PHYSICS

HIRENSIR.COM
 CONTENTS
1. Units & Measurement . ......................................................................................... 5-6

2. Motion ................................................................................................................... 7-18

3. Work, Energy and Power . ............................................................................... 19-24

4. Gravitation.......................................................................................................... 25-27

5. Properties of Matter . ......................................................................................... 28-35

6. Space Exploration ............................................................................................. 36-43

7. Simple Harmonic Motion . .............................................................................. 44-47

8. Sound .................................................................................................................. 48-52

9. Optics . ................................................................................................................. 53-65

10. Heat . .................................................................................................................... 66-78

11. Electromagnetic Radiation . ............................................................................. 79-83

12. Atomic Physics .................................................................................................. 84-93

13. Astronomy ........................................................................................................ 94-102

14. Communication System ...............................................................................103-107

15. Electromagnetism . .........................................................................................108-122

16. Physics at a Glance-I .....................................................................................123-152

•••
 UNITS &
MEASUREMENT

All the quantities in terms of which Systems of units Length Mass Time
laws of physics are described and whose
1. C.G.S. System Centimetre Gram Second
measurement is essential are called physical
quantities like mass, length, time, light, 2. F.P.S. System Foot Pound Second
current electricity, temperature, etc. 3. M.K.S. System Metre Kilogram Second

UNIT The measurement of a physical quantity

requires a unit and the comparision of unit
The fixed part of a Physical quantity by
to the quantity & the number of the units
dint of which comparision could be made
obtained gives the measured value of the
of the magnitudes of the same quantity
quantity e.g. when we say that the length of
contained in different substances is termed
a rod is 5 metres it means that the length of
as a unit.
the rod is 5 times the unit of length, metre.
International System of Units (S.I.)
The system is a modification over the MKS system FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
and hence, is known as rationalised MKS System.
There are seven fundamental and two supplemen- (i) Metre (m) : 1 metre is equal to the
tary units in S. I. System : length of the path travelled by light in
Physical Fundamental Symbol vacuum in 1/2 99792458 of a second where
1. Mass Kilogram kg speed of light is 299792458 m/s. Recently,
2. Length Metre m
the definition of 1 metre of length is realized
3. Time Second s
by using the iodine stabilized helium neon
4. Tempertature Kelvin K
5. Electric-current Ampere A
lasers.
6. Luminous intensity Candela Cd (ii) Kilogram (kg) : A standard block of
7. Quantity of matter Mole mol
Platinum Iridium alloy preserved in the
Supplementary Supplementary Symbol
Physical quantity Unit International Bureau of Weights & Measures
1. Plane angle Radian rad. at Sevres, near Paris, France is used as a
2. Solid angle Steradian sr prototype of unit of mass and one kilogram
is equal to the mass of this alloy.
The units of three quantities viz mass,
length and time are called fundamental (iii) Second (s) : The definition of second
units because all physical quatities can be is based on an atomic clock which works
expressed in terms of mass, length and on energy radiation from an isotope of
time and remaining all units are called caesium (Cs-133). One second is equal to
derived units. the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of

Physics [5]
radiation corresponding to unperturbed (iii) Par sec. (Parallactic second) : 1
transition between the two specific energy Par sec = 3.1 × 1016m = 3.26 ly
levels of the ground gaseous state of Cs-
(iv) 1 micrometre or 1 micron = 10–6m
133 isotope. The caesium atoms in the
atomic clock act like a pendulum in a (v) 1 nanometre (1nm) = 10–9m
pendulum clock. The atomic clock gives (vi) 1 Angstrom (1A°) = 10–10m
the most accurate time with an error of 1
For Masses : (i) 1 tonne or 1 metric ton
second only in 5000 years.
= 1000 kg
IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS (ii) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg.

For Lengths : (i) Astronomical Unit (iii) The largest unit of mass is Chandra
(A.U) : It is equal to the distance between Shekher Limit (C.S.L) 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 times
the centre of the earth and the centre of the the mass of the Sun.
sun. One A.U. = 1.5 × 1011m. (iv) For small masses atomic mass unit
(ii) Light Year (ly) : It is equal to the (a.m.u.) is used. 1 a.m.u = 1.6 × 10–27kg.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in For Area : (i) 1 acre = 4047 m2.
one year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.
(ii) 1 hectare = 104m2.

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[6] General Science

 MOTIONS

A body is said to be in motion if it

changes its position with respect to its
surroundings as time goes on. A body is
said to be at rest if it does not change its
position with time, with respect to its
surroundings. SPEED

TYPES OF MOTION The time rate of change of position of

an object in any direction i.e. the rate of
(i) When a particle or a body moves change of distance of an object with respect
along a straight path, its motion is to time is known as speed.
Rectilinear or translatory motion.
(ii) When a particle or a body moves in a
circular path, its motion is circular
motion. When a body spins about its
own axis, it is said to be in rotational VELOCITY
motion.
The rate of change of displacement of
(iii) When a body moves to and fro or back an object with respect to time is known as
and forth repeatedly about a fixed point velocity.
in a definite interval of time, it is said to
be in vibrational or oscillatory motion.
The path travelled by an object during its
motion is called trajectory. The actual path Let a square OPQR of side length 2
length during the motion is called distance metre. A particle travels along its side
and, the straight distance between the initial starting from O to R via P and Q. It takes a
and final position of the motion in a particu- total time of 2 seconds. The total distance
lar direction is called displacement. travelled is OP + PQ + QR = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6
Let a particle travel, starting from point metres whereas the total displacement is
A and go to point D along the path A B C OR = 2 metres. Hence
D in a given interval of time. The total path
length ( = AB + BC + CD) is the distance
travelled and the shortest path length (AD)
in the direction A to D is the displacement
within the same time-interval.
 When the velocity of a body increases,
Average Speed = 3m/s it has a positive acceleration and when the
velocity decreases, it has a negative accel-
Average Velocity eration. This negative acceleration is called
deceleration or retardation.
When a body is released from a height,
its velocity increases by 9.8 m/s in every
ACCELERATION second and when a body is thrown above
the earth’s surface, its velocity decreases
The rate of change of velocity with
by 9.8 m/s in every second. This change in
respect to time is called acceleration.
velocity every second is called acceleration
due to gravity which is denoted by ‘g’. Its
average value at the earth’s surface is 9.8
m/s2. It is always directed towards the
When a body completes equal displace- centre of the earth because of the gravita-
ment in equal interval of time, its velocity is tional pull. For a freely falling body, its
constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration is 9.8 m/s2.
acceleration. When a body shows equal
change in velocity in equal interval of time POSITION (DISPLACEMENT)-
its velocity is not constant but it has a TIME GRAPHS
constant acceleration.
(i) For a body moving with a uniform
EQUATIONS OF MOTION velocity: This graph comes as a straight
line because in a uniform velocity the
(i) For a body moving with a uniform particle completes equal displacement in
velocity: If a body completes a displace- an equal interval of time.
ment ‘S’ in time ‘t’ with a uniform velocity
‘V’, then,
displacement = velocity × time

or
...(i) (ii) For the motion of a body thrown
(ii) For a body moving with a uniform vertically upwards : When the body moves
up, its velocity continuously decreases due
acceleration : If a body starting with an
to gravity and finally becomes zero at the
initial velocity ‘u’ moves with a uniform
maximum height. Then, the body falls with
acceleration ‘a’ for a time ‘t’ and attains a
an increasing velocity.
final velocity ‘v’ after travelling a
displacement ‘s’ then,

...(iii)
...(iv)
and
[8] General Science
 The slope of the position time graph is
equal to the uniform velocity.
The slope of the velocity time graph is
equal to acceleration.

In the figure, slope

and OB = time (t)

or,
VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH
Example 1 : A car is travelling with a
For a uniformly accelerated motion the
velocity of 20 m/s at a uniform accelera-
velocity-time graph is a straight line.
tion of 1 m/s2. Find out its velocity after 10
seconds.
Solution : Given, the initial velocity = u
= 20 m/s. acceleration = a = 1 m/s2. time
interval = t = 10 seconds.
hence, the final velocity = v = u + at
or v = 20 + 1 × 10 = 20 + 10 = 30 m/s.
The area under the velocity-time graph
is equal to displacement. Example 2 : A bus moving at 10 m/s
experiences a constant retardation of 2 m/
∴ Displacement = Area under velocity s2. due to applied brakes. How much dis-
time graph tance does it cover and how much time
does it take before it stops ?
= Area of ∆OAB = × AB × OB
Solution : Given, initial velocity = u =
Where = Average velocity (Var.) 10 m/s
Final velocity (when the bus stops) = v = 0
retardation = – 2 m/s2.

or v = u + at or = 5 sec.

It takes 5 seconds to stop.

∴ V = u + at

Physics [9]
 or h = gt2

= 50 – 25 = 25m
or, v2 – u2 = 2as
Example 5. A stone is thrown vertically
= 25m. upwards with a velocity of 98 m/s. What will
be its maximum height attained and time taken
It covers a distance of 25 m before it stops. to achieve this height ?
Example 3 : A train travelling with an Solution : a = g = – 9.8 m/s2, u = 98
initial velocity of 4 m/s accelerates uniformly m/s2.
at a rate of 2m/s2. for 20 seconds. Calculate
the distance covered. At the maximum height (h) = s = h and
v=0
Solution : Given, the initial velocity = u
= 4m/s ∴ v2 – u2 = 2as

acceleration = a = 2m/s2. ∴ 0 – (98)2 = (–)2 × 9.8 × h

interval of time = t = 20 second

∴ Displacement,
∴ v = u + at

∴ 0 = 98 – 9.8 × t or t = 10 seconds
or s = 80 + 400 = 480m.
Example 4 : A stone is dropped from PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
rest from the top of a tower. What will be (i) Vectors : They have a definite
its velocity after 2 seconds and what is the magnitude and a definite direction, e.g.
height of the tower if the stone falls in 5 displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
seconds onto the ground ?
(ii) Scalars : They have definite
Solution : Here a = g = 9.8 m/s2. magnitudes only and not direction. e.g.
u=0 distance, speed, work, energy, power,
electric charge etc.
Hence, after t = 2 seconds, the stone
has a velocity of v = u + at = u + gt = 0 + 9.8 (iii) Tensors : They have different
× 2 = 19.6 m/s. magnitudes in different directions, e.g.
Moment of interia, stress etc.
Let height of the tower = h
In a motion, a body can have a constant
∴ The distance travelled in time = t = 5 speed but variable velocity like the motion
sec. will be, s = h of a body along a circular path. A particle
may have zero displacement and zero
∴ s = ut + at2 velocity but non-zero distance and speed.
When a body completes one revolution
[10] General Science
along a circular path in a given time period, Inertia of a body may be inertia of rest,
the net displacement and velocity of the inertia of motion or inertia of direction.
body will be zero but the distance and
speed of the body must be non-zero. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
The velocity and acceleration of a body
may not necessarily be in the same direc- First Law of Motion
tion and may not be zero simultaneously. Every body continues to be in a state
The body in equilibrium may be at rest or of rest or uniform motion in a straight
may move with a constant velocity. When line, except in so far as it may be com-
a body is thrown upwards, it will go verti- pelled by force to change that state.’
cally until its vertical velocity becomes zero Newton’s first law of motion defines in-
and it will return to the ground with the ertia.
same velocity with which it was thrown.
1. Inertia of Rest : the inability of a
When a body is thrown horizontally body to change by itself its state of rest.
from a height or dropped from the same
height in both cases it will be reaching to
When a branch of a fruit tree is shaken,
the ground simultaneously because in both the fruits fall down. This is because the
the cases the body will be acted upon by the branch comes in motion and the fruits
tend to remain at rest. Hence, they get
same vertically downward acceleration due
detached.
to gravity (g).

The dirt particles in a durree fall off if it
A physical quantity having direction
is stricken by a stick. This is because the
may or may not be a vector e.g. time, pres-
striking sets the durree in motion
sure, current-electricity, surface-tension etc.
whereas the dirt-particles tend to re-
They have direction but are not vectors.
main at rest and hence fall.
Linear-Momentum : It is the quantity

When a train starts suddenly, the pas-
of motion which a body possesses and is
senger sitting inside tends to fall back-
measured as the product of the mass and
wards. This is so because the lower part
velocity of the body.
of the passenger’s body starts moving
Linear momentum = mass × velocity. with the train but the upper part tends
Impulse : The total change in momen- to remain at rest.
tum is called the impulse. If a very large
If a smooth paper having a coin on it
force acts for a very small time, the prod- placed on a table is suddenly drawn,
uct of force and the time is equal to the the coin remains at the same place on
impulse. the table due to inertia of rest.
Inertia : The inability of a body to
When a horse starts suddenly, the rider
change by itself its state of rest or state of tends to fall backwards due to inertia
uniform motion along a straight line is of rest
called inertia of the body. The inertia of a
body is measured by its mass. Heavier the 2. Intertia of Motion : The inability of a
body, greater is the force required to change body to change by itself its state of uniform
its state and hence greater is its inertia. motion.

Physics [11]

When a horse at full gallop stops sud-
When a knife is sharpened by press-
denly, the rider on it falls forward be- ing it against a grinding stone, the
cause of inertia of motion of the upper sparks fly off tangentially because
part of the rider’s body. of the inertia of direction.

When an athelete takes a long jump, he
When a stone tied to one end of a string
runs first for a certain distance before is whirled and the string breaks sud-
the jump. This is because his feet come denly, the stone spins off along the tan-
to rest on touching the ground and the gent of its circular path. It happens so
remaining body continues to move ow- because of the pull in the string was
ing to inertia of motion. forcing the stone to move in a circle. As
soon as the string breaks, the pull dis-

When train stops suddenly, a passen-
appears. The stone becomes free and in
ger sitting inside tends to fall forward.
a bid to move along the straight line
It happens because the lower part of
flies off tangentially.
the passenger’s body comes to rest with
the train but the upper part tends to
continue its motion due to inertia of Second Law of Motion
motion. ‘The rate of change of linear momen-
tum of a body is directly proportional to

A person jumping out of a speeding
the external force applied on the body
train may fall forward due to inertia of
and this change takes place always in
motion of his body. Hence, he should
the direction of the applied force’.
run a few steps on the platform in the
direction of motion of train. The second law gives us a measure of
force. When a force is applied on a body,
3. Inertia of Direction : The inability of a
its momentum and hence, velocity change.
body to change by itself its direction of motion.
The change in velocity produces an accel-

The wheels of any moving vehicle throw eration in the body. The rate of change of
out mud, if any, tangentially, due to linear momentum with time is equal to the
the inertia of direction. The mud-guards product of the mass of the body and its
over the wheels stop this mud, protect- acceleration which measures the magni-
ing the clothes, etc. of the person sitting tude of the applied force i.e.
on the bike.

Use of an umbrella to protect us from
rain is based on the property of inertia
= mass × acceleration
of direction because the rain drops can-
not change their direction of motion. or,

When a bus or a car rounds a curve When a body is moving with a uni-
suddenly, the person sitting inside is form velocity along a straight line, it nei-
thrown outwards. It happens so be- ther experience nor require an external
cause the person tries to maintain his force. This is because, the acceleration is
direction of motion due to directional due to change in the velocity of the body
inertia while the vehicle turns. and the velocity remains constant for a

[12] General Science

body moving with a uniform velocity along
In a head-on collision between two ve-
a straight line. hicles, change in linear momentum is
equal to the sum of the linear momenta
When a body changes its velocity or
of the two vehicles. Since time impact is
direction of its motion, its velocity
very small, hence an extra large force
changes too. It results in an acceleration
develops which results in maximum
which is possible only by the action of
damage to the vehicles.
an external applied force. Hence, an ac-
celerated motion is always due to an
When a person falls from a height on a
external force. concrete floor, the floor does not yield.
The total change in linear-momentum
Application of the change in linear is produced in a very small interval of
momentum (impluse) and second law time. Hene, the floor exerts a much
of motion : larger force and the person receives

Bogies of a train are provided with the more injury. But when a person falls
buffers. These buffers avoid severe jerks on a heap of sand, the sand yields. The
during shunting of the train. Since force same change in linear momentum is
= change in momentum/time and the produced in a much longer time. The
time of impact increases due to pres- average force exerted on the person by
ence of buffers. Hence, force during the heap of sand is, therefore, much
jerks decrease. It results in decrease in smaller and hence the person is not
the chances of damage. hurt.

Crockery items are wrapped in paper
Third Law of Motion
or straw pieces before packing because
paper or straw acts as buffers. It ‘’To every action, there is always, an
changes the time of impact and hence, equal and opposite reaction.’’
avoids the chances of damage during Here, the action is the force exerted by
the jerks. one body on the other body while the reac-

An athlete should stop slowly, after fin- tion is the force exerted by the second body
ishing a fast race, so that the time of on the first.
impact of his run increases at stop and Significance of Third Law : It signi-
hence, force experienced by him de- fies that forces in nature are always in
creases. pairs. A single isolated force is not pos-

In cricket, a player lowers his hands sible. Force of action and reaction act al-
while catching a cricket ball to avoid ways on different bodies. They never can-
injury. In doing so, he increases the time cel each other and each force produces its
of impact of the ball which in turn re- own effect. The forces of action and reac-
tion may be due to actual physical contact
duces the effect of the force on his hands.
of the two bodies or even from a distance.

Shockers in the motor-vehicles re- But they are always equal and opposite.
duce the effect of jerk/force by in- This third law of motion is applicable
creasing the time of impact of the whether the bodies are at rest or they are
jerks given by an uneven road. in motion. This law is applied to all types

Physics [13]
of forces e.g. gravitational, electric or mag- of reaction on the jet-plane or rocket in
netic forces, etc. the forward direction. Consequently,
Example and application of the third the jet-plane or rocket moves.
law of motion :
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION

A book placed on a table exerts a force
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
as an action on the table. This action is
equal to the weight of the book. The The total sum of the linear momen-
table exerts a force of reaction equal tum of all bodies in a system remains
and opposite to the reaction to support constant and is not affected due to their
the book. mutual action and reaction. It means in

When a gun fires a bullet, it moves a system of the two bodies, the total
forward due to a force exerted by the momentum of the bodies before impact
gun. The bullet exerts a reaction due to is equal to the total momentum of the
which the gun recoils backward. two bodies after impact. The law of
conservation of linear momentum is

We can walk on a ground easily if it is universal i.e. it applies to both, the mi-
tough because the ground provides suf- croscopic as well as macroscopic sys-
ficient reaction against our push. But it tem.
is difficult to walk on sand or ice. This
is because on pushing, sand gets dis- Some common applications of the
placed and reaction from sandy ground principle of conservation of linear
is very little. In case of ice, force of momentum:
reaction is again small, because friction
When a person is lying on a frictionless
between our feet and ice is very little. surface at rest, his momentum is zero.

When a rubber ball is struck against a As soon as he blows air out of his mouth
wall or floor, it exerts a force as an or throws an object, he moves in the
action on the wall. The ball rebounds opposite direction. The total sum of mo-
with an equal and opposite force as mentum of the person and air blown or
reaction exerted by the wall on the ball. object thrown remains zero due to op-
posite directions.

A swimmer pushes the water with a
force of action in backward direction
When a man jumps out of a boat to
while water pushes the swimmer with the shore, the boat is pushed slightly
a force of reaction in the forward direc- away from the shore. The initial
tion. Consequently, the swimmer is able momentum of the man and boat re-
to swim. mains equal to that of the final
value.

When a jet-plane or rocket moves in
the sky, the gases produced due to com-
The gun must be held tightly to the
bustion of fuel escape through the shoulder when the gun is fired. It would
nozzle in the backward direction due save hurting the shoulder
to the force of action exerted by the
Motion of rocket and jet planes is based
engine. The escaping gases exert a force on the conservation of linear momentum.

[14] General Science

 Out of the three laws of motions, the cycle along a vertical circle in a cage.
second law is the real law because it in- The motor cyclist does not fall down
cludes remaining both the first law and the even at the highest point.
third law.

A pilot of an aircraft can successfully
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION loop a vertical loop without falling at
the top of the loop being without belt.
When a body moves along a circular
path or a curve with a uniform circular
Motion of vehicles on a curved road :
speed, the body is acted upon by an in-
(a) Level Curved Road : A level curved
ward acceleration. This acceleration acts
road is constructed where the speed of
towards the centre of a circular path or
curve and is called as radial or centripetal the vehicles is slow. Here, the force of
acceleration which gives rise to the cen- friction between the road and tyre of
tripetal force. The centripetal force is an the wheel of the vehicle provides the
essential condition of the circular motion. necessary centripetal force.
Centripetal force (Fc) = mass of the body
(m) × centripetal acceleration (ac) (b) Banking of Roads : At the highways
where vehicles run fast, the frictional
or, force is not a reliable source for provid-
ing the required centripetal force to the
centripetal acceleration (ac) = vw vehicle. Hence, at such curved roads, a
safer course of action is to raise the
= rw2.
outer edge of the curved road above
where v = linear speed, w = angular the inner edge. It is known as banking
speed or, r = radius of circular path or of roads. The banking of roads pro-
curve.
vides the required centripetal force.

A cyclist leans forward while going along
a curve. By doing so, the ground pro-
vides him the centripetal force which he
The centripetal force acting on a body
is an action and an equal and opposite requires for turning. Hence, the cyclist
force called centrifugal force appears as a leans inwards from his vertical position.
reaction.
In an atom, the required centripetal force
Application of centripetal force : for an electron in its circular orbit is pro-

When a bucket containing water is vided by the electrostatic force of attrac-
whirled in a horizontal or vertical di- tion between the electron and nucleus.
rection water does not fall down on the
The force of gravitation provides the
ground.
essential centripetal force when a satel-

In a circus, a motor cyclist is able to lite revolves around a planet or a planet
perform the feat of driving the motor revolves around the sun.

Physics [15]
 versa. It is because in doing so the
ROTATIONAL MOTION angular speed increases.
(iii) Consider a ballet dancer is rotating
Torque (Moment of Force)
with her arms and legs stretched
The product of force acting on a body outwards. When she folds her arms
and perpendicular distance of line of action and brings the stretched legs close to
of the force from the axis of rotation is the other leg, her angular speed
called moment of force or torque. increases.
Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance (iv) Due to the same reason, the angular
from axis rotation speed of the inner layer of the tornado
Applications of Torque : (whirlwind) is extremely high.
Torque due to a force is maximum, the (v) All helicopters are provided with two
distance from the axis of rotation is propellers. If there was one single
maximum. We can open or close a door propeller, the helicopter would rotate
easily by applying force near the edge of itself in an opposite direction in
the door i.e. at maximum distance from accordance with the laws of
the hinges. Hence, a handle or knob is conservation of angular momentum.
fitted near the free edge of the plank of the
door. A wrench with a long arm is required FRICTION
to unscrew a nut fitted tightly to a bolt.
Longer the arm of the wrench, smaller is When a body moves (slides or rolls) or
the required force to give sufficient turning even tries to move over the surface of
effect. another body a tangential force comes into
action between their surfaces in contact,
Angular Momentum against their relative motion. This opposing
force is termed as the force of friction.
It is equal to the product of linear
momentum of a body and the perpendicular The force of friction depends upon the
distance from the axis of rotation. It follows mass of the body on a surface and
the principle of conservation. It means the roughness of the surfaces in contact
total angular moment of an isolated system between them and the magnitude of
remains always constant. friction, which increases with increase in
Applications of conservation of roughness and mass.
Angular Momentum : When a body is at rest on a surface, the
(i) The angular velocity of revolution of a friction is called static friction which is a self
planet around the sun in an elliptical adjusting force. When the body is on the
orbit increases, when the planet comes verge to move (slide or roll), the friction is
closer to the sun and vice-versa. called limiting friction but when the body
moves, it gives rise to dynamic friction. The
(ii) A circus acrobat performs feats
limitting friction is the maximum force of
involving spin by bringing his arms
friction and it is always more than static or
and legs closer to his body and vice-
dynamic friction.
[16] General Science
 Usually, smoothness decreases the force
The transfer of motion from one part of
of friction. However, when the surfaces in a machine to the other part through
contact are made too smooth by polishing, belts is possible by friction.
the binding force of adhesion increases and

The working of nuts and bolts for hold-
hence, the frictional force increases. This is
ing parts of machinery together is based
called ‘cold welding’.
on friction.
Friction is a non-conservative force

The knots in woven clothes are possible
and hence, the mechanical energy
due to friction.
(potential and kinetic energy) is not
conserved. In fact, friction converts
Disadvantages of Friction
mechanical energy partly into heat, light
(spark), sound, electricity, etc.
Since, the force of friction opposes the
relative motion between any two bod-
Generally, friction opposes motion.
ies in contact, hence, extra work is done
However, in certain cases friction is
to overcome the force of friction. It in-
essential for motion. Without friction,
volves extra loss of energy. About 20%
motion cannot be started, stopped or
of the petrol used in an automobile is
transferred from one body to the other.
used up to overcome the force of fric-
Thus, friction is a necessary evil.
tion in the engine and in driving.
Advantages of Friction
The force of friction results in heating
the working parts of the machinery that

When a person pushes the ground back-
may damage the parts.
ward, the rough surface of the ground
exerts a forward force due to friction. It
Friction causes wear and tear of the
makes possible a person to move on the parts of the machinery.
ground. Due to lack of sufficient fric-
tion on ice or wet soil, it is difficult to The force of friction can be reduced :
walk.
By polishing : polishing causes smooth-

Two bodies stick together due to fric- ness.
tion.
By lubricating : The lubricants, oils,

The working of the brakes of vehicles is grease etc. fill up the irregularities of
possible due to friction only. the surfaces and hence, the surfaces
become smoother.

The friction between the tyres of
vehicles and road makes the motion of
By using ball-bearings
the vehicles possible.
The force of friction can be increased :

The cleaning action of sand-paper oc-
curs due to friction only.
by applying sand on the slippery
ground.

In absence of friction, we would not be
able to hold a pen and if we could, the
by applying sand on the road covered
pen would not write on paper. with snow.

Writing on the black board with a chalk
by making depressions, projections, etc.
is possible due to friction. in the tyres during manufacturing.

Physics [17]
Order of the magnitude of the tity. And it never decreases with time.
force of friction is: For a moving particle it cannot be zero.
Rolling friction < sliding friction < lim-
Distance covered ≥ magnitude of dis-
iting friction. placement.
Owing to least value of rolling friction
Speed is always a + VE quantity.
wheels are used in vehicles. However, it can increase or decrease
with time.
TRIVIA

When a particle returns to the starting

When a particle goes from one point point its average velocity is zero but
to another, the actual length of the average speed is not zero.
path is called distance covered. The
For uniform motion distance covered =
average speed is defined as the dis- magnitude of displacement. The mo-
tance covered per unit time. In the tion is along a straight line and its di-
above case, the straight line distance rection cannot change.
between the initial and final positions
is called magnitude of displacement.
If a body covers first half distance with
The average velocity is defined as mag- speed v1, and the second half distance
nitude of displacement per unit time. with speed v 2, then average speed

Distance covered is always a + VE quan- = Harmonic mean.

■■■

[18] General Science

 WORK, ENERGY
AND POWER

WORK POWER
When a force is applied on a body and The time rate of change of work is
a displacement is carried out in any power. When a body takes less time to do a
direction except in a direction certain work, its power is said to be more
perpendicular to the direction of the force, and vice-versa.
an amount of work is done by the force.
The amount of work done is equal to
the product of the force and the distance Its unit is watt (w). One kilowatt (1 kw)
travelled in the direction of the applied is equal to 1000 watt. One horse power
force i.e. (h.p.) is equal to 746 watt. Power of an
agent measures how fast it can do the
work. The area under the force versus
or, distance graph is numerically equal to the
work done by the agent.
Unit of work is Joules(s) 1 joule =
Newton × 1 metre.
Work done by a force may be zero,
positive or negative depending upon the
direction of the applied force and
displacement.
Work = Force × Distance
When a coolie is carrying some load on
his head and is waiting for the arrival of
the train, he is not doing any work. No The area under power-time graph gives
mechanical work is done by a teacher the work done while the slope of work
teaching a class. When a body falls freely versus time graph gives the power.
under the action of gravity, work done by
gravity on the body is positive. When a
body is pushed or pulled by a force, work
done is positive. The force of friction acts
against the motion, hence the work done
by the frictional force is negative.

Physics [19]
 Work = power × time = area under w-t moving with same K.E. and same retarding
graph force is applied on each, both the bodies
will stop after travelling the same distance.
or,
K.E. of a body is also given as :

or, = slope of w-t

graph.

ENERGY or,
The ability of a body to do work is called
Hence, when a light and a heavy body
energy. When a body can do more work, it
are moving with the same linear momentum,
is said to have more energy and vice versa.
the light body will have more K.E.
Energy is different from power. Energy refers
to the total amount of work a body can do Every moving system is associated with
and power determines the rate of doing a definite amount of K.E. e.g. a moving
work. Both the energy of a body and work vehicle, wind, water flow, etc.
done by the body are equivalent and are
measured in Joule (J). Potential Energy (P.E.)
The energy possessed by a body by virtue
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) of its position or configuration is known as
It is the energy possessed by the body its potential energy. The mechanical P.E. is
by virtue of its motion. The kinetic energy of two types viz., gravitational P.E. and
of a body is given as elastic P.E. The gravitational P.E. of a body
at a certain height is due to gravity whereas
the elastic P.E. is due to its property of
elasticity.
Where m = mass of the body and v = Gravitation P.E. = mass × acceleration
velocity of the body. Thus, K.E. of a body is due to gravity × height = mgh
equal to half the product of mass of the
body and square of velocity of the body. At the surface of the earth, h = 0, ∴
The change in K.E. of a body measures the P.E. = 0
work done by the body.
Different Forms of Energy
(i) Heat : It is the energy possessed by a
body by virtue of random motion of
the molecules or particles of the body.
or,
(ii) Internal Energy : It is the energy of a
Where u and v are initial and final body due to the molecular
velocities of the body of mass m. configuration and molecular motion.
When a heavy and a tight body are (iii) Electrical Energy : This energy arises

[20] General Science

 due to work done in moving free height, its P.E. begins to decrease and this
charge carriers in a particular direction decrease in P.E. appears as an increase in
through a conductor. its K.E. When the body arives at the ground,
its P.E. becomes zero and this appears as
(iv) Chemical Energy : It is the energy
K.E.
possessed by the body by virtue of
chemical bonding of its atoms.
Sources of Energy
(v) Nuclear Energy : It is the energy
The sources of energy are immense and
released during the nuclear reaction
they are divided into two groups viz.
due to conversion of mass into energy.
(i) Renewable Source : These sources
Mass-Energy Equivalence of energy are inexhaustible and are being
continuously supplied by nature e.g. wind,
Mass and energy are equivalent to each
flowing water, the sun, ocean tides, biogas,
other and can be interconverted according
plants and vegetable waste, etc.
to Einstein’s equation or
(ii) Non-renewable Source : They are
m = E/c2.
exhaustible and have been formed in nature
Where E = energy, m = mass and, c = long ago e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas,
speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s. fissionable materials like uranium.
If mass = 1 kg, the energy released is
Wind Energy
E = 1 kg × (3 × 108)2 m/s2 = 9 × 1016
Air in motion is wind which has kinetic
Joule
energy called wind energy.
This law unifies the two laws viz the
law of conservation of mass and the law of Causes of Wind
conservation of energy. Most of the energy The equatorial region receiving
in the universe i.e. energy in stars is perpendicular sun-rays has warmer air
obtained due to conversion of mass into than that in the polar region where sun-
energy. rays are slanting. The warm air rises up in
the equatorial region. The air from polar
Principle of Conservation of Energy regions rushes towards the equatorial
The total sum of all kinds of energy of an region to fill the gap. This causes the air to
isolated system remains constant at all times. move. Moreover, local weather conditions
Energy neither can be created nor be destroyed also contribute to the movement of air. If
but can be transformed from one form to the speed of air is small, then the wind is
another. The amount of energy appearing in known as breeze. On the other hand, if the
one form is exactly equal to the energy speed of air is very large, then the wind is
disappearing in some other form always. known as storm or tornado.
When a body is at rest at a certain Uses of Wind Energy
height above the surface of the earth, it (i) Sail Boats : A boat can be rowed
only has an amount of potential energy. with oars using muscular energy which is
As soon as the body is released from that a tiresome job for a longer distance. Hence,

Physics [21]
a sail is used by utilizing K.E. of the wind gravitational force of attraction exerted by
to move the boat. A sail is a large sheet of moon and to some extent by the sun on the
thick cloth spread over a boat in such a water of the ocean. At the time of new and
way that maximum wind falls on it. The full moon, when the sun and the moon are in
sail boat moves due to wind. The speed a straight line, tides are very high. When the
and direction of motion of the soil boat sun and the moon are at right angle from the
depend mainly upon the wind. earth, tides are low. The K.E. of the water
during tides is used to produce electricity.
To move the boat in any desired
direction, two sails at right angles to each Tidal power plant is made near narrow
other are attached to the same pole fixed bays. During tides, the gates of the dam
on the pole . A steering device known as are opened. The rising water is allowed to
rudder is used to turn these two sails fall on the turbine of the generator which
through any angle. One of the sails is used produces electricity and the K.E. of the
to direct the wind and the other sail collects water is converted into electrical energy.
this wind. The kinetic energy of the wind During low tides, gates of the dam are
collected by the second sail (propeller) closed and hence the water level behind
moves the boat in th desired direction. the dam rises. This raised water has high
potential energy. Again the gates are
(ii) Wind Mill : A device used to convert opened and the water falls on the turbine.
wind energy into the mechanical energy of Thus, the electricity is produced
the machine is called wind mill. continuously.
Wind energy is pollution free and France and Canada are the leading
economical. However, it is limited to certain countries which harness the tidal energy.
places where wind is in plenty and blows In India, three sites viz. Gulf of Kutch
most of the time. In India, there are some (Gujarat), Gulf of Cambay (Gujarat) and
high wind energy regions like Islands of Sunderbans (West Bengal) have been
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, coastal identified to construct tidal power plants.
parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, some
parts of Rajasthan, Karnataka and Western
Parts of Madhya Pradesh. Government of Ocean Thermal Energy
India has proposed to install a number of It is heat energy obtained due to the
projects to tap the wind energy. In Gujarat, temperature difference between the
two wind power energy stations are different layers of water in the ocean. The
operating. One is at Lamba in Porbandar surface temperature of the ocean is much
district. This power station is producing more than the inner deep ocean. Due to
about 2000 million units of power every this temperature difference, heat energy
year. The second power station operating can be drawn to produce electricity.
with wind energy is in Okha. The vegetation and biomass found at
the sea bed can be used to produce heat.
Tidal Energy Different oceans have different
The alternate rise and fall of water of the concentrations of salt. Hence, electricity
ocean twice in nearly 24 hours is known as a can be produced at the site where different
tide. The tides are produced due to the oceans meet.
[22] General Science
Geothermal Energy Floating Gas Holder Type Biogas
The inner part of the earth is very hot Plant : It consists of a well shaped tank
and hence, hot underground water comes inside the ground called digester. Digester
automatically out of the earth’s surface in is divided into two chambers with a
certain regions in the form of fountains partition wall. A drum shaped gas holder
known as hot water springs or geysers. made of steel in the inverted position over
The steam of these springs under high the mouth of the digester acts as a storage
pressure can be used to rotate the turbines tank for biogas. This tank moves up and
down over the slurry in the digester tank
of the generator to produce electricity.
and hence this gas plant is called floating
gas holder type. The motion of the drum
Biogas
is controlled by a pipe.
Biogas is a mixture of gases like methane
Mixing tank is connected to the digester
(65%), CO2, H2 & H2S formed when the
with the help of the inlet pipe. The overflow
animal dung mixed with water is allowed
tank used to collect the used slurry is also
to ferment in the absence of air (Oxygen)
connected by a pipe. The biogas collected
and it is produced in a biogas plant. Biogas
in the floating tank is taken out with a pipe
is a very good fuel to produce heat.
having a gas valve.
The arrangement of producing biogas
from animals dung, human excreta and
industrial and domestic wastes is known
as biogas plant. There are two types of
biogas plants which have been used in our
country. These are :
(i) Fixed-dome type biogas plant.
(ii) Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
Fixed-Dome Type Biogas Plant : It
consists of a well like underground tank
made of bricks and cement. This tank is
called digester and has inlet and outlet
valves. The roof the tank is dome shaped.
There is a gas outlet pipe at the top of the MACHINE
dome. The dome of the digester acts as a
Machine is a device to overcome load
storage tank of biogas. Thus, the gas-holder
or resistance applied to it at some point by
(i.e., dome) is fixed. There is a mixing tank
a relatively small effort applied to it at
made above the ground level. On the other
some convenient point.
side of the digester, a rectangular tank
called outlet chamber is constructed with Lifting machine : It is a device to lift
bricks and cement. This outlet chamber is heavy load by applying comparatively
connected to the overflow tank which smaller force like lever, wheel and axle,
collects the used slurry. inclined plane, etc.

Physics [23]
 Effort : The force applied to a machine with the help of the laws of
to overcome load (resistance) is called conservation.
effort.

Violation of the laws of conservation
Load : The resistance (force) to be indicates that the event cannot take place.
overcome by a machine is called load.

Work done depends on the frame of
reference.
Mechanical Advatnage (M.A.):

Work done is path independent only in
Velocity Ratio (V.R) or Ideal Mechanical a conservative field.
Advantage (IMA)

Stopping distance of a body

Efficiency of a machine
When the water is flowing through a

pipe with speed v, then its power is
proportional to v3.

If kinetic energy of body is doubled, the
its momentum becomes times.
Efficiency is always less than one or
If an elastic collision of two equal
less than 100%. Ony for ideal machines, masses, their kinetic energies are
the efficiency is one or 100%. exchanged.
V.R. or I.M.A. for some simple
If a light and a heavy body have equal
machines— momenta, then lighter body has greater
kinetic energy.
(i) Lever : I.M.A.
Potential energy of a system increases when
a conservative forces does work on it.
(ii) Whel nd Ale :

If a body of mass ‘m’ moving with
velocity ‘v’, collides elastically with a
rigid ball, then the change in the
momentum of the body is 2 mv.
CONSERVATION
Work done by a centripetal force is
always zero.

Conservation laws can be used to
describe the behaviour of a mechanical
When the momentum of a body
system even when the exact nature of increase by a factor n, then its kinetic
the forces involved is not known. energy is increased by factor n2.

Although the exact nature of the nuclear
If the speed of a vehicle is made n times,
forces is not known, yet we can solve then its stopping distance becomes n2 times.
problems regarding the nuclear forces ■■■

[24] General Science

 Gravitation
The force of attraction between any two eclipses, and the orbits and time period of
bodies in the universe is called gravitation. the modern artificial satellites. The cause
The force of gravitation is the weakest force behind the tides in the oceans is mainly the
in the nature. However, it is the most gravitational force of attraction between
important force in the universe because it the moon and ocean water.
plays an important role in planetary motion,
the birth of a star, etc.
GRAVITY
NEWTON’S LAW OF It is the force of attraction exerted by
GRAVITATION the earth towards its centre on a body
lying on or near the surface of the earth. It
The gravitational force of attraction is called earth’s gravitational pull. Thus,
between any two bodies in the universe is the gravity is a special case of gravitation.
directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the The force of gravity acting on a body is
square of distance between them. the measure of weight of the body. The
force of gravity produces an acceleration
Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2
in a body and it is known as acceleration
respectively having a separation of r
between them. due to gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’. If a body
is of mass ‘m’, then its weight at the surface
Then from the Newton’s law of of the earth is mg.
gravitation, we get the gravitational force
between them Weight = mass × acceleration due to
gravity.

The acceleration due to gravity

Where G is the universal gravitational
constant. G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2. The decreases above and below the earth’s
value of G remains constant anywhere in surface. Hence, the weight of a body
the universe. decreases with increase in height above
the earth’s surface or increase in depth
The Newton’s law of gravitation below the earth’s surface. The value of ‘g’
explains the rotation of the moon around is maximum at the poles and minimum at
the earth or earth around the sun. It the equator of the earth. At the centre of
correctly predicts the solar and lunar the earth ‘g’ is zero.
Physics [25]
 Acceleration due to gravity is rotates around the earth from west to east,
independent of mass, shape, size, etc. of a similar to that of the earth. Its speed is 3.1
falling body i.e. a light and a heavy freely kms/s. Its orbit is coplaner to the equatorial
falling body will attain an equal plane of the earth.
acceleration which is equal to the
It is also known as a geosynchronous
acceleration due to gravity (g). The average
satellite.
value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth is 9.8
m/s2. Heavier a planet or satellite, higher (ii) Polar Satellite : It revolves around
is its ‘g’. The value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth in a polar orbit which is at 90° to
the moon is 1/6th of the value at the earth’s the equatorial plane. It passes over both
surface. The value of acceleration due to the north and south poles of the earth once
gravity is minimum at planet Mercury and per orbit. Hence, every location on earth
maximum at planet Jupiter. lies with the observation of polar satellite
twice each day. It is also known as the sun
SATELLITE synchrononous satellite.
In order to monitor 100% earth’s
The body revolving around a planet
surface, three geostationary satellites are
continuously in an orbit is called a satellite.
required while a single polar satellite can
Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
do the same job.
Since 1957, many man made satellites have
been put in different orbitals around the
earth. They are called Artificial Satellites. ESCAPE VELOCITY
A satellite revolves around the planet The minimum velocity required to
in an orbit under the effect of the centripetal throw a body so that it becomes free from
force provided by the gravitational force of the earth’s gravitational pull is called escape
attraction between the satellite and the velocity. It is given as = 11.2 km/
planet. The minimum velocity with which s for the earth where g is acceleration due
a satellite is put into its orbital is called to gravity and R, the radius of the earth.
orbit velocity which is given as
EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON
WEIGHT OF A BODY
When a body falls freely, its weight
Where g = acceleration due to gravity, becomes zero. This situation is known as
R = radius of the earth and h = height of weightlessness. In a spacecraft or satellite,
the satellite above the earth’s surface. If h the effective weight of a body is zero because
<< R, then = 8 km/s. the gravitational force is balanced by the
centrifugal force.
(i) Geostationary Satellite : It appears
always at a fixed location above the earth When a lift is at rest or is moving up/
in its orbit. Its time period of revolution down with a uniform velocity, the weight
around the earth is 24hrs and its height is of a body inside it remains unchanged.
36000 km above the equator of the earth. It But, when the lift accelerates upwards,

[26] General Science

the weight of a body in it increases while ● Variation of g inside the earth is linear.
downwards the weight of a body decreases. That is, it increase in direct proportion to
the distance from the centre of the earth.
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY
● Decrease in acceleration due to gravity
MOTION at a depth d is given by : gd/R, where R
(i) The First Law : Every planet revolves = radius of the earth.
around the sun in an elliptical orbit. ● Orbital velocity very near the surface of
(ii) The Second Law : The average radius the earth is 7.92 km/s.
of the elliptical orbit of the planet
● Greater the height of the satellite smaller
sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time. is the orbital velocity.

(iii) The Third Law : The square of the time ● Time period of the satellite very near
period of revolution of a planet is the surface of the earth is about 84.6
directly proportional to the cube of minutes.
average radius of its elliptical orbit i.e. ● No energy is dissipated in keeping the
T2 µ R3.
satellite in orbit round a planet.

TRIVIA ● If the total energy (KE + PE) of a satel-

lite is negative, its orbit is either circular
● Planets revolves around the sun in el- or elliptical. In this case PE > KE.
liptical orbits with the sun at one of the
focii. ● If the total energy of the satellite is zero,
it escapes away along a parabolic path.
● The gravitational force is much smaller
In this case PE = KE.
than the electrical force because the
value of G is very small. ● When the total energy of a satellite is
● Gravitation is a conservative force. positive, it escapes along a hyperbolic
path. In this case KE > PE.
● Gravitation is a central force.
● The escape velocity from the surface of
● G is a scalar quantity. the earth is 11.2 km/s.
● Work done in moving unit mass from ● If a body falls freely from infinite height,
infinity to any point in space is called
then it reaches the surface of the earth
gravitational potential at that point.
with velocity 11.2 km/s.
● Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity.
● Kinetic energy of escape for a satellite =
● Gravitational potential due to the earth 2 × kinetic energy of orbital motion.
at its surface is given by : Ve = – GMe|Re
where Me = mass of the earth and Re = ● A body in gravitational field has maxi-
radius of the earth. mum binding energy when it is at rest.
● Unit of gravitational potential is J/kg. ● A hydrogen baloon released at a height
on the moon will fall with an accleration
● The gravitational intensity inside a hol-
low spherical shell is zero. nearly 1.6 m/s2.

Physics [27]
 PROPERTIES OF
MATTER

Matter is broadly divided into three (ii) Amorphous or Glassy Solids : They
categories, viz. Solid, Liquid and Gas. Due have irregular arrangement of particles.
to the strongest intermolecular force of Hence, they do not have a definite
attraction in solids, they are tough and external geometrical shape and sharp
have a definite shape and size. This force is melting point. They are isotropic i.e. their
relatively weak in liquids and so the shape physical properties have the same value
is easily changed but liquids have a definite in all directions e.g glass, cement,
volume. In gases, the intermolecular force rubber, paraffin, plastic, etc.
of attraction is minimum and hence, they
do not have a definite shape, size and LIQUIDS
volume.
Pressure due to a liquid column depends
There is a fourth state of matter called
upon its density and height
plasma state in which matter exists in
ionised state. Plasma state is common in Where h = height of liquid column and
stars. d = density of liquid. If equal amounts of a
liquid are kept in two containers one with
SOLIDS broad base and another with a narrow
base, the height of liquid column will be
In solids the constituent particles (atoms, more in the container with the narrow
molecules or ions) are held strongly at the base and hence, the liquid pressure exerted
position of minimum potential energy. Solids will be more on the narrow base than that
are of two categories : on the broad base.
(i) Crystalline Solids : They have a regular Pascal’s Law : ‘If the effect of gravity is
pattern of constituent particles in three neglected the pressure at every point of a
dimensional space. Hence, they have a liquid in equilibrium of rest is the same.’’ It
definite external geometrical shape and means, in a liquid content, the effect of
a sharp melting point. They are an pressure is equally trasmitted through out
isotropic i.e. their physical properties the liquid system.
like conductivity (thermal and
electrical), refractive index, mechanical Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press or Brahma
strength etc. have different values in press, etc. work on the Pascal’s law.
different directions e.g. rice, sugar, Pressure is equal to the force acting
quartz, diamond, rocksalt, most of
metals & their compounds, etc. per unit area i.e. pressure

[28] General Science

 Let a liquid system having two open the weight iceberg containing an iron
surfaces one with a narrow cross sectional pin but the weight of water displaced
area and other with a broad cross section by the iron pin is less than the weight of
and provided with pistons. Since pressure the pin.
remains the same in every section of the

Initially, a balloon filled with helium gas
liquid system, hence, by putting a small
rises in the air because the weight of the
load on the piston of small cross section a
air displaced by the balloon is greater
heavy load placed at the piston of the broad
than the weight of the balloon. As it goes
cross-section can be uplifted.
up, the weight of air displaced decreases
Buoyancy : Whenever a body is due to decrease in the density of air and
immersed in a fluid, the displaced fluid has hence, the balloon halts at a height
a tendency to occupy the original position. where the weight of air displaced by the
Hence, an upward force is experienced by balloon becomes equal to the weight of
the body. This upward force acting on the the balloon.
body inside a fluid is called bouyancy or
buoyant force or upthrust. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Archimedes Principle : ‘When a body Air content above the earth exerts force
is partially or completely immersed in a due to its weight on the ground. This force
fluid, it loses some of its weight which is on the ground gives rise to the atmospheric
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced pressure. At the sea level the value of
by the body.’’ atmospheric pressure is one atmosphere.
Law of Floatation : A body will float in 1 atmosphere = 760 mm of Hg = 76 cm
a liquid, if weight of liquid displaced by the of Hg = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
immersed part of the body is at least equal
to or greater than the weight of the body. = 1.013 × 105 pascal = 760 torr.
Applications are discussed as below : Barometer is a device that measures
pressure. Mercury barometer is the most

A wooden block or a big ship can float common type.
but an iron pin sinks in water because
the weight of water displaced by a Pressure : Pressure is equal to the
wooden block or a ship is either equal normal force acting per unit area. If the
to or more than their respective weights handles of the bags and suitcases are broad,
whereas the weight of water displaced the pressure on the hand carrying them
by the pin is less than the weight of the will be small.
pin. Due to the same reason, a metallic Railway tracks are laid on large sized
bowl can float on the water surface. wooden, iron or cement sleepers so that

An iceberg having an iron pin floats on the thrust due to weight of train is spread
the water surface but the pin sinks in over a large area. This reduces the pressure
water after melting the iceberg. This is on the ground which would prevent the
because the density of ice is less than yielding of ground. Pins and nails are
that of water and the weight of water pointed so that on pressing on a surface
displaced by the iceberg is more than they exert high pressure on the surface
Physics [29]
and hence, easily penetrate the surface. and known as the co-efficient of elasticity
The pointed end has least the surface area or modulus of elasticity. The modulus of
and it provides greater pressure on applying elasticity is a measure of elasticity of a
a normal force because pressure is equal to body.
force devided by area. Due to the same
Ductile Materials : These materials
reason, it is painful to walk bare footed on
show a large plastic range beyond the
a road covered with edgy pebbles.
elastic limit.They are used in making
Vander Waal Force of Attraction : It is springs and sheets e.g. coppers, iron, silver,
the minimum force of attraction between aluminium, etc.
any two neutral particles (atoms or
Brittle Materials : These materials
molecules). It may be of two types viz.
show a very small plastic range beyond
cohesive force (between similar molecules)
elastic limit e.g. glass, cast iron, etc.
and adhesive force (between dissimilar
molecules). Elastomers : These materials have no
plastic range. In such materials even a
ELASTICITY small stress can produce a large strain e.g.
rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta in the
The ability of a body to regain its original human blood circulatory system, etc.
configuration after removal of an applied
deforming force is called elasticity and the Safety factor
body is termed elastic. Quartz and
phospher bronze are nearly perfectly elastic When a material is used in a certain
bodies. Steel is more elastic than rubber. construction, the working stress is kept
Most of the metals are elastic. much lower than that of breaking stress so
When a body does not regain its original that the safety factor may have a large
configuration at all on the removal of the value.
deforming force, it is called a plastic body. The metallic parts of the machinery are
e.g. plastic paraffin, putty, etc. never subjected to a stress beyond the elastic
When a deforming force is applied on limit, otherwise they will get permanently
an elastic body, its configuration changes deformed.
and after the removal of the force the body The bridges are designed in such a way
regains the original form. The force applied that they do not bend much or break under
per unit area is called stress and the ratio the load of heavy traffic, force of strongly
of the change in configuration to the blowing wind and its own weight. In order
original configuration is called strain. to minimise the depression in the beam of
Hooke’s Law : Within the elastic limit, given length and material the depth of the
the stress developed is directly proportional beam is kept large as compared to its breadth.
to the strain produced in a body i.e. stress a However, too large a depth of the beam may
cause bending, called buckling. Hence, a
strain or stress = E × strain or compromise between breadth and depth of
a beam is made by using an ‘’I shaped girder’’
Where E is a constant for a given body with a large load bearing surface.

[30] General Science

 A hollow shaft is found to be stronger
Reciprocal of bulk modulus is called
than a solid shaft made of the same equal compressibility.
material.

Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small
The material used to construct a spring values of strain (say of the order of 0.01).
should be of higher elasticity. Hence, steel
Higher values of the elasticity (modulus)
having higher elasticity is used to construct a means greater force is required for
spring. Rubber is of lower eleasticity and producing a given change.
hence, it cannot be used to construct a spring.

The materials which break as soon as
If a material is subjected to repeated the stress goes beyond the elastic limit
strains, it losses its elasticity over a long are called brittle.
period of time. After a long use, the bridges
are declared unsafe.
The materials which do not break well
beyond the elastic limit are called ductile.

The modulus of elasticity has the same
units and dimensional formula as that
The deformation beyond elastic limit is
of strees or pressure. called plasticity

Rubber sustains elasticity even when

The material is more elastic if its value
stretched several times its length.
of modulus of elasticity is large.
However it is not ductile. It breaks down

Young’s modulus of elasticity-Y and as soon as the elastic limit is crossed.
modulus of rigidity h exist only for

Breaking stress does not depend on the
solids as liquids and gases cannot be
length or area of cross section of the
deformed along one dimension only and
wire. However it depends on the
also cannot undergo shear strain.
material of the wire.
However, the bulk modulus of elasticity
K exists for all the three states of mater;
Breaking force depends on the area of
viz; solid, liquid and gas. cross section. Breaking stress of a wire
is called tensile strength.

The solids are more elastic and gases are
least elastic. It is so because for the given
Elastic after effect is temporary absence
stress applied the gases are more of the elastic properties.
compressible than that of solids.
Temporary loss of elastic properties due

Young’s modulus of the material of a to continuous use for a long time is called
wire is numerically equal to the stress elastic fatigue.
which will double the length of a wire.
Thermal stress in a rod is independent
of the area of cross section or length of
TRIVIA the rod.

Young’s modulus is defined only for the
When a body is sheared, two mutually
solids. perpendicular strains are produced.
They are called longitudinal strain and

Bulk modulus is defined for all types of compressional strain. Both are equal in
materials : solids, liquids and gases. magnitude.

Physics [31]

Quartz is the best available example of
If a body just floats in a liquid (density
perfectly elastic material. of the body is equal to the density of

The pressure is perpendicular to the liquid) then the body sinks if it is pushed
surface of the fluid. downwards.

The upthrust on a body immersed in a
The hydrometer can be used to measure
liquid does not depend on the mass, density of the liquid or fluid.
density or shape of the body. It only
When a gale blows over a roof, the force
depends on the volume of the body. on the roof is upwards.

The weight of the plastic bag full of air

Sudden fall in atmospheric pressure
is same as that of the empty bag because
predicts possibility of a storm.
the upthrust is equal to the weight of
air enclosed.
If two bodies have equal upthrust in a

The wooden rod cannot float vertically liquid, both have the same volume.
in a pond of water because centre of
If one floats on one’s back on the surface
gravity lies above the metacentre. of water, the apparent weight is zero.

The cross-section of the water stream
If a beaker is filled with liquid of density
from a tap decreases as it goes down in p upto a height h, then the mean
accordance with the equation of pressure on the walls of the beaker is
continunity.
hp g/2.

We cannot sip a drink with a straw on

Stress and pressure have the same units
the moon, because there is no
and dimensions, but the pressure is
atmosphere on the moon.
always normal to the surface but the

The line joining the centre of gravity and stress may be parallel or perpendicular
centre of buoyance is called central line. to the surface.

The point where the vertical line through
Isothermal elasticity = pressure (p)
centre of buoyancy intersects the central
line is called metacentre.
Adiabatic elasticity = Ratio of specific
heats × pressure.

The floating body is in stable equilibrium
when the metacentre is above the centre
Normal stress is also called tensile stress
of gravity. (Centre of gravity is below when the length of the body tends to
the centre of buoyancy) increase.

The floating body is in unstable
Normal stess is called compressive stress
equilibrium when the metacentre lies when length of the body tends to
below the centre of gravity. (Centre of decrease.
gravity is above the centre of boyancy).

Tangential stress is also called shearing

The floating body is in the neutral stress.
equilibrium when centre of gravity
coincides with the metacentre. (Centre
When the deforming force is inclined to
of gravity coincides with the centre of the surface, both the tangential as well
buoyancy). as normal stress are produced.

[32] General Science


Diamond and carborundum are the
A liquid does not wet the containing
nearest approach to the rigid body. vessel if its angle of contact is obtuse.

Elasticity is meaningless for the rigid
In case of liquids which do not wet the
bodies. That is, the elastically is the walls of the containing vessel, the force
property of the non rigid bodies. of adhesion is less than times the
force of cohesion.

Compressibility

The height of the liquid column in a

Breaking stress is independent of the
capillary tube on the moon is six times
length of the wire.
that on the earth.

Breaking stress depends on the material

Soldering of two metals is possible
of the wire.
because of cohesion.

Breaking load depends on the area of

When the liquid drops merge into each
cross-section of the wire.
other to form a larger drop, energy is

Bulk modulus was first defined by Max released.
well.

The liquid rises in a capillary tube, when

In the stretched spring, tensile strain is the angle of contact is acute.
produced.

Surface tension of molten cadmium

Breaking stress for a wire of unit increase with the increase in
crosssection is called tensile strength. temperature.

If a beam of rectangular cross-section is
The coefficient of viscosity of gases
loaded its depression is inversely increase with the rise in temperature but
proportional to the cube of thickness of that of liquids decreases with the
the beam. increase in temperature.

If a beam of a circular cross-section is
The streamlined or turbulent nature of
loaded, its depression is inversely flow depends on the velocity of flow of
proportional to the cube of radius. the liquid.

If we double the radius of a rope its
Reynold number is low for liquids of
breaking stress becomes four times, but higher viscosity.
breaking stress remains unchanged.

Bernoulli’s theorem is based on the

When a beam is bent, both extensional conservation of energy.
as well as compressional strain is

Bernoulli’s theorem is strictly applicable
produced.
to non viscous fluids.

When there is no external force, the

Viscosity is due to the transport of
shape of a liquid drop is determined by
momentum.
the surface tension of the liquid.

Maximum possibility of streamlined

Soap helps in better cleaning of clothes
flow is for low density and high
because it reduces the surface tension
viscosity fluids.
of the liquid.

Physics [33]

Gases cannot be liquified above the
critical temperature.

Above critical temperature a substance
is in gaseous state and below critical
Dew point
temperature it can be in vapour state.
It is the temperature at which the

The branch of thermal physics that deals amount of water vapour actually
with measurement of the amount of present in a certain volume of the air is
water vapours present in the sufficient to saturate that volume of air.
atmosphere is called hygrometry.
* At the dew point the actual vapour

Saturated and unsaturated air : pressure becomes the saturation vapour
(i) The air is said to be saturated when the pressure.
maximum possible amount of water
Relative humidity can also be defined
vapours are present in it. as:
* The pressure of the water vapours in Relative humidity =
the saturated air is called saturation
vapour pressure.
(ii) If the air contains vapours less than the
maximum possible amount possible in
the air, then it (air) is said to be
Relative humidity is low when the air is
unsaturated. dry.

The humidity refers to the presence of
Relative humidity is high if the air is
water vapours in the atmosphere. It is moist.
defined in the atmosphere. It is defined
in the following two ways.
Hygrometer :

* Absolute humidity : It is the amount It is the device to measure the amount

of water vapour preseent in 1m3 of the of water vapours in the air or the relative
air. humidity.
* Relative humidity =
Saturation vapour pressure changes
with the increase in temperature.

At 0°C, the saturation vapour pressure
is 4.6 mm of Hg. Therefore, water
vapours are always present around the
ice.
* The relative humidity is generally
* It increases with the increase in
expressed in percentage.
temperature.

Relative humidity may also be defined

When the temperature of the
as :
atmosphere is equal to the dew point,
Relative humidity = the relative humidity is 100%.

[34] General Science


The study of low temperature is called
Dew appears on the leaves of the trees,
cryogenics. etc. due to the condensation of saturated

Maximum value of relative humidity is vapours.
100%.
Small droplets of water formed due to the

The saturation vapour pressure of water condensation of water vapours near the
at 100°C is 760 mm of Hg at sea level. surface of the earth constitute mist or fog.

As the temperature rises, the absolute
Mist or fog formed much high above the
humidity may increase and the relative surface of earth is called cloud.
humidity may remain constant or may
Human beings feel comfortable when the
even decrease. relative humidity is between 50% to 60%.

Let the saturation vapour pressure at
When the air is saturated with water
temperature t°C is p. If the atmospheric
vapours, the relative humidity is 100%
pressure is reduced to p, the water starts
and dew point is equal to the room
boiling at t°C.
temperature.

At the same temperature one feels hotter
if the relative humidity is high.
When the relative humidity is 100%, the
reading of the dry and wet bulbs is

If the air is absolutely dry, the dew point same.
is not observed.

Smaller the difference in the

The dew point does not change if the temperature of dry and wet bulbs, larger
temperature of the room is changed. is the relative humidity.

The relative humidity decreases with the
Water vapours are always seen around
increase in temperature. the ice, because the temperature around

If water is sprinkled in the room, both it is less than the dew point.
relative humidity as well as the dew
point increase.

Physics [35]
 SURFACE TENSION

The molecules at the surface of a liquid Some common examples of surface

have a higher potential energy than those tension :
of the inner molecules. P.E. = mgh where

The hairs of a shaving brush when taken
m is mass of a molecule, g is acceleration
out of water are pressed together. In-
due to gravity and h is the height of the
side water, hairs spread out. On taking
molecule above the bottom of the liquid.
out the brush from water, the water
Due to maximum height the surface
molecules of the liquid have maximum P.E. film forms between the hairs while tend-
Hence, in order to have higher stability, ing to make its surface area minimum
the liquid surface tries to minimize its P.E. due to surface tension brings the hairs
In doing so, it tends to contract to have closer to each other.
minimum surface area, number of
In soldering, addition of flux reduces
molecules and hence, minimum P.E. and the S.T. of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
maximum stability. Consequently, the
liquid surface behaves as if convered with
The liquid drop has a tendency to have
a stretched membrane. This property of minimum surface area due to the sur-
the liquid by virtue of which the free surface face tension of the liquid and hence, it
of the liquid has a tendency to contract so becomes spherical.
that it can have minimum surface area is
The surface tension of oil is less than
called surface tension. that of cold water hence an oil drop
The surface tension is measured as the spreads on cold water while the sur-
force acting per unit length at the liquid face tension of oil is more than that of
surface. hot water, hence oil drop remains as a
drop on hot water.

Surface tension
In order to spread more, the surface ten-

sion of lubricants and paints is kept low.
The surface molecules of the liquid are Bees like insects can float on water surface
always under the effect of an inward force because the weight of the insect is bal-
due to force of cohesion between the surface anced by the force of surface tension of
molecules and inner molecules. That water. Due to the same reason, a greased
imparts surface tension. The surface tension iron needle can float on water surface.
of a liquid decreases with rise in
Stormy waves at sea are calmed by
temperature and becomes zero at the boiling pouring oil on sea water because oil
points. has low surface tension.

[36] General Science


When a wire loop is dipped into a soap increase in surface tension of the liquid.
solution and taken out, a soap film is formed Examples of capillary action :
on the loop due to surface tension.

The tip of of the nib of a pen is split in

The bits of camphor are seen dancing order to provide a capillary which helps
on the surface of water. The bits of the ink to rise to the end of the nib and
camphor reduce the surface tension of enables it to write continuously.
water where they are dipped. Due to
irregular shape of the camphor bits,
When a chalk piece is dropped into
unequal forces of surface tension act on water, air bubbles come out. The pores
them. Hence, they move erratically on in the chalk containing air act as nar-
the surface of water. row capillaries. Hence, water enters

It is better to wash clothes in hot soap these pores due to capillary action and
solution. Hot solution has lower sur- air bubbles come out.
face tension. Hence, the solution spreads
A blotting paper has fine pores that
over a larger area or clothes and clean- act as capillaries. Hence, ink rises in
ing action increases. them leaving the paper dry.
Action of detergent or soap solution :
The capillary action of narrow capillar-
When detergents or soaps are dissolved ies in the threads of a towel enables the
in water, the surface tension of water towel to soak water.
decreases. Hence, a detergent/soap so-
lution spreads more quickly over the
The wooden door swells in the rainy
clothes. Consequently, more dirt come season because of the capillary action
in contact with the solution and cleans- of moisture available in the air through
ing action enhances. Further, hot the pores in the wood.
soution has lower surface tension than
Molten wax in candles or oil in lamps rises
a cold one which gives extra cleaning through threads due to capillary action.
ability to the detergent/soap solution.

Clay soil has capillaries but sand does

Warm food taste better on our tongue
not have capillaries. Hence, under-
because the warm food on chewing
ground water rises in a clay soil while
spreads more on the tongue due to
lower surface tension. Consequently, sand remains relatively dry.
more food content comes in contact
In order to preserve moisture in the
with the taste buds on the tongue. soil, ploughing of fields is essential.
Hence, warm food is tastier than the Ploughing breaks the fine capillaries in
same food when cold. the soil. It prevents the rise of water
and reduces evaporation of water con-
CAPILLARITY tent in the soil.
The phenomenon of natural rise or fall
The transport of water and minerals
of liquid column in a narrow tube is called from the soil to plants is favoured by
capillarity and the tube is known as the the capillary action in the conduction
capillary tube. The capillarity increases with tissues called Xylems in the plants.

Physics [37]
 hence, its area of cross-section decreases. If
VISCOSITY the mouth of the tube used to water plants
It is fluid friction that arises due to inter in the garden is pressed, the speed and
molecular forces which are effective when range of the water flow increases, because
the different layers of the fluid are moving on pressing the cross sectional area of the
with different velocities. It gives rises to a mouth of the tube decreases. Due to similar
backward dragging force between the fluid reason the velocity of water increases when
layers moving with respect to each other. water flowing in a broader pipe enters a
Viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase narrow pipe.
in temperature but viscosity of gases
increase, under similar conditions. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

The phenomenon of viscosity plays an The total sum of energy of a fluid
important role in the circulation of blood during its flow remains constant. A fluid
through arteries and veins of human can have potential energy, kinetic energy
body. and pressure energy during its flow. Its

At railway terminals, the liquids of high potential energy depends upon height,
viscosity are used as buffers. kinetic energy on velocity and pressure on
the pressure of the fluid.

Water flows faster than honey because
viscosity of water is lower than that of Applications of Bernolli’s Theorem :
honey hence, a small dragging force
The size of the needle of a syringe con-
appears during the flow of water. trols flow better than the thumb pres-

In an industry, the measurement of sure exerted by a doctor while adminis-
viscosity and its variation with tering an injection. The velocity of flow
temperature are useful in judging is controlled by the size of the needle
whether a given lubricant oil is useful whereas the pressure is controlled by
for a machine or not. thumb pressure. In order to keep total
sum of pressure energy and kinetic en-
 Chemists use the knowledge of viscosity ergy of the flow constant, velocity in-
to determine molecular mass and shape creases more in accordance with the
of large organic molecules like proteins Bernoulli’s theorm.
and cellulose.

Two rows of boats moving parallel to
each other and nearby, are pulled to-
FLOW OF FLUID wards each other. The velocity of wa-
The rate of flow of a fluid through a ter between the two rows increases
tube is inversely proportional to the area of which results in increase in K.E. of
cross section of the tube. It means narrower water in between. Hence, pressure
the tube, higher will be the velocity of fluid and pressure energy of water on the
through it. Hence, deep water runs slow in outerside of the rows increase. Con-
a river. Similarly, the jet of falling water sequently, the rows of boats are
becomes narrow as it goes down because pushed inwards because the total sum
the velocity of falling water increases and of energy of water in between and

[38] General Science

 outside the rows have to be constant throws lower air in a backward direc-
in accordance with the Bernoulli’s tion. Hence, kinetic energy of lower
theorem. air becomes more and consequently,
in order to have equal energy, the pres-

The roofs of hut or tinned roofs are usu-
sure energy of upper air gets to in-
ally blown off without causing any harm
crease. It results in increase in pres-
to the huts during cyclones or storms.
sure above the ball. This pressure pro-
The wind blows speedly above the roof
vides a centripetal force acting at a
during the storm whereas air inside the
right angle to the linear velocity of the
hut remains at rest. It gives higher ki-
ball. Consequently, the ball follows a
netic energy and small pressure energy
curved path.
above the roof whereas below the roof
K.E. is small and pressure energy is high.
Due to high pressure and hence, higher TRIVIA
pressure below the roof, the roof experi-
Molecular forces donot obey the inverse
ences an upward force and is blown off square law of distance.
with stormy wind.

The molecular forces are of electrical

The wings of the aeroplanes are de- origin.
signed such that it experiences an up-
ward pressure and hence, an upward
Work done in forming a soap bubble of
force. It is based on Bernoulli’s theo- raidus R is 8πR2 σ, where σ = surface
tension.
rem. The upper surface of the wing is
more curved than its lower surface and
Work done in breaking a drop of radius
its leading edge is thicker than its trail- R into n drops of equal size = 4 π R2 σ
ing edge. Hence, the velocity of air above (n1/3 – 1).
the wings becomes more than that be- Same amount of energy is liberated in
low them i.e. kinetic energy of air above combining n drops into a single drop.
the wings becomes greater than that of
air below the wings. Consequently, the
Angle of contact increases with rise in
pressure energy and hence, pressure of temperature. It decreases on addition
of soluble impurities.
air below the wings become greater than
those of the air above the wings. It gives
Angle of contact is independent of the
an upwards push on the wings and angle of inclination of the walls.
prevents the planes from falling down.
The materials used for water proofing

When a spinning ball is thrown, it de- increase the angle of contact as well as
viates from its usual straight line path surface tension.
and its path becomes curved. This ef-
Detergents decrease both the angle of
fect is based on Bernoulli’s theorem contact as well as surface tension.
and is known as Magnus effect. When

Surfaces tension does not depend on
a spinning ball is thrown, air moves
the area of the surface.
backward above and below the ball.
The speed of air below the ball be-
Viscosity of liquids decreases with the
comes more because the spinning ball rise in temperature.

Physics [39]

Viscosity of gases increases with the above the bottom or at the depth h
rise in temperature. below the surface of the liquid.

The rate of flow of liquid in a tube of
The range is maximum for h = H/2. It
radius r length l whose ends are main- is given by
tained at a pressure difference p is :

. Here η = coefficient of vis-

cosity where R = 8η l/πr4 is called fluid
Interatomic or intermolecular forces are
resitance. zero when the separation between them
is infinite.

Viscosity is independent of pressure.

At a certain distance r = r0, the inter-

When a liquid is in equilibrium, the atomic or inter molecular force is zero.
force/forces acting on its surface are The value of r0 is different for the differ-
perpendicular everywhere. ent atoms and molecules.

In a liquid the pressure is same at the
For r > r0, the interatomic/ intermo-
same horizontal level. lecular forces are attractive.

The pressure at any point in the liquid
For r < r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
depends on depth (h) below the sur- lar forces are repulsive.
face, density of liquid and acceleration
due to gravity.
At r = r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
lar potential energy is minimum and
It is independent of the shape of the con- negative. It is the equilibrium position of
taining vessel, or total mass of the liquid. the atoms/molecules.

Bernoulli’s equation is in accordance
Both the interatmoic as well as inter-
with the law of conservation of energy. molecular force vary inversely as the
It assumes that in the flowing liquid, sixth power of distance (F ∝ 1/r6).
every particle going across the cross-
Differences between interatomic and
section possesses the same velocity. inter molecular forces :
Bernoulli’s theorem doesn’t take the (i) Interatomic forces depend only on
viscosity into account. When the fluid the interatomic separation but the in-
flows along a covered path the en- ter molecular force depends on the
ergy of centripetal force must also be intermolecular separation as well as
taken into account. the orientation of the molecules.

If a vessel contains liquids upto a (ii) Interatomic force are 50 to 100 times
height H and it has a hole in the side larger than the intermolecular forces.
at a height h, then the velocity of
(iii) Value of r0 for atoms is less than that
efflux is . The time taken by for molecules.
the liquid to reach the ground level is
(iv) The intermolecular forces may extend
. Horizontal range of the liq-
beyond their immediate neighbours.
uid R = 2[h(H – h) 1/2. The range is This is not true for the interatomic forces.
the same for the hole at a height h
■■■
[40] General Science
 SPACE EXPLORATION

Space is a vast and endless area or an artificial satellite around the earth is
region outside the earth’s atmosphere known as the orbit of the satellite.
where the stars, planets and other celestial
Characteristics of the Orbit of the
bodies exist.
Satellite:
Space exploration is the study of
(a) Apogee : The farthest point on the
collecting and analysing the information
orbit of a satellite from the surface of the
and data about the various heavenly or
earth is known as apogee.
celestial bodies in the outer space.
(b) Perigee : The nearest point on the
With the advancement in technology, a
orbit of the satellite from the surface of the
complete branch of science known as Space
earth is known as perigee.
Science has been developed to explore the
outer space. At present, the space (c) Inclination : The angle between the
exploration is done by using artificial and plane of the equator of the earth and the
space probes. plane of the orbit of the satellite is known
as inclination.
A small body revolving around a planet
in an orbit is known as a satellite. A satellite is bound to the earth’s
gravitational pull as a planet is bound to
TYPES OF SATELLITES the Sun’s gravitational pull.

Satellites are of two types : DIFFERENT TYPES OF

(i) Natural Satellite : A celestial body ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
revolving around a planet is known as the
Geo-stationary Satellite : A satellite
natural satellite. For example, the moon is
which is at rest with respect to the earth is
the natural satellite of the earth.
called a geo-stationary satellite. The orbit
All planets except Mercury and Venus of such a satellite around the earth is
have natural satellites. known as a geo-synchronous orbit.
(ii) Artificial Satellite : A man made Geo-stationary satellite plays an important
satellite that revolves around the earth is role in communication technology. In other
known as an artificial satellite. words, a communication satellite is a geo-
stationary satellite.
ORBIT OF SATELLITE
Polar Satellite : Geo-stationary
The closed elliptical path followed by satellites, orbiting about 36000 km above

Physics [41]
 Specialised Establishments Operating Under DRDO

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC): Specialised in the development of satellite launch ve-
hicles and sounding rockets.

ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC): The lead centre for satellite development, covering structures, ther-
mal systems, spacecraft mechanisms, power systems and satellite integration.

Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)-SHAR - Sriharikota Space Centre:India's prime launching
pad facility, providing the launch infrastructure as well as solid propellant processing and their test-
ing. A second launch pad has been recently built at SDSC-SHAR.

Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) : The lead centre in the area of liquid and cryogenic
propulsion for launch vehicles and satellites.

Space Applications Centre (SAC): Specialised in the development of payloads for communication,
meterological and remote sensing satellites; it conducts space applications research and develop-
ment.

ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC): It provides mission support to Low-
Earth orbit satellites and to launch vehicle missions.

Master Control Facility (MCF) : The monitoring and control centre for the geostationary satellites.

ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU): Carries out research and development in inertial sensors and
systems and allied satellite elements.

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) : An autonomous institution supported by DOS, it is re-
sponsible for acquisition, processing and distribution of data from remote sensing satellites, based
in Hyderabad.

the equatorial plane, are used for sufficient in the space technology has to
communication purposes. fulfill the following requirements:
On the other hand, low to medium 1. Fabrication of Satellite or
altitude satellites are known as polar Spacecraft : Satellites play an important
satellites. These satellites move over the role in the field of space research. Therefore,
orbit passing through the north and south an expertise is required for planning,
poles of the earth above the polar plane. designing and fabricating the different types
The orbit in which the polar satellite moves of satellites or space crafts.
is known as the polar orbit.
2. Designing and Fabrication of
Polar satellites are not used for Launch Vehicles : Launch vehicles are
communication purposes. They are used required to put satellite in the orbit around
for remote sensing and hence are known earth and to launch the space probe.
as remote sensing satellites.
Therefore, these vehicles have to be
The orbit in which a polar satellite or developed for the successful launching of
remote sensing satellite moves is such that satellites.
the satellite always passes over a particular
area of the earth at the same local time. 3. Earth Control Station : When satellite
Such orbit of the satellite is known as sun- is put into orbit, its all operations have to
synchronous orbit (or polar orbit). be controlled and guided by sending proper
command from surface of the earth. Such
commands are sent from the station
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR
established on the earth.
SELF-SUFFICIENCY IN SPACE
TECHNOLOGY 4. Ground Facilities : The arrangements
Any country which intends to be self-
[42] General Science
are to be made in order to get the benefit of Setting up of Rocket Launching
the information and data sent by the Facility : The India’s space exploration
satellite throughout the country. The signals programme began with the setting up of a
re-transmitted from the satellite are received rocket launching facility at Thumba, near
by the receiving antennas installed across Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). India
launched its first rocket RH-75 in 1967
the length and breadth of the country.
from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket
The Indian Space Rearcher Organisation Launching Station (TERLS). Although this
has set up a large number of organisations rocket was very small (diameter = 75 mm),
and research centres across the country to yet it had all the basic features of a rocket.
carry out research and developmental Since then India never looked back and
activities in the field of space research and today it has the honour to be the sixth
technology. nation in the world in the field of space
technology.

Physics [43]
 SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION

PERIODIC MOTION a simple pendulum etc. are simple

harmonic motions.
The motion of a body which is repeated
identically after a fixed interval of time is Application of SHM are discussed as
known as periodic motion and the fixed below :
interval of time is known as time period of
When the load attached to a spring is
the motion. pulled once a little from its mean
position & left free, it oscillates in simple
The motion of the hands of a clock is in
harmonic motion.
a periodic motion. The time period of the
hour’s hand is 12 hours, of the minute’s
The motion of liquid contained in U-
hand is 1 hour and of the second’s hand is tube when it is compressed once in one
1 minute. of the two limbs & left to itself, is simple
harmonic motion.
The rotation of the earth about its axis
with a time period of 24 hours and the
If a tunnel is dug along the diameter of
revolution of earth around the sun with a earth & a body is dropped in it, the
time period of 1 year are other examples of body will oscillate in simple harmonic
the periodic motion. motion between the ends of the earth’s
diameter.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
When the oscillation of a body in simple
harmonic motion is free from frictional
It is a special type of oscillation in which forces, its oscillations are undamped.
the particle oscillates in a straight line, the The amplitude and energy do not
acceleration of the particle is always change with time in an undamped
directed towards a fixed point on the line oscillation. The oscillation of a simple
& the magnitude of acceleration is pendulum in vacuum is an undamped
proportional to the displacement of the oscillation.
particle from this point. This fixed point is
When the oscillation of a body in simple
called the centre or mean position of harmonic motion involves frictional
oscillation. The simple harmonic motion is forces, its oscillations are damped. The
an oscillatory motion which in turn is a amplitude and energy of the body in a
periodic motion. However, a periodic may
damped oscillation decrease with time.
or may not be an oscillatory motion.

Most of the oscillations in air or in a
The motion of a freely suspended bar
medium are damped oscillations like
magnet in the earth’s magnetic - field, of
the pendulum of a wall clock, of the bob of oscillation of the bob of a simple

[44] General Science

 pendulum in air, of the stretched string more natural frequencies. When a
in air etc. mechanical structure is subjected to a strong
driving force that matches one of its natural

When a body oscillates with its own
frequencies, the amplitude of oscillations
natural frequency without involving an
of the structure becomes very large.
external periodic force, its oscillations
Consequently, the structure may collapse.
are called free-oscillations. The
It is for the same reason the marching
oscillations of the string of a sitar when
soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge.
plucked once and let free, of the bob of
In order to avoid effect of resonance the
a simple pendulum when once
aircraft designers make sure that none of
displaced from its mean position and
the natural frequencies at which a wing
let free and of the prongs of a tuning
can oscillate match the frequency of the
fork when one of its prong is struck
engines during flight.
once on a rubber and let free are
examples of free oscillations. In an earthquake, the structures, whose
natural frequency matches the frequency

When a body oscillates with the help of
of the seismic waves, collapse. During an
an external periodic force other than it
earthquake sometimes, short and tall
own natural frequency, its oscillations
structures remain uneffected while the
are called forced oscillations.
medium height structures fall down. This

All musical instruments consisting of happens because the natural frequencies
strings like sitar, violen Reasonant of the short structures happen to be higher
Oscillations etc. produce forced and those of taller structure lower than the
oscillations. frequency of the seismic waves.

RESONANT OSCILLATIONS WAVES

When a system oscillates with its own Wave is some sort of disturbance in
natural frequency, with the help of an which, information and energy, in the form
external periodic force whose frequency is of signals, propagate from one point to
the same as that of the natural frequency another without the actual journey of the
of the oscillating system, then the medium. All our communications depend
oscillations of the system are called on the transmission of signals through
resonant oscillations. The resonant waves. All radiations are waves.
oscillations have very large amplitude. At
Wave motion is a kind of disturbance
resonance, the oscillating system
which travels through a medium on account
continuously absorbs energy from the
of repeated periodic vibrations of the
agent applying external periodic force.
medium particles about their mean position
If the rhythm of pushing against the without any net transport of the medium.
ground is synchromized with the natural
Types of Waves : On the basis of
frequency of the swing, it gives greater
medium requirement waves are of two
heights due to resonance effect.
types viz. (i) Mechanical or Elastic waves :
All mechanical structures have one or They require a medium for propagation.

Physics [45]
e.g. sound, waves on the liquid surface, Longitudinal waves
vibration of string, etc. (ii) Electromagnetic
waves : They do not require a medium for
propagation e.g light, X-rays, microwaves,
infra-red, ultra-violet rays, etc.
On the basis of the mode of vibration
the waves are of two types viz.
(i) Transverse wave and (ii) Longitudinal
waves C = Compression
Transverse Wave Motion : It is the R = Refraction
type of wave motion in which the particles l (Wave Length) : For the transverse
of the medium vibrate about their positions wave the wave Length is equal to the
in a direction perpendicular to the distance between the two successive crests
propagation of the wave. A transverse or troughs. It is also equal to the sum of the
wave is represented in the form of crest width of a crest and a neighbouring trough.
and trough.
For the longitudinal wave, the wave length
When a stone is thrown in a pond, is equal to the distance between the two
transverse waves are formed. The vibrations successive compressions or rarefactions. It
of the membrane a of drum, of the string of is also equal to the sum of the width of a
a sitar, violin etc. produce transverse waves. compression and a neighbouring
Longitudinal Wave Motion : It is the rarefaction.
type of wave motion in which the particles Time Period (T) : It is equal to time
of the medium vibrate about their mean interval taken to complete one vibration.
positions in the same direction in which
the wave is propagated. Frequency (n) : It is the no. of vibrations
produced per second. It is equal to the
Sound produced from a source is a reciprocal of time period i.e.
longitudinal wave like vibrations of a
tuning fork, ringing of a bell, etc.
Frequency
A longitudinal wave is represented in
the form of compression and rarefaction. Speed of a wave is given as
Transverse Wave Speed = Frequency × Wavelength

A mechanical transverse wave that

requires a medium can propagate through

[46] General Science

solids and at the surface of liquids, but not
The sound waves are not dispersed in
inside liquids and gases. However, a air.
longitudinal wave can pass through solids,

The weakest audible sound has inten-
liquids and gases.
sity 10–12 W/m2. Its loudness is equal to
1 dB.
TRIVIA

If the intensity of sound increases by a

A pendulum clock slows down in sum- factor of 10 then the loudness increase
mer and goes faster in winter. by 10 dB or 1B.

Sound waves are mechanical waves
If the loudness of sound is changed
which cannot travel in vaccum. by 1dB, then the intensity of sound

Sound waves do not propagate in saw- changes by 26%.
dust because it is not a continous me-
The prongs of a tuning fork vibrate
dium. transversely and the stem vibrates lon-

Mechanical waves propagate energy gitudinally with the same frequency.
and momentum, but they do not propa-
The point of contact of the stem and
gate matter. prongs of the tuning fork is an antin-
ode.

Physics [47]
 Sounds
Sound is produced in a material sounds are heard at the other end. The first
medium by a vibrating source. These sound heard is propagated through steel
vibrations are carried by air, as a medium and the second one is propagated through
and strike our ear drum. The ear drum air.
vibrates and the message is conveyed to
An increase in the density of the
our brain and we hear the sound. A sound
medium reduces the speed of sound. Moist
heard persists for 0.1 second in brain. It is
air has lower density than dry air and
called as persistence of hearing.
hence speed of sound is more than that
Depending upon the frequency range, moist air.
sound has three categories viz. (i) Infrasonic
The speed of sound increases with rise
(ii) Sonic and (iii) Ultrasonic or supersonic
in the temperature of the medium. The
sounds.
speed of sound in air increase by 0.61 m/
Infrasonic sound has a frequency less second for every one degree rise in
than 20Hz. Sonic sound is between 20 Hz temperature above 0°C.
to 20,000 Hz. It is the audible range for
The speed of sound increases along the
human ears. Ultrasonic sound has a
direction of wind velocity and decreases
frequency greater than 20000 Hz. Both the
against the wind velocity.
infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds are not
audible to human ear. However, a dog can The speed of light is much greater than
hear sound of frequency upto 50000 Hz that of sound. Hence, thunder is heard
and a bat upto 10 5 Hz. Dolphins can much after the flash of lightning is seen.
produce and detect sounds of frequency Due to the same reason, spectators hear
upto 105 Hz. the sound of ball on bat a little after they
see the batsman actually striking the ball in
Sound is a longitudinal wave. Its speed
a cricket match.
in dry air is 332 m/s. The speed of an
object greater than the speed of sound is Sonic Boom : Sound produced by a
known as supersonic speed. The speed of supersonic aircraft is heard as a loud
sound depends upon elasticity, density, explosion on the earth. It is known as sonic
temperature and motion of particles of the boom. However, a person inside the
medium of propagation. Higher the supersonic aircraft cannot hear its sound.
elasticity of a medium, greater is the speed Reflection of Sound : Sound waves
of sound in it e.g. speed of sound in air is are reflected from the obstacles of size of
332 m/s and in steel 5000 m/s. If one end wavelength of sound and follow laws of
of a long steel rod is struck, two distinct reflection similar to those of light. The
[48] General Science
reflecting obstacles can be walls, mountains, (iv) to form stable emulsions of immiscible
clouds, ground, etc. Sound waves can be like water and oil.
focused after reflecting from a curved surface
(v) to accelerate crystallisation of
in the same way as light waves.
substances and to produce oxidation.
ECHO (vi) to coagulate aerosols i.e. displaced fine
particles of a solid or a liquid in a gas,
Reflected sound is called echo. An echo e.g. dust, smoke, mist, etc.
occurs when the reflected sound wave
(vii) to liquify gels in the same manner as
comes back to the listener within a time
they are liquefied by shaking.
interval of not less than 0.1 second after the
original sound wave reaches the listener so (viii) in getting alloys of uniform
that a distinct repetition of the original sound composition.
is perceived. It is so because the persistence (ix) for washing silken fabrics.
of hearing of sound is 0.1 sec. A sound can
be perceived only if stays back at least for
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
0.1 second or more on our ears.
An echo is used to determine the speed It is a technique used to form an image
of sound in a medium. Exploration of or picture of a matter by using ultrasonic
underwater petroleum deposits is done by waves. This technique is used in medical
science treatment. The medical sonography
detecting echo of shock waves produced
is commonly known as ultrasound. In this
by explosions on the water surface.
technique, ultrasound wave passes through
The wave phenomena like total internal the organs to be diagnosed. The velocity of
reflection, refraction and interference are wave depends upon the elasticity and
also given by sound waves similar to those density of the tissues in the organ and an
of the light wave. echo is detected by a specific microphone.
The echo obtained from the tissues of the
SUPERSONIC OR ULTRASONIC organ is converted into electric signals on
WAVES the screen of ultrasonograph and the images
are recovered. The pattern of images helps
These waves are used : in diagnosis of the organs like heart, liver,
(i) to determine the elastic symmetries of kidney, pancreas, etc.
crystals of solids and to detect flaws in Sound navigation and ranging : It is
metals. device that transmits ultransonic waves
(ii) to find the velocity of sound in liquids through water and records the vibrations
that also informs several physical and reflected i.e. echo from an objects. Sonar is
chemical properties of the liquids. used in finding submarines, depth of sea,
rocks and mineral deposits, etc.
(iii) for finding the depth of sea and to
detect the submerged rocks, Biological Effects of Ultrasonic Waves :
submarines and icebergs. Ultrasonic waves can kill or injure small

Physics [49]
 Difference between Intensity and Loudness
Intensity Loudness
1. It is a physical quantity. 1. It is not an entirely physical
which can be accurately measured. quantity.
2. It does not depend upon the sensitivity 2. It depends upon (i) sensitivity
of the ear. of the ear and (ii) intensity of\
sound.
3. It has an objective existence i.e., it 3. It has got a subjective existence
exists whether there is some i.e, it exists only when some
listener or not. listener is acually present.
4. Unit of intensity is Wm–2. 4. Unit of loudness is bel.
In a tape recorder of T.V. bass refers to low pitch and treble refers to high pitch. So when bass is on,
low pitch sounds of tabla and dholak become loud. When treble is on, high pitch sounds become
predominant.

animals like frog, fish, etc. These waves received per second or the apparent
can destroy micro organisms like bacteria frequency of the source changes and is
and yeast. not the same as that of the source. The
pitch of the note heard appears to rise if
In dental science, ultrasonic waves are they approach each other and appears to
used for extracting the broken teeth, to detect fall if they recede away from each other.
cracks or other defects in homogeneity The apparent change in frequency of a
noticeable by reflection or absorption. sound wave due to a relative motion
Vibration of a Source of Sound : When between the source of sound and the
a source is sounded, it generally vibrates in listener is known as Doppler’s Effect. It is
more than one mode. When it is sounded equally observed for light too.
gently, the source vibrates in a simple If a railway engine travelling with a
manner and produces tones of lower high speed with its whistle blowing is
frequencies, but when the source is approaching a listener, the frequency
sounded rapidly, the vibration becomes appears to rise. The frequency appears to
complex and it gives rise to tones of higher fall just as the engine passes the listener.
frequencies. The tones of the lowest Doppler’s effect is used to detect a star,
frequency are called the fundamental note a galaxy etc. It can be used to find out
and the tones of higher frequencies are whether a star/galaxy is approaching us
called over tones. The notes of frequencies or receding away from us. It favours the
which are integral multiples of the hypothesis of an expanding universe.
fundamental frequency are called as
harmonics. Dopplers effect is used in ‘speed guns’
used by police to measure the speed of
vehicles. This effect can be used to detect a
DOPPLER’S EFFECT moving object as well.
When a source of sound and a listener
are at rest, the listener receives an MUSICAL SOUND
unchanged frequency produced by the
source. If there is a relative motion Sounds produced by oscillating strings
between them, then, the number of waves (sitar, piano, violin etc.), vibrating

[50] General Science

membranes (drum), air columns (flute, The buzzing of bee or humming of a
organ pipes), wooden blocks or steel bars mosquito has high pitch, but low intensity,
(marimba, xylophone) etc. produce a while the roar of a lion has a low pitch, but
pleasant effect on our minds and hence, high intensity. Frequency of ladies, voice is
are known as musical sounds. generally higher than that of gents and
Intensity, loudness, pitch, quality, etc. hence, a lady’ voice is always sharper than
are characteristics of musical sounds. a gent’s voice.
Intensity : Intensity of sound is a purely Quality : It is the characteristic of
physical quantity, It is equal to the amount musical sound that enables us to distinguish
of sound energy passing per unit time per between the sounds of same intensity and
unit area around a point in a direction same pitch produced by two different
normal to the area. Intensity is measured sources. Its cause is the difference in the
in watt/m2 or watt/(cm)2. frequency and relative intensities of
overtones produced by two sources of
Threshold of Hearing or Zero Level
sound.
of Intensity : it is equal to 10–16 watt/cm2
for a normal human ear which can just Voices of two singers singing a duet,
hear a note of frequency of 1000 Hz. voices of our friends, voices of family
Loudness : The sensation produced in members etc. can be distinguished from
the ear that enables us to distinguish each other on the basis of difference in
between a loud sound and a faint sound is quality of the sound produced by them.
called loudness.
REVERBERATION
Two sounds of equal intensity but
different frequencies may not appear to be The persistene of sound after the source
equally loud even to the same listener has actually stopped producing sound is
because sensitivity of the ear is different for called reverberation of sound and the time
different frequencies. for which the sound persists is called the
Loudness is measured in bel. one bel = time of reverberation.
10 decibel (db). Both the intensity of sound When a loud sound is produced by a
and loudness increase with increase in source in a hall it is partially absorbed,
amplitude of the sound wave, frequency of reflected and transmitted by the walls,
the wave, density of the medium and ceiling and floor. If the source of sound
velocity of sound in a medium. They stops producing sound, the intensity of
decrease with increase in distance from sound decreases due to absorption of sound.
the source of sound. However, the sound continues to be heard
Pitch : It is the characteristic of musical because of the persistence of the reflected
sound which distinguishes a sharp sound sound waves which go on traversing the
from a dull sound. Thus, it represents the hall a number of times before they reach
degree of shrillness of a musical note. Pitch an intensity below the threshold of hearing
depends on the frequency of sound and i.e. the multiple reflection of sound results
Doppler’s effect. in reverberation.

Physics [51]
 A room with zero reverberation time is (iii) A good audience, because one listener
called a dead room. An ordinary syllable is equal to 5 square feet of an open
takes about 0.2 seconds to decay. For a window.
musical sound, the optimum value of
(iv) Curved walls or corners should be
reverberation time may be between 1 to 2
avoided so that sound is not unduly
seconds. The reverberation time in the halls
concentrated and there are no regions
like theatres, auditoria, etc. is adjusted
of silence.
suitably by a specific design so that sound
heard is distinct and pleasant. The time of reverberation can be
decreased by increasing absorption of
For obtaining good acoustic property
sound. Reverberation should be small but
the hall should have sufficient sound
not absolutely zero because then the hall
absorbing features, like:
gives a dead effect.
(i) A few open windows.
Diatonic Musical Scale : This scale
(ii) Sound absorbing soft materials like consists of 8 notes. From the note (1) to (8)
cloth, asbestos, etc. or heavy curtains pitch increases due to increase in the
put up in the hall at various places. relative frequencies.

[52] General Science

 OPTICS

Ray Optics : It is based on “the Reflection on a Plane Mirror : The

rectilinear propagation of light” i.e., light image formed by a plane mirror is virtual
follows a straight line motion through a & erect. The image distance is equal to the
given transparent medium. It involves object distance from the mirror. The image
reflection, refraction & dispersion of light. is laterally inverted i.e., the right side of the
object appears as the left side of its image
REFLECTION OF LIGHT & vice-versa. Lateral inversion is due to the
fact that the image of an object is as far
“When a light ray is incident on a sur- behind the plane mirror as the object is in
face, it returns back into the same medium.” front of the mirror.
Laws of Reflection : For a given incident ray, if the plane
(i) The incident ray, normal drawn at the mirror is rotated through an angle ‘q’ then
incident point and the reflected ray lie the reflected ray rotates through an angle
in the same plane. of ‘2q’.

(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the The length of a plane mirror in which a
angle of reflection. In the given figure person can see his/her full image is half
the height of the person.
If two plane mirrors facing each other
are inclined at an angle q with each other,
then number of images of an object lying
between them are given by—

XY = reflecting surface,
(a) if n = an odd whole no. then ‘n’
AB = incident ray,
images are formed
BC = reflected ray,
(b) if n = an even whole no., then (n – 1)
DB = normal drawn at images are formed.
the incident point. e.g. (i) if angle between the two plane
Angle of incidence mirrors is 60°, then
i = ∠ABD and angle of reflection no. of images formed by them
r = DBC
= 6 – 1 = 5.
∴ i = r or, ∠ABD = ∠DBC
Physics [53]
 Image Formation in a Concave Mirror
If the mirror moves by a distance ‘x’
Position of Position of Nature of
towards or away from the object, its
object image image image will move by a distance ‘2x’ in
1. At infinity At the focus Real, Inverted & the same sense.
diminished.
2. Beyond the Between the Real, Inverted &
If the object moves with a velocity ‘v’
centre of centre of cur- Diminished towards or away from the mirror, its
curvative vature & focus image appears to move with a velocity
3. At the centre At the centre Real, inverted ‘2v’ in the same sense. The same is true
of curvature of curvature & same size as if the mirror moves.
that of the object
4. Between the Beyond the Real, inverted Reflection on Spherical Mirrors :
centre of curvat- centre of & magnified Types of spherical mirrors
ure and focus curvature
5. At the focus At inifinity Real, Inverted & (i) Convex or Divergent Mirror : It is a
highly magnified portion of a hollow sphere of glass whose
6. Between pole Behind the Virtual, Erect & inner surface is silvered. Since rays incident
& focus mirror magnified
parallel to the principal axis are diverged
(ii) If the two mirrors are parallel, then away the principal axis, hence, it is known
q = 0° as a divergent mirror.
(ii) Concave or Convergent Mirror : It
∴ = µ = infinity. is a portion of a hollow sphere of glass
i.e., infinte no. of images are formed. whose outer surface is silvered. All rays
incident parallel to its principal axis are
Use of Plane Mirror : Plane mirrors convergent at its focus.
are used as looking glasses, in a solar cooker
to reflect the sun-light, in a Kaleidoscope The centre of a sphere whose certain
portion is convex or convave, is called a
to see colourful images, in a periscope
centre of curvature. The middle point on the
usually used in submarines to see outside
spherical mirror is called as its pole. The mid
the water surface, in a barbar’s shop to see
point between the pole and the centre of
the back portion of the head, etc. curvature is the focus. The distance between
Some important facts regarding the the pole and the focus is focal-length (f). The
image formation by a plane mirror : distance between the pole and the centre of
curvature is radius of curvature (R). The

When we see a series of images in a perpendicular drawn at a point where a ray
thick plane mirror, out of these the sec- is incident on the spherical mirror must pass
ond image is brightest. through the centre of curvature.

Out of 26 alphabets (e.g., A, B, C etc.)
only 11 alphabets show lateral symme-
try and the rest 15 alphabets have lat-
eral inversion.

If the object is displaced by a distance
‘x’ towards or away from the mirror,
then its image will be displaced by a
distance ‘x’ in the same sense. Convex mirror

[54] General Science

 Magnification or Linear Magnification (m) -

Spherical Aberration: The inability of

a concave mirror of a larger size to converge
all rays parallel to the principal axis at the
focus, is called spherical aberration.
Concave mirror
It can be removed by using a parabolic
P = Pole concave mirror of larger aperture.
Px = Principal axis Uses of Spherical Mirrors:
C = Centre of Curvature
A convex mirror is used as a reflector in
PC = Radius street lamps to diverge light over a large
area.
F = Focus

A convex mirror is used as a rear view
PF = Focal Length
mirror or driver’s mirror in cars, scoot-
A & B : Incident points ers etc. for looking at the traffic at the
rear of the vehicle because this mirror
AC & BC = Normal drawn at incident
produces an erect and diminished im-
points.
age of the traffic behind the vehicle. Since
Image formation in a convex Mirror. the image is small in size, hence the field
It always produces virtual and view is much wider as compared to a
plane mirror or a concave mirror.
diminished image irrespective of the
position of the object.
A concave mirror is used as a reflector
in search light, head lights of motor
Real Image : It is always inverted and
vehicles, telescopes, solar cookers, etc.
in front of the concave mirror.
to produce an intense parallel beam of
Virtual Image : It is always erect and light. A bulb is placed at the focus of
behind the concave and convex mirror. the concave mirror. The beam of light
Focal length is half of the radius of from the bulb after reflection from the
concave mirror goes as a parallel beam.
curvature (f = R/2).

A concave mirror is used by dentists
and ENT specialists to focus light on
Mirror Formula :
teeth, eye and throat to examine these
Where u = objects distance from the organs. The device consisting of the con-
pole of mirror. cave mirror used to examine eyes is
called Ophthalmoscope.
v = image distance from the pole of
mirror.
A concave mirror is used as a shaving
mirror or make up mirror as it can form
f = focal length of the mirror. erect and magnified image of the per-
R = radius of curvature of the mirror. son within its focus.

Physics [55]

A spherical mirror can also be used as a the virtual image (acting as virtual
trick- mirror or magic mirror to see dif objects) on the retina. A virtual image
ferent types of images of the same ob- can be photographed.
ject or person.

The focal length of a plane mirror is
Some important facts regarding the infinity.
reflection of light:

When a spherical mirror (concave or

Image : Size of mirror does not affect convex) is placed in a liquid e.g. water,
the nature of the image except that a its focal length does not change because
bigger mirror forms a brighter image. A focal length of a mirror depends upon
virtual image cannot be taken on screen. its construction and not on the external
But our eye lens forms a real image of medium.
ABC of Photometry
S.No. Term Definition Unit
1. Luminous flux (f) visible light energy lumen
2. Lumnious intensity or luminous flux emitted Candela or C.P.
Illuminating power (l) per unit solid angle
3. Illuminance or Intensity luminous flux that passes (i) Lux or metre candle
of illumination of surface (E) through unit area in a (ii) phot or cm candle
direction normal to area.
4. Luminance or Brightness (B) luminous flux reflected Lambert
from unit area into our eyes.

When we read a book, light is scattered rarer medium, it bends away from the
by the paper into our eyes. This is called normal to the interface separating these
Diffuse-reflection. A printed paper has two media. This phenomenon is known as
a rough surface and hence, it cannot refraction of light.
produce a regular reflection. That is
why we read a book because of reflec-
tion of light but we do not see even a
faint image of ours in its printed pages.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When light goes from rarer (e.g. air) to
PO = Incident ray, AB = Interface
a denser (e.g. glass) medium, it bends
towards the normal to the interface, OQ = Refracted ray, i = Angle of incidence,
separating these two media. On the other
hand, when light goes from a denser to r = Angle of refraction.

Distinction between Real Image and Virtual image

Real Image Virtual image
1. It is can be obtained on a screen. 1. Reflection of light occurs from the side which is bul-
ged out.
2. Rays of light from the object, on reflection/ 2. Rays of light from the object, on reflection/ refraction only
refraction, actually meet at the image. appear to meet at the image.
3. It is always inverted. 3. It is always erect.
4. Linear magnification is negative 4. Linear magnification is positive.

[56] General Science

 Laws of Refraction: (I) The incident of light in that it causes bending light from
ray, the refracted ray and the normal to straight path of original light.
the surface separating two media all lie in
Relative Refractive Index (µ)
the same plane.

(II) Snell’s Law: where µ is a

constant. µ is known as the refractive index where 1µ2 = Relative refractive index of
of the medium in which refracted ray medium 2nd w.r.t. 1st medium,
travels w.r.t. the medium in which the C1, C2= speeds of light of the two media.
incident ray travels.
l1, l2 = wavelengths of light of the two
Cause Behind Refraction of Light: Due media.
to change in medium, wavelength of light
changes. It results into change in the speed µ1 & µ2 = individual refractive indices
of the two media
Difference between Concave and Convex Mirrors
Concave mirror Convex mirror
1. Reflection of light occurs from sunken side of 1. Reflection of light occurs from the side which is bulged
mirror. out.
2. Its focus and centre of curvature are on front 2. Its focus and centre of curvature are at the back of mirror.
side of mirror. f and R both are negative f and R, both are positive.
3. Image formed may be erect or inverted. 3. Image formed is always erect.
4. Size of image may be smaller, equal or larger 4. Size of image is always smaller than the size of
than the size of object. object.
5. Field of view is narrow. 5. Field of view is broad.

Images Formed by Convex and Concave Mirrors

Mirror Position of Object Position of Image Nature of Image Size of Image
Convex at ∞ at focus erect much smaller
Convex between ∞ and pole between pole and focus erect smaller than object
Concave at µ at focus real and inverted smaller than object
Concave beyond C. between F and C real and inverted smaller than object
Concave at C at C real and inverted same as size of object
Concave between F and C beyond C real and inverted larger than the object
Concave at F at infinity real larger than the object
Concave between F and P behind the mirror virtual and erect larger than the object

Deviation (d) of a light during refraction

in a medium increases with (1) increase in
refractive index (µ), (ii) increase in the
density (r) of the medium and (iii) decrease Principle of Reversibility :
in wavelength (l) i.e. ‘If the path of a ray of light is reversed
after suffering a number of refractions

Physics [57]
and reflections, then in the given figure apparanet position of the star changes
a light ray suffers refraction thrice at point continuously. It leads to the twinkling
B, C & D. It follows path AB → BC → CD of a star.
→ DE. If the final ray DE is incident at 90°

A rod appears bent in water due to
to a plane mirror M, it retraces the original
refraction of light.
path as ED → DC → CB → BA.

The sun is visible to us before actual
sunrise & after actual sunset. The at-
mosphere has higher density than that
of outer space. Hence, light coming from
the sun enters outerspace to atmosphere
i.e., from rarer to denser medium. It
results in the bending of light. When
the sun is below the horizon before the
sunrise and after the sunset, its appar-
ent position is visible above the hori-
zon. Hence, the sun is visible 2 minutes
Some Common Effects of Refraction before the actual sunrise and 2 minutes

Stars twinkle due to refraction. The dif- after the actual sun-set. Thus, the day
ferent layers of atmosphere are of dif- becomes longer by 4 minutes due to
ferent (a) density, (b) temperature (c) effect of refraction.
speed and their density, temperature
Real and apparent depths of an object
speed change continuously. Hence, the in water or any transparent medium.

Difference between Reflection and Total Internal Reflection

(Simple) Reflection Total Internal Reflection
1. Reflection occurs when light is travelling in 1. Total internal reflective occurs only when light is
a rarer medium or in a denser medium. travelling in denser medium and tending to go into rarer
medium.
2. Reflection takes place at all values of angle 2. It is possible only when angle of incidence in denser
of incidence. medium is greater than critical angle for the pair of
media in contact.
3. Some energy gets absorbed or refracted 3. The entire energy is reflected. There is no absorption/
while majority of energy is reflected. refraction.

Difference between convex lens and concave lens

Convex lens Concave lens
1. The lens is thick at the middle and thin at 1. The lens is thin at the middle and thick at edges.
edges.
2. Image formed may be real or virtual. 2. The image formed is always virtual.
3. Image formed may be equal in size, smaller 3. Image formed is always smaller than the object.
or larger than the object.
4. It converges the rays of light. 4. It diverges the rays of light.
5. On moving sideways, image moves in 5. On moving sideways, image moves in same direction.
opposite direction.

[58] General Science

 & CO incident at point O from denser to
rarer medium. Ray AO is incident at angle
i1. Its angle of refraction is <NOB = 90°. The
refracted ray OB is parallel to the surface of
denser medium. This angle is called as
Critical angle (i1 = c). Ray CO is incident at
an angle i2>i1. Its refracted ray is OD in the
denser medium. It means when a light ray
An object at O appears at I when it is is incident at an angle greater than the
viewed from air. critical angle, it returns back to the same
medium. This phenomenon of returning
AO = Real depth of object in water or a
back of a light ray in the denser medium is
transparent medium.
known as T.I.R. Critical angle (c): The angle
AI = Apparent depth of object. of incidence of a light ray in the denser
medium corresponding with the angle of
If µ = relative refractive index of water
refraction in the rarer medium is 90° is called
w.r.t.air.
as critical angle.

then, µ = or, Conditions for T.I.R. : (i) Light should

be incident from denser to rarer medium &
(ii) The angle of incidence should be greater
Relative Refractive Index = than the critical angle (c).
Some common cases of T.I.R. :
Since relative refractive index of water
is always greater than that of air (µ } 1),
The Brilliance of Diamonds : The criti-
hence, real depth of an object is greater cal angle for the rays of travelling from
then apparent depth. diamonds to air is about 24.4°. The dia-
mond is cut suitably such that light en-
tering the diamond from any face falls
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION at an angle greater than 24.4°, suffers
(T.I.R.) multiple total internal reflections at the
When light is incident from denser to various faces, & remains within the dia-
rarer medium, it bends away from the mond. The diamond sparkles due to the
normal drawn at the incident point. light trapped in it.

Mirage : It is an optical illusion seen
usually in deserts by which an inverted
image of a distant object like a tree is
observed along with the object itself as
if reflected from the water - surface.
In hot desert, lower atmospheric layers
are rarer due to higher temperature than
those of upper layers. A ray of light
Let us consider two light - rays viz. AO coming from the tree bends away from

Physics [59]
 the normal as it travels from denser Seven Colours of Visible Light
upper layer to the rarer lower layer.
This process continues till the angle of Colour Range of Range of frequnecy
Violet wavelength (λ) (× 1014 Hz)
incidence is less than the critical angle.
Indigo 3900-4550 7.69-6.49
At a particular layer of air the angle of Blue 4550-4920 6.59-6.10
incidence becomes greater than the Green 4920-5770 6.10-5.20
critical angle and it gives rise to the Yellow 5770-5970 5.20-5.03
T.I.R. It gives the impression of a water Orange 5970-6220 5.03-4.82
pond near the tree i.e. mirage. Red 6220-7800 4.82-3.84

Air bubbles in water or glass shine : Refraction Through Lenses

Water or glass is denser w.r.t. air. When
light is incident at an angle greater than Lens is a transparent medium bounded
the critical angle, on going from wa- by two refracting surfaces. Out of these
ter/ glass to air bubble, it suffers T.I.R. two refracting surfaces at least one is
Hense the air bubble shines brilliantly. spherical.
This effect is used in manufacturing
decorating glass objects. A lens can be regarded as combination
of a larger no. of small prisms. When a

Totally Reflecting Prisms : These prisms beam of light is incident on a lens, the rays
are right angled isosceles prisms which
of light get refraction through these prisms.
turn the light through 90° or 180°. The
critical angle for glass-air interface is 42° Structure of a lens:
& in these prisms the angle of incidence
is 45°. Thus, the angle of incidence be- (i) Principal Axis : It joins the two centres
comes greater than the critical angle that of curvature of the two spherical
causes total internal reflection. Such surfaces of a lens.
prisms are used in periscopes. (ii) Optical Centre : The central point
Combination of Colours inside the lens where the passing ray
(a) Triangle representing primary colours and
remains undeviated is called optical
complementary colours is : centre.
(i) R + G + B = W
(iii) Principal Focus : It is a point on the
(ii) B + Y = W
(iii) R + C = W principal axis where the rays of a
(iv) G + M = W parallel beam of light meet or appear
(b) Triangle representing complimentary to meet after being refracted through
colours and their combination is : the lens.
(i) B + Y = G
(ii) R + B = M (iv) Focal Length : It is the distance
(iii) Y + R = O between the principal focus & the
(iv) Y + M = B + O = R + G = Black optical centre.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Rainbow
Primary Rainbow Secondary Rainbow
1. It is much brighter. 1. It is fainter.
2. Outer arc is red and inner arc is violet. 2. Outer arc is violet and inner arc is red.
3. Incident ray of light undergoes one total 3. Incident ray of light undergoes two total internal
internal reflection. reflections.

[60] General Science

 A biconvex or a biconcave lens has two
centres of curvature and two foci. Power of a Lens (P) .

Convex Lens Its S.I. unit is Dioptre (D). ID = 1m–1.

Smaller the focal length of a lens higher is
its power.

Common Defects of Vision

Long sightedness (Hypermetropia): A
person suffering from this defect can
Concave lens see objects far away but cannot see the
nearer object. In this defect eye forms
the image of an object behind the retina.
For correct vision image should be
formed at the retina only. This defect is
corrected by using a convex (converg-
ing) lens of suitable focal length.

Short-sightedness (Myopia) : A per-
XY = principal axis, C = optical centre, son suffering from this defect can see
the nearer objects clearly but is unable
C1 & C2 = Centres of curvaturess
to see objects far away. In this defect
F1 & F2 = foci of lens. the image is formed in front of retina.
Image formation by a lens : This defect is corrected by using a con-
cave lens of suitable focal length.
(1) A convex lens can form both the real as
well as the virtual images depending Some facts regarding the Lenses :
upon the position of the object. (1) If a convex and a concave lens of the
(2) A concave lens forms always a virtual same focal length are put in contact the
image. combination acts as a glass slab.

Defects of Human Eye

Defect What it is Cause Remedy
1. Myopia or Short (i) Eye can see distinctly Focal length of eye lens Using a concave lens of
sightedness only the near objects, decreases. Rays from µ focal length = distance of
(ii) Far point of eye comes focus at a point in front far point from defective eye.
closer than infinity. of the retina.
2. Hypermetropia or (i) Eye can see distinctly Focal length of eye lens Using a convex lens of focal
Long sightedness only the far off objects, increases. Rays from near length (f) where

(ii) Near point of eye point focus at a point at Here,

shifts away from the eye. the back of ratina. u = distance of object from eye
lens v = distance of near point
of defective eye.

Physics [61]
(2) If a convex and a concave lens of the (7) When a lens is placed in a medium of
same focal length are placed co-axially equal density, it acts as a glass slab. Its
with a small separation between them, focal length becomes infinity and
the combination acts as a convex lens. power becomes zero.
(3) If a lens is cut into two equal halves
with a plane perpendicular to the OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
principal axis, the focal length of each
Microscope : It is used to magnify
part doubles. minute objects close to us.
(4) If a lens is cut into two equal halves (i) Simple Microscope (Magnifying
with a plane along the principal axis, glass) : It is a biconvex lens. When an
the focal length of each part remains object is placed within its focus, a
unchanged. magnified, virtual and erect image is
(5) An air bubble in water behaves as a formed.
concave lens. (ii) Compound Microscope : It consists
(6) When a lens is placed in a medium of of two convex lenses of unequal size placed
higher density (higher refractive co-axially. The larger lens is eye-lens to see
index), the nature of the lens reverses the final image and the smaller lens is object
i.e. a converging lens behaves as a lens in front of which the object is placed.
diverging lens & vice-versa. The object lens forms a real inverted image

Difference between Astronomical and Galilean Telescope

Astronomical Telescope Galilean Telescope
1. Used for observing far off objects in the sky. 1. Used for observing far off objects on the ground.
2. Final image is inverted w.r.t. the object. 2. Final image is erect w.r.t. the object.
3. Eye piece is a convex lens. 3. Eye piece is a concave lens.

4. 4.

5. Length of telescope tube is greater, L = f0 + fe 5. Length of telescope tube is smaller, L = fo – fe

of the object. This image is formed within the eye-lens, acts as an object for the eye-lens
focus of the eye-lens and acts an object for which gives the final, virtual and highly
the eye-lens. The eye-lens forms a highly magnified image.
magnified virtual image of the object.

Telescope : It is used to see far off DISPERSION OF LIGHT
objects.
When white light passes through a glass
(i) Astronomical Telescope : It is used prism, we get seven colours on a white
to see stars, planets etc. screen. This phenomenon is known as
It consists of two convex lenses. The dispersion of light. These seven colours
larger one is the object lens and the smaller obtained are viz. violet, indigo, blue, green,
one is the eye lens. The real image formed yellow, orange and red. They can be
by the object lens within the focus of the remembered as ‘VIBGYOR’. Dispersion of

[62] General Science

light occurs due to refraction of light of They are :
different wavelengths contained by white
light. Smaller the wavelength of light, more
is its deviation. Since wavelength increases
from violet to red light, hence, the deviation
decreases from violet to red light. A band
of seven colours of white light obtained by
dispersion is known as a spectrum.
Spectroscope (or Spectrometer) : A (1) Magenta (M) = Red + Blue
device used to disperse light and to observe
(2) Yellow (Y) = Red + Green
the spectra obtained is called spectroscope.
(3) Cyan (C) = Green + Blue
COLOUR OF OBJECTS (4) White (W) = Red + Green + Blue.
Colour of any object is the same as is Complimentary Colours : Any two
reflected by the object and received by our colours are said to be a pair of
eyes. e.g. when white light falls on a red- complimentary colours if these colours
produce white, when mixed together e.g.
rose, it reflects only wavelength of red
colour and absorbs all other colours of white
light. Hence, it appears red.
Pigment : It imparts colour to the
objects. A pigment absorbs most of the
colours of white light and reflects one or
more colours e.g. (i) A red rose appears
black in green light. A red pigment in rose
absorbs the green light and reflects nothing.
So red rose appears black. (ii) A yellow (i) Yellow + Blue = White
flower appears red in red light. This is ∴ Red + Green + Blue = White & Red +
because yellow pigment in the yellow Green = Yellow.
flower cannot absorb red light and hence,
(ii) Magenta + Green = White
reflects the red light.
∴ Red + Blue + Green = White & Red +
Primary Colours : They cannot be Blue = Magenta.
obtained by mixing two or more colours.
(iii) Cyan + Red = White
They are viz. Red, Blue and Green. When
they are mixed together, the result is white ∴ Green + Blue + Red = White & Green
i.e. Red + Blue + Green = White + Blue = Cyan.

Secondary Colours : When two Thus, the complimentary pairs are

primary colours are mixed, the new colour (i) Yellow + Blue, (ii) Magenta + Green &
(iii) Cyan + Red.
is a secondary colour.

Physics [63]
 Primary Pigments : They are Yellow, particles because blue colour has
Cyan & Magenta. When these three smaller wavelength.
primary pigments are mixed in equal
(ii) The sun looks red at the sunrise and
proportion a black pigment is obtained.
sunset: The red colour is scattered least
Yellow pigment + Cyan pigment + due to its longest wavelength and
Magenta pigment = Black pigment. hence, the red-light is able to travel
maximum distance in atmosphere. At
Because, this mixture of pigments
the time of the sunrise and sunset, the
absorbs all colours of white light and reflects
position of sun is lower in sky and
nothing, so it appears black.
hence, it looks orange-red.
Secondary Pigments : When a pair of
(iii) Due to least scattering of red-colour,
primary pigments are mixed together, a
it is used as a sign of danger-signals.
new pigment is obtained called secondary
pigment. They are: Rainbow : It is a spectrum of sun’s
Primary Pigments Secondary light in nature. It occurs in the form of arcs
Pigments of concentric coloured circles in the sky,
(i) Cyan pigment + Yellow Green Pigment when the sun’s light falls on rain drops.
pigment Rain-drops act as tiny prisms that cause
(ii) Cyan pigment + Blue Pigment dispersion of light. The essential condition
Magenta pigment
for observing a rainbow is that the observer
must stand with his back towards the sun.
(iii) Yellow pigment + Red pigment
Rainbow is formed due to the total internal
Magenta pigment
reflections and refractions caused by rain
Thus, the secondary pigments are drops.
Green, Blue and Red pigments.
Wave-Optics : Light is a transverse
The primary pigments are same as that wave lying under the electromagnetic wave
of secondary colours whereas the spectrum. Its speed in vacuum is 3 × 108m/
secondary pigments are same as that of s. It can undergo different wave
primary colours. phenomena like reflection, refraction,
dispersion, interference, diffraction,
SCATTERING OF LIGHT polarisation, superposition, etc.
When light passes through a medium
and falls on the particles of the medium, it INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
gets scattered in all directions. The intensity It involves superposition of two light
of scattered light decreases with increase waves at a point in the medium of
in the wave length of light i.e., smaller the propagation of light. When these light
wavelength of light, more is the intensity waves superpose crest to crest or trough to
of its scattering. e.g. trough, the result is constructive
(i) Blue colour of Sky : Most of the blue interference whereas crest to trough
colour of white light coming from the superposition results in destructive
sun gets scattered by atmospheric interference. Coloured soap bubbles and

[64] General Science

oil film on water surface are observed due
In old oil paintings to improve colour
to interference of white light. For this contrast.
thickness of wall of the bubble and oil film

In optical stress analysis.
should be of the order of wavelength of
visible light (4000A° to 8000A°). The
In calculators and watches, letters and
phenomenon of interference is used in numbers are formed by LCD (liquid
holography (three dimensional virtual crystal display through polarisation of
image formation) by using a laser beam. light.

Polarisation of scattered sunlight is used
POLARISATION OF LIGHT for navigation in solar compass in po-
lar regions of earth, where magnetic
It involves restricting all vibrations of a
compass becomes non-functional.
light wave in a single plane.

In CD Players, polarized laser beam
Polaroids : Materials that polarise light.
acts as needle for producing sound from
Most of them are artificial. Tourmaline is a
compact disc, which is in encoded digi-
natural polaroid.
tal format.
Uses of Polaroids :

Polarisation is used to study asymme-

In Sun glasses to protect the eyes from tries in crystals and molecules using
glare. the phenomenon of optical activity.

In head light of motor-car to reduce The ability of a crystal or molecule to
glare. rotate the plane of polarised light,
either clockwise or anticlockwise is

In wind shields of automobiles. called optical activity.

In holograhy (3D Motion pictures)

Physics [65]
 HEAT

Heat is the form of energy that flows The temperature of a body is measured
from a body at higher temperature to by a
another body at lower temperature, when
Thermometer: There is no upper limit
the two bodies are in contact with each
of temperature but there is a fixed lower
other. Every body is composed of a large
limit. The lowest value of temperature is
no. of particles which possess certain kinetic
called as ‘Absolute Zero’. The absolute zero
energy. The total sum of kinetic-energy of
is equal to zero kelvin (O°K) or (–)273.15°C.
all constituent particles of a body is equal
to heat contained by the body. Clinical Thermometer : It is a mercury
in glass type thermometer. The
TEMPERATURE thermometer scale is marked from 95°F to
110°F or 35°C to 43°C within the range of
It is the degree of hotness or coldness of human body temperature. Advantages of
the body. It is just a scale that measures the mercury in the thermometer-
thermal state of a body. All bodies in thermal
(i) it is opaque and shining and hence,
equilibrium are assigned equal temperature.
temperature can be read easily.
A hotter body is assigned higher temperture
than a colder body. The temperatures iof (ii) it is a good conductor of heat & hence,
the two bodies are said to be in thermal measures temperature quickly.
equilibrium if no transfer of heat occurs (iii) it does not stick to the wall of glass tube
when they are placed in contact. & also does not vaporize much &
Scales of Temperature : Common hence, gives correct readings.
scales for the measurement of temperature A clinicial thermometer should not be
are (i) degree centigrade or degree celsius sterilized in hot water otherwise mercury
(°C) (ii) Kelvin (K) and (iii) degree will expand too much and break the glass.
Fahrenheit (°F) scales. They are related to Instead of mercury, water cannot be used
each other as follows : inside the clinical thermometer because it
freezes at 0°C whereas mercury freezes at
(–) 39°C. Hence, in the cold countries where
temperature in winter is usually less than
0°C, alcohol thermometers are useful. The
or, temperatures recorded in the weather
forecasting are carried out by using a special
∴ TK = t°C + 273, t°C & so on. type of thermometer called the six’s
maximum and minimum thermometer.
[66] General Science
 increases with increase in temperature from
THERMAL EXPANSION 0°C to 4°C. But its volume increases and
The increase in length, area or volume density decreases with increase in
of an object due to rise in its temperature is temperature above 4°C. Thus, the density
called as thermal expansion. The object of water is maximum at 4°C. This unusual
shows contraction due to decrease in its expansion of water has a favourable effect
temperature. The expansion/contraction for aquatic animals. Since the density of
of an object depends upon the change in water is maximum at 4°C, water at the
temperature & its nature i.e. expansivitiy. bottom of lakes, ponds etc. remains at 4°C
in winter even if at the surface it freezes.
Practical applications of thermal This allows marine animals to remain alive
expansion: and move near the bottom.
• A small gap is always left in between
two iron-rails in a railway line. SPECIFIC HEAT
• An iron rim to be fitted on a wooden The specific heat of a substance is equal
cart wheel is always slightly small in to the amount of heat absorbed by its unit
diameter. The rim on heating expands mass to raise its temperature through one
and upon cooling gives a strong grip on degree. Thus, larger the value of specific
the wheel due to contraction. heat of a substance, smaller is rise in its
• Some suitable space is left between the temperature inspite of absorbing a large
girders used for supporting bridges. amount of heat. The specific heat of a
substance depends upon the nature and its
• A glass stopper jammed in the neck of
physical state. As specific heat capacity of
a glass bottle can be removed by warm-
water is large (4200 J kg–1k–1), hence, by
ing the neck of the bottle.
absorbing or releasing large amounts of heat,
• The clock pendulums are usually made temperature of water changes by small
of invar (an alloy), which has very low amounts. That is why water is used in hot
expansivity. This enables the clock to water battles and also as coolant in radiators.
keep correct time in different seasons.
Bimetallic Strip : It consists of a brass VAPOURS
layer & an invar layer riveted together.
A vapour is a gas that can be liquified
The expansivity of brass is more than that
by increasing the pressure without
of invar. Hence, due to rise in temperature
changing the temperature. Gas and vapour
the strip expands into a curved shape
are two distinct state of matter. A gas
having brass on the convex side. When
temperature decreases, the strip retains cannot be liquified by the application of
original shape. Bimetallic strips are used as pressure alone, howsoever large the
switches in thermostats which are used for pressure may be. However, a gas can be
regulating temperatures of electrically liquified by applying high pressure
heated rooms, ovens, toasters, etc. lowering the temperature.
When the molecules of a liquid escape
Unusual Expansion of Water : The
volume of water decreases & density the liquid surface slowly, it results in vapour

Physics [67]
above the surface and this process is known Generally, relative humidity (R.H) is
as evaporation. Evaporation lowers the expressed in a percentage. If the above
energy of a liquid and hence, causes cooling ratio is 0.5, the relative humdity is 50%. If
effect. This effect is used in cooling water the air is already saturated, the R.H. is
in pitchers having porous walls. When a 100%.
space contains the maximum possible
amount of vapour, the vapour is called Dew : In winter nights, the atmospheric
saturated. If the amount is less than temperature goes down. The surfaces of
possible maximum amount of vapour, the window-panes, flowers, grasses etc. become
vapour is called unsaturated. The possible still colder due to radiation. The air near
maximum amount of vapour depends on them becomes saturated & condensation
the temperature & can be achieved easily begins. The droplets condensed on such
due to rise in temperature of the liquid. surfaces are called as Dew.
The pressure exerted by a saturated vapour
is called saturation vapour pressure (SVP). Fog : In winter, if temperature goes
The temperature at which the saturation down even more, the whole atmosphere in
vapour pressure becomes equal to the that region may become saturated. Small
present pressure is know as Dew-Point. If droplets then condense on the dust particles
the temperature is decreased below the present in the air. These droplets keep
dew point some of the vapour condenses. floating in the air & form a thick mist
which restricts visibility. This thick mist is
HUMIDITY
called Fog.
The amount of water vapour in a unit
In winter, glass-walls of a house,
volume of air is called the Absolute
window & car-glass get wet on its outer
humidity of air. Generally, it is expressed
surface. It occurs due to the condensation
in gm/m3. The ratio of the amount of water
vapour present in a given volume to the of water-vapour in the atmosphere on the
amount of water vapour required to glass surface as the temperature inside
saturate the volume at the same house or car is relatively higher than outer
temperature is called the relative humidity temperature. In summer, body temperature
(R.H.). The R.H. can be given in terms of the is regulated by the evoporation of sweat.
following ratios as R.H. However, at higher humidity in air, the
rate of evaporation from the body slows
down and sweat starts rolling off in streams.
Sitting under a fan then increases the rate
of evaporation due to moving air. The
increased evaporation produces cooling.
The human body is comfortable at a
temperature between 23°C to 25°C at a
relative humidity between 60% to 65%. An
air conditioner regulates these conditions
of temperature and humidity inside a room.

[68] General Science

 the ratio of the mechanical work done by
BOILING OF A LIQUID the engine to heat supplied to it i.e.,
The energy of a certain mass of a liquid
in its vapour state is more than in its liquid
state. When heat is supplied to a liquid, its
kinetic energy increases and at a certain Efficiency of a heat engine is always
stage, the molecules anywhere in liquid less than 1 or 100% because a heat engine
can form vapour bubbles. These bubbles cannot convert total heat supplied to it
float to the surface and finally vapour into mechanical work.
molecules come out of the liquid. This A heat engine consists of three
phenomenon is known as boiling and the components viz.
temperature at which boiling occurs is
known as boiling point. At the boiling point, (i) Source of heat : It is at higher
the vapour pressure at the liquid surface temperature from which the engine gets
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. heat.
Hence, higher the atmospheric pressure at (ii) Working Substance : It converts
the liquid surface higher is the boiling point the heat obtained partly into mechanical
of liquid. Water boils at 100°C when the work & supplies the remaining heat to the
atmospheric pressure is 1 atmosphere. 1 sink.
atmosphere is equal to 760 mm of mercury.
(iii) Sink : It is at lower temperature to
If the pressure becomes 2- atmosphere,
absorb unused heat.
water boils at 120°C. In pressure cooker
water boils at temperatures higher than Types of Heat Engine :
100°C due to highly increased pressure. (i) External Combustion Engine : In an
The increased boiling point allows water external combustion engine, heat is
to hold more heat which cooks food-faster. produced by the burning fuel in a chamber
At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure outside the body of the engine e.g. steam-
is reduced. It lowers the boiling point of engine. Super heated steam at 250°C & 20
water and food takes longer time to cook. atmospher is its working substance.
Hence, a pressure cooker is more useful for Practically, its efficiency is about 12% to
cooking on hill-stations. 16%.
(ii) Internal Combustion Engine : In
HEAT ENGINES
this engine, heat is produced by burning of
A heat engine converts heat into fuel inside the body of engine e.g. Petrol &
mechanical work. It takes heat from a body diesel engine. Its working substance is a
at higher temperature, converts a part of mixture of air (98%) and fuel (2%). Petrol
heat into the mechanical work & delivers engine with a practical efficiency of 26% is
the rest to bodies at lower temperature. used in light vehicles while diesel engine
The working substance inside the heat with a practical efficiency 40% is used in
engine comes back to the original state. heavy vehicles.
Thus, a heat engine works in cyclic process. (iii) Refrigerator or Heat Pump : It is a
The efficiency of a heat engine is equal to heat engine working in reverse direction.
Physics [69]
Its working substance takes an amount of than liquids & liquids are better conductors
heat from a cold body, converts it partly than gases. Metals are much better
into work & supplies the heat left to the conductors than non-metals. Metals have
hot body. Food stuffs, water, etc. inside the free moving electrons which carry heat
refrigerator act as a source of heat. A highly from one point to the other in a metal.
volatitle liquid, Freon (dichlorodifluoro
For a given body, the rate of flow of
methane) is its working substance. The outer
heat by the conduction is directly
surrounding at higher temperature acts as
proportional to the cross-sectional area,
sink.
proportional to the temperature difference
The freezer is surrounded by a copper between the ends & inversely proportional
coil in which freon evaporates that causes to the distance between the ends. Hence, a
cooling effect. The vapour is removed and thick & short metallic rod conducts more
condensed to form liquid in the condenser heat in a given time across its two ends
coil, fitted at the back of the cabinet, by a than a thin & longer metal-rod.
compression-pump or compressor. The
Applications of Thermal Conduction:
condenser coil becomes warm due to the
liquification of vapour. Again, the liquid • Cooking utensils are made of metals
begines to evaporate & this cyclic process whereas their handles are made of plas-
continues. A thermostat switch regulates tic or wood because metals are better
the temperature inside the refrigerator by conductor and plastic & wood are poor
switching the compressor on and off at conductors. Hence, hot utensils can be
intervals. When the refrigerator is easily held by their insulating handles.
defrosted, the temperature inside it • In winter, metallic handle of a wooden
increases. Hence inner ice content melts. door appear colder because it is a good
Defrosting is necessary for better working conductor. Heat flows from our body
of the refrigertor. to the handle which gives the sense of
cold.
HEAT TRANSFER
• Eskimos live in double walled snow
Conduction, convection and radiation huts called igloos. Air enclosed between
are the three methods to transfer heat from the walls of ice is a bad conductor and
one point to another. Usually, conduction ice is also a bad conductor. It prevents
takes place in solids, convection in liquids the heat they produce from escaping
& gases and radiation does not require a and keeps them warm.
medium. • Saw dust is a poorer conductor of heat
A. Conduction : It involves heat-transfer than the wood from which it is made
from the hot end of a body to its cold end because of air trapped in the saw dust.
due to molecular collision to minimise the • In winter, birds often swell their feath-
temperature difference. However, the ers. Air enclosed between their body
conduction does not involve the actual and feathers does not allow flow of
movement of the molecules of the medium. heat from the body of the birds to the
In general, solids are better conductors cold surroundings.

[70] General Science

• Ice is packed in gunny bags or saw- energy and hence, they move towards the
dust. Air trapped in the saw dust blocks cold region and in order to occupy their
the transfer of heat between the cold position the cold molecules come from the
ice and the surroundings. It prevents cold region. It results convection currents
the melting of ice. and consequently the entire system gets
heated. Convection is common in liquids
• A new quilt is warmer than an old one. and gases.
The new quilt encloses more air than
the old one. This air, being bad conduc- Applications of Thermal Convection:
tor of heat, does not allow heat of our • Function of ventilation in houses is based
body to flow to the surroundings. on the convection. During winter, air
• Two thin blankets together are warmer comes out from houses because the in-
than one blanket of their combined side temperature is high whereas in
thickness. The air contained in between summer air comes in because the outer
the two blankets is a bad conductor temperature is high. It involves the
and it prevents heat from escaping and movement of air from high in tempera-
keeps the body warm. ture to lower temperature by convec-
tion currents.
• In airconditioned rooms, double lay-
ered windows are preferred than the • In refrigerators, freezer is set at the top.
single layered windows because a thin Temperature of air at the bottom is
layer of air is contained between the higher than that inside the freezer. The
two layer of glass panes in the win- warm bottom air moves up and cold
dow. freezer air moves down. It results con-
vection current of air in the refrigera-
• In winter, a stone floor feels cold to the tors that cools the entire inner space.
bare feet, but a carpet on the same floor
feels warm even though they, are at the • In geysers and waters heater, the heat-
same temperature. Since the stone is a ing elements are fitted at the bottom. It
better conductor of heat than the car- causes hot-bottom water to move up
pet, hence the feet feel cold on the stone and cold top-water to move down and
but not on the carpet. thereby setting up a convection cur-
rent. Consequently entire water con-
• Due to the continuous working of a tent gets heated.
refrigerator, a thick layer of ice deposits
on the outside and the inside of the • In electric ovens, the heating elements
freezer and hence, it has to be switched are fitted near the bottom to heat the
off for defrosting. The cooling action of entire enclosed air by convection.
the freezer slows down because ice is a • Monsoons, trade wind in sea, water
bad conductor of heat. Hence, defrost- streams in sea, winds, etc. are due to
ing improves the functioning a refrig- the convection.
erator.
• The main mechanism for heat transfer
B.Convection : It involves the transfer inside a human body is forced convec-
of heat due to the movement of molecules. tion through blood which is circulating
The hot molecules have higher kinetic
by the pumping action of heart.
Physics [71]
 C. Radiation : Heat transfer by polished so that it does not lose heat by
conduction and convection requires a radiation. White or light colours of
material medium whereas heat transfer by houses keep cooler in summer because
radiation does not require a medium. All light coloured surface do not absorb
bodies radiate thermal radiations at all much solar radiation.
temperatures. The amount of heat • Thermos Flask : It is a double walled
radiation radiated per unit time depends glass bottle having a vacuum between
on the nature of the radiating surface, the walls. The inner wall is silvered
surface area and temperature of the body. whose mouth is closed by a plastic
Similarly, all bodies absorb a part of thermal stopper. The vacuum does not allow
radiation incident on them. When an the loss of heat by convection and the
amount of thermal radiation is incident on stopper being insulator does not allow
a body, it is partly absorbed, partly reflected conduction of heat. The silvered wall
and partly transmitted. The amount of prevents radiation as it is a poor emitter
absorbed, reflected and transmitted thermal and a poor absorber of radiation. Thus,
radiation depends on the nature & in a thermos flask transfer of heat by
temperature of the body. conduction, convection and radiation
When a body absorbs more and emits is minimised. Hence, a hot liquid in it
less radiation, its temperature goes up; when remains hot and a cold liquid or ice in it
a body emits more and absorbs less remains cold for a longer time.
radiation, its temperature goes down and • At a point in front of fire, heat is received
when a body absorbs and emits equal due to radiation only, while at a point
amount of radiations, its temperature above the fire, heat is received both due
remains constant. A good absorber is a good to radiation and convection. Hence, it
emitter and a poor absorber is a poor emitter. is hotter at the same distance over the
A body that absorbs all the radiations falling top of a fire than in front of it.
on it is called a black body.
• When animals feel cold, they curl their
Applications of Black Body: Such a bodies in a ball so as to decrease the
body will emit radiation at the fastest rate surface area of their bodies. As total
on heating. Lampblack is close to a energy radiated by a body is
blackbody. Bolometer and thermopile are proportional to the surface area of the
close to a blackbody. Bolometer and body, the loss of heat due to radiation
thermopile are instruments used to measure would be reduced.
thermal radiation.
• A box or a house with glass walls or
• A rough black surface is a good emitter glass windows, acts as a green-house
as well as a good absorber of heat- because it traps heat radiations entering
radiation while a bright polished surface it through glass. The glass allows the
is a bad emitter as well as a bad heat radiation inside but blocks the hot-
absorber. Hence, a bright polished cup air from comeing out. Hence, a car
keeps tea or coffee warm for a longer parked in the sun with its windows
time in comparison a rough black cup. closed gets terribly warm in comparison
The base of an electric iron is highly to the outer atmosphere.
[72] General Science
• Cloudy nights are warmer than clear
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
nights because clouds reflect the
radiations emitted by the earth at night It states that the rate of loss of heat
and keep it warm. Thus, clouds act as a from a hot body is directly proportional to
blanket. temperature difference between the body
and its surroundings.
• Glass, which is ordinarily used as the
base in photographic plates, is A hot water during cooling from 100°C
transparent to light while opaque to to 90°C takes less time than that in cooling
thermal infra-red radiation. But certain from 50°C to 40°C. Hence, when hot water
special kinds of glass have been and fresh tap-water are placed inside a
prepared which are transparent only refrigerator, the rate of cooling of hot water
to thermal infra-red. Such glasses, used is found to be faster than that of fresh-tap
in the preparation of photographic water.
plates, have made it possible to obtain If hot coffee is served with cream in a cup
long distance photographs, even under and without cream in another cup, the
misty conditions using infra-red creamed coffee remains hot for a longer time.
radiations.
• The fact that good reflectors are bad LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
absorbers and bad radiators is utilised
First Law : The first law of
in making firemen’s helmets and metallic
thermodynamics is a particular and more
tea-pots highly polished on the outside.
rigorous statement of the principle of
Water can absorb 90% of heat radiation, conservation of energy. When a substance
which shows the importance of the absorbs an amount of heat at a constant
existence of water vapour in the pressure, then part of this heat is used up
atmosphere. The water vapours in the to raise the temperature which results in
atmosphere protect the earth from the the increase of internal energy. The rest of
more intense heat rays of the sun during the heat is used in doing work in allowing
the days and from the extreme cold the external pressure.
during the nights. In very dry regions, Second Law : It is impossible to
where there is little water vapour in the construct a device working in a cyclic
air, the days are intensely hot and the process whose sole effect is the transfer of
nights are extremely cold. heat from a body at a lower temperature to
• Gases are poor radiators of heat, hence a body at a higher temperature ‘OR’ it is
in the construction of furnaces, the impossible to construct an engine working
gases are made to fall on fire-bricks, on a cyclic process whose sole effect is the
which radiate heat freely. conversion of all heat supplied to it in an
equivalent amount of work.
• Because black bodies are the best
absorbers of heat radiations, a black Entropy : It is a measure of randomness
dress is uncomfortable during the hot or disorderness of a system. It is a thermal
summer, while a white one is cool. property of a body which remains constant
during an adiabatic process.
Physics [73]
 Third Law : At absolute zero (zero • Charle’s Law : The pressure remaining
Kelvin) temperature the total sum of constant, the volume of a given mass of
absolute entropy of a crystalline solid is a gas is directly proportional to its
equal to zero. temperature in Kelvin scale i.e. V a T or
= constant; where V is volume & T is
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
temperature in Kelvin.
Isobaric Process : It involves constant
pressure
Isochoric Process : It involves constant
• Gay Lussac’s Law : The volume
volume.
remaining constant, the pressure of a
Isothermal Process : It involves given mass of a gas is directly
constant temperature. However, heat proportional to its temperature in
changes. Kelvin i.e.
Adiabatic Process : It involves constant
heat. However, temperature changes. P a T or = constant, where P is pressure

Melting process and boiling process are and T is temperature in Kelvin of a

common examples of an isothermal process given mass of gas at constant volume.
because they occur at constant
temperatures. Practically, a perfect
adiabatic process is impossible. However,
its approximate examples are (i) Sudden • Ideal Gas Equation : It is also known
bursting of the tube of a bicycle tyre (ii) as standard or the perfect gas equation
Propagation of sound in air. (iii) Expansion which is given as
of gas or vapour in a heat engine.
PV = nRT

LAWS OF GASES where P = pressure, V = Volume, T =

temperature in Kelvin, n = number of
• Boyle’s Law : For a given mass of a gas, moles and R = universal gas constant.
the volume is inversely proportional to
its pressure at a constant temperature. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
If P = pressure and V = volume of a
The Kinetic Theory of gases explains
given mass of a gas at a constant
the behaviour of gases. Basic features are:
temperature then, (i) All gases are composed of molecules.
constant The molecules of a gas are alike and
or, P1V1=P2V2 differ from the molecules of other gases.
Where P1 and P2 are initial and final (ii) The molecules are extremely small point
pressures and V1 and V2 are initial and masses, their dimensions being
final volumes of a given mass of a gas at a negligible as compared to the distance
constant temperature. between them.

[74] General Science

(iii) The molecules are continuously in • Total kinetic energy, or internal energy
motion. They have different velocities or total energy does not determine the
in different directions. The velocity of direction of flow of heat. It is deter-
gas molecules increases with mined by the temperature alone.
temperature.
• When heat is absorbed by a body but its
(iv) The gas molecules collide temperature does not change, only the
continuously against each other and intermolecular potential energy of the
against the wall of container. system changes. This is the case with
melting and boiling.
(v) The pressure of the gas is equal to the
pressure exerted by the gas molecules • Systems are in thermal equilibrium
on the wall of container. when their temperature are same or
average kinetic energy per molecule is
(vi) The gas-molecules are perfectly elastic
same.
spheres and exert negligible force of
attraction or repulsion on each other • Internal energy consists of energy of
or on the wall of container. translational, rotational as well as vi-
brational motion of the molecules.
The kinetic theory of gases explains
most of the gas laws like Boyle’s law, • The ratio of molar specific heat capac-
Charle’s law, ideal gas equation, etc. ity depends on the molecular weight of
the substance. Because it depends on
TRIVIA mass of one mole which is turn de-
pends on molecular weight.
• The net change in the intermolecular
kinetic energy is determined by the tem- • The temperature, volume or pressure
of a system may remain constant when
perature. This is in accordance with
it absorbs heat.
the kinetic theory of gas. That is aver-
age kinetic energy associated with in- • The temperature of the system may in-
termolecular forces is directly propor- crease when heat is supplied to it or
tional to the temperature of the system. work is done on the system.
• The heat capacity or thermal capacity • Whole of the heat supplied can never
depends on nature of the substance be converted into mechanical work.
(specific heat capacity) and mass or This implies that the efficiency of heat
quantity of matter of the body. engine can never be equal to 100%.
• Thermodynamics deals with the con- • Thermodynamics deals with the
version of heat into other forms of en- interconversion of heat energy, internal
ergy as well as the change in state (solid, energy and mechanical energy or work.
liquid, gas) of a system. • The physics of heat engine is similar to
• Random motion of the constituents of that of refrigerator.
the system involving exchange of en- • Hydrogen cannot be used as a thermo-
ergy due to mutual collisions is called metric substance above 500°C, because
thermal motion. it starts diffusing.

Physics [75]
• Pure and dry gas should be used as drical bulb are more sensitive than those
thermometric substance. with spherical bulb.
• Below -200°C, the hydrogen and nitro- • Alcohol thermometer is preferred to the
gen cannot be used because they start mercury thermometer due to the larger
liquifying. Therefore, helium gas is used value of the coefficient of cubical ex-
for temperature below - 200°C. pansion.
• The platinum thermometer can mea- • Following properties make mercury the
sure temperature accurately upto 0.1°C. ideal thermometric substance.
• The thermoelectric thermometers are (i) Does not stick to the glass walls.
very sensitive and can be used to mea-
(ii) It shines.
sure the temperature of insects.
(iii) Coefficient of expansion is uniform.
• Radiation Pyrometer : These are the
devices to measure the temperature by (iv) Vapour pressure is low.
measuring the intensity of radiations (v) Low thermal conductivity and
received from the body. They are based specific heat.
on the fact that the amount of radia-
tions emitted from a body per unit area (vi) Available in pure form.
per second is directly proportional to • Gas thermometers have higher sensi-
the fourth power of temperature tivity than the mercury thermometers
(Stefan’s law). These can be used to because their coefficient of cubical ex-
measure temperatures ranging from pansion is much larger and same is for
800°C to 4000°C. They cannot measure all gases:
temperatures below 800°C, because the
amount of radiations emitted from the (i) Celsius & Fahrenheit at - 40°C = -
bodies is too small to be measured. 40°F.

• Vapour Pressure Thermometer : The (ii) Fahrenheit and Kelvin at 574.25°F

vapour pressure depends on the tem- = 574.25 K.
perature alone and it is independent (iii) Fahrenheit and Reaumur at -
of the nature of the vapours. This fact 25.6°F = - 25.6°R
can be used to measure the tempera-
(iv) Reaumur and Celsius at 0°R = 0°C
ture. It can be used to measure
temperatues near absolute zero by (v) At no temperature the Celsius scale
using different gases as the thermo- can have the same reading as the
metric substances. Kelvin scale.
• Magnetic Thermometer : The magnetic • Six’s thermometer measures minimum
thermometer is a device that uses adiabatic and maximum temperature during a
demagnetisation for measuring the tem- day. It uses mercury as well as alcohol
perature. They can be used to measure as the thermometric substance.
temperature very near to the absolute zero. • Let the reading on the faulty thermom-
• The mercury thermometer with cylin- eter be f and the true treading be t, then

[76] General Science

 Normal human temperature is 37°C = (iii) British Thermal Unit (BTU) : It is
98.4°F the fps unit of heat = 252 cal =
amount of heat required to raise the
• The clinical therometers read from 96°F
temperature of 1 lb of water through
to 110ºF.
1°F.
• Thermo electric therometers can be used
• 4.2 J = 1 cal
to measure rapidly changing tempera-
ture. • Specific Heat : It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit
• Clinical thermometer are much shorter
mass of substance through 1 degree. Its
than the laboratory thermometers be-
dimensional formula is ML2T–2q–1. It
cause they are used to measure a lim-
may be expressed in cal/g°C, kcal/kg°C.
ited range (96°F to 110°F) of tempera-
BTU/lb°F. J/kgk
ture.
• Cal/g°C = kcal/kg°C = 4.2 × 10 3 j/
• Platinum resistance therometer can be
kgK.
used to measure temperature inside a
motor engine. • Molar Specific Heat : The amount of
heat required to raise the temperature
• The radiation therometers can measure
of 1 mole of substance through 1 kg is
temperature from a distance.
called molar specific heat. It is denoted
• Adiabatic demagnetisation can be used by C. Its unit is J/mol K. It is generally
to meausre temperatures very near to used for gases.
the absolute zero.
• For the gases, molar specific heat is de-
• The degree Fahrenheit is the smallest fined at constant volume (Cv) and at
temperature range among all the scales constant pressure (CP). It is found that
of temperature. CP - Cv = R. Where R is molar gas con-
• Heat : It is a form of energy. The SI unit of stant.
heat is joule. • Thermal Capacity : It is the amount of
(i) Calorie : It is the amount of heat re- heat required to raise the temperature
quired to raise the temperature of 1g of substance through 1°C or 1K. Ther-
of water through 1°C. For interna- mal capacity = mass × specific heat.
tional use the calorie is defined as The dimensional formula for thermal
the amount of heat required to raise capacity is ML2T2q–1. Its unit is cal/°C,
the temperature of 1g of water from kcal/°C, J/K.
14.5°C to 15.5°C. [This definition is • Water Equivalent : It is the mass of
based on the average value of heat water that requires the same amount of
required to raise the temperature of heat to raise its temperature through
1g of water from 0°C to 100°C per 1°C as the substance requires to raise
°C rise in temperature] its temperature through 1°C. Its unit is
(ii) Kilocalorie (k.cal) = 1000 cal = kilogram or gram. If m be the mass of
amount of heat required to raise the the body and c be its specific heat, then
temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. water equivalent is given by W = mc.

Physics [77]
• Principle of Calorimetry : The amount • Latent heat is used for doing work in
of heat gained or lost when its tem- increasing the distance between the mol-
perature rises or falls by Dq is given by : ecules during the change of state. That
Q = mc Dq, where m is the mass of the is the latent heat increases the potential
substance. energy of molecules and their kinetic
energy remains constant, therefore, the
• According to the principle of calorim-
temperature also remains constant.
etry, when two bodies exchange heat :
the heat lost = the heat gained. It is in • Sublimation : Direct conversion of solid
accordance with the law of conserva- to vapours is called sublimation.
tion of energy.
• HoarFrost : Direct conversion of
• Latent Heat : Heat required to change vapours to solid is called hoarfrost.
the state (from solid to liquid or from
• Melting : It is the process in which
liquid to gaseous, of one gram/kilo-
solid is converted into lqiuid. The re-
gram of substance at constant tem-
verse is called freezing or solidifcation.
perature is called latent heat (symbol
L). Its unit is cal/g, kcal/kg or J/kg. • Boiling : It is the process of conversion
of liquid to gaseous state. The reverse is
• The amount heat absorbed or given out
called condensation or liquefaction.
during the change of state is given by :
Q = ML, where M is the mass of the • Melting and boiling occur at definite tem-
substance. peratures called melting point and boil-
ing or liquefaction.
• Latent heat is of two types : (i) Latent
heat of fusion for change from solid to • The liquids boils at a temperature, at
liquid at the melting point and (ii) La- which its vapour pressure is equal to
tent heat of vaporisation - for change of the atmospheric pressure.
sate from liquid to gaseous state. • Evaporation : Conversion of liquid into
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. gaseous state at all temperatures is called
evaporation. It is a phenomenon that
• Latent heat of vaporisation for water is
occurs at the surface of the liquid.
535 cal/g
• The rate of evaporation increases with
the rise in temperature.

[78] General Science

 ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION

An Electromagnetic radiation is an (5) They are composed of energy particles

electromagnetic wave (E.M.W.) that called Photons. Every photon has a fixed
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic frequency which does not change when
fields. An accelerated charge (e.g. a photon travels through different
oscillating charge) produces an oscillating media. The velocity of the photon
electric as well as magnetic field in its changes in different media due to
neighbourhood. These oscillating fields act change in its wavelength. Photon is
as sources for each other and thereby electrically neutral does not have mass
produce each other. It results an E.M.W. at rest. In fact, a photon does not exist
The accelerated charge reduces its energy at rest because a photon is an energy
that appears as energy of E.M.W. The particle of the E.M.W. which in turn is
electric-field, magnetic field and speed of a dynamic state of energy.
the E.M.W. are mutually perpendicular. It
(6) The E.M.W. shows all wave phenomena
gives transverse nature of the E.M.W. An
like light.
E.M.W. is associated with energy &
momentum. Hence, it exerts a pressure on
the surface of incidence. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic
BASIC FEATURES OF E.M.W. radiations according to their wavelength or
frequency is called the electromagnetic
(1) They are produced by accelerated or
spectrum.
oscillating charges.
Only a small part of this spectrum is
(2) They do not require any material
visible to human eyes because the radiations
medium for propagation. of this part produces sensations on the
(3) They travel in a freespace (vacuum or retina of the eye.
air) with the speed of light i.e. 3X108 (1) Gamma Rays: They are emitted by
m/s because light is also an E.M.W. radioactive nuclei. They have the shortest
When they travel through a medium, wavelength and the highest frequency and
their velocity depends entirely on the hence, the highest energy. The study of
electric and magnetic properties of the γ-rays provides us with valuable
medium. information about the structure of the
(4) They are themselves uncharged and atomic nuclei.
hence, do not get deflected by external (2) X-Rays: They are produced most
applied electric and magnetic fields. commonly when fast-moving electrons
Physics [79]
 Electromagnatic Spectrum
S.No. Name Wavelength (in m.) Frequency Range (in Hz) Source

1. Gamma rays 6×10—14 to 1×10–11 5×1022 to 3×1019 Nuclear origin

2. X-rays 1×10–11 to 3×10–8 3×1019 to 1×1016 Sudden deceleration of
high energy electrons
3. Ultra-violet 6×10–10 to 4×10–7 5×1017 to 8×1014 Excitation of electrons, spark
and arc lamp.
4. Visible Light 4×10–7 to 8×10–7 8×1014 to 4×1014 Excitation of valence
electrons.
5. Infra-Red 8×10–7 to 3×10–5 4×1014 to 1×1013 Excitation of atoms &
molecules
6. Heat-Radiation 10–5 to 10–1 3×1013 to 3×109 Hot bodies
7. Microwaves 10–3 to 0.3 3×1011 to 1×109 Oscillating currents
in special vacuum tube.
8. Ultra-high frequency 1×10–1 to 1 3×109 to 3×108 Oscillating circuit
(UHF)
9. Very High Frequency 1 to 10 3×108 to 3×107 Oscillating circuit
(VHF)
10. Radio-Frequencies 10 to 104 3×107 to 3×104 Oscillating circuit
11. Power frequencies 5×106 to 6×106 60 to 50 Weak Radiations from
a.c. circuit.
The overlapping in certain parts of above E.M. Spectrums shows that the correponding radiations can be produced by
two methods.

decelerate inside a metal target. They are (3) Ultraviolet Rays: They are produced
used - by the excitation of atoms, a spark and arc
lamp. The sunlight consists of ultraviolet

for detecting explosives: opium, rays as a part. Ultraviolet rays are very
jewelleries, etc. in the body of smug- harmful to the living organisms. A long
glers. and constant exposure of our body to these

In Medical Diagnosis: e.g. for the de- radiations causes blindness and cancer. The
tection of fractures, foreign bodies, like ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
bullets, diseased, organs and stones in absorbs most of the ultraviolet rays emitted
by the sun. Only a small fraction of these
the human body.
rays reach the surface of the earth.

for detecting pearls in oysters and de- Therefore, the ozone layer protects the
fects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis organisms from the ultraviolet rays. A
balls. welder wears coloured glasses to protect
his eyes, from the ultraviolet rays emitted

in engineering e.g. (a) for detecting by the welding spark. During the solar
faults, cracks, flaws and holes in final eclipse, the sun is completely covered by
metal products (b) for the testing of the shadow of the moon. But the ultraviolet
weldings, castings and moulds. rays emitted by it reach the earth. Hence,

in radiotherapy to cure untraceable skin the direct vision of the solar eclipse through
the naked eyes is avoided.
diseases and malignant growths. The
photographic film containing the pho- They are used: (i) to preserve food stuff
tographs of the body parts is as known & making drinking water free from bacteria
a Radiograph. as these rays kill bacteria & germs.

[80] General Science


to detect the invisible writings, forged
in green houses to keep the plants warm,
documents and finger- prints in forensic

in weather forecasting through infra-
laboratory.
red photography, and

to study the structure of solids and mol-
ecules.
in checking the purity of chemicals and
in the study of molecular structure by

for sterilizing the surgical instruments. taking infra-red absorption spectra,

for checking the mineral samples (6) Heat Radiations: They are
through the property of ultraviolet
produced by any hot bodies. They are
rays causing flourescence.
used for heating purposes.

in burglar alarm.
(7) Microwaves: They are produced by
(4) Visible Light: White-light emitted oscillating electrical circuits. They are used:-
by the sun is visible light. It is composed of
seven colours. Except the visible light, all
in micro wave ovens.
the remaining electromagnetic radiations
in RADAR systems and in satellite com-
are invisible. Besides the solar-radiations, munication.
there are a number of sources giving visible
light e.g. candle, electric-bulbs etc. (8) UHF, VHF and Radiowaves : They
are produced by the oscillating circuits.
(5) Infra-red rays: Infra-red rays are
They are used as carrier waves during the
emitted by the atoms and molecules of hot-
transmission of Radio-signals, TV-signals,
body. Infra-red rays are absorbed by the
body on which they fall. So the body FM-Radios, etc.
becomes hot. Hence, infra-red rays are also (9) Power- frequencies or Power
known as heat-radiations. Waves : They are produced from a.c.
They are used: circuits. They are used for lightning.

to heat the interior of a car and house,
RADIATION IN ATMOSPHERE

to cook food using a solar cooker,
The main source of radiations in the

to heat water using a solar water heater,
atmosphere is the sun. Visible light is

to treat muscular strains, weakly absorbed whereas most of the infra-

for drying wet clothes and grains after red raditations are absorbed by the
harvesting, atmosphere and is used to heat it. The
ozone layer of atmosphere absorbs most of

in night vision devices during warfare
the ultraviolet-rays and thus protects us
because infra-red rays can pass through
from their harmful effects. The ozone layer
haze fog, smoke and mist,
converts the ultraviolet radiations to infra-

to provide electrical energy to satellite red which is used to heat the atmosphere
by using solar cells, and the earth’s surface. It is suspected that

for producing dehydrated fruits, ozone layer is slowly being depleted and
this is causing great concern to scientists

for taking photographs during the con-
and environmentalists.
ditions of fog, smoke, etc.
Physics [81]
 The earth gets heated by absorbing heat The discharge tube phenomenon is used
from the sun & radiated energy mostly in in making sodium lamps, mercury vapour
the infra-red region. Low lying clouds and lamps, fluorescent tubes, neon signs, flood
the atmosphere prevent these infra-red light, etc.
radiations of earth from passing through
them and thus serve to keep earth’s surface Cathode rays consisting of electrons,
warm at night. This phenomenon is called are produced in the discharge tube at a
as “Green House Effect”. pressure of 0.01 mm of mercury.
The upper part of the atmosphere of
the earth receives about 1.36 kilo joule of
ELECTRONIC EMISSION
energy per second per unit area from the The phenomenon of emission of
sun. The earth’s surface receives 47% of electrons from the surface of a metal is
this energy emitted from the sun. The called electronic emission.
energy crisis can be overcome by harnessing
this energy. A large number of devices have (a) Thermionic Emission: It involves
been developed to harness the solar energy emission of electrons due to appropriate
directly. The commonly used devices are: heating of the metal surface. The devices
Solar cookers, solar furnaces, solar water like diode valve and triode valve are based
heaters, solar power plants, solar-cells etc. on the thermionic emission of electrons.
The diode valve is used as rectifier and
All of the above devices are pollution-
free and most of them are economical. triode valve is used as transistor and
amplifier in electrical circuits.
Limitations in harnessing solar energy
are--- (b) Photoelectric Emission: It involves
emission of electrons from the metal surface
(i) Solar energy reaching the earth is highly due to incidence of light of a suitable frequency.
diffused and scattered. Hence, it is not It is also known as photoelectric effect.
able to perform much useful work.
(ii) It is not available at all places and at all PHOTOELECTRIC CELLS OR
times. PHOTO CELLS

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE They convert light energy into electrical

THROUGH GASES energy. They are based on the phenomenon
of photoelectric-emission. They are also
At normal pressure gases are insulators known as Electric-eyes. A photo-cell
but at very low pressure they can allow the converts a change in intensity of
flow of electric current due to an applied illumination into a change in the photo
potential difference. The electric-discharge current obtained. This current is used to
through a gas is carried out in discharge operate control systems and in light
tube. The discharge tube involves the measuring devices.
ionisation of gas which gives rise to different
Applications of Photo-cells:
coloured discharges and finally, the cathode
rays are produced depending upon the
in TV camera for telecasting scenes and
value of pressure inside the tube. in photo-telegraphy.

[82] General Science


to switch on and off the street lightning Dual Nature of Matter: Microscopic
system at dusk and dawn, without any particles like electrons have mass character as
manual attention. well as wave character. The nature of a particle
to behave as a mass as well as a wave is known

in photometry to compare the illumi-
as dual nature of matter. Electron-microscope
nating powers of two sources.
is the device that exploits the wave-nature of

in industries for locating small flaws or electrons to provide high resolving power.It
holes in metallic sheets. has successfully been employed to investigate

as photoelectric sorters; to sort out the structural details of bacteria, viruses, etc. It has
materials of different shades. proved to be a powerful tool of investigation
for research in science, technology, metallurgy,

to determine the opacity of solids and industry, medicine, etc.
liquids.

to control the temperature and chemi- X-RAYS
cal reactions.
When highly energetic electrons are
made to strike a metal target of high atomic
METALS SHOWING THE number like Tungsten and Platinum, the x-
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION rays are emitted.
Alkali Metals: Lithium, sodium, The device used to produce x-rays is
potassium, cesium, etc. show the known as an x-rays tube or Coolidge tube.
photoelectric effect with visible light.
X-rays are electromagnetic waves. They
In the photoelectric effect, one photon can affect a photographic plate more
incident on the metal-surface causes the strongly than visible light. They cause
emission of one electron called photo fluorescence when incident on certain
electron. Higher the intensity of light, more materials as barium platinocyanide. X-rays
is the no. of photons incident and hence, can ionise the gas.
more is the no. of photoelectrons emitted.
Higher the frequency of the photon incident, They can pass through small thicknesses
higher is the kinetic energy of the photo of aluminium, woods, plastics, human-flesh
electron emitted. The photoelectric effect etc. They are stopped by materials of high
shows the particle nature of light i.e. light is density and high atomic number. Hence, x-
composed of energy-particles called photons. rays machines are used to inspect luggages
at the custom, security gates, airports, etc.
The particle nature is given as The frequent and excess exposure of x-rays
E = mc2 where E = energy, m = mass & may cause diseases like genetic-disorders;
c= speed of photons. cancer, etc. The screen of Computer, TV,
oscilloscopes, etc. are using a cathode-ray
The wave-nature is given as
tube in which a highly accelerated electrons
E = hv, where E = energy and v= strike the screen. It results in a small amount
frequency of photon h = Planck’s constant of x-rays. Hence, their screens are designed
Photons are electrically neutral and to absorb the x-rays.
have zero rest mass.

Physics [83]
 ATOMIC PHYSICS

Every atom is composed of three kinds Hence, the size of the nucleus increases
of fundamental particles viz. Electrons, with increase in the mass number.
Protons and Neutrons. Protons and
Neutrons are in the atomic nucleus while NUCLEAR STABILITY
electrons revolve around the nucleus in
definite circular path called orbits. It depends upon the nuclear size and
Electrons are negative and have a definite neutron: proton ratio. As the nuclear radius
energy in a definite orbit. Protons are increases, nuclear stability decreases. Higher
positive while neutrons are neutral. the n/p ratio of a nucleus lower is its
stability. From Hydrogen (Atomic No=1)
When an electron changes its orbit, an to Bismuth (20983Bi - At .No. 83 & Mass No.
amount of energy is exchanged (lost or = 209) all nuclei are quite stable except
gained) in the form of radiations (infra- Technetium (43Tc) and Promethium (61 Pm).
red, visible, ultraviolet and even x-rays).
However, from atomic number 84
Every atom has an equal no. of electrons
(Polonium -Po) to 92 (Uranium -U) are
and protons and hence, an atom is neutral. natural radioactive nuclei. Due to
The no. of protons in an atom is equal to its radioactivity, their nuclei disintegrate
atomic number. The sum of the no. of spontaneously. The nuclei of the elements
protons and neutrons is equal to the mass Neptunium (93 Np) onwards are artificial
number. and do not exist in free state in nature.
The size of the nucleus is much smaller The force of attraction responsible for
than that of the atom. The concept of binding the nucleons (protons, neutrons
nucleus, nuclear and atomic size were etc.) in the nucleus is nuclear force. As the
given by Rutherford. The concept of orbits nuclear size increases the nuclear force of
and energy of an electron in its orbit were attraction decreases. The nuclear force is
given by Neil Bohr. The motion of an the strongest force in nature.
electron in its orbit is similar to that of a
planet moving round the sun. MASS DEFECT
The electron in the orbit closest to the The total sum of masses of individual
nucleus has least energy and as the orbit nuclear particles (Nucleons) in a nucleus is
number increases away from the nucleus, greater than the rest of the actual rest mass
energy of the electrons also increases. of the nucleus. Their difference is known
Every nucleus of the atom has neutrons as mass defect. This mass defect gets
and protons. The volume of the nucleus is converted into energy which is called
directly proportional to its mass number. Nuclear-binding energy.
[84] General Science
 Nuclear species called Nuclides are When a nucleus emits a beta-particle,
symbolised as where X= chemical the mass number of the daughter nucleus
remains unchanged but its atomic number
symbol of the species, Z= Atomic number=
increases by one unit. There is no effect on
Number of proton = Number of electrons,
the atomic and mass number due to gama-
A = Mass number = Sum of number of
emission.
protons and neutrons, A-Z= Number of
neutrons (N). Units of Radioactivity:
1 Becquerel (Bq) =1 decay/ second
e.g. . Bi = Bismuth, 83 = Atomic no.
= No. of proton 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7x 10 10 decays /second

209 = Mass No. = Z+N = A 1 Rutherford (Rd) = 10 6 decays/second

209 - 83 = 126 = No. of neutrons.

HALF- LIFE TIME (T)
● Isotopes: They are a group of nuclides
having equal no. of protons. The time period during which half of
the total initial number of radioactive atoms
● Isobars: They are a group of nuclides decays, is called as half-life time.
having equal mass no.
e.g. for = T= 5770 years.
● Isotones: They are a group of nuclides
having equal no. of neutrons. for Polonium, T= 3x10-7 sec.

Half-life time (T) is given as:

RADIOACTIVITY
(where l = decay constant)
The property by virtue of which a heavy
nucleus of element disintegrates itself Average life time of a radioactive
without being forced by any external agent substance is given as τ = 1.44 × T, where T
to do so, is termed as radioactivity. The = half life.
phenomenon of radioactivity is quite The full-life time of a radioactive
natural and can not be stopped. It was substance is infinity i.e. the taken initial
discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. sample of a radioactive sample decreases in
amount with time but never becomes zero.
The radioactivity results in the
conversion of an unstable larger nucleus Besides α -, β - &, γ - particles, some
into smaller stable nucleus along with the other subnuclear particles like positrons,
emission of certain radioactive decays. These neutrinos, antineutrino etc. are also emitted
radioactive decays are alpha rays, beta rays during the radioactive decays. Positron is
& gamma rays. During every radioactive an antiparticle of electron i.e. it has mass
decay an amount of energy is released. equal to electron but is equally positively
charged. It is also known as positive β -
When a nucleus emits an alpha-particle, particle. Symbols used for position,
the daughter nucleus has atomic number neutrino and anti-neutrino are
lesser by 2 units and mass number lesser by respectively. Nuclear changes during the
4- units. radioactive decays:

Physics [85]
 (1) a decay → Generally, such disintegration stops as
soon as the bombardment is over. However,
Uranium → Thorium + α-particle +
if the bombarded nucleus keeps on
Energy
disintegrating even after the bombardment
(2) β decay → is stopped, the phenomenon is called
induced radioactivity.
Thorium → Protactinium + b-particle +
Energy e.g. Boron, when bombarded by α -
particle, continue to disintegrate further even
(3) γ decay → after the bombardment is stopped, as follows :
Sodium → Magnesium + β- particle +
gamma-particle.
Boron + a particle → Nitrogen - 14 →
ARTIFICIAL & INDUCED Nitrogen -13 + Neutron. Produced is a
RADIOACTIVITY radioactive nucleus produced by artificial
radioactivity. Its half-life is 11 minutes.
The phenomenon of disintegration of
otherwise stable nuclei by bombarding
them with suitable projectiles is called Nitrogen → Carbon - 13 + positron.
artificial radioactivity.

ABC OF RADIATION
Properties α-rays β-rays γ-rays
1. Similar to Helium nuclei Electrons E.M. Waves like X-rays
2. Symbols
3. Atomic No. 2 –1 0
4. Mass No. 4 0 0
5. Speed 1.4×107 m/s 33% to 99% of the Equal to the speed of
to 2.1×107m/s light light
6. Penetrating power Least and can be stopped Higher and can pass Highest & can pass
by 0.02 mm thick through a few mm through several cms
aluminium sheet. thick alumium sheet thicks iron & lead slabs.
7. Ionising power Maximum due to Intermediate Minium due to
maximum charge (+)2 that of between zero charge
unit & maximum mass a– & g rays
8. Range in air Depends upon the radio Several meters Very long
active source and varies
from 3 to 8 cm.
9. Effect on photographic Produce smaller effect More effect Maximum effect
plate
10. Flourescence effect Produce flouresence in Also produce floure- Produce flouresence
in some substance like sence in barium in some substances like
barium-plantinocyanide plantinocyanide and willimite
and zinc sulphide zinc suplide
11. Effect of electric and Show deflection Show deflection do not show deflection
magnetic field
12. Effect on human body Cause burning effect Can cause a shock Can cause cancer
on longer exposure.

[86] General Science

 energy is released only in about 10–9 seconds.
NUCLEAR REACTION
This released energy appears in the form of
It involves the transformation of a stable γ-rays, kinetic energy of nuclei of Barium
nucleus into another nucleus by (Ba), Krypton (Kr) & neutrons (n).
bombarding the former with suitable
particles. These particles are called
projectiles e.g. neutron, proton, electron, ● Nuclear Chain Reaction : In a nuclear
alpha-particle, γ-ray etc. Neutron due to fission of Uranium three secondary
mass and Zero charge is the best projectile. neutrons are released along with a huge
amount of energy. These three neutrons
Representation of a nuclear reaction.
cause the fission of other three
Target Nucleus +Projectile → Daughter Uranium-235 nuclei & produce 9-
Nucleus + Emitted - Particle neutrons which in turn, can bring about
e.g. the fission of 9-Uranium -235 nuclei &
so on. This process multiplies so quickly
Nitrogen - 14 + - particle → Oxygen - (i.e. a few micro-seconds) that a
17 + Proton tremendous energy is released in a
Above reaction is the 1st artificial fraction of time. Such a continuous
nuclear transmutation discovered by process is known as Chain Reaction. If
Rutherford in 1919. the chain reaction is controlled the
energy released is used for peaceful
A nuclear reaction may be of two types purposes like in Nuclear Reactor or
viz. Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion. Nuclear-pile. If the chain-reaction is
uncontrolled, the tremendous energy
I. Nuclear Fission released brings about a disastrous effect
The process of splitting a heavy nucleus like Atom-Bomb.
(usually of atomic mass >230) into two ● Controlled Chain Reaction: If only one
comparatively small nuclei of middle weight neutron, out of 3- neutrons released in
along with the release of very large amount every fission of Uranium, is used to cause
of energy is called nuclear fission. further nuclear fission, the constant
In this process, a fraction of mass amount of energy is released. Such a
disappears that appears in the form of nuclear fission is known as controlled
energy released. nuclear fission or controlled chain
reaction. The secondary neutrons
Otto Hahn & Strassman discovered that released are fast moving neutrons
when Uranium -235 isotope ( ) is whereas to have a controlled chain
bombarded with thermal neutron, it splits reaction the slow moving neutrons
up into two smaller nuclei with the emission called Thermal neutrons are required.
of 3 neutrons along with 200.4 Mev of Hence to achieve a controlled chain
energy per fission.The neutrons produced reaction the fast moving neutrons have
after fission are called secondary neutrons. to be slowed down and the surplus
neutrons have to be absorbed. The fast
Such a huge amount (200.4 Mev) of moving neutrons are slowed down by

Physics [87]
 a substance called a Moderator e.g. (c) to produce radioactive isotopes. These
graphite, deutrium or heavy water. The isotopes are used in medical science,
number of neutrons released is reduced industry and agricultural research.
by Control Rods e.g. Boron - rods or
(d) to produce neutron beam of high inten-
Cadmium rods.
sity which is used in the treatment of
● Nuclear Reactor : It converts nuclear cancer and nuclear research.
energy into heat. It is based on
controlled nuclear fission. Indian Nuclear Reactors
Fuel: A fissionable material is used as a Our country has adopted a three- stage
fuel. e.g. (Plutonium), etc. strategy of nuclear power generation :
Commonly is used as a fuel.
(a) The first stage aims in the use of natural
Coolant: It is used to absorb the heat uranium as a fuel, with heavy water as
produced in the reactor core. e.g. water moderator.
and heavy water are used as Coolants at
ordinary temparature but at high (b) The second stage involves the develop-
temperature, generally liquid sodium is ment of the fast breeder reactors. For
used as a coolant. this, the discharged fuel from the reac-
tors is reprocessed to obtain plutonium-
Shield: The whole reactor is protected
239, which is further used for the fast
with a concrete wall; so that radiations
breeder reactors.
emitted can be stopped.
(c) The third stage involves using fast
Moderators & Control-rods:
breeder reactors to produce missile U-
Moderators are around the core of the
reactor. Control - rods are inserted inside 233 from Th -232 & to build power
the core of the reactor. reactors based on them. India is cur-
rently, well into the second stage of the
Fast Breeder Reactors: Out of the total programme and considerable work has
Uranium available in nature only 2% part also been done on the third stage (i.e.
is fissionable 235 U & 98% part is non- the utilization of Th -232).
fissionable 238U. In the fast breeder nuclear
reactor, 238 U is first converted into Earlier reactors developed in India were
fissionable 235U which is further broken Apsara (first) and CIRUS (Canada India
down and the nuclear fission reaction Reactor). They used natural uranium as
proceeds as follows: fuel and heavy water as moderator. Besides
these research reactors, EERLINA,
PURNIMA (I, II & III), DHRUVA and
KAMINI have been subsequently
commissioned as research reactors.
Use of Nuclear Reactors: KAMINI is the country’s first large research
reactor that uses U-233 as fuel.
(a) in electrical power production
India gets most of its Uranium from the
(b) for the propulsion of ships, submarines
Jadugura mines in Jharkhand. The Uranium
and air crafts.
obtained from these mines is taken to the

[88] General Science

Nuclear Fuel complex situated at The Nuclear radiations incident on the
Hyderabad for processing. At this complex, organisms cause the ionisation of atoms
the fuel elements are formed after enriching and molecules resulting in the
the Uranium. These processed fuel elements decomposition of the complex organic
are then supplied to different nuclear plants molecules in the body of the organisms.
as situated, at Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Consequently the normal functioning of
U.P., Tarapur in Maharastra and the biological system becomes disrupted.
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. The damaging effect of the nuclear
radiations would depend upon - (i) dose of
Nuclear Hazards radiations, (ii) rate of dose given, and (iii)
nature of the organism exposed.
The nuclear radiations cause pollution
at three stages: The dose of radioactive (nuclear)
(a) When nuclear fuel is mined, processed radiations is measured in a unit called
and enriched, it constantly emits nuclear Roentgen(R). The quantity of radiations
radiations. that produces 1.61x1012 pairs of ions in 1
gm of air is equal to one Roentgen(R). In
(b) Accident can be caused due to leakage practice, milliroentgen is used as the
of nuclear reactions from reactors. Some- exposure unit or dosage unit. The radiation
times the nuclear reactor core may get absorbed per second is called dose rate or
faults resulting in vast radiations. Such exposure rate or radiation absorbed dose.
accidents have already been occurred,
one in USA at Three Mill Island and The safe limit of exposure to radiation
other at Chernobyl in Ukraine. over the entire body is 250 milliroentgen
(mR) per week. This is known as Permissible
(c) Disposal of nuclear waste - It is a big dose. Cancer may be caused at a dose rate
problem and it can not be thrown any-
of 100R. Death of an organism is possible if
where. These waste materials contain
this dose exceeds 600R.
radioactive substance which radiate ra-
dioactive rays. At presently, the nuclear
II. Nuclear Fusion
waste is sealed in the thick stainless
steel vessels and is dumped deep into The phenomenon of combining two or
the earth. more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy
nucleus is called nuclear fusion. It results
Harmful effects of the nuclear in the release of tremendous amount of
radiations: energy. It requires very hight temperature
(a) They can change or damage the struc- (107K) & pressure which are not possible
ture of cells in the human body. on earth. Such conditions are available in
stars & hence, the nuclear fusion is a stellar
(b) They cause diseases like cancer, leuke-
phenomenon. It is the cause behind the
mia and blindness. stellar energy. In the biggest star i.e. sun,
(c) They cause genetic disorder in a hu- the nuclei of hydrogen fuse together to
man body. produce helium nucleus and a tremendous
amount of energy.
(d) They can cause sterility in the young
generation.

Physics [89]
 brought together in less than a
APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE
microsecond. It results in a violent explosion
ISOTOPES causing destruction because the combined

In discovery of new sub-nuclear par- mass becomes super critical. At the critical
ticles. mass of a radioactive sample, a controlled
chain reaction occurs.

In discovery of new radioactive and
non-radioactive isotopes of elements.
TRIVIA

In the radio-active and nuclear research.

In photoelectrical effect, the electron is

In agriculture- by using the tracer-tech-
assumed to be bound. That is, the en-
nique the fertilizer consumption of
ergy of the incident photon is of the
plants can be measured by the help of
order of the binding energy of the elec-
Geiger-Muller Counter (GM Counter).
G M Counter can detect the presence of tron.
a radioactive isotope and can measure
In Compton effect, the electron is as-
its activity. sumed to be free. That is, the energy of

In industry- The tracer technique can the incident photon is much larger than
be applied by using a radioactive iso- the binding energy of the electron.
tope to study the wear of auto mobile-
Einstein was awarded Nobel Prize for
engines. explaining the photoelectric effect.

In medical science- by using the radio-
Photoelectric effect was discovered by
active isotope of Iodine by the help of Hallwach.
tracer technique, the position of goitre
can be detected.
The kinetic energy of photelectrons var-
ies from zero to h (v – v0).

In carbon dating- It involes the deter-
mination of age of fossils by measuring
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in
the radioactive isotope of Carbon - 14. accordance with the law of conserva-
tion of energy.

In Radio dating - The age of old rocks
is determined by measuring the radio-
Cesium is the best photosensitive metal.
active materials e.g. Uranium present
The hardness of the X-rays depends on
in the rocks. the accelerating potential of the elec-
The last two applications given above trons incident on the target.
are based on the half-life period of C-14

Voltage applied across the X-ray tube is
and Uranium. The half-life of C-14 is
of the order of 10000 V.
approx. 5770 years.

The atomic number of the target deter-
ATOMIC BOMB mines the hardness of X-rays.

It involves uncontrolled nuclear chain
Mosley related the frequency of char-

reaction (fission). In an atom bomb two acteristic X-rays to the atomic number
subcritical masses of U-235 or Pu - 239 are of the target.

[90] General Science


Production of X-rays is an atomic phe-
Total energy of the orbital electron is
nomenon and the production of γ-rays negative.
is a nuclear phenomenon.
Lead is the heaviest atom which is ra-

Frequency of γ-rays is greater than that of dioactively stable.
X-rays.
All naturally occuring radioactive sub-

Efficiency of production fo X-rays is less stances are finally converted into lead.
than 1%.

For radioactive nuclei : .

The target in the X-ray tube should have
high atomic weight and high melting where n = number of neutrons and p =
point. number of protons.

Absorption coefficient of X-rays is high-
The quantisation of the enegy states of
est for lead. an atom was demonstrated by Frank

Hydrogen atom cannot emit X-rays. Hertz experiment. The experiment dem-
onstrated the existence of discrete en-

Compton effect is observed with X-rays ergy levels in the atom.
and γ-rays.

The binding energy of the electron in

Electron microscope works on the wave the ground state of hydrogen is called
nature of moving electrons. rydberg, 1 rydberg = 13.6 eV.

Wavelength of the matter waves does
The isotope 1H3 of hydrogen is unstable
not depend on the charge of the par- and decays to 2He3.
ticle.

Radium was isolated by Pierre Curie

Bohr’s theory is applicable to both the and Madma Curie.
hydrogen as well as hydrogen like at-
oms.
Out of electron, proton and neutron,
only neutron is unstable in free space.

Observation of faint spectral line very It decays into a proton and an electron.
near to blue line of hydrogen spectrum

When β-particle is emitted the parent
lead to the discovery of deutrium.
and daughter products are isobar.

As the quantum number increase the

Half life period of lead is infinite.
difference of energies between the con-
secutive energy levels decreases.
Artificial radioactivity was discovered
by Henry Becquerel.

In the Bohr model of the atom, an elec-
tron can revolve around the nucleus in
Natural radioactivity was discovered
a stable orbit without emitting radia- by Henry Becquerel.
tions of its orbit has whole number of
In free space, the neutron decays as :
de Broglie waves.

Iron, nickle, cobalt, etc. has ferromag-
netic properties due to partially filled
Probability of a radioactive atom to survive
inner subshells. n times longer than the half life is : 2–n.

Physics [91]

The radioactive decay rate is not af-
fected by temperature or pressure.

Critical mass of fissionable uranium –

The first nuclear transmutation was 235 can be reduced by surrounding it
achieved by Rutherford. with neutron reflecting substances.

In the nuclear reactions, mass + energy
The decay of artificial radioactive iso-
is conserved. topes is accompanied by positron de-
cay.

The decay constant as well as half life
period are independent of the age of
In the fission of 92U235 energy released is
the radioactive sample. 200 MeV.

The radioactive substances are stored
Enriched uranium is better fuel for the
in lead containers, because lead absorbs reactor because it has greater propor-
the radioactive radiations. tion of U-235.

The moderator of the nuclear reactor
The percentage of mass which changes
should slow the neutrons without ab- into energy during fusion is of the or-
sorbing them. der of 0.7%.

In the sun and stars, the energy is
In the fission of uranium, the percent-
released through natural fusion of age of mass converted into energy is
hydrogen into helium with carbon about 0.1%.
serving as nuclear catalyst.
Protons attract each other when they

To photograph the brain tumour, Hg 197 are separated by a distance of 10–14m.
radio isotope is generally used.
A neutron can be added to or taken out

The neutrino has no charge and negli- of the nucleus of an atom without
gible mass. changing its chemical properties.

Both photon and neutrino are chargeless
Nuclear fusion requires very high tem-
and have negligible mass. But the spin perature.
of photon is 1 and that of neutrino is
Energy released in nuclear fission mostly
. appears as kinetic energy of the fission
fragments.

U238 can be fissioned by fast neutrons
92
The mass of the sun is decreasing at the
and 92U235 is fissioned by slow neutrons. rate of 4 × 109 kg per second.

Nuclear fission was discovered by Hahn
Mass number of nuclei is either equal
and Strasman. or more than the atomic number.

Positron was discovered by Anderson.
First atomic bomb was designed by E.

Proton was discovered through artifical Teller.
disintegeration of nitrogen by ∝=par-
Man made element produced in the
ticles as follows : first nuclear reactor was plutonium.

[92] General Science


Plutonium - 239 is the best nuclear fuel.
Sound waves after being converted into
electrical waves are not transmitted as

First atomic reactor was designed by such because they are heavily absorbed
Enrico Fermi. by the atmosphere.

Artificial transmutation of elements was
For full wave rectifier, the minimum
discovered by Rutherford. number of diodes required is two.

Enriched uranium is that in which the
Both n as well as p type semiconduc-
percentage of U-235 is more than 0.7%. tors are neutral.

The fissionable material used in the
The output of rectifier is DC mixed with
atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki in AC.
1945 was Plutonium.
The resistance of intrinsic semiconduc-

Thermal neutrons have kinetic energy tor decreases with the increase in tem-
perature.
of the order of other gas molecules in
their surrounding.
Diode was discovered by Fleming.

The density of nucleus is of the order
The production of electromagnetic
of 1017 kg/m3. waves by an oscillating charge was pre-
dicted by Maxwell.

The thickness of pn junction is of the

Thermionic emission was discovered by
order of 10–6 cm.
Thomas Alva Edison.

Physics [93]
 ASTRONOMY

The branch of science which deals with SOLAR SYSTEM

the study of position, composition, motion
and other related facts of the heavenly The sun has its own family, known as
bodies, is called astronomy. The source of the Solar System. Solar system consists of
information about the heavenly bodies is the sun, its nine planets and other heavenly
electro magnetic waves radiated from bodies like asteroids, satellites (Moons),
them. It includes the two windows of the comets, meteors, etc.
astronomy viz. The sun is at the centre and all other
(i) Optical Window of Astronomy: It members of system move around it in
involves the study of the heavenly bodies elliptical orbits due to the gravitational force
through visible radiations by the help of of attraction between them.
optical telescope. Sun
(ii) Radio Window of Astronomy: It It is the nearest star to us. It is heaviest
involves the study of the heavenly bodies and largest member of the solar-system. Its
through radiowaves by the help of radio- mass is 1.98x 1030 kg and diameter is 1.392
telescope. x 10 9 m. It is about 109 times the diameter
of the earth. It rotates about its axis and
ASTRONOMICAL UNITS OF completes one rotation in 25 days. Our sun
DISTANCE is also called Yellow dwarf star. It emits
continuously the electromagnetic radiations
(i) Light Year (ly):- It is equal to the both in visible and in radiowaves regions.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in
The sun consists of a bright layer at the
one year. 1ly = 9.46 × 1015m centre called Photosphere that emits light.
(ii) Parsec (Parallactic Seconds):- The photosphere is surrounded by a hot-
gaseous layers called the chromosphere.
1 parsec = 3.1 × 1016m
The sun comprises different elements in
(iii)Astronomical unit (Au):- It is equal to
gaseous state. Hydrogen - 70%, Helium -
the distance between the earth and the
28%, other heavier elements Lithium to
sun.
Uranium - 2%. The temperature, density and
1A.U = 1.5 × 1011m pressure increase from the surface to the
centre of the sun. Temperature increases from
The universe is the limitless expanse of
6000K on the surface to 14x106 k at the
space around us consisting of the solar
centre and density increases from 10–4 kg/
system, stars, galaxies, etc.
m3 at the surface to 104 kg/m2 at the centre.
[94] General Science
 Source of solar energy is due to energy Planets
released during the nuclear fusion. It involves There are eight planets in the solar
the conversion of a certain mass into energy. system. These planets are revolving around
The sun has been continously radiating energy the sun in elliptical path. They do not emit
at the rate of 46x1026 Joules per second for their own light but reflect some of the
the last several billion years without getting incident light of the sun. These planets in
cooler. The light emitted from the sun reaches the order of increasing distance from the
the earth in 8.3 minutes. sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Solar Constant(S): The amount of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until
radiant energy received per second per unit recently Pluto was recognised as the ninth
area of a perfectly black body surface at planet. However, Neptune and Pluto keep
right angles to the direction of the sun-rays on exchanging their distance in their
at the mean distance of the earth from the elliptical orbits in such a way that
sun is known as the solar constant. sometimes Neptune is the farthest and
sometimes Pluto.
Solar constant = 1388 Watt/m2 = 2 cal/
(cm2 - minute). The mass of the earth is about 6x1024
kg. The planets Venus and Uranus rotate
Sun-Spots: Certain dark spots are
about their axis from the east to the west
observed in the photographs of the visible
whereas all the other planets rotate from
light disc of the sun. These dark-spots are
the west to the east. Venus and Uranus are
called sun-spots. They have relatively lower
called retrograde.
temperature (4500K) at the sun- surface.
Their numbers vary with time. The (1) Mercury: It is the hottest, the
maximum sun spots activity occur smallest and the nearest to the sun amongst
regularly after every eleven years. This all planets. It is seen just before the sun
period is known as the sun-spot cycle. The rise, and after the sun-set. Its atmosphere
sun-spots are also associated with high contains H, He, Ar and Ne-gases. The
magnetic fields (2000 to 3000 gause). temperature of its sun-facing side is 427° C
and the opposite dark side is at -270° C. It
Solar Flares: At the time of the
does not have favourable temperature,
maximum sun-spot activity, some portions
oxygen and water for the existence of life.
near the sunspots sometimes suddenly
become much brighter than the usual. Such Because it reflects 76% of the sunlight
regions are called Solar Flares. These sun- falling on it. Its atmosphere contains 95 to
flares emit protons, electrons and α- 97% CO2 and small quantities of N2, Ar,
particles. It results a lot of magnetic and SO2, CO & water vapour. Its temperature
radio disturbances all over the earth. It is 480°C and pressure is very high. Hence,
also affects the plant growth. life is not possible on it. It is seen 3 hrs
before the sun-rise and 3 hrs after the
Solar Wind: The out flow of materials
sunset. Hence, it is known as Morning/
as charged particles e.g. electrons and
Evening star.
protons, etc. from the sun is called as solar
wind. It results in emission of one million (3) Earth: It is one of the unique planets
tonne particles per second from the sun. having life. Its atmosphere contains 78% of

Physics [95]
N2, 21% of O2 and traces of He, Ne, Kr, (6) Saturn: It is the second largest planet.
CO2 and water vapour. 71% surface of its It consists of H2 and He with traces of NH3
is covered with water. Moon is its natural and methane (CH4). It is recognised by a
satellite. system of revolving rings around it. The
rings have dust particles and ice. Its
(4) Mars: Its very thin layer of
temperature is about (-) 180°C. The largest
atmosphere contains 95% CO2, 2.7% N2,
satellite is Titan (diameter = 5800 km).
1.6% Ar and traces of O2, CO and other
gases. Its surface has craters of different (7) Uranus: It is made up of H2, He,
sizes. It is also known as “Red - Planet” NH3 and CH4. It appears green due to the
because it appears red owing to the present large amount of CH4 and NH3 clouds in its
of iron- oxide upto 16% of its soil. Its day- atmosphere. Its temperature is about (-)
temperature ranges from 21°C to 27°C but 127°C.
at night it becomes (-) 84°C. Phobos
(8) Neptune: It is the 8th planet of the
(diameter =27 km) and Deimos (diameter
sun. It has six satellites.
= 14 km) are its two satellites.
Its surface has frozen methane (CH4). Its
(5) Jupiter: It is the largest planet. It is a
orbit crosses the orbit of Neptune. Its single
spinning ball of gases and liquids like
discovered satellite is Charon. It was treated
ammonia, hydrogen (NH3,H2) and helium
as the coldest and lightest planet of the sun.
He with no solid surface. Its temparature is
about (-) 140°C. No life is possible on it due Moon: It is the natural satellite of the
to ammonia clouds and intense emission of earth. Its period of revolution around the
radio wave on it. earth as well as the period of rotation about
Solar System : Profile
S.N. Name of Radius Mean Mass Time Time Period Number
Planets (in thousand) distance compared period around of
km) from the to earth of revolution own axis satellites
(sum in (around (of rotation)
m. km) the sun)

1. Mercury 2.4 57.9 0.055 88 days 59 days 0

(Buddha)
2. Venus (Shukra) 6.1 108.2 0.815 225 days 243 days 0
3. Earth (Prithvi) 6.3 149.6 1 1 year 23 hrs. 56 min 1
4. Mars (Mangal) 3.4 227.9 0.108 1.9 year 24 hrs.27 min 2
5. Jupiter (Brihaspati) 71.4 778.3 317.9 11.8 years 9 hrs. 50 min. 16
6. Saturn (Shani) 60 1427 95.2 29.5 years 10 hrs. 14 min. 22 + Ring
7. Uranus (Indra) 23.4 2870 14.6 85 years 10 hrs. 49 min. 12 + ring
8. Neptune (Varuna) 22.3 4594 17.2 165 years 15 hrs. 6
9. Pluto (Yama)* 3.2 5900 0.002 248 years 6.39 days 1
The mass of the earth is about 6 × 1024 kg.
The planets Venus & Uranus rotate about their axis from the east to the west whereas all other planets rotate from the
west to the east. Venus & Uranus are called retrograde. * Now demoted

[96] General Science

its own axis is 27.33 days. So the same face passes close to the sun it has a bright head
is pointed towards the earth. Its diameter and a long tail. Near the sun, some of the
is 3476 km and the distance from the earth materials of the comet gets evaporated due
is 3.54x105 km. Its mass is 0.0123 times the to solar heat. The light of the sun exerts a
mass of the earth. Its surface is rocky and pressure on these vapours and forces them
rough. There are deep depressions or holes away from the comet in the form of tail.
and high mountains on the surface of the When a comet is far away from the sun, it
moon. It does not have atmosphere and shows no tail. A comet appears after regular
water. Its gravitational pull is 1/6th that intervals of time in the sky e.g. Halley’s
on the earth. Latest measurements showed comet has a time period of 76 years. It was
that the maximum temperature on the last seen in 1986 and is expected to be seen
moon at day is 117°C and minimum again in 2062.
temperature at the night is - 171°C. Moon
Meteors: They are smaller pieces of
does not emit light by itself. It simply reflects
stones and metals which are produced due
light of the sun falling on it. The reflected
to breaking of comets while approaching
light on the Moon reaches the earth in the sun. When they enter the earth’s
1.28 seconds. Due to its rotation around atmosphere, they burn due to friction of
the earth, it looks different depending on the atmosphere and burn completely before
its position with respect to the sun and the they fall on the earth’s surface. They appear
earth. The age of the moon is the same as bright due to burning. Hence, they are
that of the earth i.e. about 4 billion years. called Fire balls or shooting stars.
Asteroids: The groups of small solid Meteorites: They are unburnt meteors
objects made of rocks and minerals which reaching to the earth’s surface. They
move in the gap between the orbits of Mars produce craters on the earth’s surface.
and Jupiter are called Asteroids. They are
also known as Minor-planets. They are Terrestrial Planets: They are closer to
more than 5x105 in number. They move the Sun e.g. Mercury, Venus, Earth and
around the sun in the form of rings. They Mars.
are about 320 to 490 million km away the Giant or Jovian or Superior Planets:
sun. Their orbits are highly elliptical which They are far away from the Sun e.g. Jupiter,
enable them to approach the Earth, Venus Saturn, Uranus, Neptune & Pluto.
and Mercury after regular intervals of time.
Albedo: The ratio of the sun’s energy
Their size varies from 50 m to 350 km in
reflected by a planet to that incident on it is
radius. They are believed to be the pieces of
called as albedo. It is also known as the
a much larger planet which broke up due
reflecting power of a planet. The clouds
to the gravitational pull of Jupiter. Ceres is
and atmosphere are good reflectors of light.
the largest known asteroid. Their
Higher the value of albedo of a planet,
composition is similar to that of Moon.
more is the possibility of atmosphere on
Comets: Comet is a heavenly body the planet. e.g. For Venus, albedo = 0.85 &
which is made of gases, ice and dust for Mercury, albedo =0.06 & for Moon,
particles and moves around the Sun in a albedo = 0.07. Hence, Venus has denser
long spindle shaped orbit. When a comet clouds and atmosphere but Mercury and

Physics [97]
Moon do not have any clouds and star (Sun), then the remaining mass (H2,
atmosphere. He & dust) formed disc shaped clouds
around the sun. These clouds were at very
Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet:
low temperature vis-a-vis the sun and hence
The possibility of existence of atmosphere
contracted due to gravitational pull and
on a planet depends upon the escape
condensed to form a small chunk of matter
velocity of that planet. Higher the value of
known as planetesimal. There were larger
escape velocity, more is the possibility of
number of planetesimals around the sun,
atmosphere on the planet. The escape
which attracted each other to form biger
velocity depends upon the acceleration due
chunks of matters. These big chunks of
to gravity (g) and temperature of the planet.
matters continued to grow by attracting
If the value of ‘g’ is more, the escape velocity
smaller pieces of matters by gravitational
is more. If the temperature of the planet is
pull. The matter was scattered in space in
high, the average velocity of the gas
all directions. They gave rise to planets and
molecules may achieve the escape velocity
satellites. The matters which could not
and consequently, the gas molecules escape
participate in formation of planets and
out from the surface of the planet.
natural satellites collided with these formed
Thus, to have atmosphere on a planet, planets and satellites. It led to form deep
the planet must have lower surface craters on the surface of planets and
temperature, higher value of ‘g’ and higher satellites. These craters are visible on the
escape velocity. surface of moon and Mars.
Evolution of Earth : The Earth was
FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM formed by the collection of large number of
Formation of Sun: The Sun was formed cold planetesimals. These planetesimals
about 5 billion years ago. The clouds of H2, came from two regions (i) from the inner
He and dust formed Nebulae. At the planets like Mercury and Venus and they
beginning, these clouds were at very low were rich in iron, silicon, magnesium and
temperature. These clouds collapsed slowly traces of other elements (ii) from the outer
due to their mutual gravitational force of planets like Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus and
attraction to form a Protostar. As these they were rich in H2, CO2, CH4 and water.
clouds collapsed, the atoms of H2 and He A larger amount of heat was produced when
collided with each other and hence, these cold planetesimals collided with each
temperature accelerated. At a very high other. Heat was also produced due to (i) the
temperature, the atoms of H2 ionised into contraction of planetesimals under the force
ions which further fused together to form of their gravitational pull (ii) the
He- nuclei along with the release of disintegration of some radioactive elements
tremendous energy. Thus, sun was formed. like uranium and thorium. Hence, due to
At present, the sun is a middle aged star large amount of heat the initial earth was in
and is expected to live for another 5 - billion a molten state. The melted earth then began
years. to reorganise itself under the gravitational
pull as follows :
Formation of Planets & Satellites :
When a protostar was converted into a
The heaviest materials like iron & nickel

[98] General Science

 sank towards the centre of the earth Hence, pole star appears stationary to the
which formed the core of the earth. people on the earth.

The lightest materials began to float on Evolution of a Star : The vast space
the surface and formed the crust of the between the stars is filled with dust
primitive earth. particles and gases like H2 and He. This
material is called Interstellar matter, from

The intermediate dense materials ar-
which a star is formed. The interstellar
ranged itself in between the core and
the crust of the earth and formed the matters are in the form of clouds. When
mantle of earth. the clouds of gas-particles are illuminated
by nearby stars, the clouds appear as bright
The process of reorganisation of molten nebulae whereas the clouds rich in dust
matter of the primitive earth into various appear as dark nebulae because they absorb
layers of different densities is called the radiation of the stars. The process of
differentiation. At the time of the formation of star begins only if the
differentration, the water vapours and the original clouds have a mass of at least 1000
gases in the various minerals were released. solar mass.
Later on, these water vapours were
condensed to give rain. The rain water Formation of Protostar (First Stage) :
filled the craters on the earth and thus, Initially, the interstellar matter is at very
oceans were formed. The various gases low temperature (–173°C). Due to the
released formed the atmosphere of the gravitational attraction the interstellar
earth. The changes occuring on the earth matter contracts and is compressed to such
were fast in the begining now they are an extent that a huge ball of gases is formed.
slowing down. At present, these changes This gaseous ball is known as a protostar.
are responsible for the occurence of A protostar contains highly condensed
earthquakes, eruption of volcanoes and gases mainly H 2 & He. A cloud of
making and raising of mountain ranges. intersteller matter takes about 105 years to
become a protostar. Protostar does not emit
STARS light and heat.
Formation of a Star from Protostar
A star is a luminous heavenly body (Second Stage) : In the protostar the gas
emitting its own heat and light molecules collide with each other.
continuously. Stars twinkle because of Gradually these collisions become fast and
refraction of light through different layers numerous due to continuous increase in
of the atmosphere. Stars appear to move the contraction inside the protostar. It gives
from east to west because our earth rotates rise to a temperature of 10 7°C that is
about its own axis from the west to east, enough to begin nuclear fusion. These
otherwise stars are stationary with respect nuclear fusions result in huge amounts of
to the earth. The pole star (Dhruv Tara) heat and radiations. Consequently, a
lies above the earths north pole i.e. on the protostar is converted into a star. This
axis of rotation of the earth. The points on process is very slow and takes about 105
the axis of rotation of the earth appear years. Thus, a huge interstellar matter in
stationary to the observer on the earth. the form of clouds of gases and dust, is first

Physics [99]
converted into a cluster of protostars and known as giant, super gaint or red-giant.
then into a cluster of stars i.e. a galaxy. This stage lasts for several million years
Inspite of a large attractive force of and at the end, the rate of production of
gravitation inside the star, it does not energy becomes so high that it explodes in
collapse because there is a high temperature the form of a Nova or Super Nova, throwing
that provides a high-pressure to counter out the major outer mass into interstellar
balance the attractive force. This balance space. This is the death of a star. Depending
continues for billions of years. upon the mass of left core of a star the
following heavenly bodies are formed:
Formation of Red-giant (Third Stage) :
Due to continuous nuclear fusion of (a) White Dwarf : If the original mass
hydrogen nuclei to form He-nuclei, the of a star is less than two times the mass of
number of H-atoms decrease. It results in the sun, the gravitational compression
the decrease in pressure in the core of a leaves the core of the star, composed of
star. Hence, the inward force of attraction protons with electrons flying around in the
increases in the core and the core contracts form of electron clouds. When this electron-
rapidly but the outer layer expands cloud with stands the inward gravitational
outward. Thus the volume of a star becomes force, then a stable equilibrium is achieved.
very large. The outer layer gradually cools At this stage, the star is called a white
and appears red. This stage of a star is dwarf. It gradually cools finally ceasing to
Theories of Origin and Evolution of the Universe
The Big Bang Theory : This theory was proposed by Le Maitre and Gammow. According to this theory,
at the beginning of the universe, the entire matter of the universe was once concentrated in an ex-
tremely dense and hot (1012k) fire ball. Then about 20 billion years ago a vast explosion (big-bang)
occurred. The matter was broken into pieces which were thrown out with high speed in all directions
forming stars and galaxies; which are still moving away from one another. The Hubble’s law agrees
with this theory.
Steady State Theory : It was given by Bondi, Gold and Fred Hoyle. According to this theory, the no.
of galaxies is constant and new galaxies are continously created to occupy the position of those gal-
axies which have the crossed the boundary of the universe. Thus, the size and mass of the universe
are constant.
Pulsating Theory : According to this theory the expansion and contraction of the universe occur alter-
nately i.e. the universe is pulsating. At present, the universe is expanding and after a certain amount of
expansion, it will begin contraction due to the gravitational pull. The alternate expansion and contrac-
tion of the universe gives rise to a pulsating universe.

emit radiations. Then it becomes a black- to form neutrons. Hence, the core contains
dwarf. The most famous white dwarf is neutrons only. It gives the birth of a neutron
Sirius-B close to the brightest star Sirius. star.
(b) Neutron Stars : If the original mass (c) Black Hole : If the original mass of a
of a star is between 2 to 5 times the mass of star is more than 5 times the mass of the
the sun, the recoil of supernova explosion sun, the recoil of supernova is extremely
is set up in the core. Now, the electrons are violent. Hence, the core collapses to have
forced into the nuclei and the result is an object which has a very high density
combination between electrons and protons and gravity. As a result any radiation or

[100] General Science

material particle that enters this object of milk flowing across the sky. In the front
never comes out. This object is called a view it appears spiral. From the side view,
Black Hole. As the black hole is invisible, so it hasa thick central part (Nucleus) which
what is happening inside it and what had gradually becomes thin towards the edge.
happened to the matter of the core of the Its diameter is about 105 light years. The
star is unknown. The recent experiments sun is at 3×104 light years away it centre.
have shown that one of the components of The sun completes one revolution around
Cygnus XI is a black hole. the galactic centre in 220 millions years
with a speed of 250 km/second.
GALAXY Pulsars : They are neutron stars which
A Galaxy consists of very large group emit radio signals at extremely regular
of stars, their families (i.e. planets etc.), intervals of time. Their pulsating radio
dust and gases held together by the signals are due to their high rotation and a
attractive force of gravitation. A galaxy is very large magnetic field.
a building block of the universe. Total
galaxies are about 100 billions and each CONSTELLATION (NAKSHATRAS)
galaxy has about 100 billion stars. Thus,
A constellation is a collection or group
there are about 1022 stars in the universe.
of a few stars. It forms a pattern which
Our solar system belongs to the galaxy
resembles the shape of an animal, object or
known as Milky Way galaxy (Akash
a human being. There are 88 known
Ganga). Another known galaxy is
constellations. They are visible in a definite
Andromeda which is about 2.2 million light
part of the sky.
years away from us.
Some of the important constellations
Types of Galaxies :
are :
(i) Normal Galaxies : They emit
(i) Ursa Major or Big Bear (Saptarishi)
comparatively small amounts of radio
: The word Ursa has been derived from the
radiation vis-a-vis the total radiations
Latin word Ursus which means a bear.
emitted. They are bright from the centre
Ursa is the feminine of Ursus. Ursa major
and gradually get dim towards the edges.
consists of seven bright stars. The shape of
Milky Way and Andromeda are normal
the pattern of these stars resembles the of a
galaxies. Depending upon their
great bear. This constellation is seen clearly
appearance, the normal galaxies can be
in the summer season from April to
eliptical, spiral or irregular.
September, in the northern part of the sky.
(ii) Radio Galaxies : They emit million
(ii) Ursa Minor (Little Bear) or Dhruva
times more radio waves than normal
Matysa : It consists of seven stars which
galaxies. They contain stars called Quasars
are closer to each other and less bright
which are known as quasi-stellar-radio-
than the star in Ursa Major. It’s most
sources.
important star is at its tail. This star is
Milky Way Galaxy : It is so called known as Polestar (Dhruv Tara) which is
because the light from the various stars nearer to the North Pole. The pole star
together gives the impression of a stream helps in determining the direction of sailors
Physics [101]
and travellers. The Indian name of this
constellation is Dhruva Matysa or Laghu RED-SHIFT OF GALAXIES
Saptarishi. This constellation can be seen
It is explained on the basis of the
clearly in July in the northern part of the sky.
Doppler-effect. When the source of wave
(3) Scorpio or Vrischika : It consists of moves away the observer, the apparent
seven stars whose arrangement resembles wave-length increases or the apparent
a scorpio. It can be seen clearly from frequency decrease. This is known as Red-
February to August in the Southern part of shift because the region of spectra has large
the sky. wavelength and smaller frequency. The
(4) Orion, The Hunter (Vyadha or study of the spectral pattern of the galaxies
Mirga) : Its shape is like that a hunter. The shows a red-shift. It means that most of the
two stars at the top row makes the right and galaxies are moving away from each other
left shoulder of the hunter. Three stars in the with enormous speed and the universe is
middle row form his belt and the two stars in continuously expanding.
the bottom row form his feet. The faint stars Hubble’s Law : Hubble and Milton
below the belt are arranged in the shape of a studied the red-shift of various gallaxies
sword of the hunter. This constellation can and put forth the law. The Hubbles law
be seen clearly from October to April in the states that the recession velocity of a galaxy
southern part of the sky. is proportional to it distance from us i.e.
(5) Cassiopeia (Sarmistha) : It consists
of five dominated stars. The pattern of the
stars is like the letter W. This is clearly seen Where V= recession velocity of a galaxy.
in October in the Northern part of the sky.
r = the distance of the galaxy from us
(6) Pleides (Krutika) : It does not have and H = Hubble’s constant = 16 km per
a specific pattern of stars. It is just like a second per million light years. It means
cluster of twinkling gems. The cluster of that any galaxy which at a given moment
stars in this constellation are called globular is situated, one million light years from us,
clusters. This is visible from October to is receding away at a rate of 16 km/sec.
January in the northern part of the sky.

[102] General Science

 COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM

The system of electronic communication signals). (ii) Frequency Modulation: It

involves the faithful transfer of messages results into frequency modulated wave
in the form of electrical signal from one (FM-wave singals). (iii) Phase modulation:
point to another point. Basic components It results into phase into modulated signal.
of a communication system include AM wave signals are mainly used for
Transmitter, Transmission Channel & commercial broadcast of voice-signals. They
Receiver. The information message is first can be noisy because atmospheric
converted into electrical signal by a device phenomena like lightning or man made
called Transducer. This electrical signal is electrical signals affect this. AM-wave carrier
then transmitted by transmitter. An frequency ranges from approx. 0.5 to 2 MHz.
electronic signal in the Audio frequency
FM-signals are noise free and of better
range cannot be transmitted over a long
quality. They have large bandwidth and
distance because of lower value of audio
are preferred for transmission of music.
frequency range. Hence, low frequency
FM signals include—(i) FM radio (88 to
signals are loaded on a high frequency
108 MHz), (ii) Very High Frequency (VHF)
carrier signal by a process known as
TV (47 to 230 MHz) & (iii) Ultra High
Modulation. It involves translating the
Frequency (UHF) TV (470 to 960 MHz).
original low-frequency information signals
into high frequency wave before
transmission such that the translated signal MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF
continues to possess the information COMMUNICATION
contained in the original signal. In
Analog Communication : In analog
Modulation, some characteristics of the
communication, the modulating signal
carrier signal (e.g. amplitude, frequency or
which modulates the carrier signals for
phase) varies in accordance with the
transmission is continuous or representative
message signal. The message signal is called
of the original information to be
Modulating signal which is loaded onto
transmitted.
the high frequency carrier signal to produce
the Modulated wave signal. A modulated Digital Communication : In digital
signal has high frequency and a large band- communication, the original information
width. Hence, it can be transmitted over a signal is first converted into discontinuous
long distance without much loss in energy. amplitude levels & then coded into a
corresponding sequence of Binary symbol
There are three types of Modulation 0 & 1. This coded information signal is
viz. (i) Amplitude Modulation : It results then modulated by a suitable modulation
into amplitude modulated wave (AM-wave method before the transmission.

Physics [103]
 The digital communication involves the acts as a modulator & modem-I acts as a
quantization of the digitial data (0 and 1) demodulator.
by the help of a device called quantizer.
Modems that support a voice/data
Hence, it becomes relatively more error-
switch have an inbuilt microphone and
free and noise-free. It makes the digitial
speaker for voice communication. In voice
communication more reliable than the
mode, the modem acts as a regular
analog-communication.
telephone while in data mode, the modem
acts as a regular modem.
DEMODULATION
The rate at which a modem can transmit
It is the reverse processs of modulation and receive data (message) is measured as
that is carried out in a receiver to record Bits per second (bps). Higher data transfer
the original information signal. rate can be achieved by data compression
In an electronic communication system, which is performed by some specific modems.
the transmitter modulates the information The digital communications, computer
signals and transmits them by an antenna & modem use a binary number system to
via transmission channels. The receiver deal with digital signals (data). Binary
receives the modulated transmission signals system involves two volues as 1 and 0 only.
and demodulates them to recover the 0 ® refers, open-circuit or No or space.
original information signals. A transmitter
1 ® refers to close circuit or yes or
performs data transmission and a receiver
mark.
performs data retrieval. In electronic
communication, data to be transmitted Both 0 and 1 are called Bits. A group of
means information signals. bits is called a Byte or a binary word. A byte
of two bits (0 & 1) can give a four code-
MODEM combination : 00, 01, 10, & 11. Hence in
general, the no. of codes is given as N = 2n.
It connects one computer to another
When N = total no. of code-
across ordinary telephone lines. It can
combinations
function as modulator as well as
Demodulator and hence, its name is n = the no. of bits in a byte.
Modem (Mo ® Modulation and dem ®
demodulation). In the transmitting mode, FAX
it acts as a modulator while in the receiver- (FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION)
mode, it acts as a demodulator.
Facsimile means exact reproduction.
Fax transmission usually concerns the
electronic reproduction of a document
(printed words, graphs or photographs) at
When the information data are supplied a distant place through telephone lines.
from computer-I to computer-II, modem-I At the transmitting end, a fax machine
acts as a modulator and modem-II acts as digitizes the printed matter on paper and
a demodulator. When data are supplied transmits the corresponding data over the
from computer II to computer-I, Modem-II
[104] General Science
telephone lines. At the receiving end, a fax after being reflected back from the
machine receives digital image-information and ionosphere. It is also known as short wave
reconstructs the received image on the paper. (SW) band in the radio transmission.
This is also known as Facsimile Telegraphy.
(iii) Space or Tropospheric Wave
Communication : It involves the transmission
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
of FM-Radio-signals, TV signals and
The communication channel is the Microwave signals in the range of VHF &
physical medium between a transmitting UHF. These signals cannot be transmitted by
and a receiving stations through which the using ionosphere because the ionsosphere
transmitted signals may propagate. can reflect the frequency upto 40MHz only.
Hence, these signals are transmitted from
Types-(i) Space Communication
the transmitting antenna to the receiving
channel including satellite communication
antenna directly. Its range depends upon
and (ii) line communication channels. the height of the transmitting antenna. Its
Space Communication : It involves the range can be increased (a) by using a no. of
transmission of the message signals freely antennas called Repeaters in between the
in space by a transmitting antenna and transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
receiving the signals by intercepting them (b) by increasing the height of the transmitting
with the help of receiving sets or antennas antenna. This height can be maximised by
at the other end. locating the transmitter on a satellite.
The space communication channel
involves: SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
(i) Ground wave communication (ii) Sky It involves those frequency signals
wave communication (iii) Space or which can pass through the ionosphere
Tropospheric or surface wave without being reflected by the ionosphere.
communication. The satellite carries an equipment called
Radio-Transponder. The function of the
(i) Ground Wave Communication : It
transponder includes reception, storage,
is the transmission of the signals between
amplification and transmission of the
the transmitting and receiving antennas
information signals.
close to the earth. It is not suited for very
long range communication becausee it The communication satellite is usually
involves the loss of energy to the earth a geo-stationary satellite that appears fixed
during the propagation of the wave. It is at a position above the earth. Its time-period
used for between radio broadcasting at of revolution is 24 hrs, height 36000 kms
low frequencies ranging from 500 Khz to and direction of revolution from west to
1500 Khz. The ground of the wave includes east similar to that of the earth. It is
the medium wave (MW) band. revolving in a circular orbit called Geo-
synchronous orbit that is coplanar with
(ii) Sky Wave Communication : In sky
the equatorial plane of the earth.
wave propagation, the wave signals are
first transmitted to the ionosphere and then Owing to the curvature of the earth a
is received by receiving sets on the earth single satellite cannot cover the entire earth.

Physics [105]
For global comunication, three satellites are
For ground water surveys.
parked 120° apart from each other in the

In the field of spying, to lcoate the
geo-stationary orbit.
position and movements of the enemy.
Remote-Sensing : It is a technique
which is used to observe and measure the T.V. REMOTE CONTROL
characteristics of the object or phenomenon
at a distance without being in physical The Remote Control used in TV and
contact with it. Its working is related with music system is an electronic device. It
the measurement of some kind of signals consists of an integrated circuit (I.C.) and
emitted, transmitted or reflected from an other components like a diode, a transistor,
object in order to determine certain physical a capacitor, etc. When a key on the remote
properties of the object, like its temperature is pressed, it translates it into infrared
location, size, colour nature, etc. The remote signals which are received by the electronic
sensing uses, electromagnetic techniques circuit of the TV and required operations
that covers the entire electromagnetic are performed.
spectrum. Any photography is a kind of Line Communication : In order to
remote sensing. RADAR, SONAR, Satellite interconnect (i) a transmitter to an antenna,
with sensors, etc. are other examples of (ii) a transmitter to a receiver (iii) a receiver
remote sensing. to an antenna some specific wires are
Satellite remote sensing systems provide required. These wires are known as
the data critical to weather-prediction, transmission-lines. Some of them are as
agriculture forecasting, resource follows:
exploration (archaeology, geological survey,
(i) Parallel Wire Lines : They are
forestry, etc.) and environmental
commonly used to connect an antenna with
monitoring.
the T.V.
Uses of Remote Sensing :
(ii) Twisted Pair Wire Lines : They are

To know the area of earth’s surface used as telephone lines.
covered by forests, types of plants and
(iii) Coaxial Wire Lines : They are used
density of forest at a particular loca-
by T.V. cable operators.
tion.
(iv) Optical Fibre Lines : They are used

To prepare waste land maps.
in optical communication.

To locate the potential fishing zones.
The efficiency of the transmission line

To locate the debris of a crashed increases from the parallel wire lines to the
aeroplane or jet plane. optical fibre lines. The optical fibre line is

To identify the extent of pollution and the best because it has maximum efficiency
its source. and minimum loss in energy.

To estimate the damage being done by Coaxial cable system is better than
the floods. parallel twisted pair wire-lines because of
greater available band-width, lower energy

To locate the place where underground losses and much lower cross-walk.
nuclear explosion has been carried out.

[106] General Science


Military : As a powerful war weapon.
In the cable system, the deviation in
frequency & phase response of the signals
Weather Forecasting : A laser based
passing through a cable are set by using a RADAR called Lidar is used for weather
device called equalizer. forecasting.
A telephone link can be established Reading bar codes, manufacturing and
using ground waves, sky-waves, reading compact discs, cutting cloth in gar-
microwave, co-axial cables and latest, the ment industry etc. are also some of the uses
optical fibre cables. The microwave link is of lasers.
more noisy than the coaxial link. The optical
fibre link are free from noise & energy MICROWAVE DEVICE
losses.
(1) Radar (Radio Detetection &
LASER Ranging) : RADAR system detects the
objects like aeroplanes and ships. Its
(Light Amplification by stimulated antenna transmits microwave (frequency
emission of radiation): Laser is a process greater than 1000 MHz) signals which are
by which a coherent, hightly intense mono reflected from the object. Knowing the time
chromatic and almost perfectly parallel interval between the transmission and
beam of light is obtained. The term ‘Laser’ reception of the signals, the distance of the
is also used for the beam of light obtained object is measured.
this way.
(2) Microwave Oven : It bakes food
Use of Lasers : Lasers are used in : using microwaves. These microwaves are
produced in the oven at a high frequency

Microsurgery : For delicate organs e.g.
of about 2450 MHz by means of a
retina, cervical tumours, tissues, etc.
Magnetron. Since the metals block the

Engineering : Tiny welds are made with microwaves, hence, most microwave ovens
precision using powerful laser beams. are made of glass. Microwaves produced

Industry : To drill holes in diamonds are directly absorbed by the food-material
and hard steel. without heating the surroundings. The
molecules of food content vibrate on

Communication : In optical communi- absorbing the microwaves that causes heat.
cation. The energy is used by the food only and

Holography : In three dimensional pho- hence, it takes a small interval of time to
tography without lenses. cook the food.

Physics [107]
 ELECTRO
MAGNETISM

electron or a proton. Electric charge is

ELECTROSTATICS always conserved when some electrons are
Electrostatics deals with the study of transferred from one body to the other, the
electric charges at rest. Electric charges at body giving electrons becomes slightly
rest are produced either by friction between lighter and the body gaining electrons
two insulating bodies which are rubbed becomes slightly heavier.
against each other or by electrical induction
between a charged body and an earthed COULOMB’S LAW
uncharged body.
The electric forces between the two
When two insulating bodies are rubbed point charges is directly poportional to the
against each other, electrons are transferred product of the charges and inversely
from one body to the other. Electrons are proportional to the square of distance
negatively charged particles. Hence, the between the charges. The electric force may
body giving electrons becomes positively be attractive or repulsive depending upon
charged while the body gaining electrons the nature of the two charges. The
becomes negatively charged. Electric coulombic force (electric-force) is much
charges are of two types only viz. positive stronger than the force of gravitation. An
and negative. Like charges repel and unlike uncharged body can be charged by placing
charges attract each other. it near a positively charged body without
actual physical contact between them (by
Bodies gaining two kinds of charges on
induction). The positive charge present on
rubbing
the charged body attracts electrons present
Positive Charge Negative Charge inside the atoms at the surface of the

Glass Rod
Silk Cloth
uncharged body. Hence, a few electrons

Fur or woollen cloth
Rubber rod, Ebonite
come out at the surface resulting in a
and Amber.
negative charge at the surface and an equal

Woollen Carpet
Rubber Shoe
positive charge appears on its opposite face.

Nylon or Acetate
Cloth
Thus it gets polarised because it has equal

Dry hair
Comb
and opposite charges at the two opposite

Woollen Coat
Plastic Seat.
surfaces. If this body is earthed, the positive
The minimum amount of charge that charge disappears and the body becomes
can be transferred from one body to the negatively charged. The uncharged body
other is the charge on an electron (–1.6 × has now a net negative charge. The
10–19c). Hence the total charge on a charged uncharged body can acquire a net positive
body is equal to the sum of products of no. charge too provided the charged body
of electrons transferred and charge on an placed near it was negatively charged.

[108] General Science

 When a charged glass rod is brought used to store electric charge is known as
near a piece of paper, it attracts the paper capacitor.
because of force of attraction between the Van de graaff Generator : It produces
charge on rod and induced charge which highly energised positively charged
has appeared on the paper. particles or ions by producing very high
electric voltage. It is used in scientific or
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING OR industrial works.
ELECTROSTATIC SCREENING Atmospheric Electricity : Earth is a
Protecting a certain region of space good conductor of electricity. Its electric
from external electric fields is known as potential is ‘0’ Volt everywhere at the
electrostatic shielding. earth’s surface. When a positively charged
body comes in contact with the earth,
A hollow conductor stores charge only electrons flow from earth to the body
at its surface. Hence, electric field remains whereas when a negatively charged body
outside only, and inside the hollow electric comes in contact with earth, electrons flow
field is zero. Such a space having zero from the body to the earth. Lower
electric field is known as Faraday’s Cage. atmosphere is a poor conductor of electricity
Therefore, to protect delicate instruments but its conductivity increases with increase
from external electric fields, they are kept in height. Ionosphere is a very good
inside a hollow conductor. In a thundersto- conductor. This is primarily due to
rm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to ionization of particles of air by cosmic ray
be inside a car or a bus than to be in the particles having energies to the order of
open ground or under a tree. The metallic 1014 MeV.
body of a bus or car provides electrostatic
shielding from the lightning. Thunderstorms & Lightning Flashes :
In every thunderstorm, the positive and
If electric charge is supplied continously negative ions produced are separated in
to a conductor having certain pointed ends, the cloud. The positive ions are at about 6
the electric charge is sprayed out through km and the negative ions are at about 2-3
the pointed ends. A conductor with pointed km above the earth’s surface. It results in a
ends is a good receiver of charge also. A very high potential difference (107 to 108v)
lightning conductor placed at the top of a between the lower negatively charged level
building has a number of sharp spikes at of cloud and the earth’s surface. It causes
its two ends. Upper end is free in air to the electric breakdown of air. Consequently
catch electric charge produced due to the intervening air gets ionised and
lightning and the lower end sprays charge conducts charge from the cloud to the earth
into the ground. Thus it provides a safety in the form of a lightning flash. Each flash
to the building. lasts for 2×10–3 seconds and desposits about
Electroscope : The device is used to 20 coulomb charge on earth. All the world
detect the presence of electric charge and over, there occur about 40000
type of charge on a body. Its most common thunderstorms per day.
type is gold leaves electroscope. It can
In recent years, many important
measure potential-difference as well.
industrial applications of electrostatics have
Capacitor or Condenser : A device been developed. Some of them are:
Physics [109]
(1) In prevention of pollution of atmosphere (2) In designing electrostatic generators like
by electrostatic precipitation of fly ash. Van de Graaff generator.

Metallic Conduction and Electrolytic Conduction

Metallic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction
1. The flow of current through a metallic The flow of current through electrolyte is called
conductor is known as metallic conduction. electrolytic conduction.
2. Metallic conduction is due to the movement Electrolytic conduction is due to the movement
of electrons in the metallic conductor. of positive and negative ions in the electrolyte.
3. The chemical properties of the metallic conductors The chemical properties of the electrolyte
do not change due to metallic conduction. change due to electrolytic conduction.
4. The metallic conductor is not The electrolyte decomposes due to electrolytic
decomposed due to metallic conduction conduction.
but it is only heated up.

Conductor & Insulator

Conductors Semi Conductors Insulators
(1) They are good conductors of (1) They are poor conductors (1) They are bad conductors
electricity. of electricity. of electricity.
(2) They have higher density of free (2) They have lower density of free (2) They do not have carriers
electrons as carriers of charge. electrons & holes as carriers of of charge.
charge.
(3) They have very high (3) They have relatively lower (3) They have very low
conductivity. conductivity. conductivity.
(4) Conductivity decreases with rise (4) Conductivity increases with rise (4) Conductivity increases
in temperature. in temperature. with temperature.

(3) In electrostatic spraying of paints, etc. works both on d.c. and a.c. Joule
powders etc. heating effect is irreversible. It means if
the direction of current in a resistor is
(4) In understanding volcanic lightning reversed, the cooling of resistor does
and common lightning strikes from the not occur whereas heating of the resis-
cloud base to the ground. tor takes place. If the resistances are
(5) In the design of cathode ray tubes for connected in series, the current I is same
RADAR and TV. through each resistor, then
(6) In ink-jet printing, which is high quality P µ R and V µ R (as V = lR)
and delivers high speed printing. It means, in series connections, the po-
(7) In electrostatic loud speakers and tential difference and power consumed
microphones. will be more in higher resistance.
Electroplating with Silver: For
If the resistence are connected in paral-
electroplating with silver, solution of lel, the potential difference V is same
sodium silver cyanide [Na[Ag (CN)2] is used across each resistor. Then and
as an electrolyte.

Joule’s heating effect of current is com- (as V = lR)
mon to both d.c. and a.c. That is why
It means in parallel connections, the
the instruments or eleectrical appliances current and power consumed will be
such as heater, press, geyser, toaster more in smaller resistances.
[110] General Science

In parallel grouping of bulbs, the bulb Unit of electric current is Ampere (A).
of higher wattage will give more bright
light and will pass greater current 1 Ampere . Conventionally, the
through it. It will have lesser resistance electric current flows from higher to lower
and same potential difference across it.
potential against the flow of electrons.
If one bulb gets fused, other bulbs will
work.
Ohm’s Law

In series grouping of bulbs, the bulb of
higher wattage will give less bright light The current flowing through a
and will have smaller resistance and po- conductor is directly proportional to the
tential difference across it. If one bulb potential difference across the ends of the
gets fused the other bulbs will not work. conductor provided the temperature and
other physical conditions of the conductor
CURRENT ELECTRICITY remain the same.

Electric Potential : The amount of work Potential difference (V) ∝ Electric

done in bringing unit positive charge at a current (I)
point is called as potential at that point. or, pot. diff. (V) = constant (R) × Electric
Electric potential = work done/charge =
current (I)
Joule/coulomb = volt. Unit of electric
potential is volt (v). or
Potential difference (p.d.). It is equal to
the work done in moving a unit positive Where constant for a
charge from one point to another point. conductor known as resistance. Unit of
Electric potential and potential resistance is ohm (W).
difference are physically similar quantities Resistance of a conductor is its ability
having common unit of volt. Electric
to oppose the flow of current. For a
potential determines the direction of flow
conductor, the resistance
of charge from one conductor to another
conductor or from one point to another
point through a conductor. Electrons flow , where l = length of conductor.
from lower potential to higher potential.
A = area of cross-section of conductor.
Electric potential and potential difference
can be positive and negative depending r = resistivity of conductor.
upon the nature of electric charge.
Resistivity (r) of a conductor is a
Electric Current : The amount of constant. It depends upon the nature of
electric charge flowing through any cross- material of the conductor.
section per unit time is known as electric-
current. Conductivity (C)

Electric Current (I) = ohm–1 = mho.

Physics [111]
 V = Potential difference across
Conductivity (K) conductor.

= ohm–1×m–1 t = time interval for which current is

supplied.
Combination of Resistances Since heat is the form of energy, hence,
When two or more resistances are heat produced due to the flow of current is
arranged in series i.e. in a common path of electrical energy consumed in a given
flow of current, the net resistance is equal electrical circuit. Thus, the net
to the sum of individual resistance. Hence,
Electrical energy = I2Rt = VIT =
in series, the net resistance becomes larger.
For two resistances R1 & R2 : Rs = R1 + R2 >
R1 or R2. Electrical power
When two or more resistances are
arranged in parallel i.e., between two = I2R =VI
common points of two different paths of Unit of electrical energy is Joule (J) and
flow of current, the reciprocal of the net that of power is watt (w). Horse-power is
resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals another unit of power. 1 Horse-power
of individual resistances. Hence, in parallel, (H.P.) = 746 watt. The practical commercial
the net resistance becomes smaller. For two unit of energy is kilowatt hour (KWH).
resistances R1 & R2 in parallel, 1 KWH = 1000 × 60 × 60 = 3.6 × 106
Joule.
Electric Bulb : An electric bulb has a
or < R1 or R2 tungsten filament enclosed in a glass
envelope filled with inert gases like argon.
EMF (electromotive force) of a cell or Tungsten filament has a very a high melting
battery: It is equal to the potential difference point and resistivity. Its resistance is very
between the electrodes when current is not
high. Hence on passing electric current, it
drawn out from the cell.
produces heat and light.
Heating Effect of Current : When an
Electric Iron (Electric press), Heater,
electric current flows through a conductor,
Geyser, Toaster & Immersion Rod : These
an amount of heat is produced.
heating appliances have Nichrome (an alloy
Joule’s Law of Heating Effect : of nickel, iron and chromium) wire as
heating element. Nichrome has high
melting point, resitivity and malleability
and it does not oxidise in air easily. On
passing current, it gets heated up.
where H = amount of heat produced.
I = amount of current in conductor. Carbon Arc Lamp : It consists of two
carbon rods as the electrodes separated by
R = resistance of conductor. a smaller air gap. When a high potential
difference is applied across the rods, a spark
[112] General Science
jumps across the air-gap due to ionization Chemical Effect of Electric Current
of air & a very bright light is emitted by the Electrolysis : When an amount of
gap. This light is called an arc-light. The electric current is passed through a solution
carbon arc lamp is used in electric welding, or melt of an electrolyte, the electrolyte
search lights and cinema projectors. dissociates into positive ions (cations) and
Electric Fuse Wire : Usually it is an negative ion (anions). The cation gets
alloy of tin (63%) & lead (37%). It has high deposited at negative electrode (cathode)
resistance and low melting point. It is and the anion gets deposited at the positive
connected in series with the electrical electrode (anode). This phenomenon is
installations. All of a sudden, if strong known as electrolysis. Electrolysis is
current flows, the fuse wire melts away, explained by the Faraday’s laws of
causing the breakage in the circuit, thereby electrolysis. Faraday constant (F) = 96500
saving the main installations from being coulomb/gram equivalent = charge on one
damaged. Thus, it is capable of saving costly mole of electrons. Electrolysis involves direct
appliances. current (d.c.) only and not a.c.

Power Cell Chemsitry

Cell Electrodes Electrolyte Depolariser EM For Voltage
Voltaic Copper and Zinc Dilute solution of Absent and the cell 1.08 Volt
cell rods H2SO4 (sulphuric suffers from polarisation
acid)

Daniel Copper-container dilute solution of Copper-sulphate 1.1 Volt

cell and zin rod H2SO4 (CuSO4)

Leclanche cell Carbon and zinc rods Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.45 volt
(NH4Cl) (MnO2)

Dry cell Carbon rod and zinc Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.5 Volt
pot (NH4Cl) (MnO2). ZnCl2 being
hygroscopic absorbs
water produced.

Lead-Acid A set of perforated dilute (20%) H2SO4 lead oxide (PbO2) 2.2 volt
Accumulator lead plates with lead Solution with specific
(PbO2) in holes as gravity 1.25. when the
positive and a set of specific gravity of
lead rods as negative H2SO4 solution
decreases to 1.18 the
cell requires recharging

Alkali-accul- Anode is a perforated 20% solution of (Fe(OH)2] & 1.36 Volt

mulator or NiFe cell steel grid filled with potassium hydrooxide (Ni(OH) 2]
Cell or Edison cell (Ni(OH)2] and cathode (LiOH)
is a steel grid filled
with [Fe(OH)2] and

Physics [113]
 Applications of Electrolysis :
Extraction of Metals from the Ores :
Metals like sodium, aluminium, magne-

Electroplating : The process of deposit-
sium, calcium, zinc, copper etc. are ex-
ing a layer of precious metal like gold,
tracted from their ores by electrolsysis.
silver, nickel and chromium over cheap
metals like iron and copper by electroly-
Purification of Metals : It is carried out
sis is called as electroplating. The pre- by using impure metal as the anode,
cious metal is taken as anode and cheap pure metal as the cathode and a double
metal as cathode. The electroplating pre- salt of the pure metal as electrolytes
vents corrosion (rusting) and makes the when a current is passed through the
cheap metals attractive. electrolyte solution, pure metal gets
deposited at the cathode. This methode

Anodising : It is the process of coating
is used to purify blister copper.
aluminium with its oxide electrochemi-
cally to protect it against corrosion. In
Production of Oxygen and Hydrogen :
dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte, the Oxygen and hydrogen are manufac-
aluminium article is made the anode. tured commercially by the electrolysis
To give the surface of the article beauti- of acidulated water.
ful colours, dyes are mixed in the elec-
Manufacture of Chemicals : By the
trolyte. electrolysis of sodium chloride solution,

Electrotyping : It involves the prepara- caustic soda is prepared.
tion of exact copies of metallic type
Medical Applications : Electrolysis is
used in the printing work and the en- used for nerve stimulation especially for
graved blocks on the metals by the pro- polio, for removing unwanted hairs on
cess of electrolysis. A sheet of wax is any part of the body etc.
first pressed against the type set or block.
The impression obtained on wax is made ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
conducting by coating it with graphite
powder. Then it is copper-plated by the It converts chemical energy stored in
process of electrolysis. The sheet so ob- the electrolyte into electical energy by
tained is a copy of the type of block. chemical reaction.
This process is also used for the manu-
facture of gramophone records.

An electro chemical cell consists of two

electrodes viz. anode and cathode; an
electrolyte to provide ions and a
depolariser to prevent the formation of
hydrogen coating on the surface of cathode.

[114] General Science

 Button Cells : They are tiny dry cells. Cyclotron : It is a device used to produce
They are : highly accelerated positively charged

Mercury Cells : EMF or Voltage =1.36 particles under the effect of a strong
volt magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet. Cyclotron is used for
Life : upto 3 years used in a watches,
nuclear works so as to cause nuclear
hearing aids, portable scientific instru-
ments. disintegration, etc.

Silver Oxide Cells : EMF = 1.62 volt. Galvanometer : It is based on the
magnetic effect of current. When a coil
Life and uses similar to that of mercury
cells. having electric current is suspended in a
uniform magnetic field, it gets deflected.

Lithium Cells : Life : upto 10 years. This forms the basis of galvanometer. A
Used in quartz watches, mobiles, etc. galvanometer connected in any part of an

Alkali Cells : They are very cheap and electric circuit indicates the flow of current.
environmentally safe. Life shorter. Use It is used to construct devices like Ammeter
similar to other button cell EMF = 1.5 V and Voltmeter.
Battery : An arrangement of a no. of Ammeter : It measures the amount of
cells in series to provide higher voltage of electric current in any part of circuit in
direct current (d.c.) is called a battery. series.
Voltameter or Electrolytic Cells : An Voltmeter : It measures potential
arrangement consisting of identical
difference across a circuit in parallel.
electrodes (Anode and Cathode) in an
insulating container with an electrolyte-
We can produce high voltage on the
solution to carry out electrolysis is termed human body without getting a shock.
as a voltameter or electrolytic cell. It For this the person must stand on a
consumes electrical power to cause highly insulated platform. Hence with
electrolysis. An electrochemical cell or a high voltage on the body, no charge
common cell produces electric power. will flow to the ground through the
body and the person will not get any
Magnetic Effects of Current : When shock. There is an impression among
an amount of electric current flows through
many people that a person touching a
a conductor, it develops an amount of
high power line gets stuck with the
magnetic field around itself.
line. This is not a correct notion be-
Electromagnet : It consists of a coil of cause there is no special attractive force
an insulated wire (usually copper) closely that keeps a person stuck with a high
wound around a soft iron core. When an power line. The actual reason is that a
electric current passes through the coil, the current of the order of 0.05 ampere or
arrangement acts as an electromagnet. even less is enough to bring about a
Electromagnets are used in many disorder in our nervous system. As a
devices like electric-bell, electric horn, result of it, the affected person may
telephone receiver, electric relay, etc. temporarily lose his ability to exercise
Electromagnets fitted on cranes can lift his nervous control to get himself free
heavy iron pieces. from the high power line.

Physics [115]

For a given electrical installation, when and is used to produce alternating current
an electrical appliance of high wattage by an a.c. generator.
is switched on it draws more current.
Electric Motor : It converts electrical
Consequently, the voltage across the
energy into mechanical energy. It is based
nearby appliance of lower wattage is
on the fact when a current carrying coil is
lowered for a moment until it is estab- placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
lished by the transmission grid. e.g (i) torque that causes rotation of the coils.
When a car-engine starts, the car light Electric motors are used to operate many
gets dimmer for a moment (ii) Light appliances like fans, coolers, mixers,
from a bathroon bulb gets dimmer for a geysers, refrigerators washing machines etc.
moment when the geyser is switched
on. Motor Starter : When a large electric
motor is switched on, its initial current is

When a metallic wire is carrying an very high and that can damage its circuit.
electeric current, it is not charged be- Hence, the initial higher current should be
cause the total no. of electrons and that reduced. A motor starter has a large variable
of protons in any section of the wire
resistance. When an electric motor starts,
remains the same. Hence net charge on
the wire is zero. the motor starter automatically goes in to
reduce high current and comes out after
Potentiometer : It is an electrical device switching off the motor. Thus it regulates
used to compare emfs and internal an electric motor at start and stop.
resistence of the two cells.
Choke-Coil : It regulates alternating
Wheatstone Bridge : It measures an current in a given circuit. Its resistance
unknown resistance with accuracy. value is zero and hence, it does not consume
Meter Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge : It power. A capacitor can do a similar
is the practical form of wheatstone bridge. function.
Shunt : It is a low resistance connected Generator (Dynamo) : It converts
in parallel to a device or an electrical circuit mechanical energy into electrical energy. It
to provide a subway for the surplus current. is of two types:
Thus, it provides a safety to the device or (i) Direct Current (D.C.) generator : it
the ciruit. produces D.C.
Electromagnetic Induction : Whenever (ii) Alternating current (A.C.) generator :
the magnetic flux linked with a closed it produce A.C.
metallic-loop changes, an amount of emf is
induced in the loop. The induced emf Both the generators work on a common
causes flow of induced current in the loop. principle. When a metallic coil rotates in a
This phenomenon is known as magnetic field, an induced em.f. is produced
electromagnetic induction. It can be carried in the coil. However, their constructions
out by (i) moving a magnet towards or are a bit different.
away from the loop (ii) moving a loop Transformer : It converts higher
towards or away from the magnet (iii) alternating current at lower alternating
rotating a loop in front of a magnet. This voltage into lower alternating current at
effect forms the basis of serveral devices higher alternating voltage and vice-versa.
[116] General Science
 It is of two types viz (i) Step-up with a turbine. In case of a hydroelectricity
transformer : It converts higher a.c. at lower plant, the potential energy of water stored
a.c. voltage into lower a.c. at higher a.c. in a dam is converted into kinetic energy of
voltage. It is used at the power station (ii) the falling water which in turn is converted
step-down transformer : It converts lower into the kinetic energy of the armature of
a.c. at higher a.c. voltage supplied by power the generator. This kinetic energy finally
station into higher a.c. at lower a.c. voltage appears as electrical energy known as
to be used for domestic purposes. It is used hydro electricity. At a thermo-electric plant,
at the colonies. Transformer works on the the function of the falling water is done by
principle of mutual induction, a form of hot-steam coming from boiling water. It
electromagnetic induction. requires heat energy produced by burning
Inverter : It converts D.C. into A.C. For the fuel like coal & petroleum or heat
domestic purposes it is specially designed produced by nuclear reactor.
to convert D.C. from a battery to A.C. & to
charge the battery. When the mains supply DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
is available, it charges the battery (converts
A.C. into D.C.) whereas in absence of the The electric power is supplied to the
mains supply, it automotically switches on houses or factories through undergound
the A.C., converted from D.C. supplied by cables or overhead wires on poles. A single
the battery. Thus it fulfils electric supply phase electric line system comprises three
during the power break down. wires, namely phase wire or line wire,
Loudspeaker : It converts electrical neutral- wire and earth-wire. These wires
energy first into mechenical energy and coming from power substation are
then into sound energy. It works on the connected to an electric meter in a house
fact that when a current carrying coil is or a factory. An electric fuse is placed in
placed in a magnetic field, the coil the path of the phase wire before it is
experiences force. This force causes connected to the electric-meter. This fuse is
vibrations in a cone. Consequently sound known as pole-fuse and has a definite
is produced. Its most common type is current rating. If current exceeds this rating
moving coil loudspeaker. value, the fuse wire will melt.
Microphone : It converts sound energy Systems of power distribution in a
into mechanical energy of a vibrating house: The output electric power of the
diaphragm and then finally into electrical main switch can be distributed in a house
energy to be supplied to the loudspeaker. by two systems. They are :
Its most common type is the moving coil
microphone. (i) Tree System : This system of power
distribution is like the distribution of the
branches of a tree. The power supply of
GENERATION AND
different circuits originates from different
TRANSMISSION OF POWER fuses. So if a particular fuse melts, then the
Electric power generation occurs in two other circuit remain unaffected. Different
forms viz. Hydroelectricity and thermal appliances in a given circuit are connected
electricity. Both of them involve an electric in parallel so that they can be switched on
generator whose armature is connected or switched off independently. The parallel

Physics [117]
connection gives equal potential difference hence it is connected with the green or
across each appliance in a circuit. This yellow wire. The remaining two pins are
system is complex and expensive. connected with red or brown (live) wire
(ii) Ring System: In this system the and black or blue (neutral) wire. The earth
three wires namely live, neutral & earth, pin being thicker cannot be inserted in the
start from the main fuse and return to the live of the socket even by mistake.
main fuse ofter connecting various Sockets: A socket has three holes. The
appliances. Each appliance has a fuse. So top bigger hole is for the earth, the lower
if a fuse melts due to short circuiting, then right hole is for the live wire and the left
only that appliances is switched off. Other hole is for the neutral wire.
appliance remain unaffected and continue
Switches: An electric switch, is always
to work. This system is easy to install and
connected across the live wire. If a switch
cheaper.
is connected in the neutral wire, the socket
Earthing: It is usually a copper wire remains live even when the switch is in the
whose one end is connected with metal off position. It can cause a shock from the
casing of an electric appliance. The other element of a heater or other appliance even
end of the wire is connected to the copper when the appliance is not in use.
plate which is buried deep inside the earth.
When the live wire touches the metal casing The insulation on the wire should be of
of an electric-appliance, it can cause electric high strength so that it may not melt easily
shock on touching the appliance. But in when wires are heated due to a large
the presence of earthing current flows from current flowing through them. Wires
carrying current electricity should not be
the metallic casing to the earth through the
earthing-wire. It produces heat in the circuit touched bare footed. The live wire is at
higher potential and the earth is at zero
that in turn causes the melting of fuse in
the circuit. The circuit is switched off potential. If we touch the live wire bare
footed, a large current will pass through
automatically. It saves the appliance from
burning and a person touching the our body. So we will receive a severe shock.
This shock affects our nervous system and
appliances does not get an electric shock.
may cause even death. Hence, while using
Whenever there is lightning in the sky, electricity, we must wear gloves made of
the electric circuits should be switched off insulated material and shoes of rubber sole
to save the electric appliances connected in so that current may not flow through our
these circuits from burning. body.
Flexible Cables: An electric-appliance
is connected with three-core flexible cables. MAGNETISM
The insulations on the three wires are
An iron ore piece having the structural
coloured (i) Red or brown for live wire (ii)
formula Fe 3O4 (ferrous-ferric oxide) can
black or light blue for neutralwire and (iii)
attract small pieces of iron. Such ore pieces
green or yellow for earth wire.
were first of all found in the district of
Plugs: A three-pin plug consists of one Magnesia in Asia Minor in Greece. These
longer and thicker pin and two identical ore pieces were called Natural Magnets. A
thin pins. The thick pin is for earthing and Greek Philosopher, Thales of Miletus had

[118] General Science

observed these ore pieces in 600 B.C. This drawn into the ring, the enclosed region
iron ore is called Magnetite. Magnetite was will become free of magnetic field. Super
also called ‘lode-stone’ in the sense of conductor also provides perfect magnetic
leading stone to show geographic directions shielding as no magnetic lines pass through
(North-South). the super conductor.
A magnet is made of iron or its alloys. Magnetic shielding is used to protect
Each magnet has two equal and opposite costly wrist watches from external
magnetic poles viz. North pole and South- magnetic fields by enclosing them in a soft
pole lying at its ends.
iron core.
When an iron bar is magnetised, the
spins are aligned parallel to the field. Hence,
the length of the bar in the direction of
magnetisation increases. This effect is
known as mangetostriction effect. This effect
is used for producing ultrasonic waves.

CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
It we cut a magnet, we get smaller
magnets again, instead of an isolated north (1) Diamagnetic Substances : They are
or south pole of the magnet. Hence the weakly repelled by an external magnetic
magnetic poles always exist in pairs and field, e.g. Bismuth, antimony, copper,
not as a single magnetic monopole. Like gold, quartz, mercury, water, alcohol,
poles repel each other and unlike poles hydrogen.
attract each other. Each magnetic pole can
(2) Paramagnetic Substances : They are
attract small pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt.
weakly attracted by an external
When a magnet is suspended at mid-point
by a thread, its north pole points the magnetic field e.g. aluminium,
geographic north and south-pole points platinum, chromium, manganese,
geographic south. It is its directional copper sulphate, crown glass, oxygen
property. On heating, the magnets lose their etc.
magnetism. (3) Ferro Magnetic Substances : They are
Magnetism in a magnet is due to the strongly attracted by an external
proper alignment of electron spins. magnetic field e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel
and their alloys like Al Ni, alnico,
MAGNETIC SCREENING OR tinconol vicalloy, steel, perm alloys, mu-
SHIELDING metal, radio-metal, etc.
Ferromagnetic substances are used for
A space can be shielded from magnetic
making permanent magnets and
field by surrounding the space with a soft
electromagnets.
iron ring. As magnetic field lines will be

Physics [119]
 The ferromagnetic materials used for Geographic Meridian q = Magnetic
coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player declination.
or for building memory stores in a
computer are ferrites. Most common
ferrites used are MFe2O4 where M= Mn,
Fe, Co and Ni.

EARTH’S MAGNETISM
Earth acts as a huge magnet. Its
magnetic south pole is at its geographic
north and is located in North-Canada ,
longitude 96° west and latitude 70.5° North. d = Magnetic dip.
Its magnetic north pole is at the geographic H = Horizontal component of the earth’s
south and is located in Antarctica, magnetic field (BE).
longitude 84° east and latitude 70.5° south.
V = Vertical component of BE.
Geographic Meridian : An imaginary
vertical plane passing along the axis of When a compass is used by mariners
and others at a place, the magnetic needle
rotation of the earth at a place is known as
of the compass sets itself along the
geographic meridian at that place.
horizontal component of the earth’s
Magnetic Meridian : An imaginary magnetic field in the magnetic meridian.
vertical plane passing along the axis of a By knowing the angle of dip and magnetic
freely suspeneded magnet at a place is declination, the location of the place can
known as magnetic meridian at the place. be determined.
Magnetic Declination (q) : The angle If d = 0° the place is at the equator,
between the geographic and magnetic
meridians at a place is known as magnetic if d = 90° the place is at the poles.
declination at that place. It is in the order At the geographic north pole, the
of 20°. magnetic north pole of the magnetic needle
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip will be vertically down while at the
(d) : The angle between the direction of the geographic south pole, the south pole of
earth magnetic field and the horizontal the needle will be vertically down.
direction in the magnetic meridian is If d is more than 0° and less than 90°,
known as dip-angle or magnetic dip. Its the place is between the pole and the
value is maximum 90° at the poles and equator.
minimum 0° at the equator. Evidences behind the earth’s
Horizontal Component : It is the magnetism :
component of total magnetic field of the
(i) A fresh suspended bar magnet always
earth horizontally in the magnetic meridian.
aligns itself along the geographic north-
In the given diagram : Plane PQRS =
south. It means the north pole of the
Magnetic meridian. Plane = PQUT = magnet is attracted by the magnetic

[120] General Science

 south pole of the earth that lies in the
The quantity in electricity that is ana-
geographic north and vice-versa. logues to temperature in heat is poten-
tial.
(ii) When a soft iron piece is buried below
the earths surface along the north-south
The current capacity increases, when
direction, it acquires magnetic the cells are connected in series.
properties after some time.
The internal resistance of an ideal cell is
(iii)When we draw field lines of a magnet, zero.
we get neutral points. At these points
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
the net magnetic field due to the magnet should be infinity.
is completely neutralized by the
horizontal component of the earth’s
The resistance of an ideal ammeter
magnetic field. should be zero.

Energy is dissipated inside a cell due to
TRIVIA internal resistance.

In the gases, the charge carriers are
The potential across a cell in closed
electrons and + VE ions. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.

Filament of 100 W lamp is thinner than
that of 200 W lamp.
Larger the current drawn from a cell,

When two lamps of different wattage smaller is the potential difference across it.
are connected in series, the lamp of
Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
lower wattage glows more brightly. where E = emf, I = current, t = time.

The power of a heater when connected
Energy dissipated in the external circuit
across a power supply of negligible in- of a cell = VIt, where V = potential drop
ternal resistance is P. If the length of across the cell.
the coil is halved, the power of the re-
maining wire is less than 2P.
The emf of voltaic cell is 1.08 V, that of
Daniel cell is 1.12 V and that of Leclanche

Substances which lose their resistivity
cell is 1.45 V.
at low temperature are called super-
conductors.
Acid accumulator is most likely to be

The material of the heating element of damaged due to short circuiting.
an electric heater should have high re-
Fast charging does not cause sulphation
sistivity and high melting point. of acid accumulator, but fast discharg-

The heat generated in a wire is doubled ing does it.
when both the radius and length of the
Thermocouple should not be used to
wire are doubled. measure temperature above the neu-

If a heater boils 1 kg water in time T1 tral temperature.
and another heater boils the same wa-

And if they are connected in parallel,
ter in time T2, then both connected to-
the time taken to boil the same amount
gether in series will boil the same water
of water will be T1T2/(T1 + T2).
time T1 + T2.

Physics [121]

The fuse wire is made of an alloy of lead
The potential across a cell in closed
and tin. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.

The resistance in electricity is analo-
gous to friction in mechanics.
Larger the current drawn from a cell,
smaller is the potential difference across it.

The change in the dimensions of a con-
ductor has no effect on its conductivity,
Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
although conductance may change. where E = emf, I = current, t = time.

The quantity in electricity that is ana-
Energy dissipated in the external circuit
logues to temperature in heat is poten- of a cell = VIt, where V = potential drop
tial. across the cell.

The current capacity increases, when
The emf of voilaic cell is 1.08 V, that of
the cells are connected in series. Daniel cell is 1.12 V and that of Leclanche
cell is 1.45 V.

The internal resistance of an ideal cell is
zero.
Acid accumulator is most likely to be
damaged due to short circuiting.

The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
should be infinity.
Fast charging does not cause sulphation
of acid accumulator, but fast discharg-

The resistance of an ideal ammeter
ing does it.
should be zero.

Thermocouple should not be used to

Energy is dissipated inside a cell due to
measure temperature above the neu-
internal resistance.
tral temperature.

[122] General Science

 PHYSICS
AT A GLANCE

LAWS OF MOTION gravitational unit of force on cgs sys-

tem is gram weight or gram force.

Newton’s three laws of motion form
the basis of mechanics: According to 1N = 105 dyne,
1st law, a body continues to be in its 1g wt. = 980 dyne.
state of rest or of uniform motion along

According to the principle of conserva-
a straight line, unless it is acted upon
tion of linear moment, the vector sum
by some external force to change the
of linear momentum of all the bodies in
state. The law defines force and is also
an isolated system is conserved, and is
called law of inertia.
not affected due to their mutual action

According to 2nd law, the rate of change and reaction. An isolated system is that
of linear momentum of a body is directly on which no external force is acting.
proportional to the external force applied Flight of rockets, jet planes, recoiling of
on the body, and this change takes place a gun etc, are explained on the basis of
in the direction of the applied force. This this principle. Newton’s 3rd law of mo-
law gives us a measure of force. tion can also be derived from this prin-

According to third law, to every action, ciple and vice-versa.
there is always an equal and opposite
Apparent weight of man in an eleva-
reaction. This law gives us the nature tor is given by :
of force.
W’ = m (g + a), where mg is real weight

Inertia is inability of a body to change of the man. Acceleration is (+a), when
by itself, its state of rest or its state of the lift is accelerating upwards and (-
uniform motion along a straight line. a), when the lift is accelerating down-
Inertia is obviously of three types : wards. When lift is moving uniformly
(i) Inertia of rest (ii) Inertia of motion, (upwards/downwards), a = 0, W’ =
(iii) Inertia of direction. mg = real weight.

From Newton’s 2nd law, we obtain In free fall, a = g

i.e., external force is the product ∴ W’ = m (g – g) = 0
of mass and acceleration of the body.
ie., apparent weight becomes zero.

The absolute unit of force on SI is new-

The forces which are acting at a point
ton (N) and on cgs system, is dyne. The
are called concurrent forces. They are
gravitational unit of force on SI is kilo-
said to be in equilibrium, when their
gram weight or kilogram force. The
resultant is zero.

Physics [123]

A frame of reference in which Newton’s inertial frame of references. Such a frame
laws of motion hold good is called an is unaccelerated frame of reference.
Energy Equivalence
S.No. Particle Mass Energy equivalent
1. Electron or positron 9.1 × 10-31kg 0.53 MeV
2. Neutron or proton 1 amu = 1.67 × 10-37kg 931 MeV
3. Alpha particle 6.68 × 10–27kg 3724 MeV

GRAVITATION is zero at the centre of the earth. The

value of g on the surface of earth is 9.8

Gravitation is the name given to the ms –2.
force of attraction acting between any

The acceleration due to gravity (g) is
two bodies of the universle.
related with gravitational constant (G)

Newton’s Law of Gravitation: It states
that the gravitational force of attraction by the relation g where M and R
acting between two bodies of the uni- are the mass and radius of the earth.
verse is directly proportional to the prod-
becomes zero at the centre of earth.
uct of their masses and is inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance
Gravitational Field: It is the space around
between them i.e, = Gm1m2/r2; where a material body in which its gravitational
G is the universal gravitational constant. pull can be experienced by other bodies.
The strength of gravitational field at a

Gravitational Constant (G): It is equal
point is the measure of gravitational in-
to the force of attraction acting between
tensity at that point. The intensity of gravi-
two bodies each of unit mass, whose
tational field of a body at a point in the
centres are palced unit distance apart.
field is defined as the force experienced
The value of G is constant throughout
by a body of unit mass placed at that
the universe. It is a scalar quantity. The
point provided the presence of unit mass
dimensional formula of G.
does not disturb the original gravitational
= [M–1L3T–2]. The value of field. The intensity of gravitational field
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2kg–2 at a point distance r from the centre of

Gravity: It is the force of attraction ex- the body of mass M is given by
erted by earth towards its centre on a
E = GM/r2 = acceleration due to gravity.
body lying on or near the surface of
earth. Gravity is the measure of weight
Gravitational Potential: The gravita-
of the body. The weight of the body of tional potential at a point in a gravita-
mass m = mass × acceleration due to tional field is defined as the amount of
gravity. The unit of weight of a body work done in bringing a body of unit
will be the same as those of force. mass from infinity to that point with-
out acceleration. Gravitational poten-

Acceleration due to Gravity (g): It is
tial at a point,
defined as the acceleration set up in a
body while falling freely under the ef-
fect of gravity alone. It is vector quan-
tity. The value of g changes with height,
depth, rotation of earth. The value of g
[124] General Science
 States of Equilibrium
Stable Unstable Neutral
1. When displaced from 1. When displaced from 1. Particle always remains in the
equilibrium position, equilibrium position, particle state of equilibrium
tends to come back tends to move away from irrespective of any displacement.
equilibrium position.
2. Potential energy = Minimum 2. Potential energy = Maximum 2. Potential energy = Constant

Gravitational potential energy of a body, When the satellite is orbiting close to

at a point in the gravitational field of the surface of earth i.e., H < < R, then
another body is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing the given body
from infinity to that point without ac-
celeration. (ii) Time period of Satellite (T) : It is
Gravitational potential energy = gravi- the time taken by satellite to com-
tational potential × mass of body. plete one revolution around the
earth.

Inertial mass of a body is defined as the
force required to produce unit accel-
Geostationary Satellite: A satellite
eration in the body. which revolves around the earth with
the same angular speed in the same

Gravitational mass of a body is defined direction as is done by the earth around
as the gravitational pull experienced by its axis is called geostationary or geo-
the body in a gravitational field of unit synchronous satellite.
intensity.

The height of geostationary satellite is =

Inertial mass of a body is identical to the 36000 km and its orbital velocity =
gravitational mass of that body. The main 3.1kms –1.
difference is that the gravitational mass
of a body is affected by the presence of
Polar Satellite: It is that satellite which
other bodies near it. Whereas the inertial revolves in polar orbit around earth i.e.,
mass of a body remains unaffected by the polar satellite passes through geo-
presence of other bodies near it. graphical north and south poles of earth
one per orbit.

Satellite : A satellite is a body which is
revolving continously in an orbit around
Escape Velocity: The escape velocity
a comparatively much large body. on earth is defined as the minimum
velocity with which a body has to be
(i) Orbital velocity of a satellite is the projected vertically upwards from the
velocity required to put the satellite surface of earth (or any other planet) so
into given orbit around earth. Or- that it just crosses the gravitational field
bital velocity of satellite, when it is of earth (or of that planet) and never
revolving around earth at height h returns on its own. Escape velocity ve is
is given by given by.

Physics [125]
 For earth, the value of escape velocity is (ii) Kepler’s Second Law (Law of
11.2 kms–1. Area): The radius vector drawn
from the sun to a planet sweeps out

For a point close to the earth’s surface,
equal areas in equal intervals of time
the escape velocity are related as
i.e, the areal velocity of the planet
around the sun is constant.

Weightlessness: It is a situation in (iii) Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Pe-
which the effective weight of the body riod) : The square of the time pe-
becomes zero. riod of revolution of a planet around
the sun is directly proportional to

Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion:
the cube of semi-major axis of the
(i) Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbit): elliptical orbit i. e., T2 µ R3.
Every planet revolves around the
where R is the semi major axis of the
sun in an elliptical orbit. The sun is
elliptical orbit of the planet around the
situated at one focus of the ellipse.
sun.
Conservative and Non-conservative Force
S. Conservative Forces Non Conservative Forces
1. Work done by/against such forces in 1. Work done by/against such forces in
displacing a particle does not depend upon displacing a particle depends upon the path
the path along which particle is displaced. along which particle is displaced.
2. Work done by/against such forces in 2. Work done by/against such forces in
displacing a particle around a closed path is displacing a particle around a closed path is
zero. NOT zero.
3. K.E. of particle remains constant 3. K.E. of particle changes.

Molecular forces are weaker than

SOLID & LIQUID
interatomic forces.

Interatomic Forces : These are those
Crystalline Solids : These are solids
forces which are acting between the which have a definite external
atoms due to electrostatic interaction geometrical form and whose
between the charges of the atoms. These constitutent atoms/ions/molecules are
forces are electrical in nature and are arranged in a definite pattern in three
active between the atoms if the distance dimensions within the solid.
between them is of the order of atomic
size (= 10–10m.) Examples, are quartz, calcite, rocksalt,
sugar, mica, diamond, etc.

Intermolecular Forces : These are those
forces which are acting between the Crystalline solids have sharp melting
molecules due to electrostatic interaction point and they are anisotropic in
between the charges of the molecules. behaviour.
These forces are also of electrical origin
Amorphous Solids : These are those
and are active between the molecules solids which have no definite external
whose separation is of the order of geometrical form and whose
molecular size (= 10–9m). constitutent atoms/ions/molecules are

[126] General Science

 not arranged in a defintie pattern in dimensional formula is [M1L–1T–2].
three dimensions within the solid. Stress can be of two types :
Examples. Rubber, glass, plastic, (i) Normal stress
cement, paraffin, etc. Crystalline solids
do not have sharp melting point and (ii) Tangential stress.
they are isotropic in behaviour.
Strain : It is defined as the ratio of

Deforming Force : It is that force which change in configuration of the deformed
when applied, changes the body due to a deforming force on it to
configuration of the body. the original configuration of the body
i.e.,

Elasticity : It is the property of the body
by virtue of which the body regains its
original configuration (length, volume
or shape) when the deforming forces are Strain can be of three types :
removed. (i) Longitudinal strain

Stress : The internal restoring force (ii) Volumetric strain
acting per unit area of a deformed body
is called stress i.e., (iii) Shearing stream

stress = restoring force/area.
Hooke’s Law : It states that the exten-

sion produced in the wire is directly

According to Newton’s third law of proportional to the load applied within
motion, the restoring force is equal and the elastic limit. Hook’s law also states
opposite to the external deforming force that the stress is directly proportional
applied, when there is no permanent to strain within the elastic limit.
change in the configuration of the body.
Thus,
Modulus of Elasticity or Coefficient of
elasticity of a body is defined as the ratio
of the stress to the corresponding strain
produced, within the elastic limit.

Stress is a Tensor Quantity: Its S.I. unit
is Nm–2 and c.g.s unit is dyne/cm2. Its Modulus of elasticity is of three types :

Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

Perfectly elastic collision Perfectly Inelastic collisions
1. Particles do not stick after collision. 1. Particles stick after collision.
2. Rel. vel. of separation after collison = rel. 2. Rel vel. of separation after collision is zero.
vel. of approach before collision.
3. Coeff. of restitution, e = 1 3. Coeff. of restitution e = 0
4. Linear momentum is conserved 4. Linear momentum is conserved
5. K.E. is conserved 5. K.E. is not conserved

(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y):

It is defined as the ratio of normal
stress to the longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit i.e., (ii) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) : It

Physics [127]
 is defined as the ratio of normal elastic after effect. It is least for quartz
stress to the volumetric strain within or phosphor bronze.
the elastic limit i.e.,
Elastic-Fatigue : It is the property of
the elastic body by virtue of which its
behviour becomes less elastic under the
action of repeated alternating deform-
(iii) Modulus of Rigidity (η) : It is de- ing forces.
fined as the ratio of tangential stress to
Breaking force = breaking stress × area
the shearing strain, within the elastic of cross section of the wire.
limit i.e., Breaking stress is fixed for a material
but breaking force will vary, depend-
ing on area of cross-section of the wire.

Where Shearing strain is defined as the
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched
angle through which a line perpendicu- Wire: Elastic potential energy per unit
lar to the fixed face gets rotated under volume of the stretched wire is,
the effect of a tangential force acting on
the opposite face of the body.

The S.I. units of modulus of elasticity of
Y or K or η is Nm–2 or Pa and c.g.s. unit
is dyne/cm2. The dimensional formula
= [M1L–1T–2].
Thrust: The total normal force exerted
by liquid at rest on a given surface in

Ductile Materials : These are those contact with it is called thrust of liquid
materials which show large plastic on that surface.
range beyond the elastic limit. Examples
are copper, silver, iron, aluminium, etc.
Pressure of Liquid or Hydrostatic Pres-
sure (P): It is defined as the thrust act-

Brittle Materials : These are those ma- ing per unit area of the surface
terial which show very small range be- incontact with liquid i.e.,
yond elastic limit. For such materials,
the breaking point lies close to the elas-
tic limit. Examples are cast iron, glass
etc. S.I. unit of P is Nm–2 or pascal (denoted
by Pa). Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Elastomers : These are those materials
for which stress and strain variation is
Pascal’s Law : It states that if gravity
not straight line within elastic limit and effect is neglected, the pressure at every
strain produced is much larger than point of liquid in equilibrium of rest is
the stress applied. Such materials have same. Pascal’s law also states that the
no plastic range. Example is rubber. increase in pressure at one point of the

Elastic after Effect : The temporary enclosed liquid in equilibrium of rest is
delay in regaining the original configu- transmitted equally to all other points
ration by the elastic body after the re- of liquid provided the gravity effect is
moval of a deforming force is called neglected.

[128] General Science


Atmospheric Pressure : The pressure S.I. unit of surface tension is Nm–1 and
exerted by atmosphere is called c.g.s unit is dyne/cm. Surface tension
atmospheric pressure. At S.T.P. the is a scalar quantity as it has no specific
value of atmospheric pressure is direction for a given liquid.
1.01×105 Nm–2 or 1.01 × 106 dyne/cm2.
Surface energy = surface tension × area

Archimede’s Principle : It states that of the liquid surface.
when a body is immersed partly on
(i) Excess of pressure inside a liquid
wholly in a liquid at rest it loses some of drop.
its weight, which is equal to the weight p = 2 S/R
of the liquid displaced by the immersed (ii) Excess of pressure inside a soap
part of the body. Observed weight of the bubble,
body in a liquid = true weighh - weight p = 4 S/R
of liquid displaced. where S is the surface tension and R is

Law of Floatation: It states that a body the radius of the drop or bubble.
will float in a liquid if weight of the
Angle of Contact : The angle of contact
liquid displaced by the immersed part between a liquid and a solid is defined
of the body is atleast equal to or greater as the angle enclosed between the
than the weight of the body. tangents to the liquid surface and the

Molecular Range : It is the maximum solid surface inside the liquid, both the
distance upto which a molecule can tangents being drawn at the point of
exert some measurable attraction on contact of the liquid with the solid. The
other molecules. The order of molecular value of angle of contact is less than 90°
range is = 10–9m in solids and liquids. for a liquid which wets the solid surface

Sphere of Influence : It is a sphere and is greater than 90° if a liquid does
not wet the solid surface.
drawn with molecule as centre and
molecular range as radius.
Capillarity : The phenomenon of rise

Surface Film : It is the top most layer of or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is
liquid at rest with thickness equal to the called capillarity. The height (h) through
molecular range. which a liquid will rise in a capillary
tube of radius r which wets the sides of

Surface Tension : It is the property of the tube will be given by
the liquid by virtue of which the free
surface of liquid at rest tends to have
minimum surface area and as such it
behaves as a stretched membrane.
Quantitatively surface tension. where S is the surface tension of liquid,
θ is the angle of contact, ρ is the density
of liquid and g is the acceleration due
to gravity.
where F is the force acting on the imagi-
Surface tension of a liquid/water
nary line of length l, drawn tangen- decreases with rise of temperature or
tially to the liquid surface at rest. when a detergent is dissolved in it.

Physics [129]

Viscosity : Viscosity is the property of called a laminar flow. In this flow, one
a fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which layer slides over the other layer of liquid.
an internal frictional force or viscous The velocity of liquid flow is always less
drag comes into play when the fluid is than the critical velocity of the liquid.
in motion and opposes the relative mo-
Turbulent Flow : It is that flow of liquid,
tion of its different layers. The coeffi- in which a liquid moves with a velocity
cient of viscosity of liquid is defined as greater than its critical velocity. The mo-
the tangential force (= backward vis- tion of the particles of liquid becomes
cous drag) required to maintain a unit
disorderly or irregular.
velocity gradient between two layers of
fluid each of unit area.
Critical Velocity : It is that velocity of
liquid flow, upto which the flow of liq-

Viscous drag F acting between two lay-
uid is a streamlined and above which
ers of liquid each of area A, moving
its flow becomes turbulent.
with velocity gradient dv/dx is given
by
Reynold’s Number : It is pure num-
F = – ηΑdv/dx ber which determines the nature of
flow of liquid through a pipe. Quanti-
where η is the coefficient of viscosity, and
tatively, Reynold’s number NR is given
its c.g.s unit is poise or dyne cm–2 sec.
by

Stoke’s Law : It states that the back-
ward dragging force F acting on a small
spherical body of radius r, moving
through a medium of viscosity η, with where η is the coefficient of viscosity of
velocity v is given by liquid, g is the density of liquid. D is the
diameter of the tube and ve is the criti-
F = 6 πηrv.
cal velocity of liquid flowing through

The Viscosity of Liquid decreases with the tube. For streamline or laminar flow,
increase in Temperature : The viscos- the value of NR is less than 2000 and for
ity of gases increases with the increas turbulent flow the value of NR is more
in temperature. With the increase in than 3000. For NR in between 2000 to
pressure, the viscosity of liquid increases 3000, the flow is uncertain.
but of water decreases where as of gases
Equation of continuity, a v = a constant
remains unchanged. of v α 1/a.

Stream line flow of a liquid is that flow i.e., deep water runs slow.
in which every particle of the liquid
Bernoulli Theorem : It states that for
follows exactly the path of its preced- the stream line flow of an ideal liquid,
ing particle and has the same velocity the total energy (the sum of pressure
in magnitude and direction as that of energy, the potential energy and kinetic
its preceding particle while crossing energy) per unit volume remains con-
through that point. A stream line flow stant at every cross-section throughout
is accompanied by stream lines of liq- the tube i.e.,
uid.

Laminar Flow : That steady flow in which
the liquid moves in the form of layers is
[130] General Science

When a body of mass m falls under
or, = another constant gavity through a height h, then W =
mgh.
Here, = pressure head When a body of mass m, moving with a
h = potential head vel. v is made to stop,

and = velocity head. If temperature of a body of mass m

rises by ∆T, then Q = m L, where L is
If the liquid is flowing through a hori- latent heat of the body.
zontal tube, then h is constant.
Bernoulli’s Theorem states that
Temperature on Celcius Scale: Fahr-
enheit scale, Reumer scale and Kelvin
scale are related as:
= a constant
The Bernoulli’s Theorem, also states that
in a stream line flow of an ideal liquid
through a horizontal tube, the velocity
increases where pressure decreases and
vice-versa.
Various Thermometers used for mea-
suring unknown temperatures are :

Torricelli’s Theorem : It states that the Jolly’s constant volume air thermom-
velocity of efflux i.e., the velocity with eter; Platinum resistance therometer;
which the liquid flows out of an orifice Thermoelectric thermometer; radiation
(i.e., a narrow hole) is equal to that Pyrometer.
which a freely falling body would ac-
All Solids expand on Heating: The
quire in falling through a vertical dis- coefficient of linear expansion, coeffi-
tance equal to the depth of orifice be- cient of superficial expansion and coef-
low the free surface of liquid. Quantita ficient of cubical expansion are related
tively velocity of efflux, , where
as α
h is the depth of orifice below the free
surface of liquid.
Thermal capacity of a body is the
amount of heat required to raise its tem-
HEAT perature through one degree ∆Q = mc.
From here, we may define specific heat

The ratio of work done (W) to the of a body as the heat capacity per unit
amount of heat produced (Q) is always mass of the body.

a constant, represented by J. i.e.,
Water Equivalent of a body is the mass

of water which absorbs or emits the
where J is called Joule’s mechanical same amount of heat as is done by the
equivalent of heat. The value of body for the same rise or fall in tem-
perature. It is represented by w = mc.
J = 4.186 joule/calorie.

Physics [131]
 When two substances at different tem- The value of gas constant r for different
perature are mixed together they ex- gases is different.
change heat. If we assume that no heat

Ideal Gas or Perfect Gas: It is that gas
is lost to the surroundings, then ac-
which strictly obeys gas laws. for such
cording to principle of calorimetry,
a gas, the size of the moelcules of a gas
Heat lost = Heat gained. is zero and there is no force of attrac-

Specific Heat of Gases : Specific heat tion or repulsion amongst its molecules.
of a gas is the amount of heat required
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of
to raise the temperature of one gram of Gases:
gas through 1°C. As the gas can be
(i) A gas consists of a very large number
heated under different conditions, and
different amounts of heat is required in of molecules which are perfectly elas-
each case, therefore, a gas does not pos- tic spheres and are identical in all
sess one single value of specific heat. respects for a given gas and are dif-
Out of many values of specific heat of a ferent for different gases.
gas, two are important. These are called (ii) The molecules of a gas are in a state of
two principal specific heats of a gas : continous, rapid and random motion.
1. Specific heat of a constant volume (cv) (iii) The volume occupied by the molecules
2. Specific heat of a constant pressure (cp) is negligible in comparison to the vol-
ume of the gas.

Boyle’s Law: It states that the volume
V of the given mass of a gas is inversely (iv) The molecules do not exert any force
proportional to its pressure P, when of attraction or repulsion on each other,
temperature is kept contant i.e. V = 1/ except during collision. on each other,
P or V = K/P except during collision.
PV = K a constant. (v) The collision of the molecules with
themselves and with the walls of the

Charle’s Law: It states that the pres- vessel are perfectly elastic.
sure remaining constant, the volume of
the given mass of a gas is directly pro- (vi) Molecular density is uniform through-
portional to its kelvin temperature i.e., out the gas.
V α T if P is constant. (vii) A molecule moves along a straight

Standard gas equation, PV = nRT line between two successive collisions.
where n is the number of moles con- (viii) the collisions are almost instantaneous.
tained in the given ideal gas of volume
Pressure exerted by a Gas : It is due to
V, pressure P and temperature TK. continous bombardment of gas mol-

Gas Constant: R is a universal gas con- ecules against the walls of the container
stant and r is a gas constant for 1 gram and is given by the relation.
of a gas. The universal gas constant is
defined as the work done by (or on) a
gas per mole per kelvin i.e., where C is the r.m.s. velocity of gas
molecules.

[132] General Science

 Cell Profile In an ideal gas, intermolecular forces
Daniel Cell Leclanche Cell Dry Cell
do not exist. Therefore, it possesses no
Positive Copper Carbon rod Carbon rod intermolecular potential energy. Thus
electrode vessel with brass cap internal energy of an ideal gas is wholly
Negative Zinc rod Zinc rod Zinc vessel
electrode kinetic.
Electrolyte dil H2SO4 NH4Cl solution Paste of NH4Cl and
saw dust
First Law of Thermodynamics is restate-
Depolariser CuSO4 Manganese Manganese
solution dioxide dioxide ment of the principle of conservation of
energy as applied to heat energy. Ac-

Average K.E. per molecule of a gas cording to this law
. It is independent of the dQ = dU + dW
mass of the gas but depends upon the
where dQ is the small amount of heat
temperature of the gas.
energy given to a system, dU is small

Absolute Zero : It is that temperature increase in internal energy of the sys-
at which the root mean square velocity tem and dW is the small external work
of the gas molecules reduces to zero. done by the system.

Thermodynamical System : An assem-
Thermodynamical Operations : Iso-
bly of extremely large number of par- thermal Changes are the changes in
ticles (such as gas molecules in a con- pressure and volume of the system
tainer) is called a thermodynamical sys- when temperature is kept constant. Free
tem. Such a system has a certain value exchange of heat between the system
of pressure P, volume V and tempera- and the surroundings is allowed. The
ture T and heat content Q. These are container must be perfectly conducting
called Thermodynamical parameters. and the changes must be brought about
slowly.
The equation of state of gaseous phase
of a substance is PV = n RT where n is Equation of isothermal changes is PV =
number of moles of the gas. constant or P2V2 = P1V1
The other two phases are solid phase
Adiabatic Changes are the changes in
and liquid phase. pressure and volume of the system,
when heat content of the system is kept

Internal Energy of a Gas is the sum of constant. No exchange of heat is al-
kinetic energy and the intermolecular lowed between the system and the sur-
potential energy of the molecules of the roundings. The container must there-
gas. fore be perfectly insulating and the
Intermolecular potential energy of a real changes must be sudden.
gas is a function of its volume. K.E. of
Second Law of Thermodynamics states
gas molecules is a function of its veloc- that it is impossible for self-acting ma-
ity and hence the temperature T. chine, unaided by an external agency
to convey heat from the body at lower
K.E./molecules where k is temperature to another at higher tem-
Boltzmann’s constant. perature. This statement of the law was
made by Calusius.

Physics [133]
 According to Kelvin, it is impossible to high temperature T 1 °K and Q 2 is
derive a continuous supply of work by amount of heat energy rejected to the
cooling a body to a temperature lower sink at constant low temperature T2°K.
than that of the coldest of its surround-

A Refrigerator or a Heat pump absorbs
ings.
heat Q2 from a sink at lower tempera-

Heat Engines : A heat engine is a de- ture T2°K. The sink is the substance to
vice which converts heat energy into
Cell Chemistry
mechanical energy. Efficiency of a heat
In charged Lead Accumulator Alkali Accumulator
engine is the ratio of useful work done Positive Perforated lead Perforated steel
(W) by the engine per cycle to the heat electrode plates coated with plate coated with
energy absorbed from the source (Q1) PbO2 Ni(OH)4
Negative Perforated lead Perforated steel
per cycle. electrode plates coated with plate coated with Fe
pure lead
Electrolyte Dil. H2SO4 20% solution of
KOH + 1% LiOH

where Q2 is the heat rejected to the sink be cooled. Heat absorbed from the sink
Power of a steam engine = 2 PLAN is rejected to the source (i.e., surround-
(watt) ing air) at high temperature T1°K. Elec-
tric energy W has to be supplied for this
where P is the pres- purpose Q1 = Q2 + W.
sure of steam measured in Nm–2, L is Coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) of
half the length of the stroke in metre, a refrigerator is the ratio of the heat
A is area of cross section of the piston absorbed from the sink (Q2) to the elec-
in m2 and N is number of strokes per tric energy supplied (W) for this pur-
second. pose per cycle i.e.,
Steam engine is an external combus-
tion engine. There are internal combus-
tion engines like petrol engine and die-
sel engine. These are four stroke en- i.e.,
gines.

Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine
which is based on Carnot’s reversible
cycle. Its working consists of four steps
Transfer of Heat: Three modes of trans-
viz. isothermal expansion, adiabatic fer of heat are : conduction; convec-
expansion, isothermal compression tion; and radiation. Coefficient of ther-
and aidabatic compression. The efffi- mal conductivity (K) of a solid conduc-
ciency of Carnot engine is given by tor is calculated from the relation.

where Q1 is heat energy absorbed from where A is area of hot face, ∆x is dis-
the source maintained at a constant tance between the hot and cold faces,

[134] General Science

 ∆Q is the small amount of heat con- roundings provided the temperature dif-
ducted in a small time (∆x), ∆T is differ- ference is small (= 30°C). i.e., E α (T– T0)
ence in temperature of hot and cold
faces.
ASTRONOMY
Here (∆T/∆x) temperature gradient i.e.,
rate of fall of temperature with dis-
It is a branch of science that deals with
tance in the direction of flow of heat. the study of position, composition, mo-
All liquids and gases are heated by con- tion and other related facts of heavenly
vection. Heat comes to us from the sun bodies.
by radiation.
Windows of Astronomy : The visible

Wien’s Displacement Law : It states light and radio waves coming from the
that the wavelength (λm) correspond- heavenly bodies are two windows to
ing to which energy emitted by a per- study about the sun, stars i.e., about
fectly black body is maximum is in- the universe, hence called windows of
versely proportional to the temperature the astronomy.

(T) of the black body i.e.,
Universe : The limitless expanse of

space around us consisting of solar sys-
where b is a constant of proportionality tem, stars, galaxies etc. is called uni-
and is called Wien’s constant. Its value verse.
is b = 2.898 × 10–3 mK.
Main constitutents of universe are: (i)

Stefan’s Law : It states that the total Solar system (ii) Stars (iii) Galaxies.
amount of energy radiated per second
per unit area of a perfectly black body
Solar System : It is the name given to
is directly proportional to the fourth the family of sun. Our solar system con-
power of the absolute temperature of sists of sun, nine planets (Mercury, Ve-
the body i.e., E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4 where σ nus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Ura-
is called Stefan’s constant. Its value is σ nus, Neptune, Pluto) orbiting around
= 5.67 × 10–8 watt m–2K–4 the sun, satellites (or moons) orbiting
around the planets, asteroids, comets
In case a perfectly black body at tem-
and meteroids.
perature T is placed in an enclosure at
temperature T0, then net amount of en-
Direction and time period of revolu-
ergy radiated per second per unit area by tion of a planet about its axis: The
the black body is given by E = σ (T4 - T04 ) sense of rotation of all the planets (except
If the body and enclosure are not per- for Venus and Uranus) is normally from
fectly black and have relative emissiv- west to east. For Venus and Uranus, the
ity ∈ we, may rewrite. sense of rotation is east to west and is
called retrograde. Our earth rotates about
its north axis to south axis from west to

Newton’s Law of Cooling : It states east in 23 hrs. and 58.1 minutes.
that the rate of loss of heat of a liquid is
Surface Temperature of a Planet : It
directly proportional to difference in can be estimated by two methods.
temperature of the liquid and the sur-
(i) Using Stefan’s law, i.e, E = s T 4

Physics [135]
 where E is the thermal energy emit- (i) There should be suitable tempera-
ted per second per unit area of the ture range as required for the life to
planet and T is its surface tempera- exist on a planet.
ture, s is the Stefan’s constant.
(ii) There should be proper atmosphere
(ii) Using Wien’s Displacement law. free from poisonous gases.
λmT = b. (iii) There should be plenty of water.
where λm is the wavelength correspond-
These conditions donot exist on any
ing to maximum intensity of radiation other planet except our earth.
emitted from the black body at tem- Hence, the life is not possible on
perature T and b is the Wien’s con- any other planet except earth.
stant.

Sun : It is the nearest star that we can

Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet : see. It is the heaviest body of our solar
The existence of atmosphere on a planet system. It is also known as yellow dwarf
can be decided by two factors : star.
(i) Acceleration due to gravity; and (i) The composition of the material of
(ii) Surface temperature of the planet. the sun is 78% hydrogen, about 21%
helium and remaining 2% all other
The planets like Mercury, Mars and heavier elements from lithium to
Pluto have large value of acceleration uranium. The temperature at the
due to gravity but they have high tem- centre of the sun is about 14 × 106K
perature also. With the increase in tem- and on the surface is 6000 0K. The
perature, the average velocity of the density of the material of the sun at
gas molecules increases and becomes the surface is about 10–4kg m–3 and
more than their escape velocities. Due at the centre is 104 kg m–3.
to this, the gas molecules have escaped
one by one and there is no atmosphere. (ii) Surface energy of the sun is due to
fusion process taking place inside

Chemical Composition of Atmosphere:
the sun, in which certain mass dis-
The spectrum of the radiations emitted
appears and equivalent amount of
by a planet helps us to decide the na-
energy is produced. The fusion re-
ture of the gases present in the atmo-
action can be represented as
sphere of a planet. In the spectrum,
dark lines correspond to particular ele- 41H1 → 2He4 + 1e0 + 26.7 MeV
ments present in the atmosphere of that
Stars : A star is a fiery luminous body
planet and intensity of the line tells which emits light of its own. After sun
about the relative abundance of the ele- the next nearest star to earth is Alpha
ment. centauri. Its distance is 4.3 light years.
Atmosphere of earth consists of 88%
Brightness of a Star : The brightness of
nitrogen, 21% oxygen with some a star is expressed through the system
carbondioxide and water vapour. of magnitude. Whereas the observed

Basic conditions for the existence of life magnitude of a star is the measure of its
on a planet are : brightness when observed from the

[136] General Science

 earth and absolute magnitude of a star out the major portion of its mass into
is the measure of its brightness at 10 interstaller space. This is the death of a
per second distance. star. The core left behind may end in
three ways:

Steller Spectra : The different stars are
of different colours and the spectrum (i) If the original mass of a star is less
of a star is related to its colour. There than two times the mass of the sun,
are seven classes of stellar spectra de- a white dwarf is produced. When it
noted by letters O,B, A, F, G, K and M. ceases to emit light, it becomes black
dwarf.
Our sun belongs to G class star.

Birth of a Star : When the interstellar (ii) If the original mass of a star is be-
dust and gas particles come closer to tween 2 to 5 times the mass of the
form a cloud due to gravitational force sun, neutron star is produced.
of attraction between them, the birth of (iii) If the original mass of a star is more
a star begins if the original cloud has a than 5 times the solar mass, the
mass of at least one thousand solar black hole is produced.
masses. As the particles of cloud come
closer, the gravitational attraction in-
Milky Way or Akash Ganga : It is the
creases. As the contraction of the cloud name of the galaxy to which our earth
continues, the pressure and tempera- belongs. The milky way is the glowing
ture of the cloud continues, the pres- belt of the sky formed by the combined
sure and temperature inside the cloud light of a very large number of stars. It
rise. At a certain stage, the cloud breaks is called milky way or Akash Ganga
up into large number of fragments of because the light from the various stars
smaller size and each fragment contin- together gives the impression of a stream
of milk flowing across the sky.
ues to shrink and its temperature con-
tinues to rise. When the temperature of Milky way is a spiral galaxy. Its mass is
a fragment reaches millions of degrees, 150 solar masses.
nuclear fusion begins to take place due
Quasars : These are quasi-stellar Radio
to which the fragment begins to radiate sources. Quasars are situated at very
light energy from its surface and it be- large distance from our solar system
comes a star. and are further receding away with a
speed of 0.9 times the speed of light.

Death of a Star : In each born star,
during the fusion process, the hydrogen
Pulsars : These are radio sources which
is converted into helium. When the con- emit radio signals at extremely regular
tent of hydrogen of a star decreases to a intervals of time. Their origin is due to
certain proportion, the core begins to neutron star.
contract while the outer regions expand.
Hubble’s Law : It states that the red
As a result, the surface temperature of shift (z) is directly proportional to the
star drops and the star becomes giant or distance (r) of the galaxy from us i.e., z
supergiant star. At the end, this star α r but
produces energy at a very high rate to
such an extent that it explodes in the
form of nova or supernova, throwing

Physics [137]

Pulse modulation is a system in which
continous wave forms are sampled at
regular intervals. Information regard-
where H is called Hubble’s constant. ing the signal is transmitted only at the
The quantity (l/H) has the dimensions sampling times together with any syn-
of time. Hubble’s law helps us to esti- chronizing pulses that may be required.
mate the age and evolution of the uni- The analog pulse modulation is of two
verse. The value of Hubble’s constant is types : pulse amplitude modulation
16 Km-s-1 per million light year. (PAM) and pulse time modulation
(PTM).
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY The digital pulse modulation is also of
two types : pulse code modulation

All modes of long distance communi- (PCM) and pulse delta modulation
cation have been superceded by com- (PDM).
munication through electrical signals,
Demodulation is the reverse process of
as they can be transmitted at extremely modulation which is performed in a
high speeds (–3 × 108 m/s). receiver to recover the original modu-

A basic communication system consists lating signal. Tuned frequency receiver
of information source, transmitter, re- (TRF) and superheterodyne receives are
ceiver and the link between transmitter commonly used for demodulation.
and receiver.
Data transmission is through a modu-

Modulation is the process of super-im- lator and data retrieval is through a
posing an audio frequency signal over demodulator.
a radio frequency carrier wave. Three
A modem is a modulating and demodu-
types of modulation are : amplitude lating device that connects one com-
modulation (AM), frequency modula- puter to another across ordinary tele-
tion (FM) and pulse modulation (PM). phone line.

In AM, amptitude of high frequency
Fax or facsimile telegraphy is the elec-
carrier wave is made proportional to tronic reproduction of a document at a
the instanteneous amplitude of the au- distance.
dio frequency modulating voltage.

The term space communication refers

In FM, frequency of carrier wave is
to the sending, receiving and process-
varied in accordance with the in-
ing of information through space. The
stantaneous value of the modulat-
information in the term of sound waves
ing voltage. However, the amplitude
can be sent from one place to another
of the carrier wave is kept constant.
place by superimposing it on undamped

Modulation index (m1) of FM wave is electromagnetic waves of high fre-
defined as the ratio of maximum fre- quency called carrier waves. The re-
quency deviation to the modulating fre- sulting wave so produced is called
quency. modulated wave which can travel

Frequency modulation is more advan- through space; with the velocity of light.
tageous compared to the amplitude Our earth’s atmosphere helps in the
modulation. propagation of electromagnetic waves.
[138] General Science

The electromagnetic waves of frequency It is that highest frequency of radiowaves
ranging from a few kilo hertz to about which when sent at some angle towards
a few hundred mega hertz (i.e., wave- the ionosphere gets reflected from that
length 0.3 m or above) are called radio and returns to the earth.
waves.

Skip Distance : It is the smallest dis-
The radiowaves emitted from a trans- tance from a transmitter along the
mitter antenna can reach the receiver earth’s surface, at which a sky wave of
antenna by following any of the fol- a fixed frequency, but more than criti-
lowing modes of propagation : cal frequency is sent back to the earth.
(i) Ground wave or surface wave
Fading : It is the variation in the strength
propagation. of a signal at a receiver due to interfer-
ence of waves. Fading is more at high
(ii) Sky wave propagation.
frequencies.
(iii) Space wave propagation.

Space Wave Propagation : The space

The radiowaves which travel through waves are the radio waves of very high
atmosphere following the surface of the frequency (i.e., between 30 MHz to 300
earth are known as ground waves or MHz or more). The space waves can
surface waves. The maximum range of travel through atmosphere from trans-
ground or surface wave propagation mitter antenna to receiver antenna ei-
depends on (i) the frequency of the ra- ther directly or after reflection from
dio waves; and (ii) power of the trans- ground in the earth’s troposphere
mitter. The ground wave propagation region. The space wave propagation is
is suitable for low and medium fre- also known as line of sight propagation.
quency (i.e. upto 2MHz only). The range of space wave propagation

The radiowaves of frequency ranging can be increased by using repeaters at
from 2 MHz to 30 MHz are called sky suitable distances from each other on the
waves. They can propagate through at- surface of the earth. The space wave
mosphere and are reflected back by the propagation is utilizing radio waves of
ionosphere layer of earth’s atmosphere. very high frequency (between 30 MHz
Since these waves travel through sky, to 300 MHz), ultra high frequency and
their propagation is known as sky wave microwaves. They are used in television
propagation. signal propagation and microwave
propagation.

Criticial Frequency (CF) : It is that
highest frequency of radiowave which
Satellite Communication : It is a mode
when set straight (i.e., normally) to- of communication of a signal between
wards the layer of ionosphere gets re- transmitter and receiver through satel-
flected from ionosphere and returns to lite. The satellite communication is like
the earth. If the frequency of radiowaves the line-of-sight microwave communi-
is more than the critical frequency, it cation. A geostationary satellite is used
will not be reflected by ionosphere. for satellite communication. The present
Indian communication satellites are

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) : INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C.

Physics [139]

Remote Sensing : It is a technique which surrounded by a cladding of material
is used to observe and measure the char- of refractive index slightly less than that
acteristics of the object with respect to of core and a protective jacket of insu-
its location, size, colour, nature, etc. It lating material. There are three types of
is related with measuring some kind of optical fibre configurations:
energy which is emitted, transmitted or (i) Single mode step-index fibre.
reflected from the object. Remote sens-
ing systems provide us the data critical (ii) Multi-mode step-index fibre.
to weather prediction, agriculture fore- (iii) Multi-mode graded-index fibre.
casting, resource exploration and envi-
Laser: Laser stands for light amplifica-
ronmental monitoring. The Indian re- tion by stimulated emission of radiation.
mote sensing satellites are IRS-1A, IRS The working of laser is based on stimu-
1B and IRS-1C. lated emission of radiation. The follow-

Most commonly used wire communication ing types of laser are used:
lines are : (i) Gas lasers (ii) Liquid lasers (iii) Solid
(i) Parallel wire line, (balanced lines) lasers (iv) Semiconductor lasers.
(ii) Twisted pair wire lines; and
Light Modulation: It is achieved by two
ways :
(iii) Co-axial wire lines (unbalanced
lines). (i) Direct modulation (ii) Indirect or ex-
ternal modulation. Direct modulation

Energy is dissipated in a transmission suffers from system degradations but
line in three ways : Radiation losses, indirect or external modulation does
conductor heating & the dielectric heat- not.
ing.

A co-axial cable system consists of a LIGHT
tube carrying a number of co-axial
cables together with repeaters and
Light is a form of energy which pro-
other ancilliary equipment. duces the sensation of sight.

A telephone link can be established
Speed of light in vacuum/air = 3 × 108
using ground waves, sky waves, mi- ms –1
cro waves, co-axial cables and the lat-
Luminous Body : A body which emits
est optical fibre cables. light of its own. For example, the sun.

Optical Communication : It is a system
Non-luminous Body : A body which
of communication by which we trans- does not emit light of its own but reflect
fer the information over any distance the light falling on it. For example, the
through optical range of frequencies. moon.
The light frequencies used in fibre opti-
cal system are in between 1014 Hz to 4 ×
Medium : Any substance through which
1014 Hz. (i.e. 100,000 to 400,000 GHz.). light may or may not pass is called me-
dium.

Optical Fibre: It consists of a central
core made of glass or plastic which is
Transparent Medium : A medium

[140] General Science

 through which light can pass is called mirrors inclined to each other at an angle
transparent medium.
For example : Air, glass, clean water.

Translucent Medium : A medium
Periscope : A periscope is a device used
through which only some parts of light to see the objects from a lower level.
can pass is called translucent medium.
Concave Mirror : Concave mirror is a
For example : Greased paper, butter pa- part of a hollow sphere whose outer
per, ground glass, paraffin wax, etc. part is silvered and the inner part is
reflecting surface.

Opaque Medium : A medium through
which light cannot pass .
Convex Mirror : Convex mirror is a part
of a hollow sphere whose outer part is
For Examples : Wood, stone, brick, iron, reflecting surface and inner part is sil-
etc. vered.

Ray of Light : A line drawn in the direc-
Centre of Curvature : The centre of hol-
tion of propagation of light is called ray low sphere of which the spherical mir-
of light. ror forms a part is called centre of curva-

Reflection of Light : The phenomenon ture. It is denoted by C.
of returning of light in the same medium
Radius of Curvature : The radius of
after striking a surface is called reflec- hollow sphere of which the spherical
tion of light. mirror forms a part is called radius of

Types of Reflection : curvature. It is denoted by R.
(i) Regular reflection (ii) Irregular reflec-
Pole : The mid point of a spherical mir-
tion. ror is called its pole. It is denoted by P.

Reflector : A surface which reflects the
Aperture : The part of the spherical mir-
light falling on it is called a reflector or a ror exposed to the incident light is called
reflecting surface. the aperture of the mirror.

Laws of Reflection : The reflection of
Principal Axis : A line joining the cen-
light from a surface obeys certain laws tre of curvature (C) and pole (P) of a
called laws of reflection. spherical mirror and extended on either
side is called principal axis.
(i) Incident angle is equal to the reflected
angle i.e. ∠i = ∠r.
Principal Focus : A point on the princi-
pal axis of a spherical mirror where the
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and nor- rays of light parallel to the principal axis
mal to the reflecting surface lie in the
meet after reflection from the mirror is
same plane.
called principal focus. It is denoted by F.

Lateral Inversion : The exchange of the
Focal Plane: A plane normal or perpen-
right and left side of an object and its dicular to the principal axis and passing
image is known as lateral inversion.
through the principal focus (F) of the

Number of images formed by two plane spherical mirror is called focal plane.

Physics [141]

Focal Length: The distance between the light in vacuum or air to the velocity of
pole (P) and principal focus (F) of the light in the medium.
spherical mirror is called the focal length

Principle of Reversibility of Light :
of the mirror.
‘If the path of a ray of light is reversed

Sign Conventions:
after suffering a number of refractions
(1) All types of distance are measured from and reflections, then it retraces its path’.
the pole of a spherical mirror. This is known as principle of reversibility
of light.
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
incident light are taken positive. Dis-
tance measured in the direction oppo-
site to that of the incident light are
taken as negative.
Total Internal Reflection : The phe-
(3) The upward distances perpendicular nomenon of reflection of total light when
to the principal axis are taken as posi- light travelling in a denser medium falls
tive, while the downward distances on the surface separating the rarer me-
perpendicular to the principal axis are dium and the denser medium at an angle
taken as negative. greater than the critical angle is called
total internal reflection.

Mirror Formula: The relation between
u, v, and focal length (f) of the spherical
Condition for Total Internal Reflec-
mirror is known as mirror formula. tion :

Linear Magnification: Linear magnifi- Total internal reflection of light takes
cation produced by a mirror is defined place if
as the ratio of the size (or height) of the (1) the light travels from denser medium
image to the size of the object. It is de- to rarer medium.
noted by m.
(2) the angle of incidence is greater

Refraction of Light : The change in the than the critical angle for the given
direction of propagation of light when it pair of denser and rarer media.
goes from one medium to another me-
dium is called refraction of light.
Lens : Lens is a transparent medium
bounded by two refracting surfaces.

Laws of Refraction :

Convex Lens or Converging Lens : A
(1) The incident ray, the refracted ray lens having both spherical surfaces or
and the normal to the surface sepa- one spherical and the other plane such
rating the two media all lie in the that it is thick in the middle and thin at
same plane. the edges is known as convex lens or
(2) The ratio of the sine of the incident converging lens.
angle to the sine of the refracted angle
Concave Lens or Diverging Lens : A
is constant for a pair of two media. lens having both spherical surfaces or

Refractive Index (µ) of a medium is one spherical and other plane such that
defined as the ratio of the velocity of it is thin in the middle and thick at the

[142] General Science

 edges is known as concave lens or di- principal axis meets or appears to meet
verging lens. after passing through the lens is called
second principal focus (F2).

Principal Axis : A line joining the cen-
tre of curvature to two spherical sur-
Second Focal Plane : A vertical plane
faces forming a lens is called principal passing through the second principal fo-
axis. cus is called second focal plane.

Optical Centre : A point in a lens through
Second Principal Focal Length : The
which rays of light passes undeviated. It is distance between the optical centre and
denoted by C. the second principal focus is called sec-
ond principal focal length. It is denoted

Principal Focus : A point in the principal
by f2.
axis where all rays of light parallel to the
principal axis meet or appear to meet
Sign Conventions :
after passing through the lens is called
(1) All distances are measured from the
principal focus of the lens.
optical centre of a lens.

Focal Length : The distance between the
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
principal focus and optical centre of a
the propagation of incident ray of light
lens is known as focal length of the lens.
are taken as positive, while distance
It is denoted by f.
measured in a direction opposite to the

Principal Foci : A beam of light may fall direction of incident ray of light are
on either side of a lens. Therefore, a lens taken as negative.
has two principal foci. They are de-
(3) Upward height with respect to the prin-
noted by F1 and F2. Both principal foci
cipal axis are taken as positive, while
are equidistant from the optical centre.
downward heights with respect to the

First Principal Focus (F1) : The position principal axis are taken as negative.
of a point on the principal axis of a lens

Lens Formula : The relation between
so that the rays of light starting from this
object distance (u), image distance (v)
point after passing through the lens
and focal length (f) of a lens is called lens
travel parallel to the principal axis is
formula.
called first principal focus (F1).

Power of a Lens is defined as the recip-

First Focal Plane : A vertical plane pass-
rocal of the focal length of the lens. It is
ing through the first principal focus is
denoted by P.
called first focal plane.
Unit of power of a lens is dioptre (D).

First Principal Focal Length : The dis-
tance between the optical centre and
Dispersion : The phenomenon of split-
the first principal focus is called first ting white light into seven colours when
principal focal length. It is denoted by it passes through a glass prism is called
f 1. dispersion of white light.

Second Principal Focus (F2) : The posi-
Monochromatic Light : A light consist-
tion of a point on the principal axis of a ing of only one colour or only one wave-
lens where a beam of light parallel to the length is known as monochromatic light.

Physics [143]
 Microscope & Telescope
Compound Microscope Astronomical Telescope
1. It is used to observe tiny objects. It is used to observe large and distant
objects.
2. The focal length of the objective The focal length of objective lens is
lens is small. large.
3. The focal length of the eyepiece is The focal length of eyepiece is small.
large.
4. The second focal point of objective The second focal point of objective
lens and first focal point of eye- lens coincides with the first focal
piece are separated by the point of the eye-piece.
distance equal to tube length
of the microscope.

Polychromatic Light : A light consisting Example : Yellow, Magenta and Cyan.

of more than two colours or more than

Complimentary Colours : Any two
two wavelengths is known as polychro-
colours are said to be a pair of compli-
matic light.
mentary colours if these produce white
For example, White light. light when mixed together.

Spectrum : A band of seven colours of
Primary Pigments : Yellow, Cyan and
white light is known as spectrum. Magenta are the examples of primary
pigments.

Pure Spectrum : A spectrum in which
various colours of white light occupy dis-
Secondary Pigments : When a pair of
tinct positions without overlapping each primary pigments are mixed together,
other on the screen is called pure spectrum. we get a new pigment known as sec-
ondary pigment.

Persistance of vision is about second.
ELECTRICITY

Pigments : A substance which absorbs
most of the colours of white light and
Electric Potential : Work done per unit
reflects one or more colours is called pig- charge is called electric potential.
ment.

Unit of Potential : S.I. unit of potential

Primary Colours : The colours which is volt.
are never obtained by mixing two or

Potential is a scalar quantity.
more colours are called primary colours.

Potential Difference : Potential differ-
Example : Red, Blue and Green.
ence between two points is defined as

Secondary Colours : When any two the work done in moving a unit positive
primary colours are mixed, then a new charge from one point to another point.
colour is formed. This new colour is

Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
known as secondary colour. Thus, the
colour obtained by mixing two primary
Equipotential Surface : A surface whose
colours are known as secondary colour. every point has the same potential is
known as equipotential surface.

[144] General Science


Electric Current : An electric current is perature and decreases with the de-
defined as the amount of charge flowing crease of the temperature.
through any cross-section of a conduc-
Resistivity or Specific Resistance : Re-
tor in unit time. sistivity is defined as the resistance of

Units : S.I. unit of electric current is the conductor of unit length and unit
ampere (A). area of cross-section.

Ampere (A) : Electric current through a
Unit of Resistivity :
conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one In CGS system, unit of resistivity is ohm-
coulomb charge flows through any cross- cm.
section of the conductor in one second.
In SI system, unit of resistivity is ohm-

Electric current is a scalar quantity. metre.

Ohm’s Law : This law states that, ‘the
Conductance : Conductance of a con-
electric current flowing in a conductor is ductor is the ability to pass charge or
directly proportional to the potential dif- current through it.
ference across the ends of the conduc-
tor, provided the temperature and other
Joule’s Law of Heating :
physical conditions of the conductor re- The amount of heat produced in a con-
mains the same’. ductor is

Resistance (R) : Resistance of a conduc- (i) directly proportional to the square
tor is the ability of the conductor to op- of the electric current flowing
pose the flow of charge through it. through it.

Unit of resistance is ohm. (ii) directly proportional to the resis-
tance of the conductor.

Ohm : Resistance of a conductor is said
to be 1 Ohm if a potential difference of 1 (iii) directly proportional to the time for
volt across the ends of the conductor pro- which the electric current flows
duces a current of 1 ampere through it. through the conductor.

Laws of Resistance :
Electric Fuse : Electric fuse is a safety
device used in an electric circuit or elec-
(1) Resistance of a conductor depends
tric appliance.
upon the nature of the material of
the conductor.
Electric Energy : The work done by a
source of electricity to maintain a cur-
(2) Resistance of a conductor is directly
rent in an electric circuit is known as
proportional to the length of the
electric energy.
conductor.

Electric Power : Electric power is de-
(3) Resistance of a conductor is inversely
fined as the amount of electric work done
proportional to each of crosssection
in one second.
of the conductor.
Unit of Power: S.I. unit of power is
(4) Resistivity of metallic conductor in-
watt.
creases with the increase of tem-

Physics [145]
 Practical unit of power is horse power
Cation : When an atom loses electron or
(h.p.) electrons, it becomes positively charged ion
known as cation.
1 h.p. = 746 w

Electrolytic Cell or Voltameter : A ves-
Commercial Unit of Energy : kilowatt-
sel containing electrolyte and electrodes
hour (kWH)
in which electrolysis takes place is called
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106J voltameter.

Electrolysis : The process by which a
When an electrolyte in a solid state is
substance is decomposed by the passage dissolved in water, it decomposes into
of electric current through it is called ions as the force of attraction between
electrolysis.
ions decrease by a factor of in water.

Electrolytes : Substances which in mol-
ten state or in aqueous solution conduct
Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis :
electricity by decomposing into negative
1st Law : The mass of any substance
and positive ions are called electrolytes.
liberated at an electrode is directly pro-

Strong Electrolytes : Substances which portional to the charge flowing through
in molten state or in aqueous solution the electrolyte.
completely decompose into negative and
i.e., m ∝ q or m = Zq or m = Zlt
positive ions are called strong electro-
lytes. 2nd Law : If same amount of charge
flows through different electrolytes, the

Weak Electrolytes : Substances which
masses of substances liberated or depos-
in molten state or aqueous solution par-
ited at electrodes are directly propor-
tially decompose into negative and posi-
tional to their chemical equivalents.
tive ions are called weak electrolytes.

Electro-chemical Equivalent (Z) is de-

Mercury is a liquid which conducts elec-
fined as the mass of the substance liber-
tricity without decomposing into ions.
ated at an electrode per unit charge flow-

Electrodes : The conducting rods or ing through the electrolyte.
plates through which an electric current

Unit of Z is kg/coulomb or g/coulomb.
enters or leaves the electrolyte are called
electrodes.
Chemical equivalent

Anode : The positive electrode is called
anode.

Cathode : The negative electrode is called

Electroplating : The process of deposit-
cathode.
ing a layer of superior metal over an-

Ion : Atom which has either lost or other cheaper metal or article by elec-
gained electrons is called ion. trolysis is called electroplating.

Anion : When an atom gains electron or
Electro-chemical Cell : A device in
electrons, it becomes negatively charged which a constant potential difference is
ion known as anion. maintained between two electrodes by a

[146] General Science

 chemical reaction is called electro chemi- CuSO4 are the examples of depolarisers.
cal cell.

Daniel Cell : Electrolyte used is dilute

E.M.F. of a Cell is the potential differ- sulphuric acid. Copper sulphate (CuSO4)
ence between two electrodes when no acts as depolarizer E.M.F. of Daniel cell
current is drawn from the cell. = 1.5V.

Terminal Voltage of a Cell is the po-
Leclanche Cell : Electrolyte used is am-
tential difference between two electrodes monium chloride solution, MnO2 acts as
when current is drawn from the cell. depolarizer, E.M.F. of Leclanche cell =
1.5V.

Internal Resistance of a Cell is the re-
sistance offered by a cell to the flow of
Dry cell is the modified and portable
current through it. form of a Leclanche cell.

Types of Electrochemical Cells: (i) Pri-
Primary cells cannot be re-charged while
mary cells (ii) Secondary cells. secondary cells can be re-charged.

Primary Cell converts chemical energy
Magnetic Field : The space around a
into electrical energy by irreversible current carrying conductor in which its
chemical reactions. magnetic effect can be experienced is
called magnetic field.

Secondary Cell : A cell in which electri-
cal energy is stored in the form of chemi-
Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule : If a cork
cal energy and then chemical energy is screw is driven in the direction of cur-
obtained in the form of electrical energy rent passing through the wire, then the
by reversible chemical reactions is called motion of the thumb shows the direction
a secondary cell. of the magnetic field.

Internal resistance of a primary cell is
Right Hand Thumb Rule : If a current
higher than that of a secondary cell. carrying conductor is imagined to be held
in the right hand such that thumb points

Voltaic Cell is primary cell in which
in the direction of the current, then the
dilute H2SO4 is used as electrolyte. Zinc
and copper plates are used as cathode fingers of the hand indicate the direction
and anode. of magnetic field.

Voltaic cell suffers from two defects: (i)
Solenoid: A solenoid is a coil of many
local action (ii) polarization turns of an insulated wire closely wound
in the shape of a cylinder.

The value of e.m.f. of voltaic cell = 1.08
V.
Uniform Magnetic Field : Magnetic field
is said to be uniform if its magnitude is

Polarization is the process of formation equal and direction is same at every point
of hydrogen bubbles on the electrode of in the space.
a cell, causing the e.m.f. of the cell to
drop and internal resistance of the cell
Electromagnets : When a soft iron bar is
to increase. placed inside a solenoid carrying cur-
rent, it becomes a magnet as long as

Polarization can be removed by a sub- current passes through the solenoid.
stance known as depolarizer, MnO2 and
Physics [147]
 Such magnets are known as electromag-
Joule’s Law of Heating : It states that
nets. the amount of heat produced in a con-
ductor is directly proportional to the-

Electromagnetic Induction : Whenever
magnetic flux linked with a circuit (i) square of the current flowing
changes, an induced e.m.f. is set up across through the conductor.
the circuit. This effect is known as elec-
(ii) resistance of the conductor and
tromagnetic induction.
(iii) time for which the current is passed.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic In-
duction :
Electric Power: It is defined as the rate
at which work is done in maintaining
First Law : Whenever magnetic flux
the current in electric circuit.
linked with a circuit changes, induced
e.m.f. is produced across it. This induced Electric power, P = VI = I2R = V2/R
e.m.f. last so long as the change in mag- watt or joule/second-
netic flux continues.
Electric Energy : The electric energy
Second Law : The magnitude of the consumed in a circuit is defined as the
induced e.m.f. produced in the circuit is total work done in maintaining the cur-
directly proportional to the rate of change rent in an electric circuit for a given
of magnetic flux linked with it. time.

Lenz’s law of Electromagnetic Induc- Electric energy = Vlt = Pt = I2 Rt = V2t/
tion : According to this law, the direc- R
tion of induced current is always such
S.I. unit of electric energy is joule (de-
that it opposes the cause producing it.
noted by J) where 1 joule = 1 watt × 1
Lenz’s law is in accordance with the second = 1 volt × 1 ampere × 1 second
law of conservation of energy.
Commercial unit of electric energy is

Electric Motor : Electric motor converts kilowatt hour (kWh)
electric energy into mechanical energy.
where 1kWH = 1000 Wh = 3.6 × 106J

D.C. Generator or Dynamo : A device

Electrolysis : The process of decompo-
which converts mechanical energy into
sition of a solution into ions on passing
direct current energy is called D.C. gen-
the current through it is called elec-
erator or Dynamo.
trolysis.

Direct Current : An electric current

Electrolyte : It is a substance which
whose magnitude is either constant or
allows the current to pass through it
variable but the direction of flow in a
and also decomposes into positive and
conductor remains the same is called
negative ions. For example, acids, bases,
direct current. It is donated by D.C.
salts dissolved in water, alochol are com-

Alternating Current : An electric cur- mon electroytes. Agl is a solid state
rent whose magnitude changes with time electroyte and KCl, NaCl are electro-
and direction reverses periodically is lytes in their molten state.
called alternating current. It is denoted
by A.C.
Electrodes : These are the two metal

[148] General Science

 plates which are partially dipped in tional to the quantity of charge passed
the solution for passing the current through the electrolyte i.e.,
through the electroyte.
m∝q

Anode : The electrode connected to the
or, m = zq
positive terminal of the battery i.e., the
electrode at higher potential, is called where z is the E.C.E. of the substance.
anode. Second Law : When same amount of

Cathode : The electrode connected to charge is made to pass through any num-
the negative terminal of the battery i.e., ber of electrolytes, the masses of the sub-
the electrode at lower potential, is called stances liberated or deposited at the elec-
cathode. trodes are proportional to their chemical

Ions : The charged constitutents of the equivalents i.e., where m1, m2 are
electrolyte which are liberated on pass-
ing current are called ions. the masses of the substances liberated or
deposited on electrodes during electroly-

Anions : The ions which carry negative sis and E1 and E2 are their chemical
charge and move towards the anode
equivalents.
during electrolysis are called anions.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis also

Cations : The ions which carry positive
states that E.C.E. of a substance is di-
charge and move towards the cathode
rectly proportional to the chemical
during electrolysis are called cations.
equivalent i.e., z ∝ E.

Voltameter : The vessel, containing elec-
trodes and electrolyte, in which the elec-
Faraday constant
trolysis is carried out is called a voltame- Thus Faraday constant is equal to the
ter. In copper voltameter the electrodes amount of charge required to liberate
are of copper plates and electrolyte is an the mass of a substance at an electrode
aqueous solution of CuSO4. During elec- during electrolysis, equal to its chemi-
trolysis copper is removed from the an- cal equivalent in grams.
ode and is deposited at the cathode. In
water voltameter the electrodes are of One Faraday = 1F = 96500 C/gm
pure platinum. The electrolyte is acidu- equivalent.
lated water i.e., water mixed with a small
Electrical Cell : It is a device by which
quantity of sulphuric acid. During elec- electric current is generated due to
trolysis hydrogen is liberated at cathode
chemical action taking place in it. Elec-
and oxygen at anode. The hydrogen col-
tric cells are of two types: (i) Primary
lected at cathode is double the amount
cells (ii) Secondary cells.
than the oxygen collected at anode.

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis.
Primary cell is that cell in which electri-
cal energy is produced due to chemical
First Law : The mass of the substance reaction which is irreversible. For ex-
liberated or deposited at an electrode ample : Voltaic cell, Daniel cell,
during electrolysis is directly propor- Leclanche cell, dry cell, etc.

Physics [149]

Secondary cell is that cell in which the
Neutral Temperature : It is that tem-
electrical energy is first stored up as chemi- perature of hot junction for which the
cal energy and when current is drawn thermo e.m.f produced in a thermo-
from the cell, the stored chemical energy couple is maximum. Neutral tempera-
is converted intro electrical energy. The ture depends upon the nature of the
chemical reaction is reversible in this cell. material of a thermocouple but is inde-
These cells are also known as storage pendent of the temperature of the cold
cells or accumulators. Examples are Acid junction.
or Lead accumulator and Alkali or Edison

Temperature of Inversion : It is that
cell.
temperature of hot junction at which

Seebeck Effect : It is the phenomenon the thermo e.m.f. produced in a thermo
of generation of an electric current in a couple becomes zero and just beyond, it
thermocouple by keeping its two junc- reverses its direction. The value of tem-
tions at different temperatures. perature of inversion depends upon: (i)
the temperature of the cold junction;
Seebeck found that the magnitude and
and (ii) the nature of materials forming
direction of thermo e.m.f. developed in
a thermocouple.
a thermocouple depends upon: (i) the
nature of metals forming a thermo-
Sources of energy : Renewable sources
couple; and (ii) difference in and Non-renewable sources.
temeprature of the two junctions.

Solar energy is the energy emitted by
Seeback effect is a reversible effect. It
the sun in the form of heat and light.
means, if hot and cold junctions are
inter-changed, the direction of thermo-
Visible light consists of seven colours
electric current is reversed. i.e., Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo, Violet.

Thermocouple : The assembly of two
different metals joined at their ends to
Wavelength range of visible light is from
have two junctions in a circuit is called 0.4 micron to 0.7 micron.
a thermocouple.
Red light has the longest wavelength

Seeback Series : Seeback, from his ex- and violet light has the shortest wave-
perimental investigations, arranged a length.
number of metals in a series known as
Infra-red rays are emitted by all hot bod-
Seeback series. Some of the metals, in ies.
this series, in the order Seeback arranged
them are bismuth, nickel, platinum, sil-
Infra-red rays are absorbed by CO2 and
ver, gold, copper, lead, zinc, iron and water vapours in the atmosphere of the
antimony. earth.

Direction of thermo-electric current in
Ultra-violet rays are harmful radiations
copper-iron thermocouple is from cop- and cause diseases like cancer and leu-
per to iron through hot junction. In Sb- kemia.
Bi, thermocouple, the direction of
Ultra-violet rays are absorbed by ozone
thermo-electric current is from Sb to Bi layer of atmosphere.
through cold junction.
[150] General Science

Light is a stream of packets of energy
Mass Number (A) of an atom is the sum
called photons. of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of the atom i.e. A = Z + N.

Energy of each photon, E = hv

Isotopes : The atoms of an element hav-

Solar energy is harnessed by solar de- ing same atomic number (Z) but differ-
vices like solar cooker, solar furnance, ent mass numbers (A) are known as iso-
solar cell, etc. topes of the element.

Nuclear fusion reactions are the source
All isotopes of an element have the same
of energy of the Sun. chemical properties.

Nuclear fusion reactions occur at about
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spon-
10 7°C. taneous emission of invisible radiations
by heavy elements.

German physicist Hans Bethe in 1939,
predicted that nuclear fusion of hydro-
Radioactivity was discovered by Henri
gen nuclei in the Sun is the source of Becquerel.
energy of the Sun.
The radiations emitted by radioactive

Atom consists of three particles namely elements are alpha particles (2He4), beta
proton (1H1), neutron (on1) and electron particles (–1e0) and gamma rays (γ). These
( –1e 0). radiations are very harmful to the living
organisms.

Nucleus of an atom contains protons
and neutrons and hence is positively
Gamma rays have the highest penetrat-
charged. ing power than the other two radia-
tions.

Electrons move around the nucleus in cir-
cular orbits.
Radio Isotopes are the isotopes of radio-
active elements.

Number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons
Nuclear forces keep the nucleons inside
revolving around it, so atom is electri- the nucleus. Small nuclei are stable and
cally neutral. big nuclei are unstable.

Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Mass of
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting
proton = 1.672 × 10–27 kg. a heavy nucleus into two small nuclei of
Mass of neutron = 1.674 × 10–27 kg. middle weight with the release of large
amount of energy.

Charge on an electron = –1.6 × 10–19C.
Charge on a proton = + 1.6 × 10–19C.
Uranium-235, isotope of Uranium is used
as a fuel in nuclear fission.

Protons and Neutrons inside the nucleus
are collectively known as nucleons.
Energy released in a single nuclear fis-
sion of U-235 is about 200 MeV.

Atomic Number (Z) of an atom is equal
to the number of protons in the nucleus
Uncontrolled chain reaction is the prin-
of the atom. ciple of atom bomb.

Physics [151]

Nuclear reactor is a device to carry out ter and graphite are the examples of
controlled chain reaction. moderator.

Nuclear fission reaction starts when U-
Cadmium rods are used to increase or
235 absorbs a slow neutron. decrease the nuclear fission reactions in
the nuclear reactor.

Moderator is a substance used to slow
down fast moving neutrons. Heavy wa-

[152] General Science