrangement of a ll the e lectrons of an atom of the element in appropriate
sub-shells is known as the complete electronic structure.
The representation of the arrangement of valence e lectrons of an atom of the element
in appropriate sub-shells is called the essential electronic structure.
Valence is the number of electrons in the outennost shell when the number of electrons
in the outermost shell is 4 or less . On the other hand, valence is equa l to 8 minus
number of e lectro11s in the outem1ost shell when the number of electrons in tJ1e
outennost shell is greater than 4.

31
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

3.3 THE PERIODIC TABLE

The Periodic Table was devised in 1869 by the Russian chemist Dmitri MendeJeev
( 1834-1907). His Periodic Table was based on the chemical and physical properties of the
63 elements that had been discovered at that time.

1 1 2 3 1 4 10 II I I 12 13 14 15 I 16 17 18 I
1 D III IV V Vl VII 0
~
....,.....,
......H
, He
•
\ --r 8 q [(I

c N
0

2 Li
.....,, Be B 0 F Ne
:1-
n..>ltn•'"

---TI-
I
1.'
"
"
I~
1·1
I;
.!
I
I>·
16
. 'I<
11
~

~·
IK
Na Mg AI Si
.. p s Cl Ar
3
'"":• " :I ..' . ' ,.
"
:n
. I
.. ~
'
' .'55 ,.,
v

"it
1'1 10 ~I " ::!.l ~-~ !.< ~6 27 28 ~,,
JO 3-1 l.' 1(·
4 K
,.
Ca
••u ...
Sc
.,
ll••-.'1..
t1
..
v .
Cr ,Mn Fe Co Ni
' ,,,I
,. ~ .. Cu Zn 9a ..9e As
""" ,.o ·n
Se Br ...
,.,
'"'.
Kr
. ..
-12 -¥,- -~ '45
H
~ ~·
~·~-
•Ill (ol _1.•
37 lS l9 40 ~1 .j(> -17 .jiJ 50 51 5~ 5.~ ;..;
y
~~· Te
Rb ,.,Sr Zr Mo ...Tc ..Ru Rh Pd A!! Cd In Sn T Xe
5
'I
"
"" '"
"ss S6 57-71 71•JI '"n 7-1 .. Nb
,,
.•. .., " "
"''""'
75
lUI
76
f'l!•!o!WI
HI)

77
l'.ollho
IIIlo

78
..
,:\.~
I"
711 "'
8<1
'
"'8 1
'l"
n"" 8.1
~
8-1
l2 ..
8:'i
lji

86
Cs Ba ',, ·I· Hf TaI ,, w Re Os ,,lr Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi ,,Po
.... 'At Rn
6
' Ill I'K
'"88
, ,., II I
.. '"'' 1.. , 1 ·1~
.......
I'"
,.,.,
'"
Mo,,..._
;!'Ill
\lt..t\
l<>l
I
:n-
I.
:;-,) '
~-;~~~'!" ..
7
R7 sq. 1o3 IW lOS lt/6 1!17 108 10'1 110 Ill Ill 113 II ~ 115 IIC, 11 7
l.~~
"g
Fr
.,._
.,,
Ra
,.,,1 " K•
Rf ,,Db Sg Bh Hs .Mr
•t.1 "' .,,, """;:;;·· ,.,., ".,. .
Ds Rg Cn Nb Fl Me Lv
,. ,., \'""""""'',, ...... ... """" '"•t••• \~Wl"l'''""' ·~
l~f;s l).w ....11.. l(,o,:~,,_

... .. ~
I.
Ts
... ,

;q ~· 68 69 711 71
Pr Nd Er Tm Yb Lu

Figua·e 3.6 The Periodic Table

In the modern Periodic Table the 118 known e lements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number (Figure 3.6). This table helps chemists to understand the elements
better and to predict properties of elements.
There are 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows in the Periodic Table. The vertical
columns are called groups. The horizontal rows are called periods. Those elements with
similar chemical properties are found in the same columns or groups.
Group I elements (except hydrogen) are called the alkali metals.
Group J1 elements are called the alkaJjne earth metals.
Group V1 Lelements are called the halogens.
Group 0 elements are known as the noble gases or inert gases.
Groups I and II consist of s -block elements. Groups III, IV, V, VI,VTI and group 0 consist of
p-block elements. Transition elements are tl-block elements. Inner transition elements
(lanthanides and actinides series), also known as rare ea1·th eJements are the f -block
elements.

32
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Chemistry in Society
• Lithium is used to make batteries that power electronic devices like digital cameras.
• Sodium vapour lamps give off yellow-orange light and are often used in street lamps.
• The halogens have many varied uses: fluoride in toothpaste to help reduce dental
decay; chlorine in household bleach to kill bacteria, to whiten ciO'thes, and to clean
swimming pool; bromine as a fire retardant; and iodine in photographic reproduction.
• The metalloid silicon is used to make silicon chips.
• Helium is used for filling weather or advertisement balloons and airships.
• Neon is used in making light and advertising signs.
• Argon is used to fill tungsten bulbs to provide an inert (unreactive) atmosphere that
I'
prevents oxidation of the filament.

U.l'\il' \\ ltuestiun
You are given the following elements: A toG represent unknown elements.
lOA, t7B, JC, 90 , liE, ,gf, t'>G .
(a) Write down the electronic structures of these elements.
(b) Which elements are alkali metals?
(c) Which elements are noble gases?
(d) Which elements are halogens?
(e) Which elements ares-block elements?

Key Terms
The Periodic Table is a list of chemical elements arranged in order of atomic number
in rows, so tl1at elements with similar electronic structures (and hence, similar chemical
properties) appear in ve1iical columns. There are I 8 vertical colwnns and 7 horizonlal
rows in the Periodic Table.
• The elements are classified as alkali metals (group 1), alkaline earth metals (group II),
halogens (group VIl) and noble gases or inert gases (group 0).

3.4 PERIODIC PROPERTTES

The Periodic Table can be used to predict tbe properties of elements. DitTerent
elements have different periodic properties, such as metallic and non-metallic character,
electronegativity, size, ionisation energy and electron affinity of the elements.
(a) Metallic and Non-metaltic Character
As we go from left to right across the Periodic Table, the elements change in properties
from metals to non-metals. The Periodic Table can be divided into two as shown by the dark
line that starts beneath boron (Figure 3.7).

33
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

I II lfl rv v VI VII 0
II II~

-
Li Be B c N () r• Nc
Na Mg AI Si I' s Cl Ar
K C'a St Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Go Ge As Sc Br Kr
Rh Sr y Zr Nb Mu n: Ru Rh I'd Ag Cd In Sn Sb T~ I Xc
Cs Ba ~~rn~a· llf Ta w Re Os lr Pt Au llg Tl Ph Bi Po At Rl'l
Fr Ra \ctmail.h

metalloid - non-metal

Figure 3. 7 Metals, Non-metals and Meta ll o-ids

All elements to the left of the red line are metals.
The elements to the right of the red line are non-metals.
For along each side ofthe red line are elements that have the properties ofboth
metals and non-metals. These elemen ts except Al are called metalloids. Hydrogen is also a
non-metal.
(b) Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair
of electron; the higher the e l ec tronegati vity~ the greater is an atom's attraction for e lectrons.
ln the Periodic Table, in general, electronegativity of elements increases from left to right
across a period. and the bottom of a group to the top (although this does not apply to the
transition metals).
Atoms with high electronegativity tend to form negative ions (e.g., .fluorine, oxygen).
Atoms with low eJectronegativity, wruch is highl.y electropositive elements (e.g., caesium,
potassium) tend to Corm positive ions. In general, metals are the electropositive elements and
non-metals are the electronegative elements. The most electronegative element is fluorine,
and the least electronegative (most e1ectropositi ve) element is caesium.
The noble gases or inert gases are neither electropositive nor electronegat ive. It is
because they have very stable e lectronic structw·es and have little tendency to gain or lose
electrons.
(c) Sizes
Atomic sizes (Atomic radii)
Atomic size is generally described by the radius of an atom. Atontic radii decrease
from left to right across a period. This is because ongoing from left to right across a period,
the nuclear charge (atomic 11umber) increases while the added electrons enter the outermost
shell. The increased nuclear charge attracts the e lectrons in the outermost shell closer to the
nucleus. Hence, the she ll contracts resulting in smaller atoms.
The atomic radii increase from top to bottom down a group in the Periodic Table.
This is because as the number of electrons increases, these additional electrons are in the
larger e lectron shells make farther and farther fmm the nucleus. Hence, the shell expands
resulting in larger atoms.

34
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Ionic sizes
When one or more electrons are removed from a metal atom, a positive ion (a cation)
is formed. Both a positive ion and the parent neutral atom have same nuclear charges. There
is a lesser number of electrons in the positive ion. Hence, the repulsion between electrons is
reduced in the positive ion. Thus, a positive ion is always smaller than its parent atoms.
When one or more electrons are added to a neutral atom, a negative ion (an anion) is
formed. Both a negative ion and the parent neutral atom have same nuclear charges. There
are a greater number of electrons in the negative ion. Hence, the repulsion between electrons
is increased in the negative ion. Thus, a negative ion is always larger than its parent atom .
(d) Ionisation Energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form a
gaseous ion is called the ionisation energy. These electrons are held strongly within the atom
by the attraction ofthe nucleus. Thus, ionisation process can be expressed in an equation.
element(g) + ionisation energy cation(g) + electron
M(g) + energy M+(g) + e
Ionisation energies measure how tightly electrons are bound to atoms. Low ionisation
energies indicate ease of removal of electrons. As ionisation energy (I) increases, atoms are
harder to ionise. Successive ionisation for electrons are represented by I; (i = 1, 2, 3, .... ).
II < I2 < I3 < 00 0

This is because, the nuclear charge increases across a period and the electrons are
more strongly held by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons.
In general, ionisation energies increase from left to right across a period. This is
because, the nuclear charge increases across a period and the electrons are more strongly
held by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. Therefore, more energy
is requ ired to remove an electron from the element.
In general, ionisation energies decrease down a group. This is because the atomic size
increases and the outermost electron is farther from the nucleus making it easier to remove
it. Therefore, less energy is required to remove an electron from the element.
The noble gases have the highest ionisation energies. This is because the noble gases
are known to have the closed electronic structures (the octet) wh ich resist the removal of
electrons.
(e) Electron Affin ity
The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added
to a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion.
element(g) + electron anion(g) + energy
X(g) + e x -(g) + energy
The electron affinities generally increase from left to right across a period.
The electron affinity decreases on moving down a group. This is because the size of
the atom increases and the electron being added goes to higher shells.

35
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

f~\!' h•'' (jut•\tlnus

(I) From the following groups, select the one which has the largest radius. Give reasons.
(a) Fe1"'", Fe3'" (b) Cl, CI- (c) Li, Na, K (d) C. N, 0
(2) Explain which of the fo llowing elements has the highest ionisation energy:
(a) 2.8.1 (b) 2.8.5 (c) 2.8.8
(3) Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing electronegati vity:
oxygen, carbon, fluorine, nitrogen.

Key Terms
MetaUoids are the elements that have the properties of both metals and non-metals.
Metals are the electropositive elements. They tend to lose electrons and fonn positive
1ons.
Non-metals are the electronegative elements. They tend to gain electrons and fonn
negative ions.
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form
a gaseous ion js called the ionisation euergy.
The electron affinity of an element is the energy relea5)ed when an electron is added
Loa gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion.

3.5 BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS

Since atoms ex ist by themselves, they are usually j oined together in groups by chem ical
bonds. There are two ma in ways of fonn ing chemical bonds between atoms: ionic bonding
and covalent bondi ng. There is another important type of chem ica l bonding, called metallic
bonding. This is only found in meta ls.
(a) FoJ·mation ofBouds
The electronic structuJes of noble gases are very stable and w1reactive, so they do not
need Lo lose or gain any extra e lectrons to fi ll up their outermost shells. They do not usua ll y
react with other elements to form compounds.
Atoms of most other elements are reactive. They combine with other atom to form
molecules or compounds. In forming a chemical bond, atoms ga in. lose or share electrons
in such a way to attain the stab le electronic structures ofthe noble gases, i.e., to have eight
electrons in the outermost shell, which is known as octet electron confi guration (Octet
Rule) . Exception is that helium has only two outer electrons. Helium has a duplet electron
configuration.
(b) lons Formation
An ion is formed when an atom loses or gains electrons, so that it has a charge on it.
Metals tend to lose e lectrons to form positively charged ions (cations). Non-metals tend to
gain electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions).

36
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(c) Ionic Bond

An ionic bond is fanned when there is complete transfer of an electron or electrons
from one atom to another resulting in the fonnation of cations and anions. These oppositely
charged ions are held together by a force of electrostatic attraction known as ionic bond .
This kind ofbond occurs mainly between a metal and a non-metal. Compounds that contain
ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.
For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride. In this reaction,
the sodium atom loses an electron to become a sodium ion, Na~ . The electron is taken by a
chlorine atom to become a chloride ion, Cl- (Figme 3.8). There is a transfer of an electron
from sodium atom to the chlorine atom. In this way, sodium ion and chloride ion achieve
the electron configuration of the stable noble gas .

....
sodium atom chlorine atom sodium ion chloride ion
(2.8.1) (2.8.7) (2.8) (2.8.8)
Figure 3.8 Fomtation of an Ionic Bond in Sodium Chloride

(d) Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electron between two atoms by weak
intermolecLtlar forces of attraction . Covalent bonds are formed when non-metal reacts with
one another.
T he bond can be formed between atoms of the same element (e.g., H2 , 0 1 and
N 2 molecules) or between atoms of the different elements (e.g., C02, H10, NH 3 and CH4
molecules).
When a pair of electrons is shared, a single covalent bond is formed. When two pairs
of electrons are shared, a double covalent bond is formed.
Dot-cross diagrammatic representation is used to explain more explic itly for the bond
formation between atoms.
(i) Covalent bond in same elements
H 2 molecule contains a single covalent bond .

H • x H

two hydrogen atoms

•
one hydrogen molecule
(or) H~ H

37
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

0 2 molecule contains a double covalent bond .

•
• • XX
(OJ') :0: ~ 0 ~

two oxygen atoms one oxygen molecule

N 2 molecule contains a triple covalent bond.

,.-x .......-.......

• NfN
I
•• t N
X
X ¥
f (or) :N ! ~N~
•1
-...._..;'
*
two nitrogen atoms one nitTogen molecule

(ii) Covalent bond in different elements

When atoms of different elements are joined together by covalent bond ing, a covalent
compound or molecular compound is formed.
C 0 2 molecule

•
)(X )()(

(or) ~ 0 ~ : C: ~ 0 ~

one carbon two oxygen one carbon dioxide

atom atoms molecule

x H
(or) ~o ..
x H ii~

one oxygen two hydrogen one water

atom atoms molecu le

38
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

N~molecule
•
• x H
..
i H~ N ~H
•
• -'
+
X H xH • Xe
H
(or) H :N ;H
>< •
H

one nitrogen three hydrogen one ammonia

atom atoms molecule

CH .. molecule
H
X 1-J X H /~\
H

• H(~ C ~ H
• ><
+ (or) H~C ; H
>< •
>< H X H
'-..~ H
1-l

one carbon four hydrogen one methane

atom atoms molecule

{e) The Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

The physical properties of compounds depend on the type ofbonding in the compounds.
The physical propetties of ionic and covalent compounds are shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 The Physical Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

No. Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Ionic compounds do not contain
1 molecules. They consist of aggregates Covalent compounds consist of molecules.
of oppositely charged ions.

Simple covalent compounds are gases or

lonic compounds are solids and do not
2 volatile liquids (e.g., ammonia, carbon
vaporise easjly.
dioxide, ethanol).
They conduct electticity when molten or Most of simple covalent compounds do not
3 in aqueous solution. conduct electricity.

Most ionic compounds have high melting Simple covalent compounds have low
4 points and high bo iling points. melting points and low boiling points.

Most ion ic compounds are so luble in S impl e covalent compounds are usually
water but not usually soluble in organic insoluble in water and solub le in covalent
5
solvents such as toluene, ether, benzene, organi c solvents, such as toluene, ether,
etc. benzene, etc.

39
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

C hemistry in Daily Life

tonic compounds are extremely common in daily life, but not before humans were
able to discover, extract and use these compounds. Table sa lt (NaCI, sod ium chloride);
baking soda (NaHC03 , sodium hydrogen carbonate); milk of magnes ia (Mg(O H) 1,
magnesium hydroxide) (to treat indigestion); limestone, chalk, marble (CaC03, calcium
carbonate); rust (Fe20 3, iron(lll) oxide); are examp les of ionic compounds. Methane
(CH4 , main ingredient in natural gas), hydrochloric acid (HCl), water (H 10) an.d ammonia
(N H3) are some exampl es of covalent compounds.

table sa lt baking soda milk ofmagneisa

Re\' iew Questions

(I) Lithium has the electronic structure 2.1. Fluorine has the electronic structure 2.7.
Lithium and fluo rine react together to form an ionic lithium f1uor·ide. Draw the
arrangement of electrons in fluorine and \ilhium. Explain how ionic bond is formed
in lithium fluoride.
(2) Carbon has the electronic stntcture 2.4. Chlorine bas the electronic structure 2.8.7. Draw
the structure of the compound formed between carbon and chlorine.

Key Terms
• A charged particle is an ion.
Cation is a positively charged ion.
• Anion is a negatively charged ion.
In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such a way to
attain the stable electronic structures of the noble gases, i.e., to have eight electrons
in the outermost shell. This is known as the octet rule.
• An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of an electron or e lectrons from
one atom to another resulting in the fonnation of cations and anions. These oppositely
charged ions are held together by a force of electrostatic attraction known as ionic
bond.
• A covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms by weak
intermolecular force of attraction.

40
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

EXERCISES
1. Identify whether each of the following statement is TRUE or FALSE. Give your reasons
for considering a statement which is FALSE.
(a) Atoms of the same element have the same number of neutrons.
(b) Atoms of different elements can have the same number of nucleon.
(c) The s-subshell contains 2 electrons.
(d) The 4s-sublevel comes before the 3d sublevel.
(e) The fundamental particle not present in a hydrogen atom is the proton.
(f) The mass of an electron is almost equal to the mass of a proton.
2. Match each of the items given in List A with the appropriate correct item shown in List B.
L~tA LbtB
(a) proton (i) increases down the group
(b) alkali metals (ii) covalent bond
(c) sharing electrons (iii) 2 x n2 (n = shell number)
(d) number of electrons in the main nlhshell (iv) lowest electron affinity
(e) atomic size (v) in the nucleus
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct word(s), phrase, term etc., as necessary.
(a) Atoms of the same element that have same atomic number but different atomic
masses are
(b) Isobars are the elements with same number of _ __
(c) From top to bottom in a given group, the atomic number increases and the size of
the atom
(d) Second ionisation energy is _ _ than first ionisation energy.
(e) The number of electrons in outermost shell of 11Na is _ _ .
(f) The mass of an atom is mainly concentrated in _ _.
4. Select the correct word(s), notation(s), term(s) etc. given in the brackets.
(a) The atom without neutron(s) is [hydrogen; helium; caesium; lithium].
(b) In Periodic Table, valence electrons are indicated by [group number; shell number;
period number; atomic mass].
(c) The element at the group VII and the period 3 in the Periodic Table is [X (2.7);
y (2.8.3); z (2.8.7); Q (2.8.8.2)].
(d) If number of protons and electrons are 8 respectively, valence electrons are [ 2; 4;
6; 8] in number.
(e) [CI-; Cl+; Cl; cF-] is stabilised by electron octet.
5. (a) How many electrons, neutrons and protons are there in the following elements?
Write down their complete electronic structures.
12c s6p 3sc1 4oc 4sT· ssM
6 ' 26 e, 11 ' 20 a, 22 I, 2s n, 4ss
21 c

(b) Write the complete symbol for the atom with the given atomic number (Z) and
atomic mass (A).
(i)Z = 17,A = 35 (ii)Z = 12,A = 24 (iii)Z = 4,A = 9 (iv)Z= 19,A=39

41
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

6. (a) Draw diagrammatic representation of the following atoms by using shell or energy
level:
(i) ~Be (ii) '~F (iii) ~!Si (iv) t~K
(b) For the elements in above question, give the valence electrons and the number of
neutrons for each.
7. (a) Rewrite the correct complete electronic structures given below.
(i) 1s2 2s2 2p4 3s2 (ii) 1s2 2s 1 2p6 (iii) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3p3 3s2 (iv) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 4s2
(b) What are the atomic numbers of elements whose outermost electrons are represented
by (i) 3s 1 (ii) 2s2 2p3 and (iii) 3s2 3p5 ?
8. Which atoms are indicated by the following configurations?
(a) [He] 2s 1 (b) [Ne) 3s2 3p3 (c) [Ar) 4s2
9. (a) Write the complete and essential electronic structures using noble gases as a core for
Li, 0, Mg, Al, Cl, Ca.
(b) Give the group, period and valence of the above elements.
(c) Which of the above element is in period 3 and group II?
10. An element X in period 3 of the Periodic Table has six outer shell electrons.
(a) In which group of the Periodic Table is X?
(b) What is the name and symbol of X?
(c) How many electron shells are there in an atom of X?
(d) Is the element X a metal or non~ metal?
(e) What is the atomic number ofthe element X?
11. Complete the following table and answer the following questions:
Element X Element Y Element Z
atomic number 11 6
number of protons 16
number of neutrons 12 6 16
mass number 12 32
electronic structure 2.8.1
valence 4
position in Periodic Table group VI, period 3
(a) Which of the above elements X, Y and Z is a metal?
(b) What type of bond ing exists between X and Z?
Write down the most likely formula of this compound using the symbols X and Z.

42
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

atomic number

arranged in
order of increasing
number in

noble
gases

attraction with
other non-metal

have

high boiling not

and melting dissoh•c
in are
poi.nts

gases or
organic " oJatile
solvents liquids

43
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER THE QUANTITIES OF SUBSTANCES:

4 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

The state of the art of chemistTy lies on the chemical calculations, which are mai nl y
based on the quantities of chemical tenns (especially the chemical symbol and the Mole) and
other relevant data. In this modern day, chemical ingredients and their percent amounts have
to be labelled under rules and regu lations. For instance, a farmer must not only know the soil
fertiliser symbols, such as N P K, but also the percent amount of soil nutrients. Therefore,
chemical calcul ations have many important uses and applications in chemistry.

Lea r ning Ou tcomes

After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
• distinguish among the relative atomic mass of sample elements, the relative molecular
mass and the relative formula mass of sample substances;
• write chemical symbols, formu lae, word equations and chemical equations based on
infonnation provided;
• solve calculations based on chemical equations;
• solve the molar volume of a gas based on infonnation provided;
• explain the connection between the mole and Avogadro's constant;
• solve mole calculations and the mole ratio of the reactants and products based on
balanced chemical equations.

4.1 RELATIVE MASSES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Atoms and molecules are particles that make up matter. TI1ey have mass. For example,
the quantity of a cube ( 1 cm3 ) of gold is heavier than a cube ( 1 cm3) of alumin ium. However,
in chemical calculations, chem ists use relative masses of atoms and molecules on the basis
of a designated standard un it mass, called atomic mass unit (amu).
(a) Relative Atomic Mass
Atoms of different elements have different masses. Therefore, when chemical
calculations are performed involving different atoms, we need to know how one atom
is heavier or lighter than the other atoms. The mass of a single atom is so small that it is
impossible to weigh it directly. To overcome thi s problem, we then compare this mass of
atoms with the mass of the same number of ' standard' atoms. Now, scientists have chosen
to use the isotope carbon-1 2 as the new standard because carbon-12 is the most abundant
isotope than carbon-13 and carbon-14.
The mass of an atom is called its atomic mass. Por the fact that the size of an atom is
too small to be weighed practicall y, relative atomic mass (A) is therefore used to represent
the mass of an atom of an element. Thus, the relative atomic mass of an element is the average

44
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

mass of one atom of the element compared with one twelfth the mass of one atom of the
carbon-12 ( 12C) isotope whose mass i.s exactly 12.
average mass of one atom of the element
Relative atomic mass of an element= - - - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+of t he mass of one atom ofcarbon- 12
L
Atomic mass unit (amu)
Atomic mass unit (amu) is precisely one twelfth the mass of one atom ofcarbon-1 2.
1 a mu equals one twelfth the mass of one atom of C-12 exactly.
Example L: A magnesium atom has tw ice the mass of a 11C atom. What is the relative
atomic mass of magnesium? (C = 12)
average mass of one atom of the element
Relative atomic mass of an element=
J,
of the mass of one atom of carbon- 12
L
2 x mass of one atom of carbon-12
Relative atomic mass of magnesium =
1~ x mass of one atom of carbon-12

2 12 X
Relative atomic mass of magnesium = = 24
_l_ x 12
12

Average relative atomic masses

To calculate the relative atomic mass of an element, we must know (a) the isotopic
masses ofthe various isotopes present in the e lement and (b) the relative abundance ofthe
isotopes in natw-e.
Example 2: Magnesium consists of three isotopes. One isotope has the relative mass 24
and its relative abundance is 78.6 %. The second isotope has relative mass 25 and its relative
abundance is 10.1 %. The third isotope has relative mass 26 and its relative abundance is
11.3 %. Calculate the average relative atomic mass of magnesium.
Tbe average relative atomic mass = (78.6 % x 24) + ( I0.1 % x 25) + ( 11 .3 % >< 26)
of magnesium

18.86 + 2.53 + 2.94 = 24.33

(b) Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass
The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a molecule is the mass of one molecule of a
substance on a sca le where the carbon-1 2 isotopes has a mass of exactly 12 units (12 amu).
Thus, the relative molecular mass (Mr) can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses
of all the atoms present in the molecule.
Hence, the relative molecular mass (Mr) is defined as the average mass of one molecule
of a substance when compared with one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon- 12.

45
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

average mass of one molecule of a substance

Relative molecular mass of a molecule = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
-1- of the mass of one atom of carbon- I 2
12

Ionic compounds, such as sodium chloride and magnesium oxide consist of ions
and not molecul_es. For ionic compounds, we use the term relative formula mass instead
of relative molecular mass.
Example 3: What is the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide, C02 ? The relative
atomic masses of carbon and oxygen are 12 and 16, respectively.
Relative molecular mass of Relative atomic mass Relative atomic mass of
carbon dioxide of one carbon atom + two atoms of oxygen
12 + 2 X 16
12 + 32
44
Example 4: Calculate the formula mass of copper(ll) sulphate, CuSOdt.
(Given: Cu = 63.5 amu, S = 32 amu, 0 = 16 amu)

+ atomic mass of +
Formula mass of atomic mass of atomic mass of
=
copper( Tl) sulphate one copper atom one sulphur atom four atoms of ox,ygen
63.5 amu + 32 amu + 4 x 16 amu
63.5 amu + 32 amu + 64 amu
159.5 amu

f{t.'\ il''' f)ul' riun ~

( 1) Calculate the relative formu la mass of sodium chloride, NaCI. (Na = 23 and C l = 35.5)
(2) Calculate the relative molecular mass of glucose, C 6 H 110 6.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1, C = 12 and 0 = 16)
Key Terms
Relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom of that element compared to
one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12. The rela tive molecu Jar mass is the
sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecule.
• Relative molecula r mass is the mass of one molecule of a substance compared to
one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
• The relative formula mass of an ionic compound is the sum of the relative atomic
masses of all the atoms in the fonnula.

4..2 CHEM ICA L SYM BOL S, F ORM UL A E, WRITI NG AN D NA MI NG

FORM ULAE
Every compound has a formula as well as a name. The formula is made up of the
symbols for the elements. Symbo ls, fonnulae and equations are bits of chemica l shorthand,
useful because of a large amount of information which they contain.

46
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(a) Sy mbols
A symbol is a shorthand notation of an element. The first letter in the name of an
element is usually chosen as the symbol of the element When the names of two or more
elements begin with the same letter, the first letter together with another letter in the name
of an element is chosen as the symbol of the e lement. A symbol represents an atom of' the
element and the mass of an atom.
Sy mbols of some elements
The symbols of some elements are taken from English names. The symbols of some
other elements, wh ich have been known since earlier times, are taken from Latin names
{Tables 4.1 and 4.2).
Table 4.1 Symbols of Some Metallic Elements

English name Latin name Symbol E ng lish name Symbol

SodiLLtn Natrium Na Calcium Ca

Potassium Kalium K Barium Ba

lron FeiTum Fe Ma~nesium Mg

Tin Stannum Sn Aluminium AI

Lead flumJlum Pb Manganese Mn
Copper Cuprum Cu Zinc Zn
Mercury Hydrargynun Hg Chromium Cr
S.ilver Ar~entum Ag £,1a1inum Pt

Gold Aurum Au
Antimony S.tihium Sb

Table 4.2 Symbo]s of Some Noo- Metallic Elements

Name Symbol Name Sym bol

Carbon c Nitrogen N
.Sulphur s Chlorine Cl
Ehosphorus p Bromine Br
Oxygen 0 Iodine 1
!::!ydrogen H

47
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(b) Formu lae

(i) Molecular formulae of elements
A molecular formula is a shorthand notation representing a molecule or a compound
of a s ubstance. Tt shows the number of atoms contained in a molecule or a compound.
A molecular fo rmul a also represents a molecule of the corresponding elements.
For exa mple, C l2 means a molecuJe of ch lorine. 202 means two molecules of oxygen.
(ii) Molecular for mula.e of compounds
For those compounds which exist in the form of molecules, a formu la represents a
molecule as well as the molecular mass of the compound.
A molecule of carbon monoxide contains an atom of carbon and an atom of oxygen.
The molecular formula of carbon monoxide is CO. A molecule of ammonia consists of an
atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen. The molecular form ula of ammonia is NH3 .
(iii) Formulae for non-molecular compounds
For those compounds which exist in the fom1 of g iant structure, a form ula represents
the simplest uni t of the compound.
For exa mple, in sodium ch loride the simplest unit consists of an atom of sodium
and an atom of chlorine, because sodi um and ch lorine combine in the atomic ratio 1: I . So,
the form ula of sodium chlmide is NaCl.
Similarly, the formula ofmagnesium oxi.d e is MgO.
Note: As compounds of giant structure do not have separate molecules, they cannot have
molecular mass. So, formula mass is used instead of molecuJru· mass.
(iv) Empirica l formula
The flrst step in identifying a chemical formuJa is to find out its empirical formula.
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula of the compow1d. [t shows
• the types of elements present in the compound;
• the simplest ratio of the different types of the atoms in the compound.
Example J: When 1.55 g of phosphorus is completely combusted, 3.55 g of an oxide
of phosphorus is produced. Deduce the empirical fonnula of th is oxide of phosphorus.
(0 = 16, P=31)
p 0
Step l the mass of each element 1.55 3.55 - l.55 = 2.00

Step 2 divide by relative atomic masses '3~5 = 0.05 2.00 =0

16
)? 'i
. -··

Step 3 divide by the lowest n umber 0.05 = I 0.125 = 2 5

0.05 0.05 .
I X 2= 2 2.5 X 2=5

Step 4 empirical formula (must be in integers) ~ Os

An empirical tonnula can also be deduced from data that give the percentage composition
by mass of the elements in a compound.

48
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Example 2: A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 85.7 % of carbon and 14.3 %
ofhydrogen by mass. Deduce the empirical fmmula of this hydrocarbon. (H = l , C = 12)
C H
Step 1 the % by mass 85.7 14.3
14.3
Step 2 divide by relative atomic masses 81527 = 7. t42 l = ]4.3

Step 3 divide by the lowest number 7.142 = l 111..=)

7.142 7. !42 -
Step 4 empirical fommla
(v) Calculation involv ing formulae
Using molecular form ula
For some compOLmds such as magnesium oxide, tbe empirical formula accurately
shows the number of atoms in the compound. However, it is possible that the actual formula
differs from the empirical fmmula. For example, the empirical formula of pbosphorus(V)
oxide is P10 5 , while its actual formula is P40 10 •
We call the actual formula of a compound the molecular fotmula.
When the empirical and molecular fonnulae of a compound are different, the molecular
Connula is always a multiple of the empirical fonnula.
Molecular formula= n x empirical formula, where n is I, 2, 3, 4 ... .
Exa mple: A compound bas the empirical fonnula CH1 Br. Jts relative mo1ecular mass is 188.
Deduce the molecular fonnula of this compound. (Br = 80, C = 12, H = I)
Step 1 empirical formula mass ofCH2Br = 12 + (2 x 1) + 80 = 94
1 8
Step 2 divide the relative molecular mass by the empirical formula mass =
9~ = 2

Step 3 multiply the number of atoms in the empirical formula = 2 x CH2Br

by the number in step 2
So molecular fommla is C2 H ~Br2 •
Empirical and mo lecular fonnulae of some compounds are shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Empirical and Molecular Formulae of Some Compounds

E mpirical 'Molecular Empirical Molecular

Compound Compound
formula form ula formula formula
water H:P H:P tnethane CH .j CH4
hydrogen
HO H20 1 cyclopropane CH1 C>Htt
peroxide
sulphur
dioxide
so a so 2
butane CzHs C.JHIII

49
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Percentage composition by m ass

The formula of a compound and relati ve atomic masses can be used to calcuJate the
percentage by mass of a particular element in a compound .
relative atomic mass x number of atoms of that element in particular
compound
%by mass = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x 100
relat1ve molecular (formu la) mass of a compound
Exao1ple I : Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(Ill) oxide (fe20J
(Fe = 56, 0 = 16)
Step 1 Ca lculate the mass of an element in the compound.
(i) formula of iron(lll) oxide = Fe20 3
(i i) relative fom1ula mass of Fe,O. = [(2 x56) + (3 x 16)] = 160
- J

Step 2 Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(TII) oxide.

relative atomic mass of Fe x 2
(iii)% mass of iron = . . x 100
relattve formula mass of Fe,O.
- ,
56 X 2
(iv) = 160 X I 00 = 70 %

Example 2: Calcu late Lhe percentage by mass of nitrogen in ammon ium nitrate (NH4N03 )
fertiliser which is used by fanners to increase the yield of crops. (N = 14, H = I, 0 = 16)
formula of ammonium ninate = NH~N03
relative formula mass ofNH4N0 1 = [14+(4 xt)+ 14 + (3 x 16)] = 80
relative atomic mass ofN x 2 14 x 2
'Vo mass ofnitrooen=
0 . , x 100 = x 100 = 35%
relat1ve formula mass ofNH4N03 80

(c) \tVriting and Naming Form ulae

It seems to be difficult to learn how to write the formulae and the name of a large
number of different compotmds. But it is not so difficult if we know
(1) the combining capacity of the atoms of different elements and how to use them in
fonnula writing. and
(2) the rules for naming compounds.
Combining capacity or valence
The combini ng capacity or valence of an element is represented by the number of
atoms of hydrogen, chlorine or sodium that combine with one atom of that elemenr. The
term 'valence' is also used to express combin ing capacity.
Different atoms have different combining capacities. Chlorine, for example will
combine with sodium, calcium or aluminium to form NaCl, CaCl:! or AIC1 3, respectively. So
sodium has a combining capacity of l , calcium a combining capacity of2 and aluminium a
combining capac.ity of 3 in these compounds.

50
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(i) Fixed combining capacity of certain elements

The element sodium reacts with other elements to form compounds in which it shows
electropositive character and a constant combining capacity of I.
(ii) Variable combining capacities of certain elements
Two different compounds of copper and chlorine are known. TI1ey are copper( I)
chloride CuCl, and copper(l l) chloride, CuClr Other examples include FeC I2 and FeCl3;
Hg10 and HgO.
Oxidation number
Oxidation number describes the combini11g capacity oft he element and also indicates
the positive and negative nature of its atoms in the compOtmds. The oxidation number is
related to, but not identical with valence or combining capacity.
The use of oxidation numbers
In the compounds formed by the combination of metals with non-metals, the metals
always show electropositive character. The combi ning capacities of the metals in such
cases are expressed by using positive oxidation numbers. The combining capacities of the
non-metallic elements are expressed by using negative oxidation numbers. For example, in
NaCl, the oxidation number of sodiwn is+ 1, and that of chlorine is - 1.
In compounds formed by the combi nation of one non-metal with another, the more
electropositive element is ass igned a positive oxidat ion number and the other is assigned a
negative oxidation num ber. For example, in HCI, hydrogen is assigned an oxidation number
of + 1 and ch Iarine is assigned an oxidation number of - 1.
Combining capacity and common oxidation number of some elements are shown in
Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Combining Capacity and Common Oxidation Number of Some Elements

Combining Symbol with Combining Symbol with

Name Name
carJacity oxidation number capacity oxidation number

sod ium ( Na 1• mercury I, 2 H o l+, 2r

'5
potassium I K 'l silver I Ao...... l +

calcium 2 Ca 2+
carbon 2,4 c z+,4l

barium 2 Ba1"' sulphur 2,4,6 s 2- .4+, 1!1

magnesium 2 Mg2+ phosphorus 3,5 p 3+.5+

aluminium 3 AP• oxygen 2 o~-

manganese 2,4, 7 Mn2•. 4 . 1• hydrogen I HI +

zmc 2 Zn1"' fluorine I pi -
1ron 2, 3 Fe 2 +.J~ chlorine I cl' -
tin 2,4 Sn2t-, 4+ brom ine I Br 1-
lead 2,4 Pb2 •,o~• iodine I } I-

copper I. 2 Cu 1+, J; nitrogen I. 2. 3, 4, 5 N.l- 1·. ~~.3+,·H 5·

51
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

The rules for writing and naming compounds

For convenience we will explain the formula writing and the naming of compounds
in the order of : binary compounds, acids and acid radicals, bases and basic radicals,
salts and hydroxides.
(i) Binary compounds
A binary compound is a compound which contains two elements only. Metallic
binary compounds contain a metal, and non metallic binary compounds contain non-metallic
elements only.
Order of symbols in a formula: The more electropositive element present in the
compound with positive oxidation number is written in front of the symbol of the element
with negative oxidation number. One exception is NH 3 in which the symbol of nitrogen with
negative oxidation number (N) is written first.

positive oxidation number negative oxidation number

I first symbol I I second symbol]

Writing formulae of binary compounds: Jn the formula of a compound, the algebraic

sum of the oxidation numbers must be equal to zero.

The sum of positive oxidation numbers + the sum of negative oxidation numbers = 0

By applying this rule we can find out the number of atoms of each element which
should be present in a formula.
Example : When H and S combine with each other what will be the possible form ula?
The ox idation number of H is + 1. The ox idation number ofS is- 2.
H '+ + H '+ + sz- = (H2S)0
:. The form ula = H 2S
Other examples are:
Na and Cl Na 1+ + Cl'- = (NaCI)0 :. The form ula = NaCI
Ca and 0 = (Ca0)0 :. The formula= CaO
2 0
Mg and Cl Mg ++ Cl'- + Cl'- = (MgCiz) :. The formu la = MgCI 2
Aland 0 Al 3+ + Al 3+ + 0 2- + 0 2- + 0 2- = (Al2 0 3 ) 0 :. Th e £ormu la= Al 20 3

N aming binary compounds

Compounds in which the first element has a fixed oxidation number
The elements such as H '+, K' +, Na 1+, Ca2+, Zn2+ etc., have fixed oxidation numbers.
Binary compounds in which the more electropositive element with fixed oxidation
number is in the first place of the formu la are named thus;

52
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

I Name of the first element Name ofthe second element ending in - ide
(Usually the change to - ide is in the second syllable of the name.)
Example: H 2S Hydrogen sulph ide BaCI2 Barium ch loride
CaO Calcium oxide AIN Aluminium nitride
Compounds in which the first element has a variable oxidation number
The elements such as C, S, Fe, Cu have variable oxidation numbers.
When the more electropositive element in the compound has variable oxidation
numbers the name should be given thus:
(1) For the na ming of non-metallic binar y compounds, Greek prefixes (e.g., mono-,
di-, tri-, etc.) are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element in the compound.
The name of the second element is ended with the syllable -ide. In those cases where there
is only one atom of the first element, the use of the prefix mono is not necessary.
di, tri, Name of mono, di, tri, Name of the second
tetra, etc. the first element tetra, penta,etc. element ending in -ide
F or exa mple,
dinitrogen monoxide (dinitrogen oxide) nitrogen dioxide
nitrogen monoxide (nitrogen oxide) dinitrogen pentoxide
dinitrogen trioxide carbon tetrachloride
(2) For naming the metallic binary compounds, the name of the more electropositive
metall ic element with variable oxidation number is given first, fo llowed by the Roman
Numeral in brackets to state its oxidation number in the compound and the name of the
second element ending -ide, is added.
Name of Oxidation number of the first Name of the second
the first element element (in Roman Numeral) element ending in -ide

F or exa mple, FeCl2 iron(II) chloride Cu20 copper(!) oxide

FeCI 3 iron(III) chloride CuO copper(II) oxide
PbO Jead(II) oxide HgO mercury(Il) oxide
(ii) Acids and acid r adicals
The formula of hydrochloric acid is HCI. In HCl only one atom of hydrogen, H, is
present. When H is removed from the formu la, the remaining part is -Cl. This represents the
acid radical of hydrochloric acid.
The formula of sulphuric acid is H 2SO4 in which there are two H atoms. When one H
is removed from the formula, the remaining part is -HS04 • This represents one acid radical
of su lphuric acid. In -HS04 one H atom is still present. When this H atom is also removed,
-HS04 becomes> S04 • Th is represents another acid radical of sulphuric acid.
In naming the acids which have hydrogen atoms in their molecules the name of

53
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

acid radical -ic is changed to -ide, e.g., the acid radical of hydrochloric acid is ch lmide.
-ic acid, [hydrochloric ac id (HCl)] -ide, [chloride Ct-]
In naming the acids which have oxygen atoms in their molecu les the names of the
acid radicals are as foll ows:
-ous acid, [nitrous acid (HNO~)] ) -ite, [nitrite (NO:;)J
-ic acid, [nitric acid (HN03)] -ate, [ni11·ate (NOj)]
In naming the acid radicals containing H , the word hydrogen is placed before the
name of tbe acid radical. For example, HSO~ = hydrogen sulphite
From the above principles, you can derive the formula, the name and the oxidation
number of an acid radical from the name and t he formul a of t he con·esponding acid. The
name and the oxidati on number of the acid radical may be derived from the name of acid as
shm.vn in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Acids and Acid Radicals

N umber
Formula Acid Oxidation
Name of acid N ame of acid radical of acid
of acid radical number
radica l
hydrochloric acid HCl Cl chloride - I 1

hydrobromic acid J-lBr Br- bromide -J l

hydriodic acid Hl 1- iodide - I l

nitrous ac id HNO, No-l nitrite - l l
-
nitric acid HN03 NO-3 nitrate - 1 1

chloric acid HCIO,_, C\ 0~J chlorate - I I

Hco-.3 hydrogen carbonate - 1

carbonic acid H2CO~ 2
C02- carbonate - 2
3

1rso:-> hydrogen stdphite - 1

sulphurous acid H 2S0 3 2
S01- sulphite - 2
3

HSO; hydrogen sulphate -I

sulphutic acid H ~S04 2
S02- sulphate -2
4

ll2 PO; dihydrogen phosphate - 1

phosphoric acid HlO~ HP024- hydrogen phosphate - 2 3

pQ3- phosphate -3
4

54
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(iii) Bases and basic radkals

The ion formed after removal of hydroxide ions (OH- ions) from a base is called
basic radical. For example, when NaOH (base) loses OH- ion, it forms Na+ ion which is
basic radicaL The name and the oxidation number of the basic radical may be de1ived from
the name ofbase as shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Bases and Basic Radicals

Formula Basic Name of Oxidation Number of

Name of base
of base radical basic radical number basic radical

sodiutn hydroxide NaOH Na"' sodium +1 1

potassium
KOH K· potassium + 1 1
hydroxide

magnesium
Mg(OH)~ Mg1+ magnesium +2 1
hydroxide

calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)~ CaJ· calcium +2 I

ammonium
NH~OH NH·4 ammonium +I I
hydroxide

(iv) Salts
·w riting the formu la of a salt
The formula of a salt consists of two parts. The first part is the metal atom or the
ammonium radical. The second part is the acid radical.

IMetal atom or NH; I I Acid radical

I First part I I Second part

When writing the formula of a salt, the algebraic sum ofthe oxidation numbers must
be equal to zero.
For example, to get the formula of sodium su lphate, we must combine the Na- with
thesor ln order to make the ..sum of the total oxidation number equal to zero, we must
combine 2Na+ with So~-.

Then the sum ofthe oxidation numbers = 2 (+ I) + ( - 2) = 0

:. The required formula

55
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Other examples are:

(i) K+ + No - = KNOO
3 ~

(ii) Ca2+ + so 2-
4
CaS04
(iii) Ca2+ + Hco-3 + HCO~ = Ca (HC0)2
(iv) NH+ +
4
NH+
4
+ so42- = (NH4)2S0 4
Naming salts
N aming the salt containing a metal atom with fixed ox idation number or an
ammonium radical
The name of the salt begins with the name of the metal or ammonium radical, followed
by the name of the acid radical as shown below.
Ca (N03\ calcium nitrate
KN0 3 potassium nitrate
(NH 4 ) 2S04 ammon ium sulphate
Naming the salt in which the metal atom has a variable oxidation number
The name begins with the name of the metal, with Roman Numeral, indicating the
oxidation number of the metal atom and fo llowed by the name of the acid rad ical.
For example: FeS04 iron(II) sulphate
Fe/S04)3 iron(III) sulphate
Note: The Roman Numeral represents the oxidation number of the metal atom.
(v) Hydroxides
Writing the formula of hydroxide
All hydroxides include one or more - OH radicals of oxidation number- 1 in their
formulae. The first part is the metal atom or the ammonium radical. The second part is the
- OH radical.

Metal atom or NH: Hydroxide radical

~---F_i_rs_t_p_a_rt----~~ ~~---s_e_c_o_n_d_p_a_r_t__~
When writing the formu la of a salt, the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers must
be equal to zero.
Naming hydroxides
Hydroxides are named in the same way as the naming of salts, but the name of acid
radical is replaced by the word hydroxide. For example,
the metal atom with fixed oxidation number NaOH sodium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide

56
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

lhe metal atom with variable oxidation number Fe(OH)2 iron(H) hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 iron(l lf) hyd roxide
the ammonium radical NH40 H ammoniwn hydroxide

Chemistry in Society
• An important use of empirical formula calculation is in organic chemistry. Almost every
day a new organic compound is either discovered or made in the laboratory. To find
the tbrmula ofthe new substance, a sample is analysed to obtain the mass of percentage
composition of each element in the compound. From the data, the empirical formula is
then worked out. The relative molecular mass and the molecular formula are also being
determined.
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), NaHC03, is used in the manufacture of
some toothpaste and as a raising agent in food production. The purity ofthis substance
can be obtained by measuring how much carbon dioxide is given off.
• Not only chemists need to know about percentage composition. so do farmers. An
important element for the growth of plants is nitrogen. If a soil is low in natural nitrogen
compow1ds, plants do not grow as well. Therefore, a farmer can add required amount
of artificial nitrogen fertiliser (urea, CO(NH~) 1 ) to the soil.
• l n the food and pharmaceutical industries, it is crucial to know the purity of the
products and the formulae. Therefore, they mllst be labelled under the food and
drugs rules and regulations.
• In some commercial products the chemical formulae are used to describe the chemical
compounds.

ltcvic\\ ( lucnion'J
(I) Write the empirical formulae for (a) hydrazine, N 1 H-t (b) octane, C8H 18 (c) benzene ~
C 6 H6 and (d) ammonia, NH3 •
(2) The composition by mass of a hydrocarbon is 10 % hydrogen and 90 % carbon.
Deduce the empirical formula of this hydrocarbon. (C = 12, H = I)
(3) Write the formu\a of each of the fo llowing compounds:
magnesium sulphate, potassium carbonate, lead(ll) ch loride, zinc oxide,
ammonium sulphate, aluminium chloride, sulphur trioxide, sodium bromide

Key Terms
• Empirical formuJa shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Molecular formula shows tl1e total number of atoms of each element present .in one
molecule or one fonnu la unit of the compound.
Oxidation number describes the combining capacity of the element and also .indicates
the positive and negative nature of its atoms in the compounds. The oxidation number
is re lated to, but not identical with valence or combining capachy.

57
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

4.3 C HEMlCAL EQUATIONS

When carbon is burnt in air, carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
This is a chentical change. The process of undergoing a chemical change is caJled a chemical
reaction. A chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation. A balanced chetnical
equation helps us to calculate the right amount of reactant to use in a reaction .
A chemical equation describes:
( 1) the reactants, which are the substances that take patt in the reaction,
(2) the products, which are the substances that are produced in the reaction,
(3) the rean·angement of the atoms during the reaction, and
(4) the weight relationship of the reactants and the products.
There are two types of chemical equations: equatjon in words and equation in
symbols.
In an equation in words the names of the reactants are written on the lefi.-hand side
of the equation and the names of the products on the right-hand side of the equation.
In the burning of carbon, carbon and oxygen are the reactants and carbon dioxide
is the product.
Equation in words: carbon + ox.-ygen --~ carbon dioxide
Equation in symbols: c + co:!
(i) Steps in writing chemical equations

Let us take the burning of magnesium as an example.

Step I Write the word equation for the magnesium + oxygen --~ magnesrum
reaction. oxide
Step 2 Write in symbols and the formulae of
the reactants and the product under Mg + 0, MgO
tbe respective names.
Step 3 Balance the equation so that the
number of atoms of each element is 2Mg + 0~ ----7) 2Mg0
equal on both sides of the equation.
ln Step 3 a complete balanced chemical equat ion has to abide the Law of Conservation
of Mass. That is, the total mass of the reactant(s) is equal to the total mass of the product(s).
Therefore, the number of the atoms of each element before and after the reaction must also
be eqlla l. For this reason it is necessary to write the balanced eq uation.
(ii) The physical states of the reactants a nd products
A complete balanced chemical equation must also show the physical states of the
reactants and products, whether they are so li d, liquid, gaseous, aqueous or in solution . The
abbreviations of physical states are written after the corresponding symbols and formulae.
The following is an example of a complete balanced equatio11 inc luding the physical
states:

58
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

2NaOH(aq) + H:!(g)
Note: s = solid; aq = aqueous or in water so lution; I = liq uid; g = gas
The follow ing abbreviations are usually used in chemica l equations:
(1) !J. = heat (2) ! = formation of precipitate
(3) j = gas evolved (4) = reversible reaction
For example,
AgN03 (aq) + NaCI(aq) - ---7) AgCI(s)! + NaN03(aq) (precipitation reaction)
!J.
2Mg(s) + 0 2(g) --=::!.-~) 2 MgO(s) (combination reaction)
S(s) + O}(g) t:. > SO:!(g) (combustion)
~== NH,(g) t + HCl(g) T (reversib le reaction)

(iii) Writing ionic equations

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. They exist as ions in aqueous so lution.
An ionic equation is a simplified chemical equation that shows the reactions involving ions
in solution. Let us now see how an ionic equation is written.
When aqueous sodium chloride is added to aqueous silver nitrate, a white precipitate
of si lver chloride is formed. This reaction can be represented by the following balanced
chemical equation:
silver nitrate + sodi um chloride si lver chloride + sodium nitrate
AgN03(aq) + NaCI(aq) AgCl(s)!
Since AgN0 3, NaCI and NaN03 are soluble in water they exist as ions in aqueous
solution.
The chemical equation in terms of ions can be written as:
Ag+(aq) + NO~(aq) + Nat(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCI(s) l+ Na (aq) + NO;(aq)
The Na+ ions and NO~ ions are still ions in solution at the end of the reaction. They
have not taken part in the chemical reaction. Such ions are called 'spectator ions'.
Since only Ag+ ions and Cl- ions have reacted, the equation for the reaction can
therefore be simplified as shown below.
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCI(s) ~

This is the ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous silver nitrate and aqueous
sodium chloride.

( I) Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions:

(a) sodium+ ch lorine sodium chloride
(b) sodium + water sodium hydroxide+ hydrogen
(c) zinc+ sulphuric acid zinc sulphate+ hydrogen
(2) Wben zinc is added to copper(II) sulphate solution, copper and zinc sulphate are fonned.
W1ite the balanced ionic equation for this reaction.

59
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Key Terms
• The substances that take part in the reaction are call ed reactants.
• The substances that are produced in the reaction are called products.
• Law of Conservation of Mass states that the total mass of the reactant(s) is equal
to the total mass of the product(s).

4.4 THE MOLE CONCEPT

The relative atomic masses of elements as well as the relative molecular masses of
ions or compounds expressed in an1U, are not feasi ble to be used in the weighable scale,
especial ly in grams or other weighable masses. The relative atomic and molecular masses
are also composed of microscopic particles and therefore impossible to count individually.
The quanti tative use of balanced chemical equations so as to calculate the reactants and
products need for translating the 'amu' with weighab le gram or ki logram, i.e., in the bi g
scale. The gram or kilogram is the measure of countable unit whereas amu is not cmmtable
by weighing. For instance, C-12 which has 12 amu becomes 12 g; Mg-24 amu becomes 24 g, and
He-4 amu becomes 4 g. lt is clear that atomic mass unit (amu) and gram (g) or kilogram (kg)
are intetTelated. Numerically, the relative atomic and molecular masses are pure numbers.
The chemists' counting unit is named the mole, and it is defined as eq ual to the number
of atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C. This number of particles is called Avogadro's constant,
which is equal to 6.02 x 10~ .
(a) The Mole and the Avogadro's Constant
We may refer to the mass of a mole of substance as its molar
mass (abbreviation M). The unit of molar mass is g mol- 1• Jt is the
relative atomic, molecular or formula mass ofthe substance in grams.
The number of atoms in a mole of atoms is very large:
6.02 x 1023 atoms. This number is called the Avogadro's constant
or Avogadro's nwnber (L).
One mole of a substance is the amount of substance that has
the same number ofparticles (atoms, molecules, etc.) as there are
AmedeoAvogadro ( 1776-
atoms in exactly 12 g of I:!C.
1856) was an flalian
The Avogadro's constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions and scientist who first deduced
e lectrons. So in I rno le of sodium there are 6.02 x I 023 sodium atoms, 01at equal volumes of gases
and in 1 mole of sod ium chloride (NaCI) there are 6.02 x I ()23 sodiLun contain equal nwnber or
ions and 6.02 x I 013 ch loride ions. A mole of chlorine molecules, Clr molecules under the same
conditions of temperature
contains 6 .02 x J0':!3 chlorine molecules but twice as many chlorine
and pressure.
atoms, as there are two chlorine atoms in every chlorine molecule.
(b) Molar Volume of the Gas
One mole of any gas has a volume of24 dm 3 or 24,000 cm3 at room temperature and
pressure (r.t.p.). This vo lume is called the molar volume of a gas.
Room temperature and pressure are often taken as conditions of25 "C and I atmosphere.

60
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

To convert volumes of gases into moles and moles of gases into volumes, the fo llowing
relationship is used .
volume ofthe gas (in dm ' )
number of mole of a gas =
molar volume of the gas at r. l. p.
volume of the gas (in dm 3)
number of mole of a gas =
24 dm 3 mol·' at r. t. p.

Note: One mole of every gas occupies 22.4 dm 3 at STP (standard temperature, 0 oc or
273 K and standard pressure, 760 mmHg or 1 atmosphere).
Example: Calculate the volume of 0.5 mol of carbon dioxide at room temperature and
pressure (r.t.p.).
volume dm 3 of CO,
number of moles ofC01 =
24 dm1 mol-' at r. t. p.
volume ofCOz. at r.l.p. number of moles of CO., x 24 dmj mol-'
= 0.5 x 24 = 12 dm 3 = 12,000 em'

(c) Moles and Mass

TI1e Systeme International (S J) tmit for mass is the kilogram. But this is a rather large
mass to use for general laboratory work in chemistry. So chemists prefer to use the relative
molecular mass or formula mass in grams (1000 g = 1 kg). You can fi nd the number of
moles of a substance by using the mass of substance and the relative atomic mass or relative
molecular mass or molar mass.
mass of a substance in gram (g)
number of moles (mol)
molar mass (g mol·')
To find the mass of a substance present in a g iven number of moles, you need to
rearrange the equation:
mass of substance (g) = num ber of moles (mol) x mo lar mass (g mol- 1 )
Example 1: How many moles of sodium chloride are present in 117.0 g of sodium chloride,
NaCl? (Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
molar mass ofNaCl - 23.0 + 3'5.5 = 58.5 g mo l-'
mass 117.0 g
number of moles - ~g _, = 2.0 mol
molar mass ) .5 g mo 1

Example 2: What mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is present in 0.25 mol of sodium
hydroxide? (H = 1, Na = 23, 0 = 16)
molar mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g mol- 1
mass = number of moles x molar mass
= 0.25 mol x 40 g mol- 1 = 10 g NaOH

61
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Example 3: Calculate the total number of molecules in 7.10 g of chlorine molecule (CI 2 ) .
(Avogadro's constant = 6.02 x I 013 mol- 1; Cl = 35.5)
molar mass ofCI2 = 2 x 35.5 = 71 g mol- '
mass of chlorine molecule 7.1 g
number of moles of chlorine = - --=--- = 0.1 mol
molar mass of chlorine 71 g mol- 1

number of molecttles of Cl2 = number of moles of chlorine x 6.02 x l 023 molecules mol- '
= 0.1 moi x 6.02 x 102.1 molecules mol - 1
">2
= 6.02 xto· molecules
(d) Mole Calculations
(i) Calculations from equations (Reacting masses)
Exa mple I: Calculate the mass of water produced from the complete combustion of0.25 mol
of methane.
CH4(g) + 202 (g)
Step] Write the balanced equation.
CH4(g) + 20 2(g)
Step 2 From the equation, find the ratio of the number of moles ofH20 to the number of
moles of CH ~-
number of moles ofH~O produced 2
=
number of moles of CH4 reacted
Step 3 Use the ratio to find the number of moles of H~O produced when 0.25 mole of CH_.
is burnt.
number of moles ofH10 = 2 x number ofmoles ofCH.J
= 2 x 0.25 mol= 0.5 mol
Step 4 Multiply the number of moles by the molar mass of H 20 to obtain the mass of 1-l:,O
m grams.
molar mass of H10 = (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 gmoJ- 1

mass of H.p in grams = number of moles x molar mass of HC!O

= 0.5 mol x 18 gmoJ·' = 9g
(ii) Calculations from equations (Reacting masses and volumes)
Example 2: Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq) MgC12 (aq) + Hig)
Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas, measured at room conditions, produced from the
reaction of 14.6 g of hydrochloric acid.

62
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Step 1 Change the mass of HCJ into moles.

molarmassofHCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5gmoJ· 1
mass of HCI (g) 14.6
numberofmolesofHCl = - - - - - - - - - -1 - = - - = 0.4mol
molar mass of HCl (g mol- ) 36.5
Step 2 Write the chemical equation.
Mg(s) + 2HCJ(aq) MgC I1 (aq) + HJ(g)
Step 3 From U1e equation, fu1d the ratio of the number of moles ofH1 lo the number of
moles of HC1.
number of moles of I-:L
=
number of moles of HCl 2
Step 4 Use the ratio to find the nurnber of moles of H2 produced when 0.4 mole of HCI
reacts.
number of moles ofH~ = + x number of moles ofHCJ = + x 0.4 mo l = 0.2 mol

Step 5 Multip ly the number of moles of H 1 gas by the mo lar gas volume. Th is gives the
volume of H?gas produced.
volume of H~ gas = number of moles x molar gas volume = 0.2 x 24 dm3 = 4.8 dnr

C hemistry in Society
• Medicine: In order to make drug from its ingredients, someone has to figure out how
much of each ingredient is needed to react together to make the final drug. TI1at
would have invoJved using tbe concept of moles.
• Plastic: Some plastics are made from other chemicals, someone has to figure out how
much of each ingredient is needed to use, and that would have involved moles.
1 • Combustion: You need to use mole in combustion to know how much air is needed,
) bow much exhaust would be produced, as well as hmv much heat is evolved.
• Batteries: Chemicals in batteries react to produce electricity. People have to figure
out how much of each type of chemical is needed to put together in a battery to
make its funct\on properly. They would also need to know how much the amount of
moles of each reactant is needed.

( 1) Calculate the amount of moles 1n I 0. 7 g of sulphur atoms. (S = 32)

(2) What is the mass of0.20 mol of carbon dioxide, CO.) ( C = l2, 0 = 16)
(3) You have a 56 g sample of iron( If) sulphide, FeS.
(a) How many moles of FeS are there in the samp le?
(b) How many molecules of FeS are there in the sample?
(Fe = 56, s = 32, Avogadro's constant = 6.02 X Io:n mol- 1).

63
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(4) How many moles are present in the following volumes of gases at r.t.p.?
(a) 1.2 dm3 of sulphur dioxide (S0 2) (b) 0.24 dm 3 of methane (CH4)
(c) 120 cm3 ofcarbon dioxide (C02)

Key Terms
• One mole of a substance is the amount of substance that has the same number of
particles (atoms, molecules, etc.) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C.
• The mass of one mole of a substance is called the molar mass.
• Equal volumes of gases contain equal number of molecules at the same temperature
and pressure.
• The Avogadro's constant (Avogadro's number= 6.02 x 1023 ) is the number of entities
or a stated type of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) in a mole of those substances.
• One mole of any gas has a volume of24 dm 3 or 24,000 cm3 at room temperature
and pressure (r.t.p.). This volume is called the molar volume of a gas.
• One mole of every gas occupies 22.4 dm 3 at STP (standard temperature, 0 °C or
273 K and standard pressure, 760 mmHg or 1 atmosphere).

EXERCISES

1. Match each of the items given in List A with the appropriate item given in List B.
List A List B
(a) Number of acid radicals in H2 S04 (i) 24 dm3 at r.t.p.
(b) The mass of a compound of giant structure (ii) MgO
(c) The formula of magnesium oxide (iii) molar mass
(d) Molar volume of gas (iv) formula mass
(e) The mass of a mole of substance (v) 2
2. Calculate the empirical formula of each of the following compounds:
(a) A compound in which 3 g of carbon combines with 4 g of oxygen.
(b) Iron oxide in which the weight of iron is 77.7% and that of oxygen is 22.3 %.
(c) Water in which hydrogen and oxygen combine in the proportion of 1:8 by weight.
(Fe = 56, C = 12, 0 = 16, H = 1)
3. The empirical formulae and relative molecular masses ofthree compounds, A, Band C
are shown as follows. Calculate the molecular formula of each of these compounds.
(C = 12, Cl = 35.5, H = 1)
Compound Empirical formula Relative molecular mass
A C3Hs 82
B CCI 3 237
c CH2 112
4. Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbon Z is composed
of 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen .

64
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(a) Calculate the empirical formula of hydrocarbon Z. (C = 12, H = 1)

(b) The relative molecular mass of hydrocarbon Z is 30. Deduce the molecular formula
of this hydrocarbon.
5. Vinegar, which is used in our homes, is a dilute form of acetic acid. A sample of acetic
acid has the following percentage composition: 39.9% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and
53.4% oxygen.
(a) Determine the empirical formula of acetic acid.
(b) Determine the molecular formula of acetic acid if the molecular mass of acetic acid
is 60 amu. (C = 12, H = 1, 0 = 16)
6. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes according to the equation:
2H20il) 2H20(1) + 0/g)
Calculate the volume of oxygen gas produced at r.t.p. when 1.7 g ofH20 2 is decomposed.
(H = 1, 0 = 16)
7. Tin(IV) oxide is reduced to tin by heating with carbon. Carbon monoxide is also formed.
Sn02(s) + 2C(s) 11 > Sn(s) + 2CO(g)
Calculate the mass of carbon that exactly reacts with 14 g of tin(IV) oxide.
(C= 12, 0= 16,Sn= 119)
8. A conical flask contains 68.4 g of octane (C8H 18). How many molecules of octane are
there in the flask? (Avogadro's constant= 6.02 x 1023 mol- 1; C = 12, H = 1).
9. Calculate the number of atoms in 4 g of bromine molecule (Br?).
(Avogadro's constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol- 1; Br = 80 ). -
10. Solid sodium carbonate reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form aqueous sodium
chloride, carbon dioxide and water.
Na2 C03 + 2HCI 2NaCl + C02 + H2 0
(a) Rewrite this equation including state symbols.
(b) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid required to react exactly with
4.15 g of sodium carbonate. (C = 12, Na = 23,0 = 16)
11. Identify the spectator ions and write the ionic equations for the following reactions:
(a) Na2SO/aq) + Ba(N03 ) 2(aq) BaSO/s) + 2NaNO/aq)
(b) CaCO/s) + 2HCl(aq) CaC12(aq) + H20(1) + CO/g)
(c) (NH4) 2SO/aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na 2SO/aq) + 2H2 0(1) + 2NH3 (g)
12. Calculate the amount of substance in moles in each of the following:
(a) 64.2 g of sulphur molecules (S8 )
(b) 60.45 g of anhydrous iron(Ill) nitrate, Fe(N03) 3 • (Fe = 56, N = 14, 0 = 16, S = 32)
13. Calculate the mass in grams of the following:
(a) 0.050 moles of sodium carbonate, Na 2C03
(b) 5.00 moles ofiron(Il) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2
(C = 12, Fe = 56, H = 1, 0 = 16, Na = 23)

65
Grade 10 Chem istry Textbook

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

relative atomic mass, 24 dm~ in 1 mole

rela tive molecular mass, of gas at r.t.p

relative formula mass

are in
is

6.02 x 1023
molar volume pa rticles
of gas
num bers of
is
pa rticles (atoms,
io ns & molecules)

in n ords &
in symbols
wit h sta te symbols
The Quantities of Substances (s, I, g, aq)

in the form

reacting masses,
reacting masses & volumes,
percent composition

symbols &
combining capacity/
oxida tion num ber
is a
multiple of

66
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

CHAPTER NON-METALS:
5 OXYGEN, CARBON AND HALOGENS

About 50% oftbe mass ofthe Earth's crust consists of oxygen. ln combination w ith
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen occur in a large part of plants and an imals. Living
organisms are mostly made of non-metals. Roughly 96 % of the mass of the human body
is made up of just four elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. In this chapter,
properties and uses of three non-metals s uch as oxygen, carbon and halogens (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine) are studied.
You have already Learned in Chapter 3 that oxygen with symbol 0 is the eighth element
of the Periodic Table found in the group VI and period 2. The atomic number of oxygen is
8; the mass number is 16. Therefore, the symbol for oxygen atom is 1 ~0. Gaseous oxygen
molecule is wri tten as 0 2•
Carbon is a chemical element witb symbol C and atomic number 6, the mass number
12 in group IV and period 2 of the Periodic Table. The symbol is 1 ~C. Today, C-1 2 (exactly)
is the standard representative definition of atomic mass unit of all the elements in the Periodic
Tab.le.
Halogens are in group VIT in the Periodic Table. It consists ofiive elements: fluorine,
chJorine, bromine, iodine and the radioactive element astatine. Halogens are the most reactive
non-metals. They react witb most metals to form salts. 'Halogen' means salt-former in Greek.
The molecular fonnulae are written as F2 , C l2, Br1 and 12 .

Lea rnin g Outcomes

After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
• describe the properties and behav1ours of oxygen and oxides;
• classifY the main types of oxides based on their properties;
• describe the propetiies and behaviours of carbon;
• explain the aJJotropy and allotropes of carbon;
• distinguish and compare the properties and behaviours of haJogens and halides;
• recognise the role of oxygen, oxides, carbon and halogens in daily life.

Oxygen cylinder Carbon Chlorine Bromine

(Diamond) Cl 1(g) Br1(l)

67
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

5.1 OXYGEN
Oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth's crust. The n·ee element accounts
for 2 I % of the volume of the atmosphere. Oxygen in the combined state exists in water,
sand or silica, silicates and rocks.
(a) Pt·eparatioo of Oxygen
Oxygen preparation can be demonstrated in a number of ways in the classroom or
in the laboratory. Chlorates are pdncipally toxic by injection and inJ1alation. Therefore,
potassium chlorate should not be used for the preparation of oxygen in tbe laboratory.
Activity (1): Preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide
In the laboratory or in the classroom, oxygen gas can be prepared by using an
environmentally friendly I iquid hydrogen peroxide of appropriate strength. ln this reaclion
manganese(IV) oxide is used as a catalyst to speed up the chemical reaction. Oxygen gas is
collected by the downward displacement of water.

hydrogen MnO, water + oxygen

peroxide
MnO~
2H20 2(aq)

beehive shelf

(b) Properties of Oxygen

PhysicaJ properties
Oxygen is a colourless gas, without taste or smell. Oxygen is only slightly soluble in
water and has about tJ1e same re lative vapow- density as air. Oxygen will not bum, however,
it supp01ts combllstion. lt rekindles any glowing thing (splinter) with a bright flame.
Chemical properties
(i) Action with metals pair or tongs
~ magnesium ribbon

~~
Metals such as magnesium, iron, copper and
zinc react with oxygen forming ox ides. A piece of clean burner
magnesium ribbon continues burning in oxygen from whiLeash of V
air with a dazzling white flame, leaving a white powder
as residue. This residue is magnesium oxide. ;;::;;t'm ~ 17
magnesium + oxygen !::. > magnesium oxide wnlch glass ~~

2Mg(s) + 0 1(g) !::. ) 2Mg0(s)

Burning of magnesiwn ribbon

68
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Iron slowly becomes oxidised i_n the presence of air and water, to form hydrated
iron(lU) oxide, i.e., iron has become rusted.
Iron + oxygen + water hydrated iron(lH) oxide (rust)
4Fe(s) + 302(g) + 2nH20(1) ) 2[Fe:p 3 .nl-l~O](s)
Most useful metals or sheets become covered with thin films of metal oxide.

(ii) Action with non-metals

Non-metals such as phosphoms, sulphur and carbon react with oxygen
terming oxides. A small piece of phosphorus (only red phosphorus may be
used) burns i_n oxygen giving oJf white fumes which consist of oxides of
phosphorus.
/
Builling red
phosphorus in air
phosphorus + oxygen phosphorus(V) oxide
4P(s) + 502(g) P.P1o(s)
phosphorus + oxygen phosphorus(lll) oxide
4P(s) + 30:,:(g) P-lOu(s)
(c) Oxides
An oxide is a compound containing oxygen and another element. There are six main
Lypes of oxides.
(i) acidic oxides (ii) basic oxides (iii) amphoteric oxides
(iv) neutral oxides (v) peroxides (vi) compound oxides
(i) Acidic oxides
An acidic oxide is an oxide of non-metal. [t reacts with basic oxides to give salts
only.
carbon dioxide + sodium oxide sod ium carbonate
+ Na2 C03(s)
Acidic oxides react with alkali so lutions to give salts and water.
Test for carbon diox ide

carbon dioxide + calcium hydroxide calcium carbonate + water

+ CaCO,(s)
"'
Some acidic oxides are so1 uble in water but some are not. CO:>, SOr S03 and P.Pl()
are soluble oxides while Si02 is an insoluble oxide. Soluble acidic oxides dissolve in water
to form acidic so lutions. These solutions tum blue litmus red.
sulphur trioxide + water ) sulphuric acid
S03 (g) + H~O(l) H 2 SO~(aq)

69
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(ii) Basic oxides

A basic oxide is an oxide of metal. A basic oxide reacts with an acid to produce a
salt and water only. It neutralises acids.
sodium oxide + hydrochloric acid (dil.) sodium chloride + water
Na 20(s) + 2HCI(aq) 2NaCI(aq)
Some basic oxides are soluble in water but some are not. Na20 and ~0 are soluble
oxides while MgO, CuO and Ag 20 are not. Some basic oxides react with water forming
hydroxide solutions (alkalis). These solutions tum red litmus blue.
sodium oxide + water sodium hydroxide
Na20(s) + 2Na0H(aq)
(iii) Amphoteric oxides
An amphoteric oxide is a metallic oxide which possesses both basic and acidic
properties. It reacts with both acids and alkalis to form salt and water. (e.g., ZnO, Al2 0 3 ,
PbO)
zinc oxide + sulphuric acid (dil.) zinc sulphate + water
ZnO(s) + H 2 S04 (aq) ZnSO/aq) + H20(1)
zinc oxide + sodium hydroxide sodium zincate + water
ZnO(s) + 2Na0H(aq)
(iv) Neutral oxides
The neutral oxide is an oxide which shows neither basic nor acidic character.
(e.g., CO, N 20)
(v) Peroxides
Those oxides that react with an acid to give salt and hydrogen peroxide are called
peroxides. (e.g., Ba02, Na20 2)
barium peroxide + sulphuric acid (dil.) barium sulphate+ hydrogen peroxide
BaOz(s) + H 2 S0iaq) BaSOis) + H2 0 2(aq)
Pb02 , Mn0 2 and N0 2 are not peroxides. They do not give hydrogen peroxides on
reaction with acids.
(vi) Compound oxides
A compound oxide is an oxide, formed by the combination of two different oxides
of the same element. (e.g. Pb3 0 4 , Mn3 0 4 , Fe3 0 4 )
Pb3 0 4 is a compound oxide cons isting of lead(TJ) and lead(IV) oxides. It can be
written as di-lead(IJ) lead(IV) oxide or red lead oxide, (2PbO.Pb02). When red lead ox ide
reacts with di lute nitric acid, lead(IJ) oxide only reacts with the acid to form lead(JI) nitrate.

70
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

red lead oxide + nitric acid (dil.) --~ lead(ll) nitrate + water + Jead(IV) oxide
Pb30/s) + 4HN03(aq) 2Pb(NO;)iaq) + 2H~O(I) + PbOis)

--'~
Chem istry in Society
• Man and animals use oxygen from the air in respiration. Oxygen is used to help
patients with breathing difficulties. Mountaineers and under water divers need
oxygen cylinders with them. In aquatic habitat, organisms use oxygen dissolved in water.
• In livi11g organisms, the O>.')'gen intake is used for the breakdown of the glucose molecules
to produce energy.
• Oxygen is used in stee l work, and oxyacetylene gas mixture is used for cutting a11d
welding metals.
. Liquid oxygen is carried on rockets to support the fuel bums. Oxygen is essential in
combustion processes such as the burning of fuels.
Usefulness of some oxides in society is described in the following Table;
:;
Oxides Uses Oxides Uses
.
!'

co:! ,_
fire extinguishers SiO., manufacture of glass . ''\,I

...J
so~ bleaching agent Pb30 4 pigment used in paints u
MgO laxative ZnO skin conditioners, cosmetics "'

CaO cement production H:P : antiseptic, hair dyes and toothpaste

.. ,, -~- , ~· ~

-~

(I) The mountaineers and under water divers need to carry oxygen cylinders. Why?
(2) Why manganese(IV) oxide is used as a cata lyst for the preparation of oxygen in the
laboratory?
(3) Identify the class of oxides to which each of the following belongs;
(a) carbon monoxide (b) red lead oxide (c) sulphur dioxide
(d) sodium peroxide (e) copper(ll) oxide (f) lead(Il) oxide

Key Terms
An acidic oxid e is a non-metallic oxide wbicb reacts with basic oxide to produce
salt.
A basic oxide is a metal lie oxide which reacts with acid to fonn salt and water.
An amphoteric oxide is a metallic oxide which possesses both basic and acidic
properties.
A neutral oxide does not react with either acids or bases.
A peroxide reacts with an acid to produce salt and hydrogen peroxide.
A compound oxide is the combination of two different oxides ofthe same element.

71
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

5.2 CARBON
Carbon is found in nature as diamond and graphite. Fullerene and graphene are
synthetic carbon. Carbon can also be found as compounds combining with other elements
in petroleum, coal, natural gas, limestone, carbon dioxide and sugar (C 12H220 11 ), etc. Jn
addition, all Living things have carbon containing compounds such as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins and nuckic acids, etc.
(a) Allotropy and Allotropes of Carbon
If an element, can exist more than one form , in the same phys.ical state, it is said to
exhibit allotropy or polymorphism. The different fonns of an element in the same physical
state that possess different physical properties are known as allotropes of that elemen t. They
may bave different chemical properties. For example,
Diamond, graphite, fullerene and graphene are all otropes of carbon.
Oxygen and ozone are allotropes of oxygen.
Rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur are allotropes of sulphur.
Diamond
In diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by four other carbon atoms (Figure 5.1).
It has a giant structure. It contaiJlS millions of carbon atoms in a three dimensional network
of strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds. Therefore, it is very hard and has a very high
melting point (3550 °C). Diamond is the hardest among all naturally occuni.ng substances.
It is u·ansparent and shi11es in presence of light.

covalent bond

Figure 5.1 Diamond and

Its Structure

Graphite
ln graph ite, each carbon aton1 is surrounded by three other carbon atoms in the same
plane, and therefore layers of hexagons are obtained (Figure 5.2). The distance between the
layers is more than the distance between adjacent carbon atoms and so th.e layers are weakly
bonded to each other. Therefore, graphite is soft.
Due to its layered structure, graphite is soft and has soapy touch. As the layers are
bonded through weak forces k11own as van der Waals forces, it can act as a lubricant.
Due to the presence of free electrons~ it is a good conductor of electricity and heat.
The melting point of graph ite is 3700 °C.

72
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

0.143 nm (or) 1.42 A covalent bond

carbon atom ~

0.340 nm (or)
3.340 A

0 = each dot represents a carbon atom

I mu = l 0 A ; I nm = I (} 9 metre

Figure 5.2 Graphite and Its Structure

FuUeJ·ene
Fullerene (C60 ) is an allotrope of carbon in the f01111 of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid,
tube and many other shapes and sizes. Spherical fullerenes, also referred to as Buckyballs,
resemble the balls used in association football. Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon
nanotubes (Figure 5.3). Fullerenes are stab le, but not totally unreactive. Fullerenes cannot
be found in natw·e. They are the synthetic allotropes of carbon. FuJlerenes have lower
melting and boiling points than diamond and graphite.

covalent
bond hexagon

carbon -~Qf-Q
atom

(a) (b)

Figure 5.3 FulJerenes (a) Bucky Ball (spherical fullerene)

(b) Carbon Nanotube (cylindrical fullerene)

Graphene
Graphene is an all otrope of carbon. Graphene cannot be found in nature. rt is a single
layer (monolayer) of graphite (Figure 5.4). [tis tightly bound in a hexagonal ring structure.
Its crystalline structure is two-d imensional.
Graphene has many properties. rn proportion to its th i.ckness, it is about 100 times
stronger than the strongest steel. Graphene is a transparent and fl exible conductor so that it
is widely used for various material/device appl ications, including solar cel ls_, light-em itting
diodes (LED), touch panels and smart windows or phones.

73
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

covalent bond

carbon atom

Figure 5.4 Graphene and lts Structure

(b) Other Forms of Carbon

Charcoal, coal, coke and carbon black (soot) are assumed to be amorphous forms of
carbon. Now it is found that these fonns of carbon contain randomly oriented small crystals
of graphite.
Charcoal is made by beating wood in the absence of air. It bas a porous structure
and has many small holes.
CoaJ is found in nature. In coal the element carbon is mixed with compounds of other
elements. Coal is a black heavy solid.
Coke is fonned by heating coal in the absence of air. Coke is also a black heavy solid.
Lt is almost pure carbon.
Carbon black (soot) is a black powder. When kerosene is bumt in a limited amount
of air, hydrogen from kerosene combines with OA.')'gen from the air and the carbon is left as
carbon black.
(c) Chemical Properties of Carbon
(i) When carbon burns in excess air or oxygen, carbon dioxide is fonned. Carbon
monoxide is fonned when carbon burns in a limited amount of air or oxygen.
!1
carbon + oxygen (excess) carbon dioxide
!1
C(s) + 0 2(g) COC(g)
t:.
carbon + oxygen (limited) ) carbon monoxide
A
2C(s) + 0 1(g) ) 2CO(g)
(ii)
Carbon can be used as a reducing agent in the extraction of some metals.
When strongly heated, carbon can reduce the oxides of zinc and other metals
such as CuO, PbO and Fe20 3 to their respective metals.
t:.
carbon +
zinc oxide zmc + carbon monoxide

C(s) + ZnO(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)

lh!\ i'-''' {}ul!.... tion.!>

(I) Diamond is very hard whereas graphite is soft. Why?
(2) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity, but diamond is not. Why?
(3) Explain why fullerene is an allotrope of carbon.
( 4) Discuss the differences between graphite and graphene in their structw·es.

74
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

__f
C hem istry in Society
• Carboo is a major component of giant molecules ca1led macromo'l ecules which
include proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and carbohydrates.
• There are difterent uses depending on the allotropes of carbon in everyday life.
• Diamond is the hardest substance known. Diamonds are used as glass cutters and
drill points. Diamond is used for jeweJJery because of its brilliant shine.
• Graphite is used in lead pencil as it is soft. Powdered graphite is used as dry lubricant
for machine parts which operate at high temperature where oil cannot be used because
graphite is non-volatile. lt is used in making electrode in the cells. Graphite crucibles
are used as containers for melling metals at high temperature.
• Fullerene is used in artificial photosynthesis, cosmetics, surface coating of medica l
devices and drug delivery system.
Graphene is widely used for solaT cells, light-emitting diodes (LED), touch panels
and smart windows or phones.
Carbon (very small amount) is used to make some types of steel. Charcoal is used
as a fuel for cooking. Activated charcoal is used as adsorbent in industry for
bleaching (removal of colour), deodourization (removal of smell) of substances
and in water pw·ification. Coal is used as a fuel and also used to produce coke and
coal tar. Coke is used as a fuel in metal industry and as reducing agent in the
extraction of metals (lead, iron and zinc, etc.). Carbon black is used for making
printing ink, black shoes polish and as filler in vehicle tyres and other rubber products.

Key Term
• Allotrope refers to two or more forms of an element that occur in the same physical
state but different in properties.

5.3 H..t\LOGENS
Halogens (F1 , Cl~, Br1, I) are diatomic molecules. More reactive
Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid I 1\ no
Intensity
and iodine is a so lid at room temperature. They are 'hlurlnt- of colour
electronegative eJements. Since essential electronic increases
structure ofhalogen is ns2 np', they are very reactive. tl nJmiot from light
Among them fluorine is the most reactive. Thus, to dark
Iodin ~
none of the halogens can be found in nature in their
elementa l forms. They are found as salts of the Less reactive
halides.

75
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(a) Preparation of Halogens

In the laboratory, halogen is prepared by heating sodium or potass ium halide w ith
manganese(IV) ox ide and concentrated sulphuric acid.
Activity (2): Preparation of chlorine
Chlorine is prepared from the mixture of sodium chloride, manganese(IV) ox ide and
concentrated su lphuric acid on heating. It is collected by the upward displacement of air
because it is slightly soluble in water and heavier than air. Due to its greenish yellow colour,
it can be seen easily when the gas jar is full of chlorine gas. If required dry, the gas is passed
into concentrated su lphuric acid.
sodium + maganese(IV)+ sulphuric 1:!. > sodium + manganese(II) + chlorine + water
chloride oxide acid(cone.) hydrogen sulphate
sulphate
f).
-~> 2NaHSO/aq) + MnS04 (aq)+ Cl2 (g) + 2H2 0(1)

(b) Properties of Halogens

Physical properties
Fluorine is a very pale yellow gas. It is the lightest halogen and exists as a highly
toxic gas. As it is the most electronegative element, it is extremely reactive. It reacts with
almost all other elements, except helium and neon.
Chlorine is a pale green gas with a choking, unpleasant smell. Chlorine is very
poisonous if inhaled even in small quantities. One part of chlorine in 50,000 parts of air may
be harmful. Chlorine is about 212 times as dense as air.
Bromine is a heavy, reddish brown, volatile liquid. It has a choking, irritating smell.
Bromine means 'a stench'. Liquid bromine causes burns on the flesh, wh ich heal with difficulty.
Bromine is s li ght ly sol uble in water, forming a yellowish red so luti on co ntain in g about
3 percent of brom ine at ordinary temperature.
Iodine is a purple-black shiny solid and irritating smell. Iodine sublimes rapidly when
heated, forming a violet vapour from wh ich the black solid can again be obtained by cooling.
Iodine is almost insoluble in water but readily dissolves in aqueous potassium iodide. Th is is
due to the formation of a compound of potassium iodide and iodine, which is very soluble.
This solution is brown. Iod ine also dissolves in ethanol and ether, forming brown solutions,
and in carbon disulphide and carbon tetrach loride, forming vio let solutions.
Chemical properties
Reactivity of halogens occurs in the order ofF2 > Cl 2 > Br2 > I2 .
(i) Affinity for hydrogen
Ha logens react with most compounds contain ing hydrogen.
hydrogen sulphide + chlorine hydrogen chloride + sulphur
H 2S(g) + C lz(g) 2HCI(g) + S(s)

76
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

When a tube containing equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen is exposed to

sunlight, it explodes.
sunligh~
hydrogen + chlorine hydrogen chloride
sunlight
H/g) + ) 2HCl(g)
Bromine combines with hydrogen, but not as readily as chlorine does. A mixture
of bromine and hydrogen needs heat to make them combine. Also, the hydrogen bromide
formed is not as stable as hydrogen chloride. Iodine has little affinity for hydrogen.
(ii) Action with metals
Chlorine reacts vigorously with metals to form metal chlorides.
iron + chlorine iron(III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3Cl/g) 2FeCl3 (s)
When a very thin sheet of an alloy of copper and zinc, mainly copper, is dropped
into a chlorine gas jar, it burns brightly with a green flame.
copper + chlorine copper(JI) chloride
Cu(s) + Cl/g) CuCl2(s)
zinc + chlorine zinc chloride
Zn(s) + ZnCl/s)
Bromine combines readily with most meta\s to form bromides. For example, copper,
iron and sodium give the corresponding bromides.
Iodine is fairly active and will combine with many metals to form iodides, but it
does so, much less readily than either chlorine or bromine.
(iii) Action with non-metals
Phosphorus burns spontaneously in chlorine.
phosphorus + chlorine phosphorus(lll) chloride
2P(s) + 3Cl/g) 2PCI3(1)
phosphorus + chlorine phosphorus(V) chloride
2P(s) + 5Cl/g) 2PCI 5(s)
Bromine explodes when mixed with yellow phosphorus. Phosphorus(III) bromide is
made by gradually adding a solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride to red phosphorus.
red phosphorus + bromine phosphorus(lll) bromide
2P(s) + 3Br/g) 2PBr/l)

(iv) Bleaching action

Among halogens, chlorine and bromine have bleaching power, however, iodine does not.
Chlorine reacts with water to form HOC! and HCI.

77
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

chlorine + water hypochlorous acid + hydrochloric acid

HOCl(aq) + HCI(aq)
The HOCI slowly decomposes to nascent oxygen.
hypochlorous acid hydrochloric acid + nascent oxygen
2HOCl(aq) 2HCl(aq) + 2[0]
This process is speeded up by light. The nascent oxygen bleaches dyes by oxidising them.
Chlorine will bleach moist litmus papers. This is used as a test for chlorine.
Bromine is also used as a bleaching agent but it is not as effective as chlorine.
Bromine also bleaches moist litmus papers.
(v) Oxidising properties
Halogens are oxidising agents.
Chlorine oxidises iron(II) chloride into iron(III) chloride.
iron(II) ch loride + chlorine iron(IIT) chloride
2FeCl2(aq) + Cl/g) 2FeCl3(aq)
Bromine is also an oxidising agent, but it is not as strong an oxidising agent as
chlorine. Bromine will also give majority of oxidation reactions given by chlorine.
Iodine is a mild oxidising agent, but it wi ll not perform many of the ordinary oxidising
actions attributed to chlorine and bromine. However, iodine oxidises hydrogen sulphide to
form hydrogen iodide and liberate sulphur.
hydrogen sulphide + iodine hydrogen iodide + sulphur
H 2S(g) + I/g) 2HI(g) + S(s)

(vi) Reaction with alkalis

Halogens also react with alkalis.
Chlorine reacts on solutions of alkalis in the same way as bromine. The actions of
bromine and iodine on alkalis are similar to that of chlorine.
potassium potassium potassium
+ chlorine + + water
hydroxide (cold dil.) chloride hypochlorite
2KOH(aq) + Cl/g) KCl(aq) + KOCl(aq) + H 20(1)
potassium
+ chlorine potassium + potassium + water
hydroxide (hot cone.) chloride chlorate
6KOH(aq) + 3CI/g) 5KCI(aq) + KCI03(aq) + 3H20(1)
(vii) Displacement properties
When chlorine is passed into a solution of sodium bromide or sodium iodide, the
respective halogen is displaced by more reactive chlorine.

78
Textbook Cl1enustry Grade 10

cb!OLine + sodium bromide - -7 sodium chloride+ bromine

+ 2NaBr(aq) 2NaC I(aq)
When bromine is passed into a solution of sodium iodide, iodine is liberated. However,
iod ine cannot displace chlorine and bromine from their salt solutions.
(c) Halides
A halide ion is a halogen atom
with a negative charge. The ha lid e teat pipette?
anions are fluoride (F-), chloride (CJ-),
silver nitrate
bromide (Br-) and iodide (J- ).
solution
Test for halides
The presence of chloride, brom i.de test tube
or iodide ions can be tested by add in g
si l ve r nitrate sol ution (Fig ure 5.5). silver halide halide io; solution
Samples are typically acidified with dilute precipitate
[
dilute nitric acid
nitric acid to remove interfering ions, e.g.
carbonate ions. Different co lours of silver
halides precipitates are observed. Figure 5.5 Sil ver Nitrate Test for Halide Tons

- -
Chemistry in Society
• Fluorine is used in the f01m of fluorides in drinking water and toothpaste. It reduces
tooth decay by hardening the enamel on teeth.
• Chlorine is used to make PVC (Polyvin y l chlorid e) plastic as wel l as ho useho ld
bleaches. Tt is also used to k ill bacteria and viruses in drinking water.
I
• Bromine is used to make disinfectants, medicines and fi re retardants.
• Iodine is used in medicines (e.g., to treat cases of goiter) and disinfectants (due to its
antiseptic properties, e.g. 'Tincture of iodine') and also as a photographic chem ical.
• Ha lides are used in the solder paste. Tt is widely used in metal ha l ide lamps that are
high-intensity discharge lamps.

R ~' ic\\ Questions

(1) What does the tem1 'halogen' mean?
(2) Why are halogens highly reactive?
(3) What compound is fmmed when chlorine is passed over heated iron? What property
does chlori11e show in this reaction?
( 4) Bromine reacts with sod ium iodide. What property would you eA'])ect this bromine to have?
(5) Wl1at property does iodine show in the reaction with hydrogen sulphide?
Key Terms
• Siliver nit rate test is used to detect the presence of halide ions.

79
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

EXERCISES
1. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements. If FALSE, correct it.
(a) Oxygen will bum but it cannot support combustion.
(b) Carbon cannot exhibit allotropy or polymorphism.
(c) Fullerene is the synthetic allotrope of carbon.
(d) Halogens are usually found as metal halides.
(e) Bromine can displace the chlorine from metal chloride.
(f) Sulphur dioxide is used as fire extinguishers.
(g) All halogens have similar properties but not identical.
2. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or words.
(a) When sulphur is burnt in oxygen, _ _ is obtained.
(b) Oxygen is used as a I an _ _ flame in the cutting and welding of steel.
(c) An acidic oxide is a oxide.
(d) Diamond, graphite, fullerene and graphene are the same _ _.
(e) An allotrope of carbon, _ _ can be used in surface coating of medical devices.
(f) A disease, goiter, is caused due to deficiency of _ _.
(g) In halogens, _ _ is a liquid at room temperature.
3. Write equations for the following reactions that show carbon dioxide as an acidic oxide.
(a) reaction with water (b) reaction with sodium hydroxide solution
4. Give two examples to show that carbon has reducing properties.
5. What happens when
(a) chlorine is passed into a potassium iodide solution?
(b) a very thin sheet of an alloy of copper and zinc is dropped into a chlorine gas jar?
(c) chlorine is passed over heated iron?
(d) bromine reacts with cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution?
(e) iodine vapour is passed into hydrogen sulphide?
6. Write chemical equations in words and symbols for the following chemical reactions:
(a) Oxidation reaction of chlorine
(b) Displacement reaction of bromine
(c) Affinity for hydrogen on iodine
(d) Reaction of bromine with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution
(e) Reaction of sodium iodide with silver nitrate solution
(f) Reaction of iodine with dilute potassium hydroxide solution
7. Write chemical equations for the preparation of bromine and iodine in laboratory.
8. How can you test the presence of chloride, bromide or iodide in a solution?
9. Halogens are strong oxidising agents. Explain with chemical equations.
10. Why is chlorine added to swimming pool water?

80
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

uctioo with metals

action wiltt non -metals

o-tidising rrop~rty
used to
reaction" ith :1lk:1li
.,,.,2 11reparc
;;: .,.....,..,
$
i7
e :::-
~·
,. ;; .,e :§.
0:
;:;· "'~
"'
..
;.
"
....
Q

Ci:
"'=·
•7 0
5:

usl•d for
detecting
halides

silver nitrate test

rC:ICIS with both

:1cid & alkali
to give

81
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

6

Acid-Base chemistry is important in a wide variety of everyday life. fn our bodies,

in our home and in our industrial society, acids, bases and salts play key roles.
In our bodies, proteins, enzymes, blood , genetic materials and other components of
liv ing matter contain both acids and bases.
The organs of human and animals also contain acids. You
probably know how painful a bee sting or an ant bite can be. The
pain is caused by an acid called methanoic (formic) acid. The pain
we sometimes teel in our leg muscles during exercise is caused by
lactic acid. Our stomach produces an acid (HCI) for food digestion.
Most important mineral acids such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid
are used in industries and laboratories. fn ot~r home, many cleaners contain acids or bases.
For instance, a floor cleaner acid often contains hydrochloric acid and a glass cleaner base
is ammonium hydroxide. Ordinary battery acid is sulphuric acid.

H 2S04 HCI CH,COOH

.)
Antacid NH40H
(battery acid) (vinegar) tablets (glass cleaner)

Lea rning Outcomes

After completing th is chapter, students w ill be able to :
• describe the phys ica l and chemical pro perties of acids. bases, alkali s and sa lts and
tbe ir uses in dai ly life;
• d isting uish between bases and a l ka li s~
• relate the role of ind icators and the pH scale:
• classify the sa lts based o n ac ids used and descri be the preparati o n of salts;
• disting ui sh between soluble salts and inso luble sa lts.

We often use salts in our home. We sprinkled sodium chloride on our food to bring
out its taste. We may use batb salts to help us relax in the batb and some of the medicines
we take are salts. Salts are used as a preservative in pickles and in curing meat and fish,
in the manufacture of soap, keeping ice from melting and making chemicals like washing
soda, baking soda, etc.

82
Textbook Cl1enustry Grade 10

Svante Arrheniu s Theory (1887)

Acid is a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions (H+). In
other words, an acid increases the number of H+ ions in an aqueous solution.
Base is a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydroxide ions (OH-).
[n other words, a base increases the concentration of OH- ions in an aqueous solution.
6.1 ACIDS AND TH EIR PROPERT IES
Many 'acids' are corrosive, meaning they destroy body tissue and clothing and many
are also poisonous. Acids can be found in many foods we eat. Some organic acids are used
in food preservative, food fennentation, salad, etc., such as ethanoic acid (ace6c acid). Some
organic acids are found in the food presented in Figure 6.1.

Yogurt Apples Citrus fruits Grapes Goosebenies Roselle plant

(lactic acid) (malic acid) (citric acid) (tartaric acid) (Zee Phyu) (Chin Baung)
(ascorbic acid) (oxalic acid)
Figure 6.1 Occurrence of Some Organic Acids in Nature
(a) Acids
The word 'acid' comes from the Latin word acidus, which means sour. Acids can be
classified as mineral acids (inorganic acids) and organic acids. Acids can be strong or weak.
Strong acid cannot dissociate itself without water. When a strong acid dissolves in water, it
completely dissociates to produce hydrogen ions, which are protons, (l-1+), and a weak acid
only partially dissociates in water. Mineral acids are strong acids and organic acids are weak
acids. Some acids and their dissociation reactions in water are described in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Names and Formulae of Some Acids and Their Dissociation Reactions in Water
Chemical Strength
Name of acids Dissociation reaction in water
form ula of acids
hydroch loric acid HCI HCI(aq) H+(aq) + cl-(aq) strong
~

sulphuric acid H 2S04 H2S0iaq) 2H+(aq) + SO~(aq) strong

nitric acid HN03 HNOlaq) H+(aq) + NO~(aq) strong
ethanoic acid CH3COOH CH3COOH(aq) ' CH3COO (aq) + H-t(aq) weak
--? completely dissociates in water partially dissociates in water
(Ca ution: Always add strong acid slowly to water. This is because the acid becomes very
bot and splashing may happen.}

83
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Properties
An acid is a compound which becomes a proton (H+) donor when dissolved in water.
The properties and reactions of an acid are due to these hydrogen ions.
Physical prope1·ties
( i) Acids are hazardous, irritant and corrosive.
( i i) Acids have a sour taste.
(DON'T TASTE. DON'T TOUC.H.}
(iii) Acids disso.lve in water to form solutions wh ich conduct
electricity.
Warning
(iv) Acid solutions have pH values less than 7. Corrosive
(v) Acids have the abi li ty to change the colour ofindicators risk
and tum blue litmus paper (an indicator) red.
Cbentical properties

(i) Acid reacts with metals to form a salt and hydrogen.

I metal + acid (dil. ) ' salt + hydrogen

calcium+ hydrochlori c acid (dil.) calci um chloride + hydrogen

Ca(s) + 2HCI(aq) CaC~(aq) + H~(g)

( ii) Ac id reacts with metal oxides and hydroxides to form a salt and water only.
metal oxide + acid (dil.) salt + water

calcium oxide + hydrochloric add (dil.) calcium chloride + water

CaO(s) + 2HCI(aq) CaCI2(aq ) + H 20(1)
"
meta l hydroxide + acid (dil.) salt + water

calcium sulphuric calcium

+ + water
hydroxide acid (dil.) sulphate
Ca(OH\ (s) + H 1SO~(aq) CaS04(s) + 2H:P(l)

(iii) Acid reacts w ith carbonate to form a salt, carbon dioxjde and water.
metal carbonate + acid (diL) salt + carbon dioxide + watet'
calc ium hydrochloric calcium carbon
carbonate + acid (dil.) ch loride + di oxide + water
CaCO~(s) + 2 HCI(aq) CaC12{aq) + cn~(g) + H10(1)

84
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

C hem istry in Da ily Life

Some examples of most common uses of acids in daily Life are Listed in the
following Table:
i
d A cids Formula Uses
extraction ofsome metals such as copper, manufacture
sulphuric acid H:!SO~ or ferti lisers, detergents, paints, rubber, paper and
pu lp industry, car batteries and rust removal
Lo help swimming pools be free of algae, to make
hydrochloric acid HCI
aqua regia for dissolving gold and platinum
lj making fertilisers and explosives, to make aqua
regia (a mixture of one part of the concentrated
nitric acid HN03
nitric acid and three parts of the concentrated
hydrochloric acid) for disso lving gold and platinum
phosphoric acid Hl04 making fertilisers and rust inhibitor ......
'

carbonic acid H 2 C03 in fizzy drinks [I

in fru it juices, in t11e preparation of effervescent
citric acid C6Hll0 7 salts, as a food preservative

etha.noic acid CH 3 COOH in vinegar, used in salad dressings - [1~

~ 1',
.:· - ... - "")i

(I) After rubbing an old copper coin with lemon juice, what visible change
happens to the coin? Why?
(2) How can you detect whether a solution is acidic or not? ~otto taste)
(3) Ant bite is painful. W11y is it so?
(4) Why can you treat bee stings with baking powder?
(5) In a laboratory, solution A is prepared by dissolving lO mL of hydrochloric acid in 100 mL
of water and solut ion B is prepared by dissolving 1 mL of hydrochloric acid in I 00 mL
of water. Which one is more concentrated? Which one is strong or weak or not?

Key Terms
• An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+.
A dissociation reaction is a chemical reaction in which a compound breaks apart
into two or more parts.
Strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates jn water and gives H- ions. All
strong acid molecules become ions in the water.

85
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

• Weak acid is an acid that partially dissociates in aqueous solution and gives H+
ions. Most of these molecules remain unchanged in the water.
• An acid solution which contains the pure acid or predominantly large proportion of
the acid is called concentrated acid.
• An acid solution which contains a relatively small amount of the acid is called
dilute acid.

6.2 BASES, ALKALIS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Bases and alkalis are found in many cleaning agents such as soap and many household
detergents. When wood ashes are burnt, the product is alkaline. The word alkali comes from
the Arabic 'al-qili' which means burnt ashes. It is used traditionally by gardeners as a good
source of potash.
(a) Bases
A base is usually a metallic oxide or hydroxide and will react with an acid to form a
salt and water only. For example,
copper(II) oxide + sulphuric acid (dil.) --~ copper(II) sulphate + water
CuO(s) + H 2SO/aq) CuSO/aq) + H 20(!)
sodium hydroxide+ hydrochloric acid (dil.) --~ sodium chloride + water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H20(1)
(b) Alkalis
An alkali is a base that is soluble in water. An example of a soluble base is sodium oxide.
sodium oxide + water sodium hydroxide
Na20(s) 2Na0H(aq)
Alkalis can be strong or weak. Strong alkalis dissolve in water to produce OH- ions
in solution. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are examples of strong alkalis.
Ammonium hydroxide is the most common example of a weak alkali.
sodium hydroxide sodium ion + hydroxide ion
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
ammonium hydroxide ammonium ion + hydroxide ion
NH4 0H(aq) NH~(aq) + OH-(aq)

Most bases are insoluble in water. MgO, CuO, Fe20 3, etc. are insoluble bases. They
do not react with water and also not disso lve in water. Thus, it is a base and not an alkali.
Some common alkalis and bases are described in Table 6.2.

86
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Table 6.2 Some Common Alkalis and Bases

Name Formula Alkalis (soluble bases) lnsoluble bases

sodium oxide Na20 alkali -

sodium hydroxide NaOH alkali -
potassium oxide KO
2
alkali -
potassimn hydroxide KOH alkali -
calcium oxide CaO alkali -
calcium hydroxide Ca(OI:-1)1 alkali -
copper( fl) oxide CuO - base
magnesium oxide MgO - base
iron(ITI) oxide Fe2 0 3 - base

Properties
Physical proputies
(i) Strong bases are hazardous to handle.
(ii) Bases have a bitter taste and soapy feeL {DO "T TA 'TE)
(iii) Bases cause a colour change in ind icators. Litmus changes from red to blue
in a basic solution.
(iv) Alkalis have pH values greater than 7.

Chemical properties
(i) Bases react with acids to neutraJise each other and fonn a salt and water
For examp le,
magnesium oxide + sulphuric acid rnagnesi·um su lphate + water
MgO(s) + H:!S04(aq) MgSO.tCaq) + H:P<l)
sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid soru um sulphate + water
2Na0H(aq) + ~S04 (aq) N~SO~ (aq)

(i i) When alkal is are gently warmed with ammonium salt it g ives otT am monia gas.
sodium ammomum A sodium
hydroxide + chloride > chloride + water + ammonia
NaOH(aq) + NHFI(s) !:!. ) NaCl(aq) + Hp(l) + NH 3(g)

(iii) AJkalis react with fatty acids to form soaps.

87
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

l"
C hemistry in Da ily Life
Some conunon bases and alkalis and their uses are described in the following Table:
:'
Bases a nd a lkalis Fo rmula Uses
I~
l,i.
sodium hydroxide NaOH making soap, paper, baking soda, oven cleaners
calcium hydroxide treating acidic soil (liming), making cement,
I•' Ca(OH):
(slaked lime) limewater, mortar, plaster
1"1 , calcium oxide ;:
CaO making cement
1~: (quicklime) I'
J_

magnesium oxide MgO in antacids (gastric medicine), in toothpaste

-
ljl
in many household cleaners and production of
ammonia NH__,
[ert] I isers
~ ."':.I

f{C\ iC\\ QUl' ~o f iUO !O

(l) Oven cleaner can remove the dirt and grease from oven. What is the active ingredient
in the cleaner? What is the function of that ingredient?
(2) Toothpaste contains aluminium hydroxide which removes plague. What does this tell
you about the nature of plaque and bacteria on your teeth?
Key Terms
• A base o r an a lka li is a chemical compOLmd that combines with an acid to form a
salt and water. An a lka li is a base which is soluble in water producing OH- ions. Al l
a lka lis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
A str o ng base is a base that completely dissociates in water producing OH- ions. All
base molecules become ions in the water.
A weak base is a base that partially dissociates in water producing OH - ions.
Most of the base molecules remain unchanged in the water.

6.3 IN DI CATO RS AND T HE pH SCALE

Many brightly coloured flowers, vegetables and
berries make good indicators. For example, the colOLtred
juice extracted from red cabbage is pink in acids and
green in alkalis. Hydrangea flowers are interesting natmal
indicators. They are blue when grown in acidic soil and
pink or red when grown in alkaline soil.
(a) Jnd icatm·s
Indicators are dyes, or a mixture of dyes, which change colour when they are added
lo acids or alkalis. Some indicators can be used to determine pH because of their colour
changes somewhere along the pH scale (Figure 6.2). Litmus is red in acidic solution, purple
in neutral and blue in alkaline solution.

88
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(b) The pH Scale

A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the solutio11 is known as pH . The pH value

can be measured by pH meter (Figure 6.3). lt is a much more reliable and accurate method
of measuring pH than the universal indicator paper.
Substances in the body bave different pH values. Acidic conditions in the stomach
(pH- 1.5) are needed for good digestion. Usually the body maintains the pH ofblood close
to 7.4. The pH scale demonstrates the strength of an acid or alkali (Fjgure 6.2). Solutions

--
and their pH values are described in Table 6.3.

0 battery acid Table 6.3 Solutions and Their pH Values

1 pH value (0 to 14)
gastric acid Solut ions
2 lemon j uice I vinegar
3
acidic below 7
g basic above 7
4 tomato juice
5 black coffee neutral equal to 7
6 urine
Neutral 7 distilled water
8 sea water
9 baiting soda

--
Jncreasing
10 milk of magnesia
II a mmonia solution
12 soapy wate•·
13
14
- bleach

lye

F igure 6.2 The pH Scale

(a)
F igure 6.3 (a) The vH Meter
(b)

(b) Universal Indicator Paper

C he mistry in Daily Life

• The pH is important for the corTect functioning of the body, for food and water and
for the growth of plants.
• Many plants do not grow properly in highly acidic or highly alkaline soi l. Highly
acidic soil is treated by spreading quicklime (CaO), slaked lime (Ca(OH)1) or calcium
carbonate (CaC03) to lower its acidity.
• Highly alkal ine soil is treated by adding gypsum (CaS0~ .2H:!O) lo lower its alkalinity.

Rl'\ I~ \\ Q ut!slious

(I) W11ich of the solutions having the following pH, are acidic or alkaline or neutral?
(a)pH6 (b)pH3 (c)pH7 (d)pH 8
(2) The pH ofpancreaticj uice is 7.9. Is pancreatic juice acidic or basic?
(3) How do we detect whether a soil is acidic or basic?
(4) Name a common household substance with a pH (a) greate1· than 7 (b) less than 7
(c) almost 7.

89
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Key Terms
• An indicator is a substance that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions.
• A measure ofthe acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as its pH. Solutions
with pH < 7 are acidic and those with pH > 7 are alkaline. The solutions of pH 7
are neutral. The pH of pure water is 7. The pH of a solution can be measured by
using the pH meter.

6.4 SALTS
Many different types of salts can be found in nature. The sea water contains many
salts such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride
and magnesium bromide.
The Earth's crust is made up of minerals containing various types of salts such as
calcium fluoride (fluorite), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt), lead(II) sulphide (galena) and
calcium carbonate (limestone), etc.
A salt is produced when an acid reacts with a base. The salt consists of two parts.
One part comes from the base, the other from the acid. An example is sodium chloride, NaCI,
produced from sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
sodium hydroxide+ hydrochloric acid sodium chloride+ water
NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) NaCI(aq) + H 20(1)
The sodium ion (Na+) part of the salt comes from the base and the chloride ion (CI-)
comes from the acid. When an acid reacts with a base, a salt and water are formed. This
reaction is known as neutralisation. It involves the combination of H+ion produced from
acid and OH- ion produced from base to form water.
hydrogen ion + hydroxide ion water

Neutralisation reaction occurs in our stomach. The acid (HCl) produced by our stomach,
is so strong that it is neutralised with a base produced by cells. Salts are also produced when
an acid reacts with a metal or a metal carbonate.
(a) Classification of Salts
The salts can be classified based on acids used. Some examples of salts (chloride,
sulphate, nitrate, sulphite and carbonate salts) formed from different acids are shown in
Table 6.4.
Some salts are soluble and some are insoluble depending on the types of metals. The
examples of soluble and insoluble salts are given in Table 6.5.

90
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Table 6.4 Some Sa lts Formed from Different Acids

Acids Salts
ch lOt· ide salts
sodium chloride NaCI
hydrochloric acid HCl
zinc chloride ZnCl:!
magnesium chloride MgCI ~

sulphate salts
sulphuric acid H!SOJ sod ium s ulphate Na2 S04
copper(II) s ulphate CuSO"'
nitrate salts
sod ium nitrate NaN0 3
nitric acid HNOJ potassium nitrate KNO,
ammonium nitrate N H 4N03
copper( II) nitrate Cu(N0,) 1
su lphite sa lts
sulphurous acid H~S0 1
sodium sulphite Na2 SOJ
carbonate salts
carbonic acid H~C03 sodium carbonate Na2CO,
calcium carbonate CaCOJ
ethanoate salt
ethanoic acid CH 3COOH
sodium ethanoate C H,COONa

Table 6.5 Soluble and lnsoluble Salts

Salts Soluble salts Insolub le salts

nitrates all nitrates none
all chlorides (except sil ver, mercury(l),
chlorides silver. mercury(l), lead(ll)
lead(ll))
all sulphates (except bari um , lead(ll),
sulphates barium, lead(H), calcium
calcium)
all carbonates except those
carbonates sodium, potassium, ammonium of sodium, potassium and
ammomum

(b) Prepa ration of Salts

The.preparation method depends on whether the salt is soluble in water or not. Soluble
salts are usually prepared by crystalli sation method. Insolu ble salts are IJsually p repared by
precipitation method.

91
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Soluble sa lts
(i) Soluble salts may be prepared by using moderately dilute acids and metals.
The salt fom1ed can then be separated by crystallisation. For example,
zinc + sulphuric acid (dil.) zinc sulphate + hydrogen
Zn(s) + H 2S04(aq) ZnS04(aq) + H 2(g)
(ii) Salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared fi·om caustic soda
solution (NaOH), caustic potash solution (KOH) and anunonia solution (NH40H), respectively,
by the neutralisation using the appropriate acid.
sodium hydrochloric sodium
hydroxide
+
acid (di l.) chloride
+ water

NaOH(aq) + HCI(aq) NaCl(aq) + H 20(!)

potassium sulphuric potassium
hydroxide
+ acid (d il.) sulphate
+ water

2KOH(aq) + H~SOiaq) ~SOiaq) + 2H:?O(I)

ammomun1 nitric ammonmm
hydroxide + acid (dil.) nitrate + water

NH40H(aq) + HNOiaq) NH 4NO,(aq) + H 20(1)

(iii) Soluble salts can be prepared by using either the oxide or the hydroxide of
the meta l with the appropriate acid.
zinc oxide + sulphuric acid (di\.) zinc sulphate + water
ZnO(s) + H:?SOiaq) ZnS04 (aq ) + H.:P (I)
z inc hydroxide + sulphuric acid (dil. ) ) zinc sulphate + water
Zn(OH)1(s) + H:!SOiaq) ZnSOiaq) + 2H :!O(I)

Insoluble salts

Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation. For example, an insoluble salt, barium
sulphate, can be made by mixing solutions of barium chloride and potassium sulphate. A
white precipitate ofbarium sulphate, BaS04 , is formed.
bariwn chl oride + potassium sulphate barium sulphate + potassium chloride
BaC liaq) + K1S04(aq) BaS04(s) -t- 2 KCl(aq)

Rt•\ il''' Om•.. tiun•

( I) How would you neutralise hydrochloric acid if you spi ll it on the floor of a laboratory?
(2) lfthe soil is too acidic, we add lime to the soiL Exp lain the purpose of this.

92
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(3) Fanners treat the alkaline soi l by using gypsum (CaSO.r 2H10). Why?
(4) We take gastric medicine when we feel stomach pain. Explain the action of this medicine.
,. ...,
C hemistry in Society
Salts play an important role in our society. Some salts and their uses in society
are described in the following Table:
J "'-o

•I h
I .. Salts ~
Formula Uses
..
sodium ch loride NaCI food additive li
~ ~
----
sodium sulphate Na:!SO~
sodium nitrite NaN0 2 food preservatives
soilium citrate Na 1C 6 H.,0 7 .: J
.'
~

I•
ammonium sulphate (NH ~ )1S0 4
ammonium nitrate N H ~N0 3 ferti lisers
ammonium phosphate (NH)/04
~
~
.. '·
potassiLun ch loride KCI' feniliser I~

magnesium sulphate MgS04 .7Hp medical uses (Epsom salt) I

magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH) 2 medical uses (milk of magnesia, MOM)
·'
calcium sulphate CaS04 -=-
medical uses (Pl aster of Paris, POP) {
\. - ......oiil

Key Terms
A salt is a substance produced from the reaction between an acid and a base or a metal.
Based on the acids, sa lts can be classified as chlorides, sulphates, ni1Tates, su lphites
and carbonates, etc. Soluble salts are usually prepared from the reactions between
metals and dilute ac ids followed by crysta lli sation . Insolubl e salts are usually
prepared by precipitation method.
Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water
only.
EXE RCIS ES
I. Think carefull y about the following statements. A re they TRUE or FALSE? If FA LSE,
correct it.
(a) ln genera l, all acid sol uti ons conta in hydrogen ions, HT.
(b) Copper(H) hydroxide is an a lkali.
(c) The smaller the pH value, the more acidic a solution is.
(d) Strong acids and alkalis are hannful and corros ive.
(e) Litmus paper can measure the range of pH of a solution.

93
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

2. Select the correct word or words given in the brackets.

(a) Complete the following equation:
2KOH + ~S04 -7? (KS04 + H 20; ~S04 + H2 0 ; KS04 + 2~0; ~S04 + 2H2 0)
(b) Which ofthe following compounds can form an aqueous solution of pH >7?
(carbon dioxide; hydrogen chloride; sodium chloride; sodium hydroxide)
(c) Which of the following gases reacts with sulphuric acid to form a fertiliser?
(ammonia; carbon dioxide; hydrogen; nitrogen)
(d) A sample of pond water has a pH value of 11.
This means that the water is (weakly acidic; neutral; weakly alkaline; strongly alkaline).
(e) Which of the following substances could be used in excess to change the pH of soil
from 5 to 7? (sodium chloride; calcium oxide; hydrochloric acid; sulphuric acid).
3. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase or numerical value with unit as necessary.
(a) The combination ofH+ and OH- ions to form water is called _ _.
(b) The pH of alkali solution is greater than _ _.
(c) Solutions having pH values below 4.5, turn blue litmus paper _ _.
(d) A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as _ _.
(e) The salt can be classified as soluble and insoluble salts depending on the types of

(f) Sodium citrate is a soluble salt. It is used as a food

4. Complete the following sentences by using the words given below:

(a) base, dissolves, hydrogen, ions, proton
When an acid _ _ in water, hydrogen _ _are formed. A _ _ ion is a proton.
An acid is a_ _ donor. It gives its proton to a _ _.
(b) hydroxides, hydrogen, dissolves, salt, oxides, water
An acid is a compound that _ _ in water to produce _ _ ions. Acids react with
metals to form and hydrogen. When acids react with metal _ _ or _ _,
a salt and are formed.
(c) acids, ammonia, hydroxide, salt, soluble
Alkalis are water _ _ bases. Examples of alkalis are_ _ and sodium _ _.
Alkalis react with to fonn a and water.
(d) universal, alkaline, neutral, high, scale, seven, acidic
The pH shows how acidic or _ _a solution is. Strongly_ _ solutions
have a low pH, strongly alkaline solution have a _ _ pH. A solution that is neither
acidic nor an alkaline is called a_ _ solution. It has a pH of _ _. The pH of
a solution can be measured using _ _indicator or a pH meter.

94
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

5. For each of the following pairs of solutions (of equal concentration) predict which
solution has the higher concentration ofH+ions:
(a) HCl and CH3COOH
(b) H 2S04 and HN03
6. Magnesium sulphate (MgS0 4 ) is the chemical name for Epsom salt. It can be made
in the laboratory by neutralising the base magnesium oxide (MgO).
(a) Which acid should be used to make Epsom salt?
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(c) The acid is completely dissociated in water. Write an ionic equation.
Which ion causes the solution acidic?
7. Aluminium hydroxide and calcium carbonate are often used as antacid. Write the
balanced chemical equations for the reactions between these two bases and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
8. Study the following diagram:
.
potassmm hydrox1.de dil. H2S04
dil. HCI
solution A} mixed
--? white ppt.C + solution D
barium hydroxide solution B
(a) Give the names and formulae of substances A to D.
(b) Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions taking place in the diagram.
9. You are provided three pairs of substances to produce their corresponding salts.
(a) copper(IT) oxide + dilute sulphuric acid
(b) calcium chloride + sodium carbonate
(c) potassium hydroxide + dilute nitric acid
Answer the fo llowing questions.
(i) Give the formula of each salt and predict whether the salt is soluble or insoluble.
(ii) Which salt can be obtained by crystallisation?
(iii) Which salt can be obtained by precipitation?
(iv) Write a balanced chemical equation for each reaction.
10. Which two substances react to give a salt and water only? Explain.
(a) copper(ll) oxide and ethanoic acid
(b) magnesium and dilute sulphuric acid
(c) sodium oxide and water
(d) zinc carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid
11. How would you prepare the following salts? Describe their uses.
(a) sodium sulphate
(b) ammonium nitrate
(c) magnesium sulphate

95
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

chlorides,
sulphatcs,
nitrates,
carbonates, etc.

Acid + Base Salt

to form

concentrated ~---~ dissociation

acid in water

I
dilute acid I

reacts with

96
Textbook Chernistry Grade 10

CHAPTER AIR, WATER AND SOIL

7

Air, water and soi l are three natural resources that we cannot live without. On the
other hand, air. water and soil are the three major kinds of pollution causing harm lo both
living creatures and tJ1e environment. To protect our air, water and soi l, one should have the
knowledge related to the renewable resources such as fi·esh air, fi·esh and clean water, and
fertile soil.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
• recognise the air around us including the composition and the various forms of
air pollution and the sources of these poll utants~
• discuss the role of various pollutants on global warming and the greenhouse effect;
• describe the Earth's surface water, both salt and fresh, includi ng the compos1tion,
hardness and various forms of water pollution;
• explain the purification of water jn terms of distillation, ion excl1ange and the
Permutit method;
• describe the various types of soil found on the surface ofthe Earth, including the
composition and the various fonns of waste and pollutants found in the soil;
• recognise soil information including: layers, texture, composition and pH.

7.1 AIR
Without food, we could live about a month. Without water, we could live a tew days.
But, without air, we would die within minutes. Due to industrialisation and transportation
the air is polluted with some harmful gases. Simply, 700
we are :facing today is the growing problems of acid
rain, some harmful gases, global warming and ozone
500 1--------------------~
depletion. Polluted air is linked to a variety ofhealtn
concerns, ranging from short tenn irritation to serious tbermospher~
100
diseases. Cultural heritage sites have also suffered rrom 90
enonnous damage due to acid rain. KO

RICSO!phurc
(a) The Structure of the Atmosphere E M
==-
~ 5U
The eartl1 is surrounded by a layer of air about =
·"" ~~~
strulosphcre
=i JO
8 - 10 km thick called the atmosphere. The atmosphere lll
0/0nc haya.•r

is the blanket of gas around the Earth about 700 km. lt is 10

divided into four layers: troposphere, stratosph ere,

mesosph ere and thermosphere (Figure 7.1 ). The Figure 7.1 The Earth's
gases in the atmosphere are held in an envelope Atmosphere

97
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

around the Eat1h by its gravity. About 75 % of the mass of the atmosphere is found in the
layer nearest t11e Earth called tl1e troposphe1·e, in wbicb nearly all living things and nearly
all human activity occur. The next region, stratosp here, is where we find the ozo ne
la yer that shields living creatures from deadly ultraviolet radiation. Beyond this layer,
d1e atmosphere reaches into space but it becomes extremely thin beyond the mesosphere.
The thermosphere is the layer in the Ea1th's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere.
(b) Composition of Air
Air is a mixture of several gases. The two main gases in air are nitrogen and oxygen.
Other gases present in smaller amounts are carbon dioxide and the noble gases (mostly argon).
As air is a mixture, its composition varies from time to time and from place to place.
D1y air contains (by volume) 78% nitrogen (N~),
21 % oxygen (0 2), 0.03 % carbon dioxide (C0 2) and
0. 97% noble gases. The concentration of carbon dioxide
in the abnosphere has increased fi·om 0.03 %to its present
value 0.04 %. lt is likely to rise as we bum more and
more fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). The amount of • 78':to nitrogen
water vapour in air can vary widely around the world, 2 1% osygeo
from almost 0% in a dese1t to about 5 %in a tropical • 0.03 •v,, carbon dioxide
forest. Figure 7.2 shows approximate composition of • 11.97% noble gases
dry air. Figure 7.2 The Approximate
Most of the gases in air are colourless and Compos]tion of
odourless. Some of the gases in air are essential . For Dry Air (by Volume)
example, we depend on oxygen but plants depend on
carbon dioxide. And without nitrogen in air, fuels would bum too fast.
Oxygen is the reactive part of the ai.r. It is slightly soluble in water and reacts with
many other substances. The three important reactions iJwolving o>.-ygen are combustion,
respiration and rusting. The process for resp.i ration goes o.n in all our cells, by taking oxygen
and releasing carbon dioxide and water.
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H 120iaq) + 602 (g) )
+ 6~ 0(1) + energy
The energy from respiration keeps us warm, allows us to move, and enables hundreds
of different reactions to go on in our bodies.
There are only small amounts of carbon dioxide in the air, but it is important to
a\llivin.g things. Green plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis to produce glucose
(carbohydrate) and oxygen. In this process, plants use carbon dioxide from the air and release
oxygen into the air.
light, chlorophyll
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
light, chlorophyll
C 6 H 1 ~0 6 (aq) + 602(g)

98
Textbook Grade 10

(c) Separating Gases from the Air by Fractional Distillation

Air is a mixture of gases. These gases can be separated from each other by fractional
distillation. There are five steps in the separation process (Figure 7.3 ).
(1) Air is pumped into the pJant, and filtered to remove dust particles.
(2) Carbo n dioxide, water vapour and pollutants are removed si nce these wou ld
freeze late and block the pipes. In this step, the ai r is coo led until th e water
vapour condenses to water, followed by passing over beds of adsorbent beads
to trap carbon dioxide and any pollutants in it.
(3) The air is then forced into a small space, or compressed. That makes it hot. lt is
cooled down again by recycli11g cold air, as the diagram shows.
(4) The cold, compressed air is passed throug h a jet, into a larger space. It expands
rapidly, and this makes it very cold.
a ir in
1
Fractionating column
............,pump filter
(I)
,....-----'

-
elcml'nt boiling point
CO, and
water vnpour
nitrogen . t96 ·c
(2)
removed
urgon - 186 "C

(4)
t a.!'~ ~~~~r~!.~! __ _
rise up the coluJnn
oxygl'n - 183 'C

nir expanded- krypton • 153 "C

in order of their __
it gelS very culd
(3) boiling roints -tos·c
M'---'-' aircomp•·esscd und ufler ~l!vcrn l xenon
(lowe~t tim) · -- -
and tlt un cooled c)cles it liqtiifie>
(5\
liq uid uir a l
liquid :.i r Sll)\1 ly
• 200"C
wamted up

Figure 7.3 Fractional Di sli llation ofLiquidAir

Steps 3 and 4 are repeated severa l times. The ajr gets colder each time. At -200 °C,
it becomes liquid (liquefaction), except neo n and he lium. {These gases are
separated from each other by adsorption on charcoal.)
(5) The liquid air is pumped into the fractionating column and it is s low ly wa rmed
up. The gases boil off, and are collected in tanks or cylinders. Nitrogen with the
lowest boiling point boils off 'first.
(d) Air PolJutio n and Common Air Pollutants
The presence of substances itl the atmosphere that are harmful to liv ing things and to
the environment contributes to air pollution. Ai r poiJution is caused by solid particles (called
particulates) and poisonous gases in the air. These substances are caJled air polluta nts.
There are six main air pollutants: carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
methane, unburnt hydrocarbons and ozone, and the ir hatmful effects are shown in Table 7 .I.

99
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Table 7.1 Ma in Air Pollutants and Their Harm fu l Effects

Air pollutant Source Harmful effects

carbon monoxide, CO • im:omplete combustion • poisonous even in low

a colourless gas, insoluble or carbon-containing concentrations
in water, no smel 1 substances, e.g., charcoal, • reacts wifh the
wood and petrol haemoglobin in blood
and prevents it fi·orn
carrying oxygen around
lhe body and will cause
death

sulphur dioxide, so2 • combustion offossil fuels • irritates the eyes

an acidic gas with a pungent in motor vehicles, power and throat, and causes
smell stations and factories respiratory (breathing)
• volcanic eruptions problems
• can form acid rain

nitrogen dioxide, NOl • veh icle exhaust fumes • causes respiratory

an acidic gas • chem ical plants problems
• lightning activity • gives acid rain

methane,CH4 • bacterial decay of • causes global warming

a colourless gas, no smell vegetable matter because of a greenhouse
• cows and other fann gas
animals when digesting
food
• anaetobic decompos.itjon
in natural wetlands and
rice fie lds

unburnt hydrocarbons • vehicle exhaust fumes • cause cancer

• chemical pla11ts (carcinogenic)
• react with nitrogen oxides
to form ozone

ozone,0 3 • reaction of nitrogen • forms photochemical

a colourless gas oxides and unbumt smog which irritates the
hydrocarbons in the eyes and lungs and causes
presence of sunlight breathing diffi culti es
• damages plants

100
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(e) Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

The Earth's sLu·face is wanned by radiation from the sun.
Sunlight absorbed by the Earth's surface warms it up, and the smface releases heat
in the form of infrared radiation. Carbon dioxide and other gases (water vapour, methane,
nitrous oxide and ozone) in the air h·ap this radiation and prevent much of it escaping into
space. The greater the amount of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases, the larger is
the amount of heat trapped and the warmer the Earth becomes. The average temperature of
the Earth increases leading to globa l warming (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4 Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect

We need greenhouse gases. Without them we would freeze to death at night, when
the sun is not shining. But the level of greenhouse gases is now so high that it is caus ing
global warming.
The gases occurred naturally in the atmosphere that trap heat are called greenhouse
gases (GHGs) such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Besides,
man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), bydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfiuorocarbons
(PFCs), as well as sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 ) are also GHGs.
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and farm-lands, and excessive use
of fertilisers increase the amount of greenhouse gases. This greenhouse effect is gradually
increasing the Earth's surface temperature, resulting in more extreme weather, such as
flooding, drought, cyclone, forest fire, landslide, heat wave, etc. Another growing concern is
the melting of glaciers andArtic ice which will increase sea levels resulting in many coastal
commw1ities being flooded and no longer habitable.

101
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(t) How Acid Rain is Produced

One major environmental effect of air pollutants is the formation of acid rain
(Figure 7.5). Rain water is naturally slightly acidic (pH of about 5.7) because carbon dioxide
in the air dissolves in rain water to form carbonic acid. Sometimes, oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen are released into atmosphere as industrial waste. When these di.ssolve in water, water
becomes more acidic.
Coal-buming power plants and engines fuelled by oil or petrol release gases that can
form acid rain which often falls far from its source.
sulphur dioxide + oxygen + water sulphuric acid
2S01(g) + 0/g) + 2~0(1) 2H1S04(aq)

nitrogen d ioxide + oxygen + water nitric acid

4NO~ (g) + 0/g) + 2rsoo) 4HNO. (aq)
-'
Rain water with a pH less than 5 is called acid rain.
lt has many negative effects, including killing animals and plant life, and damaging
metal bridges and stone buildings (Figure 7.5).

(3) these acid particles then f31l to

the Earth 11s wet and dry deJJosition
{dust, rain, snow, etc.)

( I ) emissions or SO, und NO,

pollutants into the 11ir

·.·.
... .,
• :
~

l : · : · : • ••

::.·.~·.
l ·*
• Ji; ....
~

l ......
802 N0 1 HNO3 ..•.. -·· nso4 ***• ·* "tt;
• :·I . t· 0··· .. ...~ <!>- • •
(sulphur dioxide) (nitrogen dioxide) . •
( mtnc :1c1d)
• 4 .
• ·, • • , •'
t t f
(sulphuric acid ) *' . *•
." ..
411
·r .. ::':.·~
.. ·.•... 0.·.
* lf.·

industria l zone ..' ·'I···...''•. * .

I lt t 1 I t ••

•·:. •,•, ~. 0:
••••• !~:.

(-4) may rausc harmful effects

on soil. forests, strea ms
and lakes

O( riVN'S 1111 tl lakes Wilh CORSequenl

damage 10 fisl1 :111d alguc

Figure 7.5 Formation of Acid Rain and its Effect on the Enviromnent

102
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Chemistry in Daily Life

• The useful atmospheric gases for our society include 0 2 , N1, He, Ar, Ne, C01 , etc.
• Oxygen is used for planes, divers, astronauts and patients with breathing problems.
It is used in steel works to remove impurities (C, Si, P and Mn). Oxyacetylene flame
is used as fuel for cutting and welding metals.
• Nitrogen is unreactive. So it is flushed through food packaging to remove oxygen
and keep the food fresh. Liquid nitrogen (bpt. -196 oq is used to quick-freeze food
in food facto ri es and used in hospitals to store tissue samples. Nitrogen is used with
argon to fi ll electric bulbs because these gases do not react with tungsten filamet1 t.
N itrogen is offered as an a lternative to air for tyre in flation.
• Carbon dioxide is important in photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is also used widely
as a coolant, a refrigerant and ingredient in the manu facture of frozen foods, and
used as fire extinguisher.
• The noble gases are unreactive or inert. This leads to many uses.
-Argon provides the ine1t atmosphere in ord inary tungsten light bulbs.
-Neon is used in advert ising s ig ns because it g lows red when a current is passed

I~
through it.
- Helium is used to fill balloons, since it is very light, and safe.

( l) ln the fractional distillation of liquid air, which gas is distilled over first? Why?
(2) Name two greenhouse gases. State how g reenhouse gases can cause global warm ing.
(3) What are two pollutants that cause acid rain ? Explain, using appropriate equations,
how these substances are involved in the formation of acid rain.
(4) How is carbon monoxide as an air pollutant fonned in the environment?

Key Terms
Air po llu tio n is t he condition in which a ir co nta ins a high concentration of a ir
pollutants that may harm living things and a lso damage non-living things.
• The s ix com mon a ir pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
diox ide. methane, unburnt hydrocarbons and ozone, and these are harmful to
health and damage the environment.
G lo b a l wa r·min g is the increase in the Earth 's average temperature due to the
bujlt-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming may lead to Tuelting
of the polar ice caps, rise in sea levels, floods, dro ughts and food shortages.
Acid ra in is fom1ed when acidic au· pollutants mainly sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide react with water in the air (atmosphere). Aci.d rain corrodes buildings and
metal structures, damages vegetation, and kills fish in tresbwater lakes and streams.

t03
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

7.2 WATER
Water is the commonest compound on this planet. More than 70% of the Earth's
surface is covered with sea water, and the land masses are dotted with rivers and lakes. lt
is vital to our existence and survival because it is one ofthe main constituents in all living
organisms. For example, human bones contain 31 % water, kidneys are about 82 % water
and blood is about 90 %water. Those properties of water that make it uniquely suited for the
suppmt oflife also make it easy to pollute. Many chemical substances are soluble in water.
Removing these pollutants from our water supplies often requires enonnous expenditures.
You should be aware of the importance of good, safe drinking water as well as the prevention
for water pollution.
(a) Occurrence of Water
Water is the most abundant substance on the Earth's
surface. Out of 100% of water that cover the Earth's surface,
97.5 % are sea water; only 2.5 %make up fi·esh water. Out
of2.5% fresh water, 1.97% make up ice caps and glaciers,
0.5 % make up ground water, only 0.02 % make up lakes
and rivers, and the remaining 0.01 % are soil moisture.
Pure water cannot be found in nature. All natural Khakaborazi ice cap
waters contain impurities in vary ing amounts. Hence,
natural water does not exist in a neutral state.
Rain water is the purest form of natural water.
However, it may contain dissolved gases (such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide) a nd dust from the atmosphere.
Dissolved carbon dioxide makes rain water slightly acidic.
Riverwatercontainssomedissolvedgasesandalso Nahtral water in [nlay lake
some dissolved solids depending upon the soil over which
it passes. River water is unfit to drink. The Ayeyawady
River is the lifeline of Myanmar and majority of the country's population is dependent on
the river for tl1eir livings. The river water finally flows into the sea catTying contaminants
with it. Sea water contains various soluble salts (about 3.5 %).

Ayeyawady River Sea water near Gaw Van Gyi Island

104
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

(b) The Unique Properties of Water

(i) Pure water is a clear, transparent and colourless liquid in thin layers. Thick
layers of water have bluish colour.
(ii) The freezing point of water is 0 oc (32 °F) and the boiling point of water at
1 atmosphere is 100 oc (212 °F).
(iii) Water has a greater specific heat capacity than almost any other liquid.
(iv) Water decreases in density when it freezes.
(v) With decrease in temperature, most substances diminish in volume, and
hence increase in density. However, water has the very unusual property of
having a temperature at which its density is a maximum. This temperature
is 3.98 °C or 4 °C to the nearest degree.
(vi) Water is regarded as the most universal solvent because it dissolves almost
all substances to a greater or lesser extent.
(c) Hardness of Water
The water you drink contains some dissolved sol ids and gases. These dissolved
materials usually are not harmful and can, in fact, be good for you. Where do they come
ffom? Rain water dissolves carbon dioxide as it falls through the atmosphere. A small traction
of this dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to produce carbonic acid, which is a
weak acid.
water + carbon dioxide carbonic acid
H 20(1) + CO/g) H 2CO/aq)
As this solution passes over and through rocks containing limestone (calcium carbonate,
CaC03) and dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate, CaMg(C03) 2) , the weak acid in the
rain attacks these rocks, and very slowly dissolves them to form calcium and magnesium
hydrogen carbonates.

calcium carbonate + carbonic acid calcium hydrogen carbonate

+ Ca(HC03) /aq)
Some ofthe rocks may contain gypsum (calcium sulphate, CaS04 .2H20), anhydrite
(anhydrous CaS04) or kieserite (MgS0 4 .H2 0), which are very sparingly soluble in water.
The presence of any of these dissolved sulphates or hydrogen carbonates causes the water
to become 'hard'.
(i) Soap and detergent
Soap is the sodium salt of organic fatty acid. The most common one is sodium stearate
which is the sodium salt of stearic acid, C 17H 35COOH. The formula of sodium stearate is
C 17H 35C00Na.

105
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

sodium stearic acid sodium

hydroxide
1-
stearate
+ water
(fatty acid)
NaOH(aq) + C 17H 3;;COOH(s) C 17H15 C00Na(s) + H:PO>
soap
Detergents (soap less soaps) contain molecules with a salt-like group attached to a
long chain of hydrocarbon. For example, sodium alkyl benzene sui phonates are synthetic
soapless detergents. The structure of sodium 4-dodecyl benzene sulphonate, C 18H 29SO,Na.
is given below.

sodium 4-dodecyl benzene su lphonate

(ii) Effect of bard water on soap

In hard water areas all over the world, it is difficult to make the soap lather. lnstead,
the water becomes cloudy. This cloudiness is caused by the presence of a solid material
formed by the reaction of the dissolved substances in the water with soap (basically sodium
stearate) and it is a real problen1. This white solid material \s known as scum.
sodium stearate calcium hydrogen calc ium stearate sodium hydrogen
(soap) + carbonate (scum) + carbonate
2C 17 H35C00Na(s) + Ca(HCOJ~(aq) - - - - 7 (C 17 H 35 COO}~Ca(s) + 2NaHCO_;Caq)
The amou11t of soap required to just produce a lather with water can be used to estimate
the hardness of the watet·. To overcome the problem of scum fonnation, soap less detergents
have been developed. The advantage of these detergents is that their salts of calcium and
magnesium are soluble in water. Therefore, detergents do not fonn curdy or greasy sewn in
hard water.
sodjum 4-dodecyl + calcium hydrogen _ _ calcium 4-dodecyl
7
+ sodium hydrogen
benzene s11lphonate carbonate benzene sulphonate carbonate
2C 1ljH 19SO,Na(aq) + Ca(HC03) 2 (aq) - - - - 7 (C ~H29 S0 ) 2 Ca(aq)
1 3 + 2Na HCOl(aq)

(iii) Degree of hardness

Degree of hardness of water is definedasmLmber of parts of mass ofCaC03 (calcium
carbonate), equivalent to various calcium and magnesium salts present in one million parts
by mass of water. It is expressed in ppm (parts per million).
Based on the degree of hardness, the water can be detennined to be soft or hard. As
the degree of water hardness increases, the water becomes to be hard.
Table 7.2 shows the classification of water based on degree of water hardness.

106
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Table 7.2 Classill.cation of Water Based on Degree of Hardness of Water

Degree of bard ness of water

Classification
(mg I Lor ppm)

< 17.1 soft

17.1 - 60 sl ightly hard

60 - 120 moderately h ard

120 - 180 hard

> 180 very hard

17, 1 mg / L = 17.1 ppm

(d) Types of Hardness

Depending upon the types of salts dissolved in water, hardness in water can be divided
into two types- temporary hardness and pennanent hardness.
Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium or magnesium
hydrogen carbonates. Temporary hardness is so called because it is easi ly removed by boi ling.
Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of disso lved calci um or magnesium
chlorides and s ulphates. Perman ent hardness is much more difficult to remove and certainly
cannot be removed by boiling.
Effect of hardness
When water contain ing any of these substances is evaporated, a white solid deposit
of ca lciwn or magnesium sulphate and I or calci um carbonate (limescale) is left behind.
Calcium carbonate is formed from the decompos ition of calcium hydrogen carbonate
by heating. This calcium carbonate causes the ' furring ' in kettles that occw·s in hard water
areas. Th is furring may be removed by the add it ion of d il ute acid.
calcium hydrogen /). calcium carbon
carbonate
)
carbonate + water + dioxide
6.
Ca(H CO,),(aq)
-.'
CaCO/s) + 1-so(l) + CO/g)

hydroch Iori c calcj um ca lcjum carbon

acid + carbonate chloride + w ater + dioxide

2HCI(aq) + CaC03(s) CaC l2(aq) + HJO(I) + CO~(g)

Blockages in hot water pipes are caused by a s imilar process to the fuJTing of kettles.
A thi ck deposit of timescale bu ilds up.

l07
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(e) Removal of Hardness

(i) By boili.ng method
Temporary ha rdness from water is easi ly removed by boi ling. When heated, the
calcium hydrogen carbonate decomposes, producing insoluble ca lc ium carbonate.
calc ium hyd rogen carbonate b. calcium carbonate + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO.(s)
)

The substances in permanent bard water are not decomposed when heated and therefore
cannot be removed by boiling. Both types ofharcb1ess can be removed by the fOllowing
method.
(ii) By addition of washing soda (Na1 C0 3 . l0~0 cl·ystals)
The calcium or magnesium ion, which actually causes tbe hardness, is removed ~sa
precipitate by adding washu1g soda. Therefore, it can no longer cause hardness.
calcitun ion + carbonate ion > calcium carbonate
(from hard water) (1t'om washing soda)
Ca~+(aq) + Coj-(aq) > CaC03(s)
(f) Water Pollution and Water Purification
The main causes of water pollution are sewage, fe1ii lisers, pesticides, industrial
wastes, oil and detergents. Pol lution makes rivers and Jakes smell. ft ki lls aquatic plants and
animals and other living things. It makes the water unfit for human consumption. Table 7.3
shows some sources of water pollutants and the effects.
Table 7.3 Some Sources of Water Po ll utants and the Effects

Pollutants Source Effect

industrial waste (containing
heavy metals such as Pb, harmful effects (chronic heaJth
industries
Cu, Cd, Hg, Cr, etc.), dyes problem)

poisonous (from respiratory problem to

pesticides agricultw·e fields
cancer)
waterway pol l.ution, chemicals bw·n
ferlil isers agriculture fields to crops, increased in air pollution,
mineral depletion oftbe soil
nil spill oil tanker seriously affect rbe marine environment

Water pollution can be prevented by the proper disposal of sewage and mdustria l
wastes. These pollutants should be treated and rendered harmless before they are discharged
into the rivers or seas. The polluted water can be purified by several methods such as filtration,
chlorination, distillation and deionisatjon (ion exchange), etc.

108
Textbook Chenlistry Grade JO

Ordinary water is more or less impure; it usually contains dissolved salts

and dissolved gases and sometimes organic matter. The water is distilled away from the
dissolved substances; however, it is far too expensive to be used on a large scale.
Ion ic impurities can be effectively and cheap.ly removed from water by passing
tl1rough substances like zeolite having giant structure. A zeolite is an alum inosi licate (or
sodium a luminium silicate, NaA I ~S i 4 0 12 ). It consists of a rigid framework formed
by the alum inium, silicon and oxygen atoms. But sodium ions are loosely held and may
be replaced by ions of calcium , magnesium and iron present in hard water. The removal
of calcium, magnesium and iron results the removal of hardness according to the Permutit
method.
sodium zeolite + calcium chloride calcium zeolite + sodium chloride
2NaZ(s) + + 2NaCI(aq)
ln order to get pure drinking water fi·om rain water and river water, the process of
water treatment used is illustrated in Figme 7.6.

collgula nt
2
screeni ng (lu rcm uve s ma ll
(to r~muve a ny ~usp~ruJcd pllrticlc~)

~
big particles)
~
l T 4 srmd filter
(liH ratioo )
= '===~
water
pumped in

a ir 5 it may go tb rongb furth er

( lu make the coa~ul ated filters, e.g. , mo re sand u r chlorine
particles llOllt to tbc top) t hnrtou l tu rem ove bad 6 (chlor inatiun )
t aste~ and sm ells

the " :rtcr i~ pumped to the s ton1gc

rcscn•oi r. ready for !l umping to hom l'S
1 7
fluoride
( Ou orina rion}

Figure 7.6 Modern Water Treatment Plant

• Water has many other important uses besides sustaining life. Water is used for cooking,
cleaning, drinking, gardening and waste disposal (toi let flushing) in home. lt is
applied as a solvent as well as cleansing agent, a coolant, a major ingredient in the
manufactured product and generating electricity in industry, and is also used for
irrigation in agricu lture.

109
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

J{ l1\ h'\\ Qut•'\1iHII !>

(J) How wiU you test for hardness in water?

(2) Name two compounds in each case which can cause:
(a) temporary hardness (b) pennanent hardness.
(3) Write chemical equati.ons, how temporary hard water reacts with soap.
(4) How do you soften temporary hard water?
(5) Explain how you will distinguish between temporary and permanent hardness in water.
(6) What are the effects of temporary and penuanent hardness of water?

Key Terms
Hard water is water which will not readily fom1 a permanent lather with soap. Soft
water is water which readily gives a permanent lather with soap.
• Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium ions, magnesium ions or both
in the water. Temporary ha•·dness is ca used by dissolved calcium hydrogen
ca rb onate which is removed by boiling. Permanent hardness is caused by
dissolved calcium or magnesium chloride and sulphate which cannot be removed
by boiling.
• Degree of hardness of water is the number of parts of mass of CaC0 3 (calcium
carbonate), eq uivalent to various calcium and magnesium salts present in one mill ion
parts by mass of water (ppm).
• Permutit method is a process in which hard water containing calciwn or magnesium
salt is passed through a layer of sodium zeoli te. The calcium or magnesium is
removed and the con·esponding sodium salt passes in solution.
\Vater pollution is caused by the pollutants such as sewage, industrial wastes,
chemical fertilisers and detergents. The treatment needed to make water fit to drink
depends on the source of the water. The process of water treatment involves both
filtration and chlorination.

7.3 SOIL
Like air and water, soil plays an essential role in our ecosystems. Earth's body of
soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions: as a medium for plant growth, as
a means of water storage, supply a11d puriJication, as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere and
as a habitat for organisms.
Soil is upper layer of the Earth in which plants grow, a black or dark brown materiaJ
typicall y consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay and rock particles. Soil plays a very
important role as it produces food for human beings and animals. Good so il and a congenial
climate for productivity are valuable assets for any nation. Erosion and a continuous cropping
have taken terrific toll of the soil in many parts of the world. Excessive use of fertilisers may
also cause the soil pollution. We should have the basic knowledge of so il types and general
soil information since agriculture is one of the backbones of the Myanmar economy.

llO
Textbook Cl1enustry Grade 10

(a) Soil Profile

Figure 7.7 shows three main layers (top soil,
subsoil, bedrock) of the soil with increasing depth. The
sequence ofthese layers is the soil profile. Each layer top soil - - -
has its own characteristics.
subsoil - - -
- The top layer is known as the to)> soil or the bum us
layer, which is rich in organic materials. As thjs layer
consists of decomposed material and organic matter,
it has a dark brown colour.
(par ent rock)
The humus makes the top soi I soft, porous to hold
enough air and water. In this layer, the seeds genninate
and roots of the plants grow. Many living organisms Figure 7.7 Typical Layers Found
like earthwonns, bacteria and fungi are found in this in a Soi l Profile
layer of soi l.
- Just below the top soil lies another layer called subsoil.
Jt is comparatively harder and more compact than top soil. lt is lighter in colow· thru1 the
top soil because there is less humus in this layer. This layer is less organ ic but is rich in
minerals brought down from the top soil. rt contains meta l salts, especially iron oxide in
a large proportion. Fam1ers often mix top soil and subso11 when plough ing their fields.
- The next layer is bedrock or parent rock, which lies just below the subsoil. Bedrock
contains no organ ic matter and is made up of stones and rocks, so it is very hard.

(b) Composition of Soil

The mineral component of soi I originates trom
the parent rocks by weathering processes, while the
organic component is due to plant biomass in various mineral matter 45 %
types of decay as well as high populations of bacteria, air 20,...30%
fungi and animals such as earthworms. • water 20,...30 %
organic matter 5 %
The basic comp011ents of so il are mi neral
matter (45 %), organic matter (5 %), air (20 - 30 %) Figure 7.8 Composition of Soil
and water (20 ~ 30 %) (F igure 7.8).
Air and water occupy the pore spaces in soils. Pore spaces are the voids between the
soil particles. Fine-textured soils have more total pore space than coarse-textured soils. As
soils absorb water, the air space decreases. Except for gravel and rocks that occur occasionally
in soils, there are three fractions; sand, silt and clay. The organic matter of soils is made up
ofundecomposed and partially decomposed residues of plants and animals and the tissue of
living and dead microorganisms.
(c) Soil Texture
Soil texture is simply characte1ised by the relative propoJtion of sand, silt ru1d c1ay
separates (particles) found in the soil.

111
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Soil texture is affected by the

constituent materials found within
it, specifically sand, silt and clay
pat1icles. A coarse sand will feel gritty
but a wet clay will feel heavy and
sticky.
Soil is made up of different-
sized particles. Sand particles tend to
be the biggest. Clay particles are very
small. lf the proportion of the sand
in the soil is increased, the average
size or soil particles increases and
the resultant soil becomes coarser in 0 100
I 00 90 80 70 60 50 .10 30 20 I (I 0
texture. Sa nd%
Figure 7.9 Soil Textural Triangle
If the proportion of clay in the
soil is increased, the average size of the soil particle decreases a11d the resultant soil becomes
finer in texture.
Soil textural triangle is a classification system used to determine soil classes based
on their physical texture. There are twelve classes as shown in Figure 7 .9.
The tenn loam refers to a soil with a combination of sand, silt and clay sized particles.
For example. a soil with 30 % clay. 50 % sand and 20 % silt is called a sandy clay loam.
(d) Plant Nutdents in Soil
One of the most important functions of soil in supporting plant growth is to provide
essential plant nutrients - macro-nutrients and micro-nu trients. Macro-nutri.ents are those
elements that occur in substantial levels in plant materials or in fluids in the plant. Micro-
nutTients are elements that are essential on ly at very low levels and generally are required
for the fw1ctioning of enzymes.

Essential macro-nu trients EssentiaJ micro-nutrients

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, molybdenum, zinc, sodium, vanadium
magnesium, sulphur

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) are plant nutrients that are obtained
from soil. They are so important for crop productivity that they are commonly added to soil
as fertilisers.
Nitrogen has the most dramatic effect on the leaf growth, especially in grass and
cereal plants. It is used to make protein in plants. Nitrogen bound to soil humus is especially
important in maintaining soil fertility.
Nitrogen pathways in soil are shown in Figure 7.1 0.
Phosphorus is essential in the nucleus of every cell, so growth cannot continue in its

112
Textbook Chenustry Grade 10

complete absence. lt is particularly associated with the development of a strong root system
and floral development.
Potassium is required at high levels for growing plants. Potassium activates some
enzymes and plays a key role in the water balance in plants and for some carbohydrate
transfonnations.

atmosphere

animals
(proteins)

Figure 7.10 Nitrogen Pathways in Soil

(e) Soil pH
Soil pH is a fundamental pwperty that affects a surprisingly large range of chemical,
physical and biological processes in soils. Soil pH is a measure of the acidity and alkalinity
in soi ls. pH of the soil can be measured by means of a pH meter or pH paper. The optimal
pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0; however, many plants have adapted to
thrive at pH values outside this range.
Soil pH is important because of its effect on the availability of essential elements, or
nutrients, in soi~s . For example, many elements can be taken up by plants more easily ifthe
soil pH is near neutral to marginally acidic. Outside this pH range, plants may be deficient
in some e\ements, or some elements may become toxic. If the soil is more acidic than the
required pH, it can be h·eated by adding lime. Lime is alkaline and it will neutralise the
acidity of the soil and make it more neutral. Alkali or alkaline soils are clay soils with
hig h pH (> 8.5). Gypsum helps in the treatment of alkaline so ils.
(t) Waste and Pollutants in Soil
Soil is the receptor of large quantities of waste products: domestic, human, animal,
industrial and agricultural. products.

113
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Combustion of sulphur-containing fuels smelting process emits S02, and finally

leaves sulphate on the soil. Nitrates from the atmosphere are deposited on the soil. Lead
particulate from automobile exhausts also settles on soi l along both sides ofhighways with
heavy automobile traffic. High levels of Pb, Zn. etc. are observed on soi ls near lead and z inc
mines, etc.
Fertilisers and pesticides applied to crops are largely reta ined by the soil. They
become pa11 of environmental cycles due to sorption by the soi l, leaching into water, etc.
Pesticides undergo degradation in so il , through the processes of biodegradation, chemical
degradation, or photochemical react1ons. In this respect, insects, earthworms, plants and
mi croorganisms play important roles in biodegradation of pesticides.
Pesticide residues on crops and food products cause long-tenn health hazards. It
may be concluded that the quality of soil has an impact on public bealth standards tl1rough
rhe human food chain. The environm ental health aspects of soil deserve serious attention in
the near future.
(g) Sources of Soil Pollution
The maio sources which pollute the soil are acid rains, repeated use or excess use of
lhe same fertiliser, inadequate drainage system in agricultural fields, spraying the vegetable
and fruit plants with insec6cides and herbicides, etc.

Chemistry in Daily L ife

• Soil is the foundation of basic ecosystem function.
• Sojl filters our water, provides essential nutrients to our forest and crops, and helps
regulate the Earth's temperature.
\.

(I) Illustrate the typical layers found in a so il profile.

(2) What do you understand by the terms 'macro-nutrients' and 'micro-nutrients'?
(3) Why is the sandy soil not good for growing crops?
(4) By using the soi l textural triangle. classify the type of soil w ith I0% clay, 30% sand
and 60% sil t.

Key Terms
• Organic. matter in so il is made up of undecomposed and partia lly decomposed
residue of plant and animal tissues of living and dead mi croorganisms.
• Soi l texture is a measure of t he relative propotion of sand, silt and c lay separates
(particles) found in the soil.
• According to the soil textural triangle, the soil can be classifi ed into twelve classes
by the relative proportion of sand, sil t and clay separates (particles) found in the soil.

114
Textbook Chemistry Grade lO

EXERCISES
1. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements. If FALSE, correct it.
(a) Carbon dioxide and argon are the major gases in air.
(b) Green plants require oxygen for photosynthesis to produce glucose.
(c) Nitrogen content in soil humus is especially important in maintaining soil fertility.
(d) As the proportion of the sand in the soil is increased, the average size of soil
particles decreases.
(e) Most plants grow best when the soil is neutral or slightly acidic.
(f) Nitrates from the atmosphere are deposited on the soil.
2. Tick the correct word(s), tenn(s), notation(s), etc., given in the brackets.
(a) An air pollutant that can cause breathing problems is (methane; carbon monoxide;
carbon dioxide; water vapour).
(b) The approximate pH of acid rain is (less than 5; greater than 10; equal to 7;
greater than 7).
(c) What layer is called the humus layer and is made up of plant remains like leaves
and twigs? (organic; top soil; subsoil; bedrock)
(d) The important soil measurement determines how much water it can hold is
(temperature; texture; colour; consistency).
(e) Temporary hardness is easily removed by (filtration; chlorination; boiling;
neutralisation).
(f) Essential macro-nutrients for plants are (carbon; chlorine; copper; iron).
3. Fillin the blanks with suitable word(s) or phrase(s).
(a) The two gases that cause acid rain are _ _.
(b) Nitrogen and oxygen in the air can be obtained by _ _ of liquid air.
(c) The furring of kettles or boilers is as a result of the decomposition ofCa(HC03) 2
in hard water into
(d) Insects, earthworms, plants and microorganisms play important roles in of
pesticides.
(e) Temporary hardness is so called because it is easily removed by_ _ .
(f) The layer of soil which is located at the very bottom is known as _ _ .
4. Oxygen and nitrogen, the two main gases in air, are both slightly soluble in water. A
sample of water was boiled, and the gases collected. The water vapour was allowed to
condense and the remaining gases were measured. In a 50 cm3 sample of these gases,
18 cm3 were oxygen.
(a) (i) What percentage of oxygen is present in the sample of air?
(ii) How does this compare to the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere?
(b) About what percentage of atmospheric air is nitrogen?
(c) Which gas, nitrogen or oxygen, is more soluble in water?

115
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

5. The diagram shows bow the concentration of air pollutants

in a busy city varies with time. How d o you accmmt
for these variations with the hour of the day?
6. Discuss the foll owing:
(a) Industry nor mally req uires water which has been
softened. morning noon afternoon

(b) Hard water causes kettles to f-u r. This 'fu r · can be

removed by using a dilute acid.
(c) Hard water wastes soap.
(d) Hard water can coat lead pipes and reduce the possibi lity of lead poisoning.
7. ln recent years pollution of rivers and lakes bas become a serious problem.
(a) State two main sources ofriver pollution.
(b) State four major water pollutants.
(c) Suggest how to prevent these polhJtion.
8. Some of our drinking water is obtained by purit)'ing river water.
(a) Would distillation or filtration produce the purer water from 1iver water?
Give a reason for your answer.
(b) Which process, distillation or filtration, is actually used to produce drinking water
from river water?
9. Sketch the pathway of conversion of nitrogen in air to animal proteins.
I 0. fn the treatment of water for public use, state the purpose of the addit ion of:
(a) aluminium sulp hate
(b) ch Iori ne
(c) sodium hydroxide
(d) sulphur dioxide
II . The soi l pH is impoJ·tant in agricu iLUre. Explain why.
12. Explain what is meant by t he term 'po llution' with reference to air and water.
13. (a) Name an air pollutant produced by the buming of coa l.
(b) Name the air pollutant produced by the combustion of petrol in a car engine.
14. How can you treat the acid ic soil? Explain briefly.
15. Make a list of four major water po llutants and explain where they corne rrom.
What damage can these pol1utants do?

116
Textbook Chemi stry Grade 10

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

three non-living
resou•·ces
environment &
occur as economies of
countries
co
damages
unburnt H/Cs

SOz ) ~use
contains
pollutanb

plant in
photos) nthesis __a_re___,..., GHGs

CFC
HFC
PFC

c
"
8. ..
~
c..
=
"'"'c.. in food packaging,
"ith argon in electric bulb,
plane\, dhers,
a~tronauts,
0'
... ...0' 0'
... for tyre in nation, patients,
for tissue sa mples storage steel wo rks
ond \Hiding

117
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Continued from CHAPTER REVIEW (Concept Map)

ground water,
river water, soft
rain water, water
sea water

occurs as into

J clnssified as
Water
polluted by
.~
~~
:<."'
~~~.... "Q~
J
boiling method;
ad<Ling washing soda
I
, rcael~
sewage, industrinJ
hard
water
with
. soap
forming
scu m
wastes, chemical
fertilisers, detergents
..
;:-
~#'
~
<a~...,

,.
<5' ~·
1,.

7
r polluted
Ca/Mg
hydrogen
Ca/Mg
chlorides &
wac·e-r carbona tes sulpbatcs
purified by 11 scrk• uf
easily
removed difficult to
filtration, remove by boiling
cltlorination, hy huiling
distillation,
deionisation
(ion exchange)
temporary
hardness I permanent
har<.ln c.•s

top soil,
subsoil, ~ three mnin
h•yers
I rclatin~ proportions
of snnd, silt & clny
pa ren t soil
~has i depend on
t 1 tlassilied by
Soil L . I soil texture
I
-,
I
into I
I
twelve
classes
I
/ ~ PO/J/.Jt,
four major 1 ., "'0
"'0
0
C'(/ ~··
com ponents ;;; .r~
are .,,,./.,. domestic, human,

mineral m:llter (45 %), /'~ ~?,_,

(l
animal, industrial &
agricultura l wastes,
insecticides, herbicides,
organic matter (5 %), macr·o-nulricnts micro-nutrients
air (20 - 30 'Yo), pesticides
C,H,O,N,P, B, Cl, Cu, Fe,

I~ I
wllter (20- 30 %) K,Ca, Mg,S Mn, Mo. Zn,

I
Na, V
the pH 5.5 - 7.11
for most of plants public
health
for
§ trcutcd with lime
plant growth & ~

I cmp t>roductivity
~
~

~ I acidic soil I
I
become> I soil '' ith
high acidity
1
I
...
-=....

alkaline soil
pH > 8.5
becomes r soi l with
high alkalinity
1
I

118
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

CHAPTER FUELS AND CRUDE OIL

8

In the twenty first century society, the main energy source which is used to operate the
machines, power cars and buses, daily cooking our food and lighting our homes is obtained
from fossil fuels.
A fue l is a substance that Teleases sufficient energy to do work as it undergoes a
chernical change. The heal energy produced in combustion is converted into more useful
1orms of energy such as light energy, mechanical energy and electrical energy (electricity).
Throughout history, wood and even natural gas were used thousands of years ago. They
were used mainly fo r warmth and for cooking food. From the earlier times, wood and coal
were the most common fuels. At present, fossil fuels are the main energy source used in the
world .
Crude oi l (petro leum), coal and natural
gas are called fossiJ fuels because they are formed
from the remains of plams and animals that lived
millions of years ago. These fuels are classified as
non-renewable and are finite (limited) resources
because they take a very long time (millions of years)
to form. Modem society is still using up tossil fuels
reserved for heavy and soft industries, for non-
stop transportation, generating e lectricity in power
stations, and also for cooking. Oil and gas production

Learn ing Outcomes

After completing this chapter, students wiJJ be able to:
• identify the sources, properties and behaviours of fossi I fuels;
• explain the process of fractional distillation as applied to crude oi l;
• describe the catalytic cracking process used to split long chain hyd1·ocarbon molecules
into shorter ones~
• recognise the sources, compositions and uses of altemative fuels, and describe the
preparation methods of biodiesel and hydrogen fuel.

8.1 FOSSIL FUELS

There are three major fossil fuels. They are (a) coal (b) crude oi l and (c) natural gas.
Coal comes from fossil plant materials. Crude oi l and natural gas are formed from the bodies
of marine microorganisms. The formation of these fuels took place over many millions
of years. That is why they are not only classified as non-renewable, but of finite (lim ited)
reserved resources.

119
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

(a) Coa l
Coal is fossilised plant material containing mainly carbon togetheT with bydrogen,
nitrogen and sulphur. Most coal was formed during the Carboniferous period (286-360
million years ago). The action of pressure and heat through geological forces convetted the
plant mate1ial in stages fTom peat to lignite to bituminous soft coal to bard coal (anthracite).
At each stage the percentage of carbon increases. Coal contains between 80 to 90% carbon by
mass. Coal is found in many countries. The United States, Russia, China and some European
cow1tries have large coal deposits. MYANMAR also has coal deposits in Shan State, Kachin
State, Taninthayi Region and Sagaing Region.
Coal is a black solid. It is mainly carbon, with small amounts of hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur. Coal is used in many countries to produce electricity. At a coal burning
power station, coal is btU11t in air to heat the water in a boiler. The steam produced turns the
steam tw·bines to generate electricity (Figure 8.1). When coal is burnt, the main products
are carbon dioxide and water. Quantities of soot, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, and a solid
residue called ash are also produced. Various kinds of pollutants are produced when coal is
burnt.
Coal is also used to produce coke. When coal is strongly heated in the absence of air,
a solid called coke is produced. Coke is almost pure carbon. lt bums more clean ly than coal
and it does not produce as much smoke. The main use of coke is as a reducing agent in the
blast furnace for making iron.

lmrn' tllrrdl~ in
clcctril' 1>owcr station

Figure 8.1 Uses of Coal and Coke

(b) Crude Oil

Crude oil (also called petroleum) is a thick black liquid. It is found together with
natural gas in the Eatth. Today, about 40 % of the world's energy comes from petroleum
while 20% comes from natura] gas. Large amounts ofpetroleum are produced in the Middle
East, the United States and Russia.
Myanmar is one of the world's oldest oil producers. British Burma exported its first
bru,.e] of crude oil in 1853. The London-based Burma Oil Company (BOC) was established
in 1871 and began production in the Yenangyaung oil field in 1887 and tl 1e Cbauk oil field
in 1902.

120
Textbook Chemistry Grade JO

The form a tion of crude oil a nd natur a l gas

The crude oil and natural gas were formed from dead animals and plants that lived
in the seas a long time ago. The dead
materials settled at the bottom of the
sea, where it was covered with sand and
other sediment. Rock then formed on

....
top of the an imal and plant remains.
High pressw·e and temperature changed ocean '

it into petroleum over millions of years.

Some of it was changed into a gas -
called natura l gas.
C rude oil and natural gas are
found together, held in between layers
of non-porous rock in the ground
(Figure 8.2). These fuels are extracted by
a dri lling pipe through the rock. These
fuels are hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons
are made up of hydrogen and carbon Figure 8.2 Extraction ofNatural Gas
only. and Oi l from Seabed

(c) Natura l Gas

Natural gas was formed at the same time as crude oil and the tvv'o are often found
together, although it may occur on its own or with coal. It consists mainly of methane
(85-95 %) with varying amounts of ethane, propane, butane and other gases such as carbon
d ioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, etc.

~ Chemistry in Society -::.'

• The fuels that are derived from petroleum support n1ore than half of the world's total
energy production.
• Crude oil, coal and natural gas are non-renewable fossil fuels and contain sto.red energy
from photosynthesis trapped millions of years ago.
• Fuel oil and natmal gas are used to generate electricity. Petroleum products are used
for the manufacture of synthetic fibers for clothing and in plastics, paints, chemicals,
fertilisers, insecticides, soaps and synthetic rubber.
• Myanmar is today primarily a natural gas producer. As of20J 5, Mya.mnar expmts gas
to Thailand and China.

R~\ ic\\ Quesllnn \

(l) Why is peh·oleum called a fossil fuel?
(2) Describe the uses of coal.

121
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Key Terms
A fuel is a substance that releases sufficient energy to do work as it undergoes a
chemical change.
Fossil fuels consist of coal, petroleum and natural gas. Natural gas consists mai11 ly
of methane, CH 4 • Crude oi l (petroleum) is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon
molecules.
• Non-renewable fuels are fuels which take millions ofyears to form and which are
used up at a rapid rate.
Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources. (e.g., vegetable oils,
animal oils, etc.)
Combustion of coal releases nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, particulate matter
(PM), mercury and dozens of other substances known to be hazardous to human
health.

8.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OJL

small molecules:
I used as a fuel

• low boiling point

• very volatile used as a fuel in cars
• easier to ignite
• flows easily
used to make chemicals

,,
lower used as a fuel in jet engines

; used as a fuel in diesel

engines
crude used as lubricating oils,
oil waxes and polishes
used as a fue l for ships and
for home heating systems
used to make bitumen for

large molecules:
residue
HOT (>4oo•q . ._ _ __
1\ surfacing roads

• high boiling point

• not very volatile
• harder to ignite Figure 8.3 F ractjonal Distillation of Crude O il
• does not now easily

122
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Crude oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules. These mol ecules
have different sizes and munber of carbon atoms. The small molecules have few carbon atoms
and low boiling points, while the large molecules have many carbon atoms and high boi ling
points. Therefore, it is necessary to refine the crude oil into useful fuels and chemica ls.
Separation of the crude oil takes place in a fractional distillation column, or fractionating
tower into different fTactions (parts) in an o il refinery (Figure 8.3).
Crude oil is heated in a furn ace. Many fractions could be coll ected, each having
a different boiling point range. The oi l vaporises and passes up the fTactionating column.
The fractions condense and come out ofthe column at different heights depending on their
boiling points. The petroleum gas fraction comes out first at the top of the column as its
molecules have the lowest boiling points. Then, a series of fi·actions such as petrol. naphtha,
kerosene and diesel comes out in order of increasing boiling points, number of carbon atoms
and viscosity. The lubricating oil fi·action comes out at the bottom because its molecules have
higher boiling points, fo llowed by fuel o il. Bitumen is the residue at the bottom of the column.
All the fTactions are insoluble in water and burn in air. The properties and uses of
some ofthe main fractions from the distillation of cmde oil are g iven in Tabl e 8. I.
Table 8.1 Some lmpo1tant Crude Oil Fractio ns

Approximate
Approximate
number of
Fracti.on boiling point Important uses
carbon atoms
range I oc
pea· molecule
refinery gas below room
bottled gas for gas cookers and motor
(petroleum temperature J- 4
cars
gases) < 40 ..... ::::s
petrol .,n>
I")

35 - 75 5 - 10 ~
petrol for motor cars
.(gasoline)
naphtha 70 - 170 8 - 12 -·
/;LJ

::::s
(JO petrochemicals
a'
fuel for jet aircraft.; kerosene lamps
paraffu1
I 70 - 250 lO - 14 -·
0

:r for light and kerosene stoves for

(kerosene) (JO
"'C
cooking

diese l oil 250 - 340 15 - 25 -·::::s

0
.... fuel for diesel engines of buses, lorries,
~ trucks, steamers and trai ns
::::s
lubricating Q. lubricant in engines to reduce friction;
350 - 500 19 - 35 <
oil ~· also fo r making waxes and polishes
n
0 fuel for shjps, factories and central
fuel oil 500 - 600 30 - 40 "'
q·
bitumen
> 600 > 70
, , heating
a black substance used to make surface
(residue) roads and roofing
Note: 'Crude o il' (UK) is the same as 'petroleum' (USA); 'petrol' ( UK) is the same as 'gasol ine'
(USA); and 'paraffi n' (UK) is the same as 'kerosene' (USA).

123
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

There is a greater demand for petrol and kerosene than other fractions. Conseq uently.
cracking method is used Lo produce smaller molecules from larger hydrocarbon molecules.

Chemistry in Society
• Gaso li ne, kerosene and diesel oi l provide fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks,
aircraft and sh ips.
• Lubricating o il is used as lubricant in engines to 1·educe rriction; also for making
waxes and polishes.
• Bitumen is used for surracing roads.

R c\\il'\\ (J uc.llliJiunJ.

(I) Name a cntde oil fraction that: (a) is used for jet aircraft (b) has the smallest molecules
(c) is the most viscous (d) has molecules with I 9-35 carbon atoms.
(2) Consider the following petroleum fractions:
naphtha, paraffin, bitumen, di esel oil, lubricating oil
Which of the above ti·actions:
(a) has the lowest boiling point; (b) has the highest boiling point;
(c) is used to make waxes; (d) is used as a fuel for jet engines:
(e) contains 15- 25 carbon atoms per molecule?
(3) ln an oil refinery, Lhe mixtw·e of hydrocarbons in petroleum is separated into fractions.
Petroleum fraction X has the boiling point range of35-70 °C. Petroleum fraction Y has
the boiling point range of 170-250 °C. List three facts in whi ch petroleum fraction X
differs fi·om petroleum fi·action Y. Give reasons for your answer.
(4) There is a lim ited quantity of petroleum on Earth. Describe two ways of conserving
petroleum.

Key Terms
Hydrocarbon is any of a class of organic chemical compounds composed on ly of the
elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).

8.3 CATALYTIC CRACKING

Fuels made from oil mixtures contain large hydrocarbon molecules and are not
efficient. They do not flow easi ly and are difficult to ignite. Crude oil often contains too many
iarge hydrocarbon molecules and not enough small hydrocarbon molecules to meet demand.
Conseq uently, cracking is important to convert the larger hydrocarbon molecules to small er
ones.
Larger molecules from the heavier fractions (paraffin (kerosene) and diesel) can be
broken into smaller, more valuable, molecules. When a catalyst is used, this process is called
catalytic cracking ('cat cracking').

124
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Cracking is a thermal decomposition process in which large alkane hydrocarbon

molecules are broken down by passing them over a heated catalyst under pressure. The
products are smaller alkanes used for fuels (e.g., petrol or diesel) and alkenes which are used
to make polymers: plastics and other important compounds.
Cracking takes place in huge reactor. ln this reactor, particles of catalyst (made of
powdered minerals such as silica, alumina and zeolites) are mixed with the hydrocarbon
fraction at a temperature around 500 °C and moderately low pressure. The cracked vapours
conta ining smaller molecules are produced by the following types of reactions:

Decane heat, catalyst ) 2, 2, 4-trimethyl pentane +

c.,H:u moderately low
pressure
C.H1s +

9H3~ c;H3~
H3 c-cr-<r-9-cr-H+
CH 3 H H H
pentane +
C,H., +

C racki ng reactions genera lly g ive two main types of products:

(i) an alkane with a shorter chain than the original and
(ii) a short-chain alkene molecule.
Both these products are useful.
The shortened alkanes can be blended
w ith the gasoline fraction to enrich the
petrol. The alkenes are useful as raw
...
materials for maki ng severa l imp01tant
"' ~~
:! :
·< "~ "'
:
.. ~
.;
;"
products. Figure 8.4 shows the various
uses for the ethene produced; preparation
"'""3
~
.."
;;
~·
~
;; ~

,.
;;
:!
""'
;; :;
"
of ethanol and plastics such as polyethene,
polychloroethene and polystyrene. Here
in, ethene polymerises to polyethene,
i.e., many ethene mo lecules combine t 10 •~mcrlm Jh)J)nwrl>c~

to for.m larger m olecule polyethe ne

that contains repeating structural un its. polycltloroct hcne polyphen~·lcthcnc
Propene polyrnerises to polypropene (trade (polyvinyl chloride) PVC (poJy,ty rene) PS

name 'polypropylene'), w hil e butene

polyrnerises to produce synthetic rubber. Figure 8.4 Important Products from Ethene

125
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

The alkane produced from cracking may be straight chain alkanes whi ch turn to
branched isomer on heating with the catalyst. Therefore, they have higher octane Tatings
(octane number) than unbranched alkanes. The higher the octane numbe1·, the greater the
ruel's resistance to knocking in an interna l combustion engine.
The octane number of a g iven fuel is determined by comparing the amount of knocking
that fuel causes when combusted with the amount of knocking caused by two standard
reference fue ls; iso-octane which resists knocking (antiknocking) and has an octane number
of I 00 and heptane which causes knocking and has an octane number of 0. For example,
if a gasoline sample has the same antiknock quality as that of a mi xture containing 90%
iso-octane and l 0 % heptane, then the octane number for that sample is defi ned as 90.

Chemistry in Society
• The short chain alkenes such as ethene are always produced in cracking. They are
important for use in chemical industry and in the production of plastics.
• The branched-chain alkanes produced by cracking are useful components of high
octane petrol.
• Antiknocking agent (e.g.• tetraethyllead) is a gasoline addjtive used to reduce engine
knocking and increase the fuels octane rating by raising the temperature and pressure
at which auto-ignition occurs.

l(e\ il!" Qut·~ ficu' s

( 1) What happens during cracking? Discuss briefty.

(2) Cracking is a thermal decomposition. Ex pl ain why.
(3) Describe the usual conditions needed for cracking a hydrocarbon in the petroleum refinery,
(4) Exp la in why cracking is so impmtant.

Key Terms
Catalytic cracking is a process used to split long chain alkanes into shorter alkanes
and afkenes in the presence of catalyst under pt·essure and high temperature.
Catalyst is a substance that speeds up the chernical reaction witl1out getting consumed.
Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals common ly used as commercia l
adsorbents and cata lysts.
• Thermal decomposition is the breaking down of a chem ical compound, caused by
heat.
Octan e rating (octane number) is a measure of a fuel's ability to resist 'knock'.
Engine knocking refers to the sharp sounds caused by combustion of some of the
compressed air-fue l mixture in the cyl inder.

126
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

8.4 ALTE RNATI VE FUELS

Fossil fuels take millions of years to form. There are limited amounts in the Earth.
At the present rate of consumption, petroleum and natural gas may run out within 50 years
and coal will only last for a further 250 years. Therefore, scientists have tried to overcome
the problem of limited crude oiJ supply by looking for alternative fuels to replace crude oil.
An alternative fuel is an internal combusti.on engine fuel other than gasoline or
diesel oil. Alternative fuels include natura] gas (methane, compressed natural gas- CNG),
propane (liquefied petroleum gas - LPG), hydrogen fuel, biomass-derived fuels, biodiesel,
bio-alcohols (including ethanol and methanol), alcohol mixtures 'vith gasoline or other fuels
(gasohol) and electricity.
Hydrogen fuel, biomass-detived fuels, biodiesel, bio-alcohols (including ethanol and
methanol) are renewable fuels, and also known as alternative transport fuels.
Some alternative fuels and their uses are described in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Some Alternative Fuels and Their Uses

FueJs Source Composition Uses

used as fuels in vehicles,

LPG
cars, trucks and stationary
(Liquefied propane and
petroleum gas power generation, for
Petroleum butane
cooking and other J1eating
Gas)
systems

CNG vsed as fuels ln vehicles, cars,

(Compressed natw·al gas 90% methane !,rucks and stationary power
Natural Gas) generation

used io power tractor

plant oils, engines, petro-diese l engines
biodiesel long chain esters
animal oils and electricity generahon
engines
.
used for heating and cooking,
waste organic
biogas methane and the solid residue is used as
matter
a fe1tiliser
water, petrol
hydrogen used as fuels for cars, in space
and natura 1 hydrogen
fuel shunles and other big rockets
gas
90% petrol + JO %
petrol and
gasohol ethanol, 15 % petrol + ltsed as fuels in vehicles
ethanol
85 % ethanol (US)

127
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Preparation of biodiesel
The plant or animal oils have to be convened to biodiesel by 'Transesterificathm'.
The conversion involves four stages :
( l ) the preparation of nearly 100 % pure methanol or ethanol,
(2) the addition of potassium hydroxid e or sodium hydroxide basic catalyst to th e
prepared pure methanol or ethanol,
(3) the treatment of the seed on
with the prepared basic catalytic solution and the
soJution heated to 60 °C which is the transesterification process producing methyl
or ethyl ester as tbe product (biodiesel) of the reaction and
(4) the removal of glycerine and sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids (soap) from
the reacti.on mixture by washing with water, and pure biodiesel is separated out by
using the biodiesel processor.
The transesterification reaction can be generally presented as below.
catalyst~
triglyceride + alcohol esters + glycerol

CH,-0-CO-R
- I R-0-CO-R, C H ~-OH
I I ~
catalyst~
CH -O-CO-R1 + 3 R-OH R-O-CO-R2 + CH -OH
I I
CH:t -O-CO-R3 R-O-CO-R3 CH~ - OH

Biodiesel cat1 be used to power tractor engines, petro-diesel engines and electricity
generation engines. 1t is the potential substitute for petro-diesel since t he source of the
biodiesel is renewable and cost effective.
Hydrogen fuel
Most hydrogen is manufactured on a large scale in industry from petrol and natural
gas. For example, a m ixture ofmethane (from natural gas) and steam is passed over a nickel
catalyst.
methane + steam Ni carbon monoxide + hydrogen
~
Ni
CH 4(g) + H 10(g) ~ CO(g) + 3H 1(g)
The carbon monoxide gas is then reacted with more steam.
carbon monoxide + steao1 carbon dioxide + hydrogen
CO(g) + H1 0(g) CO;(g) + Hl(g)
The hydrogen is separated from the carbon dioxide by passing the gases through
an alkali to absorb the acidic carbon dioxide.
Smal ler quantities ofhydrogen are produced by the electrolysis of water containing
sulphuric acid, though it is more expensive.
water hydrogen +
2H20(1) 2H:!(g) +

128
Textbook Chenustry Grade 10

Hydrogen burns cleanJy in air. The product is steam, which is a non-pollutant

hydrogen + oxygen steam
2~(g) + 0 2(g) 2H1 0(g)
However, hydrocarbon fuels, such as petrol and diesel, produce polluting oxides of
carbon in combustion.
Hydrogen produces at least twice as much heat energy per gram when burnt, than any
other common fuel. Tills is why it is used as a fuel in space shuttles and other big rockets.
Hydrogen has great possibilities as a fuel for cars, replacing peh·ol. Experimental hydrogen-
powered cars are already being used.

batter y

\
- o,

elect ric motor

fuel cell
hydrogen stack
tonk

Hydrogen fuel ceU car Hydrogen fuel cell in space shuttle

Biogas (Metha ne or M arsh gas)

Methane gas is fonned naturally under a number ofdifferent circumstances. Anaerobic
bacteria help decomposition oforganic matter under geological conditions to produce natural
gas. Methane accumulates in coal-mines, where it can cause explosions. Marsh gas, which
bubbles up through the stagnant water of marshes, swamps and paddy fields, is also methane.
Methane produced in this way contributes to the 'greenhouse efl'ect' .
Methane is produced from organic waste (biomass) when it decays in the absence
of air. This can be exploited as a source of energy. l n India and Ch ina, biomass digesters
are important sources of fuel for villages. Industrial ized countries produce large amounts of
waste, which is deposited in landfill sites. Biogas forms as the rubbish decays.

Che.mistry in Society
• The order for the main energy sources currently used in the world in terms of producing
energy is:
crude oil > coal > natw-al gas > hydroelectric > nuclear fission > wind > biofuels >
solar > geothermal.
• Plant oil, hydroelectric, wind, biofuels, solar and geothermal are all renewable energy
sources.
• Natural gas offshore projects in Myanmar are Yadana project, Yetagon project, Shwe
Platform project and Zawtika project.
'" ~ =

l29
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

Household products Plasticsware Medical

-... frying pans

shaving cream
Things made from
paintbrushes and

'il
roller

sunglasses

......

boat

Vehicles & automotive Sports and fitness

Petroleum products
bag
Clothings '
clothes

Natural gas offshore projects in Myanmar

Review Questions
(1) Name each alternative fuel that: (a) is used for cooking and heating systems (b) has the
composition of long cha in ester (c) is the source of waste organic matter (d) has
molecu les with 15-20 carbon atoms.
(2) What are the differences between diesel and gasohol?

130
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

Key Terms
• CNG refers to compressed natural gas (90% methane) and LPG refers to liquefied
petroleum gas which is composed of propane and butane.
• Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of
long-chain alkyl (methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters.
• Transesterification is the process of exchanging the alkoxy group of an ester
compound by another alcohol. These reactions are often catalysed by the addition
of an acid or a base catalyst.
• Biogas is the mixture of gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen.

EXERCISES
1. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements. If FALSE, correct it.
(a) Nowadays, all fossil fuels are not used up rapidly.
(b) There is a gradual change in the physical properties ofthe petroleum fractions.
(c) Hydrogen is a good fuel because it is non-polluting when it burns.
(d) At present, there is no alternative fuel to fossil fuels.
(e) Catalytic cracking results in more branched-chain alkanes.
2. Match each of the items given in List A with the appropriate correct item shown in
List B.
List A List B
(a) coke (i) produced from plant oil
(b) methane (ii) formed from waste organic matter
(c) biodiesel (iii) blended fuel from petrol and ethanol
(d) biogas (iv) a reducing agent
(e) gasohol (v) main constituent of natural gas
3. Complete the following sentences by using the words given.
(a) boiling points, bitumen, fractional distillation, hydrocarbons, crude oil, number
of carbon atoms, natural gas, coal, fuel oil
Fossil fuels are classified into _ _, and . Petroleum is a mixture
of . It is separated into different fractions by . As the ofthe
fractions increase, the of the fractions increase. The last fraction is
and the residue is
(b) alcohol, ester, transport, petrol-diesel, transesterification, sodium hydroxide, biodiesel
Plant oils can be converted to _ _ by using _ _. The plant oils are treated with
_ _ catalyst, in the presence of 100% pure _ _ at 60 °C. The resultant product
is _ _. It is a potential substitute for _ _ and so it is an alternative _ _ fuel.
4. Petroleum is considered as a non-renewable fuel while oil from palm trees is considered
as a renewable fuel. Explain this statement.

131
Grade 10 Chemistry Textbook

5. (a) Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel. Why?

(b) How can you produce hydrogen fuel from (i) natural gas and (ii) water?
Write dnwo the chemical equations in words and symbols.
6. Explain the term 'transesterification' in your own words.
Describe the application of this reaction.
7. What is meant by the term 'octane number'? Why is it significant?
8. The diagram shows how petroleum can be refined.

~-naphtha
(a) What does ' refining petroleum ' mean?
(b) Name the process used to refine petroleum.
(c) What change of state occurs at A?
(d) Explain how petroleum is separated at B.
(e) State (i) two si milariti es; (ii) two differences
between naphtha and diesel oi l.
( t) Name two fuels, suitable for cars, which are not
obtained from petro leum.
A
y - B [ '--+-kerosene

diesel oil

(g) Among three tractions, which fract ion has the

lowest boiling point and which one has U1e highest
boiling point?
(h) Among three fractions, which fract ion contains the smallest molecules and w hich
one contains the biggest molecules?
9. Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons. The different hydrocarbons have different boiJing
po ints and petroleum has to be separated into its various components before the
individual components can be used.
(a) How would you explain the term 'hydrocarbon'?
(b) Name the separation method used to separate petroleum i11 oi I refineries. What
physical property of liquids makes separation by this method?
(c) S uggest the name of a petroleum fraction that would be suitab le for each of the
following purposes:
(i) seal cracks in the concrete ranks
(ii) boil a beaker of water in the laboratory
(iii) protect a wooden furn iture
(iv) oil the sewing machine to reduce fiiction
10. Cracking is a process that split larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones.
(a) Give two reasons why an oil company might want to crack a hydrocarbon.
(b) Give the conditions under w hich cracking is canied out.
(c) A molecule of the hydrocarbon C 11 HJ,l was cracked to give two molecules of ethene
(C2 H4) and one other molecule. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
which took place.
(d) Write a chemical equation tor an alternative cracking reaction involving the same
hydrocarbon C 11 H:tr

132
Textbook Chemistry Grade 10

11. The diagram given represents the process of

fractiona l distillation of crude oil.
Which of the following statements about
fractions X and Y is cmTect?
Give reason for your answer.

J
(a) X burns more easily than Y.
(b) X has a higher boiling pointthan Y.
(c) X is used for making road surfaces. crudeoil
Vapour -~ .-
(d) Y is the li ghter fraction compared with X.
lJ::_ y
12. Consider the following petroleum fractions: diesel ml, kerosene, naphtha, petroleum
gas, bitumen.
(a) Place the above fractions in order of decreasing volatility from rnost volat il e to
least volatiIe.
(b) Oftbe fractions given above,
(i) which contains hydrocarbon with more than 20 carbon aloms per molecule?
(ii) which contains propane (C)-l 8 )?
(iii) wh ich is used as a starting materiaJ for mak ing plastics?
13. A hydrocarbon, Q , was found to co11tain 82.8% carbon by mass.
(a) What is the empi rica l form ula of Q ?
(b) Tbe molecular formula of Q is C ,H 10,. In which petroleum fraction wou ld Q be
found? Explain your answer.

133
Grade I0 Chemistry Textbook

CHAPTER REVIEW
(Concept Map)

alternative fuels

are

plant & animal organic \\ :l~te~

oib (renen a ble ( rene wable
sou rce) Fossil Fuels so urce)

(Non-renewable resource)
clas~ified a!>

fos~il plant mnterials . .__~....

o_rn_1.,;,.
ed...,;,._-; formed
I'rom from

formed from
sepa rated by
fracaionol distillotion irtlo
C I - C4 C > 70
bpt. < 40'C bpi.> 600'C

,.
;;;
"'= = c
~ ...
~ c ~
Q.
~
... "'"'c.
"'
.c.
~ "'"'
='
Cl.
e
~
=
"'0'
Q.

~
..,. "'"'Cl.
., "'
c.
..
0'
C' ::!.. 3
C' "'C'
~ 0' ~ !!. ~

....Q' "' ..."'

7:'
0' 0'
lubrica n b,
\\ 11:\:C~ &
0'
"' "' "'
ca rs polishes
diesel engine '-----..J ·~--1~---.
of buses,
'----___,j '------11 cars &
lor ries, etc.

increa\iog numher of carbnn, incre:l!>in:: boilin:: 110intnnd \ i\cu,ih

decrea\ing \OI:Hilit) and Ou\\, hecomin:,: harder tu ignite

134