EARTH SCIENCE

Module 1 - FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE THE UNIVERSE IS BELIEVED TO HAVE STARTED

FROM A GREAT EXPLOSION OR EXPANSION.
PART 1 ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE: CREATION
MYTHS ESSENTIAL FEATURE: the universe appeared around
13.7 years ago (Gya) through a colossal explosion.
Do you know that different cultures have their
creation myths? The occurrence of the big bang resulted into several
events: ( that led to the creation of forces and
What is a creation myth?
celestial bodies known today)
It is a symbolic narrative of the beginning of the
1. Inflationary epoch ( 10 – 35 - 10 – 33 s )
world as understood by a culture. These are handed
 The universe expanded from the size of an
down
atomic nucleus to 1035 meters in width.
from generation to generation through oral 2. Formation of the universe ( 10 – 6 s)
traditions such as stories, songs, and poems, and  The universe continued to expand.
works of art among  It became distinct, possessing gravity, strong
nuclear force, weak nuclear force, and
others.
electromagnetic force.
“The Book of Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew  At the first seconds, the universe was made
Bible and the Christian Old Testament, is an account up of fundamental particles and energy:
of quarks, electrons, photons, and neutrinos
among others.
the creation of the world, the early history of 3. Formation of the basic elements ( 3 s )
humanity, Israel's ancestors, and the origins of the  Protons and neutrons combine to form
Jewish hydrogen nuclei
people. Its Hebrew name is the same as its first  Hydrogen nuclei began to combine in pairs to
word, Bereshit.” Wikipedia form helium nuclei. A process called
“nucleosynthesis”
The biblical creation story tells us that God created 4. Radiation era ( 10 000 years )
the universe in six (6) days.  Most of the energy in the universe is in the
form of radiation.
PART 2 ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE: SCIENTIFIC  These include different wavelengths of light,
THEORIES X-rays, radio waves and ultraviolet rays forming
“cosmic microwave background radiation”
The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation 5. Matter domination ( 300 000 years )
about how the universe began. At its simplest, it  Matter began to dominate at the end of
says the universe as we know it started with a small radiation era.
singularity, then inflated over the next 13.8  Lithium atom began to be formed
 Electrons joined with hydrogen and helium
billion years to the cosmos that we know today. nuclei to make small neutral atoms.
Nov 7, 2017 6. Birth of stars and galaxies ( 300 million years )
A Belgian priest named Georges Lemaître first  Slightly irregular areas of gas cloud
suggested the big bang theory in the 1920s, gravitationally attracted nearby matter and
became denser.
when he theorized that the universe began from a  The dense gas clouds collapsed and
single primordial atom.Jan 18, 2017. eventually gained enough mass to ignite and
produce light.  The huge clouds of gas could
STORY: be the birthplace for dozens of stars. The group
of stars became the galaxies. The big bang
According to the theory, there was nothing and timeline includes the existence of the four
nowhere. Then suddenly, due to random fluctuation fundamental forces. These f speculated to be
in an empty void, unified into a single force at a very high
temperature (Planck scale) but separated when
there was a great explosion or expansion. The
the temperature dropped. The four basic forces
explosion sent space, time, matter, and energy in all
include:
directions. The event is called the “ BIG BANG”.
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1. Strong force- Short-ranged (10- cm) attractive  It offered solutions to the unresolved problems
force which binds the nucleus revolving the big bang theory.
2. Electromagnetic force - Long-range force that  The inflation theory proposed a period of
binds atoms which can either be attractive exponential expansion of the universe prior to
repulsive 3. Weak force -Short-ranged force the more gradual big bang expansion.
present in radioactive decay 4. Gravitational  During this rapid expansion, the energy density
force – Weak, long-ranged, and attractive force of the universe was dominated by a
which binds the Solar System cosmological constant-type of vacuum energy.
Later on, the energy decayed to produce the
OTHER THEORIES
matter and radiation which filled up the
Another theory which explains the origin of the universe.
universe was proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas  During the rapid expansion, the linear size of
Gold, and Fred the universe increased by a factor of ~1026 in
only a fraction of a second.
Hoyle in 1948. The theory is called STEADY STATE
 The inflation theory is regarded as an extension
THEORY.
of the standard big bang theory.
 They proposed that the universe is unchanging
As a solution to the unresolved problems of the big
in time and uniform in space.
bang theory, the inflation theory offered the
 The discovery of cosmic micrówave backhoe
following solutions:
(CMB) contradicted the basic assumptions of
the steady state theory that everything is 1. Flatness
constant. Suppose you are living on the surface of a
basketball ball. The surface that you see is
Although the big bang theory is the acceptable
obviously curved. If the ball's size is increased to
model of the origin of the universe because it can
the size of Earth, it would appear flat even
explain many
though it is still a sphere. In astronomical
observed features of the universe, there were still proportion, it would appear flat because
unresolved problems. inflation stretches any initial curvature of the
universe to almost complete flat.
1. Flatness 2. Monopole
The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe The inflation theory allows the existence of the
(WMAP) revealed that the geometry of the monopoles as long as they were produced prior
universe is nearly flat. However, according to the period of inflation (10-35 to 10-33 s).
to the big bang theory, there should be During the rapid expansion, the density of the
curvature as time grows. monopoles dropped exponentially to an
2. Monopole undetectable level.
The big bang theory predicted the production of 3. Horizon
heavy stable magnetic monopoles in the early The exponential expansion in the early universe
universe. However, there were no magnetic presupposes that the distant regions were
monopoles that have been observed. much closer to each other prior to inflation.
3. Horizon
Based on the big bang expansion, distant String Theory
regions of space in opposite directions of the
String theory is the idea that everything in the
sky are so far apart that they could never have
universe, every particle of light and matter, is
been in causal contact with each other.
comprised of miniscule vibrating strings. ... And they
However, the evidence showing the uniformity
vibrate at countless billions of times per second in
of cosmic microwave background temperature
ten dimensions
shows that these regions must have had contact
in the past. of space, or maybe eleven. Aug 29, 2019

Inflation Theory M-Theory

 The inflation theory was proposed by Alan M-theory is a theory in physics that unifies all
Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy consistent versions of superstring theory. ...
Albrecht According to
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Witten, M should stand for "magic", "mystery" or How do scientists determine the geologic time?
"membrane" according to taste, and the true Scientists measure geologic time using methods:
meaning of the title should be decided when a more
relative dating and absolute dating.
fundamental formulation of the theory is known.
Relative dating
PART 3 EARTH’S HISTORY
- places events or rocks in their chronological
Points to consider:
sequence or order of occurrence knowing their
 The creation of Earth was a result of the actual age. This simply means that through relative
creation of the Solar System. dating, one can find out which layer was formed
 It could even be said that the planet was made first relative to the other layers. Relative dating
from the materials of the early Solar System. cannot tell exactly how many years have passed
 It is from these materials that a celestial body, since the event happened.
which was then devoid of life, came from.
Basic principles involves:
 As time went on, the geologic processes that
shaped the planet enabled life to begin. 1. Principle of Original Horizontality - Sedimentary
rocks are deposited as horizontal or horizontal
Much like the universe, Earth also has its own
layers. Any deviation from horizontality indicates
creation story. A story that was created through the
that deformation occur after the deposition.
study of the diverse life that walked and lived
throughout Earth’s history. 2. Principle of Superposition - In the sequence of
sedimentary rocks, the layer at the bottom the
Are the current features of Earth the same as its
sequence is the oldest, and the successively higher
features 4.6 Gya?
levels are successively younger.
The answer is definitely no. Earth has undergone
3. Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships - Geologic
evolutionary processes that changed its features.
features like faults or igneous intrusions are
How are scientists able to describe Earth's history? younger than the rocks they cut across.

Geologists reconstruct the sequence of events from 4. Principle of Inclusion - If rocks or rock fragments
the study of petrology, stratigraphy, and are included within another rock layer, the rock
paleontology. fragments must be older than the rock layer where
they were embedded.
Petrology - is a branch of geology that deals with
the origin, composition, structure, and classification Absolute dating
of rocks.
- places actual ages of rocks and events.
Stratigraphy - is the study of rock layers (strata) and
- The method used in absolute dating technique is
layering (stratifications).
based on the decay rate of certain radioactive
Paleontology - studies the life that existed prior to, isotopes within fossils, rocks and artifacts.
or sometimes at the start of, the Holocene epoch
- With the knowledge of the decay rate, ratios of
(the current geologic epoch). It includes the study of
parent and daughter isotopes, the absolute date
fossils to determine how they have evolved and
may be computed. For example, through carbon
interacted with the environment.
dating the sandstone was found out to be 300
Based on the information gathered from the study million years old.
of rocks' composition and structure, rock layers, and
2. FOSSILS: EVIDENCE OF PAST LIFE
fossils, geologists developed the geologic time
scale. It represents the interval of time occupied by Geologists also make use of information derived
the geologic history of Earth. It provides a from fossils to define and identify subdivisions of
meaningful time frame within which events of the geologic time scale.
geologic past are arranged.
A fossil is a remnant trace of organisms of a past
GEOLOGIC EVENTS geologic age.

1. RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING Classification of fossils according to form:

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1. True form fossils are the entire animals or plants The LITHOSPHERE is composed of minor and major
trapped and preserved in ice, tar, or other material, blocks called TECTONIC PLATES that interact and
such as remains of prehistoric elephants or create the tectonic activities on Earth.
mammoths that were frozen in the Arctic tundra of
Below the lithosphere which is about 180 km thick
Siberia and Alaska.
and contains mostly hot, molten rocks or magma is
2. Mold fossils are hollow impressions of a living the ASTHENOSPHERE. The asthenosphere can
thing in a rock. The mold reflects only the shape and deform and reshape, driven by the heat energy
surface marking of the organisms. which circulates as convection current, traveling
upward from the hot lower mantle to the cooler
3. Cast fossils are created when mold fossils get
upper mantle.
filled with mineral. The minerals harden and form a
replica of the original fossil. This heat transfer mechanism helps drive the
movement of tectonic plates, which is manifested
4. Trace fossils or ichnofossils are impressions on
as earthquakes.
rocks that showed various activities. Fossils can be
footprints, eggs, droppings, or nests of animals. These movements together with rising magma form
mountains, volcanoes, islands, trenches, and mid-
PART 4 EARTH’S STRUCTURE
ocean ridges.
Have you ever tried cutting a multi-layered cake
THE CRUST
before? If you were to cut Earth, how would it
compare to the layers of the cake? Just like a cake,  Outermost layer of the earth where life
would the layers be also made of different exists.
materials: Earth has many layers because it was  It makes up the continents called
shaped by the geologic processes that began at the continental crust and is about 40 km to 70
start of Earth's origin. The differences of each layer km thick.
are based on the components that make them up.  Composition of the crust: light granitic rocks
mostly aluminum silicates.
If you can recall your activity on the formation of
 The crust that underlies the ocean floor is
the solar system based on the solar nebular theory,
called the oceanic crust having an average
the initial nebula consists of mixtures of grain
thickness of about 5 km.
(rocks) and ice. Through the process of accretion,
 Composition of the oceanic crust: dense
different types of planets are formed –from small
basaltic rocks made up of magnesium
terrestrial planets to large Jovian planets.
silicates.
Steps in the formation of Earth:
THE MANTLE
a) accretion of centimeter-sized particles,
What materials are found in the mantle?
b) physical collision of kilometer sized
planetesimals, composition of the mantle
c) gravitational accretion of planetesimals,
and  Common silicates found in the mantle
d) formation of mole protoplanet due to heat include olivine, garnet, and pyroxene.
of accretion.  The other major type of rock found in the
e) The final step is differentiation of Earth. mantle is magnesium oxide.
During differentiation, heavy or dense  Other mantle elements include iron,
materials like nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe) sink aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium.
to the center of Earth. Light or dense Aug 11, 2015
materials rise to the surface.  Ferro-magnesium silicate rocks.

THE CRUST The Earth's mantle:

The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle  It is a layer of silicate rock between the
comprise the LITHOSPHERE- a rigid layer that can crust and the outer core.
break under stress.  It has a mass of 4.01 × 1024 kg and thus
makes up 67% of the mass of the Earth.[1]
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 It has a thickness of 2,900 kilometres (1,800 Aside from the main layers, there are interfaces
mi)[1] making up about 84% of Earth's that mark the boundaries between the layers of the
volume. earth.
 It is predominantly solid but in geological
 Mohorovicic discontinuity – the interface
time it behaves as a viscous fluid.
between the crust and the upper mantle.
 Partial melting of the mantle at mid-ocean
 Gutenberg discontinuity – marks the
ridges produces oceanic crust, and
boundary between the lower mantle and
 Partial melting of the mantle at subduction
the outer core.
zones produces continental crust.
 Lehmann discontinuity – the interface
 The mantle lies between Earth's dense,
between the liquid outer core and the solid
super-heated core and its thin outer layer,
inner core
the crust.
 Its top layer temperature is 900 oC but as
one goes deeper, temperature increases Description of the core and the materials found in it
from 1000oC to 3700oC ( summary)

THE CORE
INNER CORE
The core is the innermost layer within the entire
planet we are living in. For an ordinary human being Iron and Nickel
not equipped with special skills and highly
Magnetic
sophisticated instruments and means, it is really
impossible to explore the depths beyond our Solid
imagination. But because scientists never stopped
unveiling the mysteries within the land we are 1250 km
stepping on, here is a video clip that would give us 3700oC – 4000oC
an idea of what lies beneath the grounds under our
feet. OUTER CORE

Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of Iron and Nickel
the Earth. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of Magnetic
about 1,220 kilometers, which is about 20% of the
Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's radius. There Liquid
are no samples of the Earth's core available for
2300 lm
direct measurement, as there are for the Earth's
mantle. 6000oC

Features about the earth’s core: Cause of earth’s magnetic field

 It has two distinct layers: the liquid outer

core and the solid inner core

The outer core

 The only layer of Earth that is liquid which is

made up of molten nickel and iron
 The thickness is about 2270 km ( about
2300 km)
 Temperature ranges from 3700oC to 4000oC

The inner core

 It is composed mostly of solid iron

 Its diameter is about 1250 km
 It is extremely hot with a temperature
estimated to be about 6000oC