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Engineering Hydrology

An Introduction

NIT
UBRARY

Dr. Abdul Razzaq Ghumman

B. Sc . (Civil Engineering), M. Phil (Hydrology), Ph. D. (UK)
Dean, Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila

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Nastaleeq Publishers, Rawalpindi.

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Book Edited and Layout Design by Dr. Rafaqat Ali

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First published 2006

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My teachers, friends, colleagues and students

without whom I would not have been able

to enhance my understanding of the subject and enrich my life.

Professor P. R. Wormleaton of Queen Mary University of London

who gave many new ideas and made necessary corrections

after reviewing the book

Engr. Masood Ahmad Malik of

National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK)

who helped in the collection of data regarding

the Pakistani rivers and catchments.

Engr. Ishtiaq Hassan of

National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK)

whose services were available right from the start till the end.

Dr. Rafaqat Ali, Assistant Chief (EvaluationL L&DD Department, Punjab

who helped in editing, text corrections, layout de:iign uod publishing of the book.

Eng. Kashif Amin of

National Development Complex (NDC)

Who helped in editing, text corrections and publishing of the book.

 PREFACE

Of the three principal components of our environment - air, water and soil,

the water occupies a central position in the environmental makeup and so do the

water resources in environmental resources.

Hydrology - the science of water, plays a vital role not only in the protection

and management of water resources but also the environmental resources. Therefore,

Hydrology forms an essential part of undergraduate curricula of such diverse

disciplines as Civil Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Environmental Sciences,

Climatology, Geography, Geology, Earth Sciences, Forestry and Watershed Sciences.

Students are exposed to hydrology primarily through this course and they might not

have had an opportunity to be exposed to hydrologic phenomenon before. So they

need to be taught right from the basic level.

This book has been written right from the basic level and requires no previous

background of hydrology for its study and indeed the students can understand the
book, for most part, by themselves. Considerable efforts have been made to discuss

the basic concepts and illustrate them with examples with respect to Pakistan.

Lastly, I earnestly wait for valuable feedback from my learned colleagues and

dear students. It is only with their help that we can build upon this foundation.

Abdul Razzaq Ghumman

[email protected]
 CONTENTS
1. Hydrology - Basic Concepts
Hydrology
Engineering Hydrology 1
Need for Hydrologic Studies 1
Importance of Hydrology in Civil Engineering 2
Sciences Involved 3
Major Hydrologic Projects 3
Questions - A Hydrologist has to Answer 5
Hydrologic Cycle 5
Hydrologic Equation 9
Water Budget in a Catchment 12
Application of Hydrology to Environmental Problems 15
Questions 16
Exercise 16

2. Meteorology
Introduction 19
Atmosphere 19
Troposphere 19
Vapor Pressure 19
Saturation Vapor Pressure 20
Isobars 20
Relative Humidity and Dew Point 20
Measurement of Relative Humidity 21
Solar Radiation 23
Temperature 24
Temperature Variation 24
Measurement of Temperature 25
 Lapse Rate 26
Monsoon System in Pakistan 27
Western Disturbances 28
Monsoon and Western Disturbances as Cause of 29
Rainfall
Wind Measurement 30
Questions 32
Exercise 32

3. Precipitation
Introduction 35
Forms of Precipitation 35
Factors Influencing Precipitation 'Formation 36
Classification of Precipitation Based on the 38
Lifting Mechanism
Convectional Preci~tation 38
Orographic Precipitation 39
Cyclonic Precipitation 40
Measurement Of Precipitation 41
Non-Recording Rain Gauges 41
Recording Rain Gauges 42
Measurement of Precipitation by Radar 46
Rain-Gauge Network 46
Analysis Of Precipitation Data 47
Point Data Analysis 47
Estimation of Missing Precipitation Record 47
Consistency of Precipitation Data or Double Mass Analysis 50
Areal Precipitation Data Analysis 55
Estimation of Average Precipitation over a Basin 55
Arithmetic Mean Method 55
Thiessen Polygon Method 56
Isohyetal Method 60
Intensity of Precipitation 66
 Depth - Area Relationships 67
Mass Curve 67
Depth-Area-Duration Curves 67
Questions 82
Exercise 83

4. Losses From Precipitation

Introduction 89
Evaporation 89
Factors Affecting Evaporation 90
Estimation of Evaporation 90
Water Budget Approach 90
Energy Budget Approach 91
Mass Transfer Approach 92
Measuring Evaporation by Pans 94
Sunken Pan 94
Above Ground or Surface Pan 96
Floating Pans 96
Measurement of Evapotranspiration 98
Lysimeter 98
Infiltration 99
Measurement of Infiltration 99
Infiltration Indices 101
<P Index 101
W Index 103
Questions 104
Exercise 105

5. Stream Gauging
Introduction 109
River Stage 109
Channel Control 110
 Artificial Control 110
Selection of a Gauging Site 110
Measurement of River Stage 111
Non-Recording Gauges 111
Staff Gauge 111
Float Type Gauge 113
Electric Tape Gauge 114
Recording Gauges 115
Crest - Stage Gauge 115
Discharge Measurement 116
Free Flow Method (Velocity Area Method) 117
Current Meter 117
Pitot Tube 121
Floats 122
Essential Requirements for Good Discharge Measurement 124
Chemical Gauging Method (Dilution Method) 126
Sudden Injection 127
Constant Rate of Injection 127
Discharge Measurement by Permanent Structures 128
Stage and Discharge Relationship (Rating Curve) 129
Extension Of Rating Curve 130
Logarithmic Method 130
A? D Method 131
Slope Area Method 132
Stream Flow Units 137
Components of Runoff 139
Questions 140
Exercise 141

6. Hydrograph
Introduction 147
Basin Lag or Time Lag 148
 Parts of a Hydrograph 149
Components of Hydrograph 149
Separation of Hydrograph Components 150
Straight Line Method 150
Fixed Base Length Method 151
Variable Slope Method 152
Recession Curve Equation 153
Factors Affecting Hydrograph Shape 153
Storm Characteristics 154
Catchment Characteristics 154
Rate of Runoff 156
Unit Hydrograph 156
Derivation of Unit Hydrograph 157
Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph 160
'5' Curve 162
Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph 165
Composite Hydrograph 166
Synthetic Hydrograph 174
Snyder's Method 174
Questions 183
Exercise 184

7. Groundwater
Introd uction 191
Importance of Ground Water 191
Origin and Age of Groundwater 192
Aquifers 192
Darcy's Law 194
Well Hydraulics for Steady State Pumping 196
Questions 203
Exercise 203
8. Flood Routing
Introduction 207
Reservoir Routing 207
Stream Channel Routing or River Routing 216
Questions 223
Exercise 223

9. Frequency Analysis
Introduction 227
Return Period 227
Probability 228
Relationship between Probability and Return Period 230
Probability Distribution 231
Statistical Methods of Analysis of Hydrologic Data 235
Gumbel's Extreme Value Theory 235
Log Pearson Type III Distribution 236
Graphical Method 239
Questions 244
Exercise 244

Appendices
'A' Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressures with temperature 247
'B' Units Conversion 248
 HYDROLOGY
BASIC CONCEPTS

It is He who sends down water from the skies, and brings out of it everything that
grows, the green foliage, the grain lying close, the date palm trees with clusters
of dates, and the gardens of grapes, and of olives and pomegranates, so
similar yet so unlike. Look at the fruits, how they appear on the trees, and they
ripen. In all these are signs for those who believe.
(Ayat 99, AI-Anaam)
 HYDROLOGY - BASIC CONCEPTS
Hydrology

Hydrology is the science of the waters of the earth and its atmosphere. It deals
with occurrence, circulation, distribution and movements of these waters over the
globe and their interaction with the physical and biological environments.

Engineering Hydrology

Engineering hydrology is the branch of hydrology which deals with estimation

and analysis of water resources and related hydrologic quantities. It also
investigates hydrologic problems such as floods and droughts, and develops
strategies to mitigate them.

Need for the Hydrologic Studies

The need of the hydrologic studies arises mainly from the following hydrologic
problems:

a. Uncertainty of precipitation and its seasonal occurrence

b. Seasonal flow of rivers
c. Population growth and rising standards of living, and
d. Environmental impacts of development projects

Water is vital to life - plant, animal and human. Water resources ensure energy
and food security. Although water is extremely important for economy and life,
but the precipitation which is the main source of water, is an uncertain
phenomenon i.e. there might be plenty of rainfall when we do not need it and no
rain when it is required. So there is need to plan accordingly. It is necessary to
store surplus water when and where available and to use it when and where
required. Uncertainty of precipitation makes the study of various features of
hydrology exceedingly important for better planning and development of water
resources.
The flow in rivers varies from season to season. There are low-flows during lean
period and high-flows during floods. The floods, though bring fertile silts, but are
hazardous to human life and property. Flood mitigation is necessary to safeguard
human life, livestock, cash crops and control spread of disease.

The increased population and rising standards of living have greatly increased the
demands of water. Hydrologic studies are of utmost importance for planning and
development of water resources to meet these demands.

Importance of Hydrology in Civil Engineering

Hydrology has an important role in the design and operation of water resources
engineering projects like irrigation, flood control, water supply schemes,
hydropower projects and navigation. Many important civil engineering projects
have failed because of improper assessment of hydrologic aspects of the projects.
Hydraulic structures which are part of very important civil engineering projects
and cost billions of Rupees, may fail due to improper hydrologic design. For
example, a dam may fail due to inadequate spillway capacity. There may be
reservoir operational problems due to lack of hydrologic data like probable
inflows, evaporation and seepage. There might be failure of a bridge or a culvert
if its maximum design flood is not estimated properly. Construction of a dam may
cause problem for bridges upstream and downstream if proper hydrologic studies
regarding floods and erosion downstream are not estimated and taken into account
in design. Groundwater studies are important for installation of tube wells and
irrigation projects. These are just a few examples which show the importance of
hydrologic studies for civil engineering projects.

Major Aspects of Hydrology

The main jobs of a hydrologist are collection and analysis of data, and making
predictions out of this analysis.

i. Collection of Data

The hydrologic data comprises:

a. Rainfall Data
b. Snowfall and Snowmelt Data
c. Runoff Data (Catchment Runoff and Stream Flows)
d. Topographic Maps, and
e. Groundwater Data

2
ii. Analysis of Data

Analysis of hydrologic data includes checking it for consistency and homogeneity

as well as finding its various statistical parameters.

iii. Prediction

Prediction means finding design values and maximum possible floods and
droughts. Various approaches for prediction of hydrologic values are:

a. Statistical Approach
b. Physical Approach
c. Deterministic Approach

Sciences Involved

Hydrology is a very broad subject and it needs support from allied sciences such
as Physics, Mathematics, Geology, Geography, Meteorology, Forestry,
Agriculture and Hydraulics.

Major Hydrologic Projects

Engineering Hydrology provides hydrologic data essentially required for a variety

of projects, such as:

a. Hydraulic Structures like Dams, Bridges, Head-works, Spillways and

Culverts etc.
b. Hydroelectric Power Generation
c. Flood Control Projects
d. Irrigation Projects
e. Environmental Pollution Control, and
f. Planning and Execution of Water Resources Development Projects

Following is an exhaustive list of projects dealt with in Hydrology:

3
Design of:

o Surface water reservoirs

o Groundwater reservoirs
o Urban storm water sewers and airport drainage systems
o Urban water distribution systems
o Flood control structures (Dikes, River Improvement Works, etc.)
o Navigational systems (Locks, Ports, etc.)
o Agricultural drainage systems
o Temporary construction and mining drainage systems
o Tunnels and underground excavations
o Flow control systems for highway development
o Hydraulic structures (Bridges, Culverts, Dams, Barrages)
o Open channels and other river flow control structures
o Flood waves propagation
o Soil conservation
o Sanitary landfills and waste disposal facilities
o Contaminated-soil remedial systems
o Polluted-aquifer containment or restoration systems

Management of:

o Rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries and aquifers

o Crops, forests and pasture lands

Prediction and Forecasting of:

o Contamination effects on rivers and lakes

o Contamination propagation in soils and groundwater
o Effect of drainage on flood flows
o Environmental impact of water resources projects
o Environmental impact of deforestation
o Environmental impact of urbanization
o Environmental impact of chemical spills
o Environmental impact of chemical leaks from tanks
o Environmental impact of leachates from landfills
o Environmental impact of pesticide application
o Environmental impact of global climate change
o Flood waves propagation

4
Questions - a Hydrologist has to answer

Some of the typical questions that a hydrologist has to answer are:

1. Is the flow of stream sufficient to meet the needs of a city or industry seeking
the water supply, or an irrigation project, or a proposed water resource
development, or navigation, or recreation?

2. Would a reservoir be required in connection with any of the proposed uses

and if so, what should be its capacity?

3. In the design of a flood protection system a barrage, a culvert or a spillway for

a dam, what is the design flood that may be expected to occur with any
specified frequency?

4. What would be the effect of draining an upland area or a marshy region upon
the flow of stream from the water shed?

5. How would certain changes, removal of forests etc., affect the ground water
level or the stream flow from such an area?

In order to answer the above and other similar questions work is undertaken in
three phases (as also mentioned earlier), which are collection of data, analysis of
data and making predictions out of this analysis.

The data that must be collected includes stream flow records, precIpitation
records, topographic maps, groundwater data, evaporation data and transpiration
data.

Hydrologic Cycle

Journey of water from the ocean to atmosphere and back to the earth and
ultimately to the ocean through the processes of evaporation, precipitation,
percolation & runoff is called hydrologic cycle. The importance of hydrologic
cycle in hydrology is such that Hydrology is also briefly defined as the science of
hydrologic cycle.

Figure 1.1 shows a schematic flow chart of the hydrologic cycle. Though the
actual hydrologic cycle is quite complex, this figure just broadly depicts the
sequence of major events of the cycle. The hydrologic cycle can be broadly

5
divided into two phases - land phase, and atmospheric phase. Before discussing
the two phases of hydrologic cycle, some of the related terms are defined below:

Infiltration

Precipitation falling on the ground is, to some extent, absorbed by the land. This
absorption of precipitation water by land from the surface of earth is called
infiltration.

Interception

A part of the precipitation is obstructed by vegetation and temporarily remains

there. This process is called interception. Later the intercepted water is either
evaporated or infiltrated.

6
 Atmosphere
Clouds

Evaporation

r--
•
Direct Runoff
Precipitation

J
y

... -
Infiltration
Ground Water
Flow
~

~ Interception

L-. Surface Storage

Sea

Fig 1.1 Schematic Flow Chart of Hydrologic Cycle

7
Depression Storage

A part of precipitation is stored in depressions on the catchment area. This is

called depression storage.

Detention Storage

When the precipitation occurs for a longer duration and at a rate greater than the
rate of infiltration some water is collected on the surface of the earth up to a
certain depth. On attaining a certain depth, the action of gravity makes this water
flow. Before it starts flowing, the water stored on the surface of earth is called
detention storage.

Runoff

After the detention storage is built up, as explained above, the water will start
flowing over the ground and is called runoff.

Inter Flow

The part of infiltrated water which moves laterally through the upper soil layers
above the groundwater level and soon joins the stream is called inter flow.

Total Runoff

A part of infiltrated water moves in the form of inter flow which soon joins the
stream, the remaining portion of infiltrated water percolates to deeper layers of the
ground and is stored as groundwater. This groundwater sometimes also joins the
stream flow through springs and seepage process. The stream flow is then called
the total runoff i. e. it is sum of all the components of precipitation water. Direct
runoff plus the losses gives total runoff.

The runoff can be expressed in depth units for a certain area or it can be expressed
in volume units. It can also be expressed in discharge units for a specified time.

Note that 'x' cm of runoff means that water, having 'x' cm depth, is spread
uniformly over the catchment. Runoff in volume units can be obtained by
multiplying the depth with the area of the catchment.

Now we come back to explain the hydrologic cycle.

8
Atmospheric Phase of Hydrologic Cycle

Atmospheric phase of hydrologic cycle starts with the formation of clouds after
vaporization from water bodies and ends after the occurrence of precipitation.

Land Phase of Hydrologic Cycle

After occurrence of precipitation, water comes in contact with the earth surface
and hydrologic cycle enters the land phase. Part of precipitation is infiltrated and a
part of it, depending upon circumstances, is intercepted by trees and vegetation. If
there are depressions in the surface upon which precipitation falls, a part of
precipitation will be stored in the depressions in the form of depression storage.
All of these parts are liable to vaporization. Rainwater stands on the surface of
earth where it falls, after various losses, depending upon the rate of rainfall. When
the depth of standing water becomes sufficient it starts flowing over the ground
surface in the form of surface runoff. During the travel of surface runoff towards
streams, again a part of water is infiltrated and a part of it is evaporated. A part of
infiltrated water moves laterally through the upper soil layers above the
groundwater level, in the form of interflow which soon joins the stream flow. The
remaining portion of infiltrated water percolates to deeper layers of the ground
and is stored as groundwater. Sometimes this ground water joins the stream flow
through spring or seepage process. The stream flow is then called the total runoff.
The total runoff from the streams goes back to the oceans subjected to
vaporization throughout its travel. The depression storage is either evaporated or
infiltrated into the ground and similar is the case of interception. The ground
water also may go to oceans after a long time.

Hydrologic Equation

The hydrologic equation states that for a given time interval, difference of inf10w
to and outflow from a system is equal to change of storage of the system. In its
differential form it states that rate of volume inflow minus the rate of volume
outflow is equal to the rate of change of storage. Mathematically

I-0 = .0.S /.0.t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.1

Where,

9
 I = Rate of volume inflow (volume/time), measured in m'/sec, ft 3/sec,
etc.
o = Rate of volume outflow (volume/time) measured in m3/sec, ft 3/sec,
etc.
6S / M = Rate of change of storage (' S' represents storage and 't'
represents Time, hence this is also Volume / time)

The above equation is a hydrologic or storage equation which only

approximates some hydrologic processes.

It is used in many different ways. If, for example, assuming inflow

changes linearly from '11' to 'b' in time '6t', the outflow changes linearly
from '0 1 ' to '0 2' and storage changes from'S l' to 'S2' in this time, the equation
can be written as:

If we fix time '61' and talk about total inflow in certain time '61', total outflow
and total change in storage in that time, the hydrologic equation can be written as:

Volume inflow - Volume outt1ow = Total change in storage.

If further, we fix the area of the system (for example, we talk of a catchment) and
assume inflow as precipitation 'p', the outflow as the losses 'L' and runoff 'R'
then the equation can be written as:

P- L- R =D - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.3

Where'D' is the depression storage.

This concept is further applied to estimate the water budget of a catchment.

10
Components of Inflow

There are two components of inflow, viz.

a. precipitation over the catchment and reservoir, and
b. surface or groundwater flow from other catchment areas.

Components of Outflow

Three components of outflow are:

a. surface evaporation
b. groundwater seepage, and
c. direct runoff i.e. water taken for irrigation or to spill ways for producing
power

Example 1.1

Flow of River Chenab at Marala Barrage varied linearly from 34 cumec (m%ec) to
283 cumec in 10-hours during a flood. The flow variation at Khanki Barrage,
downstream of Marala was observed to be from 28 to 255 cumec during the above
mentioned time. Assuming no lateral flow in or out of the reach, find out the rate
of change of storage of the river reach between Marala and Khanki. What is total
change in storage of the reach in this period?

Solution
II = 34 cumec 12 = 283 cumec
0 1 = 28 cumec O 2 = 255 cumec
1= ( II + h) / 2 = ( 34 + 283 ) / 2 = 158.5 cumec
0= ( 0 1 + O 2 ) / 2 = ( 28 + 255 )/2 = 141.5 cumec
.6.S / .6.t = ?
According to hydrologic equation
( II + 12 ) /2 - ( 0 1 + O 2 ) / 2 = .6.S / .6.t
158.5 - 141.5 =.6.S /.6.t = 17 cumec
= 10 x 60 x 60 = 3.6 X 104 sec
.6.t = 10 hours
Total change in storage = .6.S = (.6.S / .6.t) x .6.t
= 17 x 36,000 = 6.12 x 105 m 3

11
Example 1.2

Water at a constant rate of 370 cumec was observed to be entering into Tarbela
Reservoir in a certain season. If outflow from the reservoir including infiltration
and evaporation losses is 280 cumec, find out the change in storage of reservoir
for 10 such days. Also convert your answer into Hectare-Meter.

Solution
1= 370 cumec
0= 280 cumec

According to hydrologic equation,

I - 0 = L1S / L1t
370 - 280 = L1S / L1t =90 cumec
L1t =:::10 x 24 = 240 hours = 240 x 60 x 60 = 864x103 sec
Total change in storage = L1S = (L1S / L1t) x L1t
3
= 90 x 864x 103 = 777 .6x I 0" m

= 777.6x 104 / 104 = 777.6 Hectare-m

Water Budget in a Catchment

The water budget of a catchment is similar to budget of a country. The water

budget in a catchment can be given by hydrologic equation. If we take the inflow
as the precipitation 'P' on the ground surface, outflow as interception losses 'Li"
surface runoff 'R' and evaporation 'Le' and the change in storage due to
Infiltration 'F' and Depression storage 'D', the hydrologic equation is expressed
as:

P - ( Li + R + Le ) = D + F
or R = P - ( Li + Le + D + F )
R = P- The Losses.
R=P-L

12
If all the quantities on right-hand-side of the above equation could be measured,
the surface runoff of a given catchment as result of a known precipitation could
easily be determined. But unfortunately, it is very difficult to get these values
directly. The hydrologists have therefore evolved a number of direct and indirect
techniques to find the rainfall - runoff relationship described by the above
equation.

Example 1.3

A precipitation measuring 125 mm occurred over a catchment. If the infiltration,

interception, depression storage and other losses are 50 mm, find direct runoff and
total runoff.

Solution

Precipitation P = 125 mm
Losses L =50mm
Direct runoff (DRO) = P - L = 125 - 50 = 75 mm
Total runoff = DRO + L = 75+50 = 125 mm

Example 1.4

A part of catchment area of Hub River measuring 78 km 2 received 100 mm of

rainfall in 3 hours due to a storm. Runoff from this part of catchment area goes to Hub
River through a stream. The stream was dry before rainfall and there was flow in the
stream for a period of 2.5 days with an average discharge of 10 cumec. After the
storm runoff, the stream again became dry. Find the losses, direct runoff and total
runoff in cumec and Hectare-meter.

Solution

According to hydrologic equation,

Area of Catchment 'A' = 78 km 2 =78x106 m 2
P = 100 mm =0.1 m
Q = 10 m 3/sec
t = 2.5 days = 2.5 x 24 x 60 x 60 sec

13
 6
Total Runoff = P x A = ( 0.1 ) x 78 X 10 = 7.8 x10 6m 3
6 4
= 7.8 x 10 / 10 = 780 Hectare-m

DRO = 10 x 2.5 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 2.16x106 m 3 = 216 Hectare-m
Losses 'L' =P - R = 7.8 X 106 - 2.16 X 106 = 5.64 x 106m 3
= 564 Hectare-m

Example 1.5

Assume that Mangla Reservoir has surface area of 39 sq. km in the beginning of a
certain month and the water depth is 76.20 m for this whole surface of the lake.
Further assume that sides of reservoir are nearly vertical. The reservoir received
an average inflow of 226.50 cumec as a direct runoff in the same month, and
direct precipitation of 125 mm. The outflow from the reservoir was 170 cumec
and evaporation and seepage losses were estimated to be 113 mm during the
month. Find out depth of reservoir at the end of that month and total increase or
decrease in the storage.

Solution

The hydrologic equation will be applied to solve this water budget related
problem.

~t = 1 month = 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592x 106 sec.

6 3
Total inflow as direct runoff = I x ~t = 226.50 x 2.592x 10 m
= 587.088x106 m 3
Addition from precipitation = precipitation x surface area of reservoir
= (125110 3)x39x106 = 4.875xl06 m 3
Total outflow = 0 {( ~t = 170 x 2.592x106 = 440.64x10 6 m
3

Losses = ( Evaporation + Seepage) x Surface area of reservoir

6 3
= (113/1 0 3 ) x 39 X 106 = 4.407 x 10 m
Now the total change in volume of storage

14
 =(total volume of inflow + total volume of precipitation) - ( total volume
of outflow + total volume of losses)
= (587.088 X 106 + 4.875 X 106 ) - ( 440.64 X 106 + 4.407 X 106 )
= 146.916 X 106 m 3
Change in depth of reservoir = change in storage / surface area
= 146.916 x 106 /39 X 106 = 3.77 m
Depth at the end of month = depth in the beginning + change in depth
= 76.20 + 3.77 = 79.97 m

Application of Hydrology to Environmental Problems

Most of environmental aspects are directly or indirectly related to water. Floods

have environmental effects, droughts affect the environment, constructing a dam
or a barrage has environmental effects, groundwater pollution affects
environment. All forms of life are water-dependent. Land, air and water are
interrelated. As world's population is increasing, living standards are rising and
the recreational demands are growing, as a result of which, there are new
developments in industry and food production. Due to these man-made activities,
water demands are increasing and the environment is changing day by day.
Planning and development of sustainable water resources has become a
challenging job for hydrologists. It is very important to understand the hydrologic
process in order to develop water resources with least harm to the environment.

15
QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on importance of Hydrology in Civil Engineering.

2. Explain 'Hydrologic Cycle'.

3. What is Hydrologic Equation?

4. What is meant by Catchment Area, Why is it studied? Do Basin and

Watershed mean the same? Explain.

5. Define the term Runoff and describe various units to express runoff.

EXERCISE
l. During July, 1996 monthly inflow to Tarbela Reservoir was 20 billion
cubic meters and outflow was 18.70 billion cubic meters. Find the rate
of change of storage and change in storage during the period.

2. At Basha Reservoir the storage volume is 11,410 million cubic meters

at elevation of I, I 80 m. If inflow is 11,500 cubic meters per second.
Find the time to fill the reservoir up to mentioned elevation. Assume
that losses are negligible.

3. Mangla Lake had a water surface level of 650 m above a datum at the
beginning of a certain month. In that month the lake received an
average inflow of 250 cumecs. There was an outflow of 150 cumecs.
In the same month, the lake received a rainfall of 150 mm and the
evaporation from the lake surface was 5 cm. Using hydrologic
equation, estimate the water surface elevation of the lake at the end of
the month. Assume the lake surface area as 450 hectares and that there
was no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
4. A catchment area of 100 Sq. Km. in Gilgit received a rainfall of 12 cm
from a 3-hours storm. At the outlet of the catchment, a natural stream
had a steady flow of 10 cumecs before the storm and experienced a
runoff lasting for 20 hours with an average discharge value of 90
cumecs. The stream was again to its original steady state with a flow
of 10 cumecs. Estimate the losses and ratio of runoff to precipitation.

16
 METEOROLOGY

It is He who sends down water from the sky of which you drink, and which nourishes
the plants you feed your cattle, with which He makes crops grow, and olives, dates
and grapes and fruits of every kind for you, In this is a sign for those who think,
(Ayat 10, 11, An-Nahl)
18
 METEOROLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the science related to atmosphere. Its knowledge is required for
estimation of probable maximum precipitation and optimum snowmelt conditions.
This is required for design of various hydraulic structures. A hydrologist needs to
have some knowledge of regional climate & meteorological process. Definitions
of a few terms used in this chapter are given below.

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope around the earth. It consists of dry air, water
vapor and various kinds of salts and dusts. The total amount of dry air and water
vapors would be over 5,600 billion tons and about 146 billion tons, respectively. If
all the water vapors present in the atmosphere are imagined to condense and fall
uniformly over the earth, it will accumulate to a depth of 25 mm.

Troposphere

It is the zone of atmosphere adjacent to earth. It extends approximately up to

seven miles above sea level. Almost 100 % of the total moisture contents of the
atmosphere are present in this zone and there is comparatively high temperature
gradient in this part of atmosphere.

Vapor Pressure

It is the pressure exerted by the amount of water vapors present in the atmosphere.
It is usually denoted by "e" and expressed in millibars. A Millibar is defined as
the pressure exerted by a force of one thousand dynes on one square cm surface.

1.33 millibar = 1 mm of Hg.

19
Since the temperature of water vapor is the same as that of the au III the
atmosphere, the maximum amount of water vapor may be said to depend on the
air temperature. The higher the temperature, the more vapor can the atmospheric
air hold.

Saturation Vapor Pressure

When a sample of air holds the maximum quantity of water vapors at a particular
temperature it is said to be saturated. The pressure exerted by water vapors, when the
air is fully saturated with water vapors, is known as the saturation vapor pressure.
It is denoted by 'e s '. The variation of 'e s ' with temperature can be seen from any
standard handbook on Hydrology.

Isobars

These are the lines joining points of same atmospheric pressure at a given
elevation. The horizontal distribution of pressure is generally shown on weather
charts by isobars. The spacing between isobars is a measure of the pressure
gradient.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT

The relation between temperature and saturation vapor pressure is shown in
Figure 2.1. Suppose that a parcel of air has a temperature 'T' and vapor pressure
'e' indicated by point 'D' in the Fig. If more vapor were added at constant
temperature 'T' point 'D' would move vertically upward towards 'B' and the air
would be saturated when 'B' is reached and the corresponding saturation vapor
pressure would be 'e s '.

The difference, e s - e = Saturation deficit and the relation

(e / e s) x 100 = Relative humidity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.1

When the air is cooled at a constant atmospheric pressure, the temperature at

which air becomes saturated is called Dew Point i.e. the point 'D' will come to
point 'C' in figure 2.1.

20
 35
Oi 30
:z:
E
.s 25
~
20
"'"
'~"
0..
~
15
c I
Co
III
10 ----------~ D(T, C)
>
c: 5
.2
~ 0
"
"'
en -10 0 10
Temperature "C
20 30 40

Fig 2.1 Saturation Vapor Pressure of Water in Air

The relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapor pressure at certain temperature
and the saturation vapor pressure. Thus the relative humidity is 100 percent when
the air is saturated. If the parcel of air is cooled at constant pressure 'e' and
without addition of vapor, the point '0' would move horizontally towards 'C'.
The air would be saturated when 'C' is reached dnd the corresponding
temperature 'Ta' is the Dew poillt. The dew point is thus the temperature at which
water vapor present in the atmosphere will cOlldense if the air is cooled.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

The instruments used for measurements of relative humidity are:

(i) Psychrometer ( ii) Hair hvarometcr

_0

(i i i) Hygrograph ( iv) Thermo-hygrograph

Psychrometer

Psychrometer consists of two thermometers - Dry bulb thermometer and

Wet bulb thermometer. The mercury bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by
a jacket of clean muslin cloth saturated with water. This is done by putting a
beaker with distilled water underneath so that the bulb is not submerged in water
but only the cloth. Then water rises due to capillary action. The thermometers
are ventilated by whirling or by use of a fan. As a result of evaporation cooling
takes place. Readings are taken on both the thermometers simultaneously. The

21
dry bulb reading is denoted as T d and wet bulb reading as T w. The difference of
these two temperatures is called the wet bulb depression.

i.e. Td - T w = Wet bulb depression - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2

Using these readings, the relative humidity can be found from the psychrometer
tables.

The value of 'e' for air temperature' T; may be obtained by the relation:

( e s - e ) = V ( T a - T w) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.3
or
e = es - V ( T a - T w) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.4

Where V = psychrometer constant and its value is 0.660 when 'e' is measured in
millibar units and 0.485 when it is measured in units of 'mm of Hg'.

Example 2.1

Given the air temperature as T a = 24°C and the wet bulb temperature T w = 21 ° C.
Find relative humidity and dew point.

Solution

From Equation 2.2

Wet bulb depression = 24° - 21 ° = 3° C.
From table A-I, Appendix-A, we get,
For Ta = 24°C, es = 22.27 mm of Hg
For Tw = 21°C e w= 18.65 mm of Hg
Therefore Equation 2.4 yields,
e = 18.65-0.485(3) = 17.20 mm of Hg
Relative humidity = [ 17.20/ 22.27 ] x 100 = 77 %
And the dew point is the temperature read from Table A-I of Appendix-A
corresponding to 'e' which is 19.7 °c.

22
The hair hygrometer consists of a frame in which a strand of hair is kept at
approximately constant tension. Changes in length of the hair corresponding to
changes in relative humidity are transmitted to a pointer. This instrument is
seldom used for meteorological purposes, but it is an inexpensive humidity
indicator and is often found in homes and offices.

The hair hygrograph is essentially a hair hygrometer, but is automatic recording

instrument. The movement of hair activates a pen, which records on a rotating
drum. The hygrothermograph combines the registration of both relative
humidity and temperature on one record sheet.

SOLAR RADIATION
The only source of heat energy for earth system is the sun. Whatever heat is
received by earth or reflected is the solar energy. Depending upon the shape,
rotation, angle of inclination of earth, it is visualized that solar energy received by
earth is changing from time to time and point to point.
The solar radiation comes to the earth in the form of a high temperature radiation.
A part of this radiation may be intercepted by the clouds but most of it is reflected
back into space. The fraction of the total incoming radiation which is reflected
back by the earth is called albedo. Under average conditions, the albedo of the
earth as a whole is about 40%, of the remaining 60% a small part is absorbed in
the atmosphere but the bulk is absorbed in the earth surface.

Solar energy received by sun is the maximum at the equator and decreases pole-
wards. The variations in solar energy are the following:

a. Diurnal Variation
b. Seasonal Variation
c. Regional Variation.

The units for radiation flux per unit area are either joules per square centimeters
or milliwatt hours per square centimeter. In some countries calories per square
centimeters is designated as Langley and the corresponding unit of radiation flux
is Langley per minute. The intensity of direct solar radiation at normal incidence
is measured with an instrument called a Pyrheliometer.

23
The principal exposure requirements of this instrument are that it should be free
from obstructions to the solar beam at all times of day and seasons of the year.
The site should be chosen so that the incidence of fog, smoke and air-borne
pollution is as less as possible in that area.

The Bi-metallic Actinograph is used for measurement of global radiation from

sun and sky on a horizontal surface. In this instrument a mechanical linkage is
used to record the temperature difference between a black coated Bi-metallic strip
exposed to solar radiation and two similar bimetallic strips painted white.
Because of the large mass of the bimetallic strips, the response time of the
instrument is large and the instrument is only suitable for the purpose of obtaining
estimates of daily totals.

TEMPERATURE
The degree of hotness or coldness is called the temperature. Its units of
measurement are Degree Centigrade ( °C ) or Degree Fahrenheit ( OF ).

Temperature Variation

There are three types of temperature variations.

i. Daily Variation of Temperature

The daily variation of temperature is dependent on the elevation of the sun, the
cloud cover and the wind speed. The variation of temperature is large in low
latitudes and small in high latitudes, with the result that the daily variation
decreases from equator towards poles.

The clouds reduce the radiations coming down during the day and outgoing
radiations during the night. On a cloudy day, the maximum temperature is lower
and the minimum temperature higher than on normal bright days. On windy days
the temperature on ground surface is lower than on calm days, because the greater
mobility of air along the vertical axis results in greater heat exchange with the
upper atmospheric layers.

ii. Seasonal Variation

The seasonal variation in rainfall and wind also affect the temperature. During the
rainy season, the cloud cover is large with the result that less radiation is received

24
by the earth. Annual migration of vast masses of air also brings about horizontal
heat exchange and thus affects the annual range of temperature variation.

iii. Regional Variation of Temperature

Since the amount of net radiation decreases with increasing latitude, the
temperature tends to be highest at the equator and decreases towards the poles.

Measurement of Temperature

The temperature is measured with the help of thermometers. There are two types
of thermometers - Maximum thermometer (Mercury Type thermometer) and
Minimum Thermometer (Alcoholic type thermometer).

In order to measure the air temperature properly, thermometers must be placed

where air circulation is relatively unobstructed and yet they must be protected
from the direct sunrays and from precipitation. Therefore thermometers are
placed in white, louvered, wooden boxes, called instrument shelters. These
shelters are set about 4.5 feet above the ground. The readings are taken at 8.00
a.m. and 5.00 p.m.

The thermograph, with either a bi-metallic strip or a metallic tube filled with
alcohol or mercury for its thermometric element, makes an autograph record for
the past 24 hours, week or one month on a ruled chart wrapped around a clock
driven cylinder.

Four commonly used terms of temperature are:

i. Mean Daily Temperature

It is the average of maximum and minimum temperatures during the past 24

hours. Daily minimum and maximum temperatures are recorded at 9 am.

ii. Normal Daily Temperature

It is the average daily mean temperature for a given day over the past 30-years
period i. e. it is the mean temperature for a specific day

25
iii. Mean Monthly Temperature

It is the average of the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures or it

is the mean temperature of the mean daily temperatures during the month.

iv. Mean Annual Temperature

It is the mean temperature of 12 months.

LAPSE RATE
The lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient is defined as the change in
temperature per unit distance in the vertical direction from the Earth surface. The
average value of the lapse rate is 3.6° F per 1,000 ft ( 304.8 m ). The greatest
variation in lapse rate is found in the layer of air just above the land surface. The
lapse rates are of three types depending upon the type of water vapors.

i. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

It is the rate of change of temperature when air is not fully saturated with water
vapors. The average value of this is 17.71°F per 1,000 m.

ii. Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate

When air is fully saturated, then rate of change of temperature is called wet
adiabatic, lapse rate. Its average value is 9.84°F per 1,000 m.

iii. Pseudo-Adiabatic Lapse Rate

After condensed particles have fallen down fully, as after a rainfall, then the rate
of change of temperature is called pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate. Its average value is
also 9.84°F per 1,000 m.

Example 2.2

A parcel of air has a temperature of 50° F on surface of the earth. At a height of

2,000 m the air becomes saturated. Rainfall occurs and air again becomes dry on
the leeward side of a mountain. Find out temperature of this parcel of air, at an
altitude of 2,500 m on leeward side of the hill. Height of hill is 3,000 m.

26
Solution

Temperature at 2,000 m = 50 - ( 17. 72x20001l 000)

= 50 - 35.44
= 14.56 of
Temperature at 3,000 m = 14.56 - ( 9.84xlOOO/1000 )
= 4.72 of
Temperature on the
leeward side at 2,500 m = 4.72+ (9.84 x5001l 000)
= 9.64 of
Monsoon System in Pakistan

In summer, when the land warms much faster than the oceans an area of low
pressures develops over land and high pressure at sea. The reverse is the case
during winter season. Therefore, winds move from sea to land during summer
and from land to sea during winter. Winds which undergo seasonal changes of
direction in this way are called monsoon winds. These winds, and for that matter
any other wind system are modified considerably when there exist extensive
mountain ranges.

In winter over Indo-Pak Sub-continent and central part of Asia (slightly towards
eastern shores of Asia) a 'High' is established. North easterly winds blow over
most of the eastern shores of Asia and India. These are called the North - East
Monsoons. These winds are cold and dry and thus give fair weather to the area
over which these blow.

In summer a 'Low' is established over North-West part ofIndo-Pak Sub continent

due to heating of the arid land-tracts while the air in the southern hemisphere
cools. Over India and Pakistan, the wind blows from southwest and is known as
South - West Monsoon. This is a very damp air as it originates from Indian
Ocean. It actually starts from the southern hemisphere and after crossing the
equator reaches the Sub-continent as a southwesterly wind.

In Pakistan the summer monsoon sets in by June, but its effect over the central
areas and the sub-mountain districts becomes well pronounced by the third week
of July. The monsoon remains effective over the area till the end of September,
sometime extending to the second week of October.

27
Prior to the onset of monsoon, Pakistan is very dry and the maximum temperature
crosses 110 0 F over the plains and the dew point temperature starts rising as soon
as the monsoon invades Pakistan. By the beginning of June, a "low" establishes
over Hyderabad, Khairpur, Multan and Sibi Divisions, which to some extent, is
responsible for the onset of South-West monsoon over the sub-continent. The
south-westerlies are predominant over the southern areas of Pakistan.

The monsoon air requires lifting of 3 to 4 thousands feet to cause thunder

showers. There being no barrier of such a height for these south-westerlies, the
southern area of Pakistan goes dry, though the monsoon current remains active
during June to September.

WESTERN DISTURBANCES
The western disturbances are important air masses, for most of the winter season
in Pakistan and Northern India. Since these disturbances approach from the west,
it is for this reason that these are locally called western disturbances. These
originate from the Mediterranean Sea and move in an easterly or north - easterly
direction. They have warm and cold fronts but by the time these reach Pakistan,
these are so diffused together that it is difficult to distinguish them on surface
synoptic charts. However they can be identified on the upper-air charts.

During the winter these move at lower latitudes and reach northern part of
Pakistan, but in summer these move in higher latitudes through Russian
Turkistan. Some times these accentuate the monsoon depressions in the summer
and cause heavy rainfall in the sub- mountain districts, such as Sialkot, Jhelum
and Rawalpindi. The effect of these disturbances is well pronounced from
December to March. Normally light rain or drizzle is associated with them, but in
case of active disturbances, thundershower over northern and central divisions of
Pakistan may occur.

The western disturbances also produce secondary disturbance moving over

the Persian Gulf and over the Arabian Sea. The secondary wave also
moves to Pakistan and causes lot of weather over the entire Pakistan.
During Western Disturbances over Pakistan, the winds are normally
Westerlies or North-Westerlies. Sometimes the secondary wave continues
moving in an easterly direction along the coast while the primary is
affecting Peshawar and D.l. Khan Divisions.

28
The following conclusions have been drawn by the Pakistan Meteorology
Department on the basis of detailed study of synoptic situations responsible for
winter rainfall over Pakistan.

a. A western disturbances appearIng over Turkey takes about 7-8 days to

reach Pakistan.

b. A weak western disturbance does not cause any rainfall over Pakistan. A weak
western disturbance has been defined as the one which has no closed 'Low'
appearing over Turkey. For a well-marked 'Low' there are generally two closed
isobars and the lowest pressure reported is generally less than 1,010 Mb during
December to February.

c. The well-marked western disturbance causes fairly widespread rain and also
thunderstorms along the frontline over Turkey and Iraq. This can be seen about 5
to 7 days ahead. This type of circulation of air mass is a forewarning for an
approaching wet spell over the northern divisions of Pakistan

d. The winds over the Gulf of Oman become southerly while over north Persian
Gulf area northerlies will be blowing. This is a strong indication of secondary
development over the Gulf of Oman. Due to the peculiar orography of northwest
Pakistan, the cyclonic circulation further increases. This results in moderately
heavy to heavy showers over the central and northern divisions of Pakistan.

MONSOON AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES AS CAUSE OF RAINFALL

By the beginning of July, South Easterlies begin to penetrate the central areas and
sub-mountain districts of Pakistan. The South-Easterlies are nothing, but the
deflected South-Westerlies, which take a turn westwards parallel to the Himalayas
from the Bay of Bengal.

A depression is intensified when a warm pool exists above it. It is also intensified
by the interaction between the disturbances of low latitudes and high latitudes and
also between disturbances of the two hemispheres. Bay of Bengal tropical
depressions (monsoon depressions) form as a result of the confluence of Southern
air mass from the equatorial region and South-Westerlies crossing the sub-
continent from the Arabian Sea. The South West monsoon air mass behaves as
two different types with the consequence that their interrelation results in
frontogenesis. There also exists a trough of low pressure, generally called

29
monsoon trough, which extends roughly from Punjab in Pakistan, through Agra,
Allahabad in India to the Bay of Bengal. When the axis of the monsoon trough
moves towards the Himalayas and lies there, the rain on the plains decreases
while that on the hills increases. When the axis of the monsoon trough shifts to
the South, the entire of Pakistan comes under the influences of homogeneous
monsoon resulting in a continuous type of rain drizzle. But occasionally heavy
thundershowers do occur over the sub-mountain districts and adjoining areas of
Kashmir due to orographic effect (mountain barriers).

The monsoon depressions travel Westwards/North Westwards. Most of these

depressions dissipate within a few hundred miles of their journey over the sub-
continent. Those which are strong reach as far as Rajisthan and then start moving
northwards. This change in the direction of movement of the depression is called
"recurvature". When the storm of depression recurves itself, it receives good
moisture supply from Arabian Sea resulting in heavy rainfall in Pakistan. Some
depressions which do not recurve, emerge into the Arabian Sea and do not cause
any rainfall. It must be noted that depressions cause lifting of air mass and
therefore are the main causative factors for precipitation to occur. Higher and
continuous lifting and hence continuous precipitation occur when a depression is
strengthened by another depression. The three types of depressions in the lndo-
Pak Subcontinent are:

a. Seasonal as a result of high summer temperature corresponding to low

temperature,
b. Monsoon depression traveling from the Bay of Bengal, and
c. Depression due to Western disturbance. When all the depressions combine
and there is a continuous supply of moisture from the Arabian Sea there
results very heavy rainfall in the northern part of Pakistan.

WIND MEASUREMENT
Wind speed is measured with an instrument called Anemometer. This instrument
gives continuous record over some graph called Anemograph. A very well
known Anemometer is Dynes Apparatus. It gives reading in miles of total wind
movement in 24 hours.

Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is the direction from which
wind is blowing. Wind speed is usually given in miles per hour, meters per second
or knots.

30
 I mlsec = 2.2 mph, and,
I knot = 1-1/7 mph

The graph between wind speed and elevation is shown in figure 2.2.

The equation of the curve is,

V No = ( Z / Zo) 117 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5

Where 'V' is wind speed at height 'Z' from ground and 'Yo' is wind speed
measured by the anemometer at height 'Zo'.

Velocity Ratio Against Elevation Ratio

8 -c .... ;
· . : ; . : : . . . . . . . :

: =::::[:::: [:::: [::::[::::[::::r::::[::::[:::: [::::r:::: [:::: [::: ... :::r::::

· . . . . : . . : . : . . . .
0'
N 5 -'····r····r····r····r··..f-···f····r··..f-···r··..f-···r····r··
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ·r·.-.r···· . .
g : =::::[::::[::::l::::r::::[::::l::::[::::l::::l::::l::::1::'::.:::[::::1::::
· : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
2 -' .... c.... c.... ; .... c... -'.. .. c.... c.... c.... ; .... c.... · .... c.... c.... ; ....
:~~~~~~~~~~~~i~·
1 ~····f····c····f··..f-···c··..f-···f··..f-···f··· :··..f-···f···-f-·..f-···;
o -+ .... t ... t .... i .... i .... j- •• ' . • •. ~ .• •• j .... j_ • • • j. .••• j. . . . j. • • . j..... r

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

(VNO)

Figure 2.2 Variation of Wind Velocity with Depth

Example 2.3

The speed of air at a height of 15 meter above ground was measured as 10 m/s.
Find the speed at 2 m level.

Solution

From Equation 2.5

V l / VIS = (Zl/ ZI5 )117 or

Vl = (Z2/ ZIS )117 X VIS
V 2 = (2/15)117 X 10 = 7.5 mls

31
QUESTIONS
I. Define Meteorology. Why is it studied with subject of Hydrology?
2. How Relative Humidity and Dew Point are related. Describe instrument
used for measurement of relative humidity.
3. What is saturation vapor pressure? Can air saturate itself up to 100%.
4. Define temperature. Explain variation in temperature with respect to time.
5. What is Lapse Rate? How does temperature changes with altitude?
6. What are monsoons, explain the mechanism of monsoon rainfalls III
Pakistan?
7. Explain, what are the Western Disturbances?
8. Why psychrometer constant is different when 'e' is measured in different
units.
9. Why wind speed is measured. What is effect of wind on climate changes
in an area? Explain variation of wind velocity with respect to altitude.

EXCERCISE
1. A mass of air is having temperature of 26.9 0c. The Relative humidity of this
mass of air is 71 %. Determine Saturation Vapor pressure, Saturation deficit,
Actual Vapor Pressure, Dew Point and Wet-bulb temperature.

2. The dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature are respectively 25°C and
15 DC at a certain location. Determine Dew-point Temperature, Relative
Humidity, Saturation Vapor Pressure and Actual Vapor pressure.

3. A mass of air is at temperature of 30 "c and is having relative humidity of 75

%. Determine the dew-point temperature.

4. The wind has a speed of 9 mls at elevation of 10m above ground and 10 mls at
elevation of 15 m above ground. Determine the speed at height of 2 m.

5. A parcel of moist air at 45°F, initially at 152 m mean sea level is forced to pass
over a mountain ridge of 2,134 m mean sea level and then descends to its original
level. Assuming that a lift of 762 m produces saturation and precipitation, what is
the final temperature of the parcel?

32
 PRECIPITATION

Do they not see that We drive the rain towards a land that is dry, then grow grain
from it which their cattle and they themselves eat? Will they not see even then?
(Ayat 27, As-Sajdah)
34
 PRECIPITATION
INTRODUCTION

The term precipitation as used in hydrology is meant for all forms of moisture
emanating from the clouds and all forms of water like rain, snow, hail and sleet
derived from atmospheric vapors, falling to the ground.

Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology. Floods and

droughts are directly related to the occurrence of precipitation. Water resources
management, water supply schemes, irrigation, hydrologic data for design of
hydraulic structures and environmental effects of water resources development
projects are related to precipitation in one way or the other. So it is important to
study various aspects of precipitation.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
In the middle latitudes precipitation occurs in many forms, depending on the
existing meteorological conditions. These are following.

i. Drizzle

These are the minute particles of water at start of rain. These consist of water
drops under 0.5 mm diameter and its intensity is usually less than 1.0 mmlhr.
Their speed is very slow and we cannot even feel them. Therefore they cannot
t10w over the surface but usually evaporate.

ii. Rain

It is form of precipitation in which the size of drops in this case is more than 0.5
mm and less than 6.25 mm in diameter. It can produce flow over the ground and
can infiltrate and percolate. Both the duration as welI as rate of rainfall are
important. If the rainfalI per unit time is greater than the rate of infiltration, the
rain water can flow over the surface of earth.

35
iii. Glaze

It is the ice coating formed on drizzle or rain drops as it comes in contact with the
cold surfaces on the ground.

iv. Sleet

Sleet is frozen rain drops cooled to the ice stage while falling through air at
subfreezing temperatures.

v. Snow

Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from sublimation i.e.
change of water vapor directly to ice.

vi. Snowflake

A snowflake is made up of a number of ice crystals fused together.

vii. Hail

Hail is the type of precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 5 mm
diameter formed by alternate freezing and melting as they are carried up and
down by highly turbulent air currents. The impact of these is also more. A single
hailstone weighing over a pound has been observed.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PRECIPITATION FORMATION

Following four conditions are necessary for the production of precipitation.

a. A lifting mechanism to produce cooling of the air.

b. A mechanism to produce condensation of water vapors and formation of
cloud droplets.
c. A mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets to size capable of
falling to the ground against the lifting force of air.
d. A mechanism to produce sufficient accumulation of moisture to account
for observed heavy rainfall rates.

36
a. Mechanism of Cooling

The pressure reduction when air ascends from near the surface to upper levels in
the atmosphere is the only mechanism capable of producing the degree and rate of
cooling needed to account for heavy rainfall. Cooling lowers the capacity of a
given volume of air to hold a certain amount of water vapor. As large degrees of
super saturation are not known to occur in the atmosphere, excess moisture over
saturation condenses through the cooling process.

b. Condensation of Water Vapor

Condensation of water into cloud droplets takes place on hygroscopic nuclei

which are small particles having an affinity for water. The source of these
condensation nuclei is the particles of sea salt or such products of combustion of
certain sulfurous and nitrous acids. There appears to be always sufficient nuclei
present in the atmosphere. Condensation will always occur in air, the lower
atmosphere is cooled to saturation, often before the saturation point is reached.

c. Growth of Cloud Droplets

Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in the cloud is to reach
the ground. The two processes regarded as most effective for droplet growth are:

i. Coalescence of droplets through collision due to difference in speed of motion

between larger and smaller droplets.

ii. Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.

Co-existence effect generally happens in the temperature range from 10° to 20° F.
If in a layer of clouds there is a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals, the
saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than that over water. This leads to the
evaporation of water drops and condensation of much of this water on ice crystals
causing their growth and ultimate fall through the clouds. This effect is known as
Bergeron's effect. The ice crystals will further grow as they fall and collide with
water droplets.

37
d. Accumulation of Moisture

Heavy rainfall amount over a river basin exceeds by far the amount of water
vapor at the atmospheric volume vertically above the basin at the beginning of the
rainfall. Clearly there must be a large net horizontal inflow of water vapor into the
atmosphere above the basin area. This process is called convergence, which is
defined as the net horizontal influx of air per unit area. The moisture added to the
atmosphere over a basin may be transported very large distance in the lowest layer
of the atmosphere. When this moist current reaches a region of active vertical
motion it rises thousands of feets and loses much of its contained water vapor in
just a few hours.

Classification of Precipitation Based on the Lifting Mechanism

The precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for lifting
of air to higher altitudes. Following are the various types of precipitation based on
this classification.

i. Convectional Precipitation

In the case of convectional precipitation the main causative element is thermal

convection of the moisture laden air. For this to occur, solar radiation is the only
source of heat. A major portion of the solar radiation is utilized in heating the
earth. As the earth conducts heat slowly, the heat accumulates at the surface of the
earth and air which comes in its contact is heated up and the lapse rate near the
surface of the earth increases rapidly. With the passage of time as the sun gets
higher and higher the lapse rate increases above that of dry adiabatic and air
becomes unstable. Vertical currents are then set up which carry heat and the
moisture laden air is picked up from the surface to higher levels. Due to
convection, the moist air in the lower levels of the atmosphere rises up to the
condensation level where clouds develop and with further convection these clouds
finally grow into cumunimbus resulting in a thunderstorm. Lightning and thunder,
gusty surface winds, showers and sometimes hails accompany a thunderstorm.
Each thunderstorm is formed of a cell which updraft or down draft (downward
current) turbulence etc. These cells are called under-storm cells. A cell hardly
covers an area more than 1-2 square miles.

38
As the warm moist air from the ground is lifted up, more and more water will
condense and the water drops and ice crystals will increase in size till such time
that these drops are no longer supported by the existing updrafts. The drops will
then begin to fall. Such thunderstorms are called "air mass thunderstorms". They
usually develop by mid-day and reach maximum intensity by afternoon. By late
evening such storms start dissipating. Thunderstorms may extend to a height of
20,000 to 25,000 feet in temperate latitude and 30,000 to 40,000 feet in tropics.

ii. Orographic Precipitation

In the orographic precipitation, expansion and condensation occurs because

moisture laden air masses are lifted by contact with orographic barriers. This type
of precipitation is most pronounced on the windward side of mountain range,
generally heaviest precipitation occurs where favorable orographic effects are
present. For instance, heaviest precipitation due to south-easterlies in the
subcontinent occurs along the Southern slopes of Himalayas and its other ranges.
It has been found that the monsoon rainfall (June to October) decreases gradually
as the distance from the line of heaviest rainfall increases.

Orographic precipitation also occurs in the inland areas where mountain ranges
rise above the surrounding areas in the path of the moisture laden air masses. On
these areas, however, orographic precipitation is intermingled with the other types
prevalent in the area and. therefore, it becomes difficult to identify quantitatively
the amount of precipitation that has occurred due to orographic effects only. On
inland areas the orographic precipitation is irregular in occurrence and quantity
due to interference by the atmospheric disturbance resulting from cyclonic storm.

Generally, it has been observed that heavy orographic precipitation occurs on the
windward side of the orographic barrier, leaving a relatively dry area leeward
side. This occurs because the moist air has been forced up the windward side and
precipitated its moisture, and upon passing the peak of the barrier, no further
orographic lifting occurs so that the rain fall is the residual of previous
condensation. If the orographic barrier is sufficiently massive and the low regions
on the leeward side are very extensive, the wind may descend on the leeward side,
thereby undergoing compression and heating and becoming stilI more unfavorable
for precipitation.

39
iii. Cyclonic Precipitation

Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in character. Cyclones are of

two general classes, tropical and extra-tropical, so called depending upon whether
they occur within or beyond the tropics. In as much as all cyclones occurring in
the Indo-Pak Subcontinent are of tropical variety. This kind alone will be
discussed here. Moreover, cause of these storms is not of primary concern except
if it affects the precipitation. Tropical cyclones are violent storms which are
generally formed in the ward maritime air-mass of low latitude where the
temperature is high. These are known as typhoons or cyclones when formed in the
Indian Ocean.

In the center of the cyclonic storm there is small low pressure air. The isobars
around such a low pressure are very nearly circular in shape. Their intensity is
generally greater than the extra-tropical cyclones. On an average the tropical
cyclones have a diameter of over 300 to 400 miles. The wind speed around
tropical cyclones may be as high as 60 to 90 miles per hour.

The winds around a tropical cyclone are practically parallel to the isobars. As the
center or eye of the storm approaches, the high winds suddenly die down as
practically dead calm prevails at the center. The diameter of the eye of the storm
is about 50 miles. The winds around the center of the storm blow almost in a
circular path (especially over the sea or ocean where the frictional force is
minimum) and at the same time air is rising. The vertical motion compels the air
to be cooled adiabatically. This air being humid, condensation takes place rapidly,
resulting copious rainfall and widespread thunderstorm. Over the center of the
storm the weather is usually fair.

In the Indo-Pak Subcontinent, the cyclonic storms form in the Bay of Bengal in
different months. During April, May and June most of these storms do not reach
Pakistan. But some of them affect Bangladesh and give very heavy rainfall there.
During the summer monsoon season, the cyclonic storms reach Pakistan and are
fed with moisture from the Arabian sea resulting in heavy rainfall over the
Northern areas of Pakistan. In September, October and November these storms
are very destructive in Bangladesh. Such storms cause considerable loss of life
and property over the coastal districts. Cyclonic storms also form in Arabian sea
but their number is far less.

40
MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Amount of Precipitation

The amount of precipitation means the vertical depth of water that would
accumulate on a level surface, if the precipitation remains where it falls. The
amount of precipitation is measured in length units (inches, ft., cm, etc.).

Intensity or Rate of Precipitation

Amount of precipitation per unit time is called the intensity of precipitation or rate
of precipitation.

Both the amount and rate of precipitation are important in hydrologic studies.

The precipitation is measured by rain gauges. There are two types of rain gauges:

a. Non-recording rain gauge. (Standard rain gauge)

b. Recording rain gauge

The main difference between these rain gauges is that with the help of recording
rain gauges we get the rain recorded automatically with respect to time, so
intensity of rain fall is also known whereas an observer has to take readings from
non recording rain gauge for rain and he has to record the time also, for
calculation of intensity of rain fall.

a. Non-Recording Rain Gauges

The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau has a collector of 200 mm diameter
and 600 mm height. Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical measuring tube
th
inside the overflow can. The measuring tube has a cross sectional area 1/1O of
the collector, so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to 25 mm depth. A
measuring stick is marked in such a way that 1/10 th of a cm depth can be
measured. In this way net rainfall can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The
collector and tube are removed when snow is expected. The snow collected in the
outer container or overflow can is melted, poured into the measuring tube and
then measured. This type of rain gauge is one of the most commonly used rain
gauge.

41
 Fig. 3.1 Non-Recording Rain Gauge

Sources of Error

Rainfall measured by the rain gauge might have some errors. For example some
water is used to wet the surface of instrument; the rain recorded may be less than
the actual rainfall due to the direction of the rainfall as affected by wind. Dents in
the collector and tube may also cause error. Some water is absorbed by the
measuring stick. Losses due to evaporation can also take place. The volume of
stick replaces some water which causes some error.

b. Recording Rain Gauges

Recording rain gauges can be divided into the following types:

I. Float type
11. Weighing type
111. Tipping bucket type

42
i. Float Type Rain Gauge

This type of rain gauge also has a receiver and a float chamber along with some
recording mechanism or arrangement. In this type the rain is led into a float
chamber containing a light hollow t1oat. The vertical movement of the t10at as
the level of water rises is recorded on a chart with the help of a pen connected to
float. The chart is wrapped around a rotating clock driven drum. To provide a
continuous record for 24 hours the float chamber has either to be very large, or
some automatic means are provided for emptying the t10at chamber quickly when
it becomes full, the pen then returning to the bottom of the chart. This is usually
done with some sort of siphoning arrangement. This arrangement activates when
the gauge records a certain fixed amount of rain (mostly 10 mm of rainfall.).
Snow can not he measured by this type of rain gauge. Fig. 3.2 shows line diagram
of tloat type rain gauge.

Pen

Float Rotating Drum

~
and Graph Paper

Fig. 3.2 FLOAT TYPE RAIN GAUGE

ii. Weighing Type Rain Gauge

The weighing type rain gauge consists of a receiver, a bucket, a spring balance
and some recording arrangement. The weighing type gauge weighs the rain or
snow which falls into a bucket which is set on a spring balance. The weight of the
bucket and content is recorded on a chart by a clock driven drum. The record is in
the form of a graph, one axis of which is in depth units and the other has time.
The records show the accumulation of precipitation. Weighing type gauges
operate from I to 2 months without stopping. But normally one chart is enough
only for 24 hours. This type of rain gauge has advantage of measuring snow also.
The receiver is removed when snow is expected. Figure 3.3 shows schematic
sketch of a weighing type rain gauge.

43
 I COLLECTING

~ I( VESSF:EIGHING

I BUCKET

~ TIME

CHART WRAPPED
AROUND DRUM
::3-----I~

I
PEN
CLOCK DRIVEN
ROTATING DRUM

Fig 3.3 WEIGHING TYPE RAIN GAUGE

iii. Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

This type of gauge used at some Weather Bureau First Order Stations, is equipped
with a remote recorder located inside the office which is away from the actual
site. The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way that one
compartment receives rain at one time. A certain amount of rain (usually 0.25 mm
fills one compartment and over balances it so that it tips, emptying into a
reservoir and bringing the second compartment of the bucket into place beneath
the funnel of receiver. As the bucket is tipped by each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates
an electrical circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving drum. This type of
gauge is not suitable for measuring snow without heating the collector. Plotting is
similar to that of other recording rain gauges. A Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
is shown in Figure 3.4.

44
 ,
Fig. 3.4 tipping bucket type rain gauge
SOURCES OF ERROR

All sources of error are similar to those of non-recording rain gauges except the
error due to stick. These are mentioned again as below:

a. Dents in the collector.

b. Moistening of inside-surface of the funnel and the tube.

c. Rain drops splashing from the collector.

d. For very intense rain some water is still pouring into the already filled
bu..:ket.
e. Inclination of the gauge may result in catchmg less or more rain than the
actual amount.
f. Error in measurement due to wind.

Remedial Measures for Errors in Precipitation Measurement

Removal of error due to dents obviously needs repair of the instrument. For rain
recorded with dents a correction should be applied. Errors such as moistening of
the inside surfaces of the gauge, splashing of rainwater from the collector and
pouring of water into the already filled bucket during an intense rain can only be
corrected by some correction factor. Inclined instrument needs to be reinstalled.
The correction factor however can be calculated from the angle of inclination. For

45
wind protection certain wind shields are designed and used which are called
Splash Guards. Proper setting of gauge above ground level is necessary.

Example 3.1

A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was found later that the gauge
was inclined at an angle of 20 degree with the vertical. Find the actual
precipitation.

Solution
P(measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination (8) = 20° with the vertical
p(actual) = P(measured/cos(8) = 125/cos20° = 133 mm

Measurement of Precipitation by Radar

This is a modem technique for measurement of rainfall rate. It can also detect
local movement of areas of precipitation. The electromagnetic energy released
and received back by radar is a measure of rainfall intensity. The measurement is
appreciably affected by trees and buildings. However extent of rainfall can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy. Use of radar is useful where number of rain
gauges installed in an area is not sufficient.

Rain Gauge Network

The number of rain gauges and their distribution affect the nature of collected
precipitation data. The larger the number of rain gauges the more representative
will be the data collected. But on the other hand we have to observe other factors
also, like economy of the project, accessibility of certain areas and topography of
the area. So, one has to look for some optimum solution. In this regard the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) has made following recommendations for
minimum number of rain gauges in a catchment:

a. In comparatively flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical

Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 230 - 345 sq. miles. However
one station for 345 - 1155 sq. miles is also acceptable

46
 b. In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean and Tropical Zones,
the ideal is at least one station for 35 - 95 sq. miles. However one station
for 95 - 385 sq. miles is also acceptable.
c. In arid and polar zones, one station for 575 - 3860 sq. miles is acceptable

ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION DATA

Point Data AnalysiS

Point precipitation data refers to precipitation of a station. This data could be in

form of hourly record, daily record, monthly precipitation or annual precipitation.
Depending upon the nature of catchment and its area, there could be as many
gauging stations as feasible. Before using records from a rain gauge we should
check its continuity and consistency. Record may not be continuous and
consistent due to many reasons as explained in the following paragraphs. This
section deals with estimation of any missing records at a particular gauging
station, checking consistency of data and its adjustment accordingly.

1. ESTIMATION OF MISSING PRECIPITATION RECORD

Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of
absence of the observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to
estimate this missing record. In the procedure used by the u.s. Weather Bureau,
the missing precipitation of a station is estimated from the observations of
precipitation at some other stations as close to and as evellly spaced around the
station with the missing record as possible. There are two methods for estimation
of missing data - Arithmetic mean method and Normal ratio method

The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging
stations whose data are used to calculate the missing station data are called index
stations.

If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within ±1O% of
normal annual precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic
mean method to determine the missing precipitation record otherwise the normal
ratio method is used for this purpose.

47
Consider that record is missing from a station 'X'.

Now let,
N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual
precipitation data)
P = Storm Precipitation.

Let Px be the missing precipitation for station 'X' and N x , the normal annual
precipitation of this station, N a , Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of
nearby three stations, A, Band C respectively while Pa, P b and Pc are the storm
precipitation of that period for these stations.

Now we have to compare N x with N a . Nb and Nc separately. If difference of N x -

N a , N x - N b, N x - Nc is within 10% of N x then we use simple arithmetic mean
method otherwise the normal ratio method is used.

Simple Arithmetic Mean Method

According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' IS gIVen
as:
I i =/1
P x = - I. Pi where 'n' is number of nearby stations, 'Pi' is
n i=l
precipitation at ith station.

In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,

Px = (PI + P 2 + P3)/3
and naming stations as A, Band C instead of I, 2 and 3
Px = (Pa + P b + Pc)/3
Where P a , P b and Pc are defined above.

Normal Ratio Method

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:

48
 I i=I1N x
Px = - I - P i
n i=1 N i

Where P x is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x'.
Pi is the precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of
a group of index stations and N x and Ni are the normal annual precipitation values
for the 'x' and 'ith' stations. For example, for the symbols defined above for three
index stations in a catchment area.

Example 3.2

Find out the mIssmg storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following
table:

Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5

Solution

In this example the storm preclpitation and normal annual precipitations at

stations A, B, 0 and E are given and missing precipitation at station 'C' is to be
calculated whose normal annual precipitation is known. We will determine first
that whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

10% ofNe = 93.5xlO/lOO = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35=102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15
So Na , N b, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.
If any value of N a , N b, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method
would be used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values are
out of this range so the normal ratio method is applicable here, according to which

49
 1 i=1l N
P x = - I----"--Pi
n ;=1 N;

Pc= (1/4 )(93.5 x 9.71100.3+ 93.5 x 8.31109.5+ 93.5 x 11.71125.7+

93.5 x 8.01117.5) = 7.8 cm

Example 3.3

Precipitation station "X" was inoperative for part of a month during which a
storm occurred. The storm totals at three surrounding stations A, Band C were
respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at
stations X, A, Band C are respectively 97.8, 112,93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate
the storm precipitation for station 'X'.

Solution
Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm
Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm
Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm
Px =? Nx = 97.8 cm
10% of Nx = 97.8 x 101100 = 9.78 cm.

Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm :::::} More than + 10% of Nx (no need of

calculating Nx - Nb and Nx - Nc
So we will use Normal Ratio Method.
Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.71112+ 97.8x 8.90/93.5 + 97.8x 12.21119.9)
Px = 9.5 cm
2. Consistency of Precipitation Data or Double Mass Analysis

In using precipitation in the solution of hydrologic problems, it is necessary to

ascertain that time trends in the data are due to meteorological changes. Quite
frequently these trends are the result of the changes in the gauge location, changes
in the intermediate surroundings such as construction of buildings or growth of
trees, etc. and changes in the observation techniques. Frequently changes in gauge

50
location are not disclosed in the published record. Due to such changes the data
might not be consistent. The consistency of the record then is required to be
determined and the necessary adjustments be made. This can be achieved by the
method called the double mass curve technique.

The double mass curve Fig. 3.5 is obtained by plotting the accumulated
precipitation at the station in question along Y-axis and the average accumulated
precipitation of a number of other nearby stations which are situated under the
same meteorological conditions along X -axis. If the curve has a constant slope,
the record of station "X" is consistent. However, if there is any break in the slope
of the curve, the record of the station is inconsistent and has to be adjusted by the
formula.

Pa = (Sa / So)X Po
Where Pa = Adjusted precipitation.
Po = Observed precipitation.
Sa = Slope prior to the break in the curve
So = Slope after the break in the curve.

All values after break are to be adjusted.

Example 3.4
Check consistency of the data given in table 3.1 below and adjust it if it is found
to be inconsistent

51
 Table 3.1 Precipitation Data
Year Annual Mean of annual Year Annual Mean of
precipitation at precipitation of precipitation annual
x (mm) 20 surrounding at x (mm) precipitation
stations (mm) of20
surrounding
stations
(mm)
1972 188 264 1954 223 360
1971 185 228 1953 173 234
1970 310 386 1952 282 333
1969 295 297 1951 218 236
1968 208 284 1950 246 251
1967 287 350 1949 284 284
1966 183 236 1948 493 361
1965 304 371 1947 320 282
1964 228 234 1946 274 252
1963 216 290 1945 322 274
1962 224 282 1944 437 302
1961 203 246 1943 389 350
1960 284 264 1942 305 228
1959 295 332 1941 320 312
1958 206 231 1940 328 284
1957 269 234 1939 308 315
1956 241 231 1938 302 280
1955 284 312 1937 414 343

Solution

A double mass curve is plotted by taking cumulative of average precipitation of

surrounding stations along x-axis and accumulative precipitation of station 'X'
along
y-axis for which consistency of data is being investigated.

The double mass curve is shown in Figure 3.5

52
 12000
10000
8000 Sa/SO=O.7

6000
LPx 4000
SO=1.176

2000
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

------.~ LPav(s)

Figure 3.5 Double Mass Curve

The correction for slope is applied to readings beyond break In slope. The
calculations are shown in table 3.2, below.

Slope of 1st line= Sa = 0.854

Slope of deviating line = So = 1.176
Correction to values (mUltiplying factor) = 0.85411.176 = 0.70

Now regime changes before 1950. So Up to 1950 no correction is required. Before

1950 all readings are mUltiplied by slopes ratio of 0.7 to get corrected
precipitation. Note that data in latter interval (1973-1950) is considered more
authentic so kept in initial reach of the graph.

53
 Table 3.2 Adjusted Precipitation
Year C'ulllillulati ve C'ul11lllulative precipitation Corrected Precipitation Remarks
Annual precipitation of 20 surrounding stations
at x (Illlll) (Illm)
1972 188 264 188
1971 373 492 185
1970 683 878 310
1969 978 1175 295
1968 1186 1459 208
1967 1473 1809 287
1966 1656 2045 183
1965 1960 2416 304
1964 2188 2650 228
1963 2404 2940 216 c
0
:;::::;
1962 2628 3222 224 u
1961 2831 3468 203 ....
OJ
....
0
1960 3115 3732 284 u
0
1959 3410 4064 295 z
1958 3616 4295 206
1957 3885 4529 269
1956 4126 4760 241
1955 4410 5072 284
1954 4633 5432 223
1953 4806 5666 173
1952 5088 5999 282
1951 5306 6235 218
1950 5552 6486 246
1949 5836 6770 198.8
1948 6329 7131 345.1 I"-
1947 6649 7413 224 0
x
1946 6923 7665 191.8 ?<
1945 7245 7939 225.4 c
0
1944 7682 8241 305.9 ~
(jj
1943 8071 8591 272.3 '0
1942 8376 8819 213.5 c
0
1941 8696 9131 224 :~
1940 9024 9415 229.6 Q.
'13
1939 9332 9730 215.6 ~
D....
1938 9634 10010 211.4
1937 10048 10353 289.8

54
Areal Precipitation Data Analysis

To find out runoff from a catchment and most of other hydrologic analyses, it is
important to know the average precipitation of a certain part of catchment or for
the whole of the catchment area. To find out average precipitation of watershed
records of precipitation from different rain gauge stations is used. There are many
factors which affect the reliability of average precipitation of watershed
determined by using the data from individual stations in the watershed. For
example : the total number of rain gauges and their distribution in the catchment
(larger the number of rain gauges, the reliable will be the calculated average
precipitation), the size and shape of area of catchment, distribution of rainfall over
the area and topography of the area. Lastly the method used for determining the
average precipitation is also one of these factors. So before using average
precipitation in hydrologic analyses, the user should be aware of these factors.

Estimation of Average Precipitation over a Basin

Conversion of point precipitation of various gauging stations into average

precipitation of that area a great experience and skill is required. There are three
methods to find average precipitation over a basin. Accuracy of estimated average
precipitation will depend upon the choice of an appropriate method. These
methods are described below:

i. Arithmetic Mean Method

In this method the average precipitation over an area is the arithmetic average of
the gauge precipitation values. We take data for only those stations which are
within the boundary. This is the simplest method but can be applicable only for
flat areas and not for the hilly areas i.e. this method is used when:

a. Basin area is flat and

b. All stations are uniformly distributed (within practical limits) over the
area.
c. The rainfall is also nearly uniformly distributed over the area.

According to this method

P (average) = (~) IPi
n i=l
or

55
 Where Pi is preclpltation at station 'i' and there are 'n' number of gauges
installed in the catchment area from where the data has been collected.

Example 3.5

Six rain gauges were installed in a relatively flat area and storm precipitation from
these gauges was recorded as 3.7, 4.9, 6.8, 11.4, 7.6 and 12.7 cm respectively
from gauges I, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Find average precipitation over the catchment.

Solution

As the area is relatively flat so we apply the arithmetic mean method. According
to arithmetic mean method

P(average) = (3.7 + 4.9 + 6.8 + 11.4 + 7.6 + 12.7)/6 = 7.85 cm.

ii. Thiessen Polygon Method:

The fundamental principle followed in this method consists of weighing the

values at each station by a suitable proportion of the basin area. In this method, a
special weighing factor is considered.

The following steps are used to determine average precipitation by Thiessen

Polygon Method.

I. Draw the given area according to a certain scale and locate the stations
where measuring devices are installed.
2. Join all the stations to get a network of non-intersecting system of
triangles.
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining the stations and get a
suitable network of polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed
that precipitation over the area enclosed by the polygon is uniform.
4. Measure area of the each polygon.
5. Calculate the average precipitation for the whole basin by the formula

56
 P (average) =
Where,
PI = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area Al
P2 = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area A2
and so on
Pn = Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of area An
And 'A' represents the total area of the catchment.

Example 3.6:

Following is shown map of a catchment having 6 rainfall recording stations.

,..,,' -- ------- ...........

.....

/"
/
I
I
I \
I \
I \
I ///////
I
I
I /////
\ ' I
\ 'I
\ 484(---__ _
\ ------ \ _~)- 25
\ \ ---__ \ --- -- IISHlt'ARI
DAGG~R ---,.;:"5 GHI 1
\ \ 3011 ,, 1 I
\ 1 1
\ \
\ 1
1 ,
'I
1
\ \
/ './pHULL FfA
\
\
\ , ///
///
///32 I
,../
/

,,"
"
SCALE 1em = 16km

Fig. 3.6 A verage Precipitation by Theissen Polygon Method

Find the Average Precipitation over the whole catchment.

57
The recorded precipitations are shown on the topographic map of the catchment.
The Thiessen's Polygons are constructed by the method explained above. The
precipitation and polygon area are given below.

Station Precipitation (mm) Polygon Area (km 2 )

Dag,oar 48 5,068.76
Besham 33 4.349.17
Shinkiari 25 1,399.25
Phulra 32 1,693.80
Tarbela 56 2,196.33
Oghi 30 2,234.29

Solution

The calculations are best done in tabular form as shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Average Precipitation by Thiessen Polygon Method

Station Precipitation P Polygon Area A P x A (x 100 m 3 )

(mm) (km 2 )
Daggar 48 5.068.76 243.30
Besham 33 4,349.17 143.52
Shinkiari 25 1.399.25 34.98
Phulra 32 1,693.80 54.20
Tarbela 56 2,196.33 122.99
Oghi 30 2.234.29 67.03
Total 16,941.60 666.02

Mean Precipitation =I PiAi

= 666.02x I ot'x 103/ 16941.60x 1C/'

= 39.3 mm
Example 3.7
From the data given in Table 3.4 below, which was obtained from Thiessen
Polygon map of a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.

58
 Table 3.4 Precipitation Data
Sr Gauge Area of Thiessen Sr Gauge Area of Thiessen
No precipitation Polygon enclosing No preci pitation Polygon enclosing
(cm) the station (cm) the station
(sq. Ian) (sq. Ian)
I 10.2 416 4 9.4 520
2 8.1 260 5 15.2 390
3 12.7 650 6 7.6 325

Solution

According to Thiessen Polygon Method

P (average) = (PI Al + P2 A2 + ........... + Pn An)/A
The calculations are shown in tabular form in Table 3.5

Table 3.5 Average Precipitation by Thiessen Method

Gauge precipitation Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing Volume = PiX Ai (X 104 m3)
(cm} the station (sq. km)
(1) = Pi (2) = Ai (3) = (I )xL21

10.2 416 4243.20

8.1 260 2106.00
12.7 650 8255.00
9.4 520 4888.00
15.2 390 5928.00
7.6 325 2470.00
Total 2561 27890.20

So P (average) = 27890.20 -:- 2561=10.9 cm

Example 3.8:

There are 10 observation stations, 7 being inside and 3 in neighborhood of a

catchment. Thiessen Polygons were drawn for a storm data from these
observation stations and the data given in Table 3.6 below was obtained. Find out
the average precipitation of the catchment.

59
 Table 3.6 Average Precipitation by Thiessen Polygon Method

Sr. No. Gauge precipitation (cm) Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing

the station (sq. km)
1 5 100
2 3 160
3 4 200
4 3.5 215
5 4.7 250
6 6 175
7 4 100

Solution

Gauge precipitation Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing the Volume =PixA i (x 10

4
m3 )
(em) station (sq. km)
(1) = Pi (2) = Ai (3) = (l)x(2)
5 100 500
3 160 480
4 200 800
3.5 215 752.50
4.7 250 1175
6 175 1050
4 100 400
Total 1200 5157.50

So P (average) = 5157.5 -:- 1200 = 4.3 cm

iii. Isohyetal Method

The most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area is the isohyetal
method.

For estimation of average precipitation of the catchment by isohyetal method the

following steps are used:

60
 1. Draw the map of the area according to a certain scale.
2. Locate the points on map where precipitation measunng gauges are
installed.
3. Write the amount of precipitation for stations.
4. Draw isohyets (Lines joining points of equal precipitation).
5. Measure area enclosed between every two isohyets or the area enclosed by
an isohyet and boundary of the catchment.
6. Find average precipitation by the formula.
P (average) =
Where,
P I = Mean precipitation of two isohyets 1 and 2
( 1 may be at or out of boundary)
A I = Area between these two isohyets.
P2 = Mean precipitation of two isohyets 2 and 3
A2 = the area b/w these two isohyets. and, so on
P n =Mean precipitation ofisohyets nand n+l
{( n+ 1) may be at or out of boundary}
An = the area between these two isohyets.

It may be noted that the last and first areas mentioned above may be between an
isohyet and boundary of the catchment. In this case the precipitation at the
boundary line is required which may be extrapolated or interpolated.

Example 3.9

From the data given in table 3.7 below, which was obtained from isohyetal map of
a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.

61
 Table E3.7 Data from Isohyetal Map.

Isohyet Isohyetal precipitation (cm) Area enclosed between two

No. isohyets. (Sq km)
1 2.5 390
2 5.0 520
3 7.5 650
4 10.0 390
5 10.0 390
6 7.5 442
7 5.0 546
8 2.5

Note that the isohyet No. I and 8 were out of the boundary of the catchment. The
area between isohyet No.2 and the boundary was estimated to be 312 sq. km and
that of between isohyet No.8 and boundary was 494 sq. km. Precipitation on
these boundaries was interpolated as 3.0 and 3.1 cm, respectively.

Solution

In isohyetal method we have to calculate the average precipitation of every two

consecutive isohyets. This is given in Table E3.8 below:

62
 Table E3.8 Average Precipitation by Isohyetal Method
Isohyet Isohyetal Average of Area enclosed Volume
No. precipitation precipitation of between two (xl04 m3)
(cm) two consecutive isohyets
isohyets (cm) (sq km)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) = (3) x (4)
3 4 (for isohyet 312 (for isohyet 936.00
boundary and boundary) and boundary)
2 5.0 6.25 520 3250.00
3 7.5 8.75 650 5687.50
4 10.0 10.0 390 3900.00
5 10.0 8.75 390 3412.50
6 7.5 6.25 442 2762.50
7 5.0 4.05 (for isohyet 494(for isohyet 1531.4
and boundary) and boundary)
boundary 3.1
I 3198 20543.4

P (average) = (PI AI + P 2 A2 + ........... + P n An)/A

= 20543.4 / 3198=6.42 I'm

Example 3.10

In a catchment of area 1,000 sq km, there are 8 rain gauges, 5 inside the area and
3 outside, in its surroundings. Isohyets were drawn from the data of these rain
gauges for a storm. From the isohyetal map the following information was
obtained: areas between 1 and 2 cm isohyets, 2 and 3 cm, 3 and 4 cm and 4 and 5
cm isohyets was 105,230, 150 and 220 sq. km, respectively. The area between
one end boundary which has 0.75 cm rainfall and I em isohyet was 120 sq. km
and the other end boundary which has precipitation of 5.5 cm and isohyet of 5 cm
was 175 sq. km. Find average precipitation.

Solution

In the isohyetal method we have to calculate the average precipitation of every

two consecutive isohyets. This is given in Table 3.9 below.

63
 Table E3.9 Average Precipitation by Isohyetal Method

Isohyet Isohyetal Average of Area enclosed Volume

No precipitation precipitation of two between two (xl0 4 m3)
(cm) consecutive isohyets isohyets
(cm) (sq km)
0.875 (for isohyet 120 (for isohyet
Boundary 0.75 105.00
and boundary) and boundary)
1 1 1.5 105 157.50

2 2 2.5 230 575.00

3 3 3.5 150 525.00

4 4 4.5 220 990.00

5.25 (for isohyet 175 (for isohyet
5 5 918.75
and boundary) and boundary)
Boundary 5.5

I 1000.00 3271.25

P (average) =
=3271.25/1 000
= 3.27 cm

64
Example 3.11 :

From the isohyetal map shown in Fig. 3.3 below find out average precipitation.

/-
/
/
/ \
I \
I \
I \
,
I
I
I \
,
,
I
\ 25,
,I
,25

\ Sp;fI~KIARI
\ \j
\ I
\
\
\
0\9\
,,
""
Fig. 3.7 lsoh.vetal Map

Solution:

The isohyets are drawn on the topographic map by interpolating rainfall depths at
given stations. Once isohyets are drawn, the area enclosed between consecutive
isohyets is determined either by planimeter or other suitable more precise method.

The calculations for average precipitation are given in table 3.10 below.

65
 Table 3.10 Average Precipitation by Isohyetal Method

Isohyte value Av.lsohyte Area Between Volume (x1 Ob m3 )

(mm) Value (mm) Consecutive
Isohytes (km2)
Boundary(25)and 25 25.0 310.53 7.76
25 and 30 27.5 2220.71 61.07
30 and 35 32.5 2968.38 96.47
35 and 40 37.5 2231.86 83.69
40 and 45 42.5 2303.52 97.90
45 and 50 47.5 2731.90 129.77
50 and 55 52.5 2689.70 141.21
55 and Boundary(60) 57.5 1484.99 85.36
Total 16,941.60 703.23

Mean Precipitation Depth = Volume/Area

= 703.23x106x1031l6941.60x106
= 41.51 mm

INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION

The rate of occurrence of precipitation is called intensity of precipitation or

precipitation occurring in unit time is known as intensity of precipitation.
To find out intensity of a certain interval the points on graph of accumulative
precipitation vs time are chosen in such a way that we get the maximum
difference for the given interval. It is explained in the following example.

Example 3.12

Find out intensity of precipitation of 5, 10 & 15 minutes for rainfall data given in
Table 3.11.

Table 3.1 J Raif~ft'zll Data

Time (Minutes) IP (cm)

0 00
05 12.5
10 20
15 42.5
20 62.5

66
Solution

For 5-minutes interval the maximum difference is 22.5

so, intensity for 5-minutes interval = 22.5 /5 = 4.5 em/min.
For la-minutes intensity = 42.5 / 10 = 4.25 cm/min.
For 15-minutes intensity = 50 / 15 = 3.33 cm/min.
Depth - Area Relationships

The distribution of rainfall is usually not uniform over the area. The precipitation
is maximum at the centre of storm and decreases as we move away from the
centre of storm. For rainfall of a given duration, the average depth decreases with
the area in an exponential manner.

Mass Curve

Precipitation recorded by a weighing type and float type recording rain gauge is in
form of a graph. It is a plot of cumulative precipitation against time in
chronological order. This is called mass curve of rainfall data. Intensity of rainfall
for a certain duration is determined from this graph. This graph gives a complete
history of a storm regarding the duration and magnitude of precipitation. In the
case of non-recording rain gauges the mass curve is to be plotted from the data in
which both duration and magnitude of precipitation have been observed for
different time intervals during storm.

Depth-Area-Duration Curves

Analysis of both the time and areal distribution of a storm is required in many
hydrologic studies. Depth area duration curves provide requisite information for
such studies. It is necessary to have information on the maximum amount of
precipitation of various durations occurring over various sizes of areas. The
development of a relationship between maximum depth-area-duration for a region
is called depth area duration analysis (DAD analysis). In this analysis first the
isohyetal maps and mass curves of worst storms which have occurred in past in
the region are prepared. For a storm with a single major centre the isohyets are
taken as the boundaries of individual area. The average storm precipitation within
each isohyet is computed. The storm total is distributed through succeSSIve

67
increments of time (say 3 hours) in accordance with the distribution record at
nearby stations. This gives data showing the time distribution of average rainfall
over areas of various sizes. From this data the maximum rainfall for various
durations (3, 6, 9, 12 hours) can be selected for each size of area. The maximum
values for every duration plotted versus area gives what are called depth area
duration curves. Typical depth-area-duration curves are shown in figure 3.8.

Depth Area Duration Curves

200

I
-
150
100
rllk.'~"-~""''--11_r---""*""
-. . . .-. :---,-. . . . . . . . .<-_ _ _ _~ _.l
~

::
Cl
• • •
:::>
w 50
A~· A· :
O+----------,---------r---------,----------,
•
A A A

o 5000 10000 15000 25000

Area (kM2)

I.......... 6 hour rain - 12 hour rain .......... 24 hour rain I

Fig. 3.8 Typical Depth Area Duration Curves

EXAMPLE 3.13:

The isohyetal map shown in Fig 3.9 is, for 10 hour storm over a catchment area.
Area enclosed between two consecutive isohyets is shown on the map and
isohyetal interval is 5 cm with storm center having precipitation of 30 cm. Find:

a. The average precipitation of the catchment by isohyetal method

b. The Equivalent Uniform Depth of rain for depth area duration curve.

68
 Area
Isohyte (cm) Enclosed
(sq.km)

30 60
25 and 30 100
20 and 25 90
15 and 20 130
10 and 15 200
5 and 10 400

Fig. 3.9 Isohyet Map

Solution

The calculations are performed in Table 3.13. The average precipitation is found
by summing up area enclosed by consecutive isohyets multiplied by average
isohyte value and whole sum divided by total area.

The EUD is found by dividing cumulative volume by cumulative area. The Fig.
3.10 shows variation of EUD with area.

Table 3.13 Finding EUD

Isohyte (em) Area Cumm. Mean Volum Cumm. EUD
enclosed Area Isohyte e (x 106 ) Volume (em)
(km 2) enclosed (em) (x 106)
(km2 )
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 = 6..,.3
30 60 60 30.00 18.00 18.00 30.00
30 & 25 100 160 27.50 27.50 45.50 28.44
25 & 20 90 250 22.50 20.25 65.75 26.30
20& 15 130 380 17.50 22.75 88.50 23.29
15 & 10 200 580 12.50 25.00 113.50 19.57
10& 5 400 980 7.50 30.00 143.50 14.64
Mean Precipitation = 14.64 cm

69
 35

30

25

E 20
..:!.
c
iil 15

10

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Cumm. Area (Km')

Fig. 3.10 Depth-Area Duration Curve

EXAMPLE 3.14:

Plot depth area duration curves from the rainfall data for six stations given in
Table 3.14

70
 TIME STATION & PRECIPITATION
DATE (HOURS)
BESHAM PHULRA DAGGAR OGHI SHINKIARI TARBELA

16-02-2003 0 - - - - -
1 - - - - - -
2 - - - - - -
3 - - - - - -
4 - - - - - -
5 - - - - - -
6 - - - - 1 -
7 1 - - - - -
8 - - - - - -
9 1 - - - - -
10 2 1 2 3 - -
11 2 2 2 2 1 -
12 3 3 1 2 3 4
13 3 3 1 1 2 6
14 2 2 1 2 2
15 2 1 2 3 3 2
16 1 2 1 2 1 -
17 2 1 1 3 1 -
18 1 1 1 3 - -
19 1 - 1 3 - -
20 1 - 2 2 - -
21 2 - 2 3 - -
22 3 2 2 4 - 3
23 5 3 1 3 3 4
24 - 3 1 3 4 2
17-02-2003 1 4 3 3 3 5 -
2 5 4 3 2 3 1
3 5 3 4 1 2 -
4 8 3 5 1 - 4
5 3 1 6 4 - -
6 1 1 3 3 - 1
7 3 1 2 3 - 1
8 3 6 2 2 3 8
9 2 4 - 9 2 5
10 2 4 - 9 3 5
11 7 5 6 6 1 4
12 4 3 11 5 - 8
13 6 4 6 7 3 4
14 4 4 9 8 3 6
15 5 5 3 6 4 8
16 5 6 6 6 3 9
17 5 3 8 4 5 8
18 5 5 9 5 1 9
19 4 3 10 5 3 10
20 5 4 9 4 4 15
21 5 4 9 5 4 9

71
 TIME STATION & PRECIPITATION
DATE (HOURS)
BESHAM PHULRA DAGGAR OGHI SHINKIARI TARBELA

22 6 5 8 7 6 11
23 6 8 7 5 4 6
24 7 9 6 4 5 4
18-02-2003 1 5 6 3 5 4 4
2 5 8 3 4 6 1
3 3 5 2 6 8
4 2 4 2 5 9 1
5 2 5 1 7 1 -
6 1 - 1 10 5 -
7 3 - 1 6 6 -
8 5 5 1 9 3
9 3 7 10 6 1
10 1 2 - 9 7 6
11 1 5 1 5 4 5
12 3 3 1 4 6 6
13 4 4 3 1 3 9
14 5 2 5 1 1 6
15 5 2 2 5 2 1
16 10 5 1 3 4 3
17 4 4 2 4 5 4
18 1 2 - 2 1 2
19 1 4 1 5 3
20 2 6 3 4 5
21 3 5 2 3 4
22 2 3 1 4 4
23 1 1 4 2 5 -
24 - 1 3 2 3 -
19-02-2003 1 3 1 3 2 1 3
2 2 2 2 5 - -
3 1 1 2 1 3 -
4 2 2 1 1 - 1
5 1 1 1 2 - -
6 1 1 1 1 1 -
7 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 2 2 1 1 4
9 1 2 1 3 3 4
10 2 2 2 4 1 5
11 3 1 2 2 - 3
12 1 - 2 1 - 1
13 2 - 1 1 - 1
14 - - 1 - - 2
15 - - - - - -
16 - - - - -
17 - - - - -
18 - - - - -
19 - - - - -
20 - - - - - -
21 - - - - 1

72
 TIME STATION & PRECIPITATION
DATE (HOURS)
BESHAM PHULRA DAGGAR OGHI SHINKIARI TARBELA
22 - - 1 - 1
23 - - - 1 - 1
24 3 - - 1 - -
20-02-2003 1 - - 1 - -
2 - - - 2 - -
3 1 1 0 - - 2
4 2 1 0 5 -
5 1 1 1 1 - -
6 1 1 0 1 -
7 - 1 0 1 - -
8 3 - 2 1 1 -
9 1 - 1 - -
10 1 - - - -
11 - - 1 - - -
12 - - - -
13 - - - 2 - -
14 - 1 - 1 - -
15 - - - - -
16 - - - - -
17 - - - -
18 - - - - -
19 - - 1 - - -
20 - - - -
21 - - - -
22 - - - - -
23 - - - -
24 - - - -
-

Solution
Step 1:

First we plot average un-weighted mass curve for total rainfall over the whole
catchment. The calculations are shown in table 3.15 and figure 3.1l. Total
precipitation is found by summing up precipitation recorded at individual stations
for each hour of record. Similarly average for precipitation is found by averaging
precipitation recorded at six stations. Now the average un-weighted mass curve is
plotted by taking time along x-axis and cumulative average precipitation along y-
axis. The purpose of this plot is to find maximum precipitation for 6 hours, 12
hours and 24 hours rain over the whole catchment.

The maximum precipitation during selected intervals of 6, 12 and 24 hours can

also be found by calculations. For example for 6-hour maximum rain total
precipitation is added for every 6 consecutive hours. Once it has been done for all

73
data maximum value is noted along with the period in which it occurred. In this
case, this value comes out to be 226 mm. Similarly total precipitation is summed
for consecutive 12 and 24 hours. These values come out to be 423 mm and 708
mm. Note that these are rains for all six given sections for selected time interval.

Table 3.15 Depth Area Duration Ana1.vsis

6 STATION PRECIP. (mm) 6-HR 12·HR 24-HR
TIME TIME
DATE (HOURS) INTERVAL
CUMM. TIME
TOTAL AV. CUMM. AV. PRECIP. PRECIP. PRECIP.

16-02-2003 0 0 0 - - -
1 1 1 - - -
2 1 2 - -
3 1 3 - - -

4 1 4 - -
5 1 5 - -

6 1 6 1 0.16 0.16
7 1 7 1 0.16 0.32
8 1 8 - - 0.32
9 1 9 1 0.16 0.48
10 1 10 8 1.33 1.81
11 1 11 9 1.5 3.31 20
12 1 12 16 2.67 5.98 35
13 1 13 16 2.67 8.65 50
14 1 14 11 1.5 10.15 59
15 1 15 12 2.16 12.31 72
16 1 16 6 1.16 13.47 70
17 1 17 8 1.33 14.8 69 89
18 1 18 6 1 15.8 59 94
19 1 19 5 0.83 16.63 48 98
20 1 20 4 0.83 17.96 44 103
21 1 21 6 1.16 18.62 38 109
22 1 22 14 1.83 20.45 42 112
23 1 23 18 3.16 23.61 53 122
24 1 24 13 2.16 25.77 60 119
17-02-2003 1 1 25 17 3 28.77 73 121
2 1 26 18 3 31.77 86 130
3 1 27 14 2.5 34.27 94 132
4 1 28 20 3.5 37.77 104 146
5 1 29 14 2.33 40.14 99 152 241
6 1 30 9 1.5 41.6 95 155 249
7 1 31 10 1.67 43.27 87 160 258
8 1 32 24 4 47.27 93 179 262
9 1 33 22 3.67 50.94 100 194 303

74
 6 STATION PRECIP. (mm) 6-HR 12-HR 24-HR
TIME TIME CUMM.
DATE (HOURS) INTERVAL TIME
TOTAL AV. CUMM. AV. PRECIP. PRECIP. PRECIP.

10 1 34 23 3.83 54.77 102 206 318

11 1 35 29 4.83 59.6 117 216 338
12 1 36 31 5.16 64.76 139 234 358
13 1 37 30 5 69.76 159 246 367
14 1 38 34 5.67 75.43 169 262 392
15 1 39 31 5.16 80.59 178 278 410
16 1 40 35 5.83 86.42 190 292 438
17 1 41 33 5.5 91.92 194 311 463
18 1 42 34 5.67 97.59 197 336 491
19 1 43 35 5.83 103.42 202 361 521
20 1 44 41 6.83 110.25 209 378 557
21 1 45 36 6 116.25 214 392 586
22 1 46 43 7.16 123.41 222 412 618
23 1 47 36 6 129.41 225 419 635
24 1 48 35 5.83 135.24 226 423 657
18-02-2003 1 1 49 27 4.5 139.74 218 420 666
2 1 50 27 4.5 144.24 204 413 675
3 1 51 24 4 148.24 192 406 684
4 1 52 23 3.8 152.07 172 394 686
5 1 53 16 2.6 154.74 152 377 688
6 1 54 17 2.8 157.57 134 360 696
7 1 55 16 2.7 160.24 123 341 702
8 1 56 23 3.8 164.07 119 323 701
9 1 57 27 4.5 168.57 122 314 706
10 1 58 25 4.2 172.74 124 296 708
11 1 59 21 3.5 176.24 129 281 700
12 1 60 23 3.8 180.07 135 269 692
13 1 61 24 6 186.07 143 266 686
14 1 62 20 3.3 189.4 140 259 674
15 1 63 16 2.8 192.23 130 252 658
16 1 64 26 4.3 196.56 131 255 649
17 1 65 23 3.83 200.4 133 262 639
18 1 66 8 1.33 201.73 118 253 613
19 1 67 14 2.33 204.06 108 251 592
20 1 68 20 3.33 207.4 108 248 571
21 1 69 17 2.83 210.23 108 238 552
22 1 70 14 2.33 212.56 96 227 523
23 1 71 13 2.16 214.72 87 219 500
24 1 72 9 1.5 216.22 86 205 474
19-02-2003 1 1 73 13 2.16 218.38 86 194 460
2 1 74 11 1.83 220.21 77 185 444
3 1 75 8 1.33 221.54 68 176 428
4 1 76 7 1.16 222.7 61 157 412

75
 6 STATION PRECIP. (mm)
TIME TIME CUMM. 6·HR 12-HR 24-HR
DATE (HOURS) INTERVAL TIME PRECIP. PRECIP. PRECIP.
TOTAL AV. CUMM.AV.

5 1 77 5 0.83 223.53 53 139 401

6 1 78 5 0.83 224.36 49 136 389
7 1 79 6 1 225.36 42 128 379
8 1 80 10 1.67 227.03 41 118 366
9 1 81 14 2.33 229.36 47 115 353
10 1 82 16 2.67 232.03 56 117 344
11 1 83 11 1.83 233.86 62 115 334
12 1 84 5 0.83 234.7 63 111 316
13 1 85 5 0.83 235.52 61 103 297
14 1 86 3 0.5 236.02 54 95 280
15 1 87 - 236.02 40 87 263
16 1 88 - - 236.02 24 80 237
17 1 89 - - 236.02 13 75 214
18 1 90 - - 236.02 8 70 206
19 1 91 - - 236.02 3 64 192
20 1 92 - - 236.02 - 54 172
21 1 93 1 0.16 236.18 1 41 156
22 1 94 2 0.33 236.51 3 27 144
23 1 95 2 0.33 236.84 5 18 133
24 1 96 4 0.67 237.51 9 17 128
20-02-2003 1 1 97 1 0.16 237.67 10 13 116
2 1 98 2 0.33 238 12 12 107
3 1 99 4 0.67 238.67 15 16 103
4 1 100 8 1.33 240 21 24 104
5 1 101 4 0.67 240.67 23 28 103
6 1 102 3 0.5 241.17 22 31 101
7 1 103 2 0.33 241.15 23 33 97
8 1 104 7 1.16 242.66 28 40 94
9 1 105 2 0.33 243 26 41 82
10 1 106 1 0.16 243.16 19 40 67
11 1 107 1 0.16 243.32 16 39 57
12 1 108 - - 243.32 13 35 52
13 1 109 2 0.33 243.65 13 36 49
14 1 110 2 0.33 243.98 8 36 48
15 1 111 - - 243.98 6 32 48
16 1 112 - - 243.98 5 24 48
17 1 113 - 243.98 4 20 48
18 1 114 - - 243.98 4 17 48
19 1 115 - 243.98 2 15 48
20 1 116 - - 243.98 - 8 48
21 1 117 - 243.98 - 6 47
22 1 118 - - 243.98 - 5 45
23 1 119 - - 243.98 - 4 43
24 1 120 - - 243.98 - 4 39

76
 AVERAGE UNWEIGHTED MASS CURVE

250 ~"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'"
· . . . . . . .

E .. .. .
-1'--- _______ • ___ . ______ ., __________ , ___ ----_.,----------r.---
. "
.
______ • __________ .
.s 200 · . . . . . .
I

z
o
~
1-'.
150 ~ .......... ;. .......... ;. ..... . ---,----------.----------,----------,._.-------,
. . . .
ii:
u
w
0::: .
._---_.--,----------,_.---_._.-,----------,----._----,
.
0.. 100 . . . .
:ii:
.
. . ..
:ii:
:J
· · . . . . . .
U 50 ~ .......... ; ..... . ---,._-----.-.,----------.-.-.------,--------_.,-._-------I
~
· .
··· .
... . . .

o ..... , .......... ,· .......... r········· "'. ......... ,' ......... ., .......... ,

o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
CUMM TIME (HOURS)

Figure 3.11 Mass Curve

Step 2:

Find the contribution of each rain station toward mass of total rainfall during
selected time periods. Mark these precipitation values on topographic map of the
catchment having point rain stations. Draw isohyets by interpolation between rain
recording stations. This is shown in figures 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14.

Step 3:

Find the area between consecutive isohyets and determine Equivalent Uniform
Depth (EUD) for 6, 12 & 24 hours maximum rainfall intervals. These calculations
are shown in table 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18. The EUD is found by dividing cumulative
volume by the cumulative area.

Step 4:

Now we can plot Depth Area Duration Curves. Take cumulative area along x-axis
and EUD along y-axis. The curves are shown in figure 3.15 below:

77
 , \
\

~dSI;lINKIARI
"I
I

Fig. 3.12, 6-Hour Maximum Rain Isohyet Map

Fig. 3.13, 12-Hour Maximum Rain Isohyet Map

78
 "
"
BESHAM ", ,
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ ,
I
99 /87
SHI~KIARI
I
I
I
I

~
HUL7RA
109/
/
/
.,,'"
"."
".,,'"

Fig. 3.14, 24-Hour Maximum Rain Isohyet Map

79
 Table 3.16 6 - Hour Rainfall
Isohyet Value (mm) Av. Area Cumulative Volume Cumulative Equivalent
Isohyet Between Area (km 2 ) Volume Uniform
Value Consecutive Depth
Isohyets

(mm) (km 2 ) (xI0 6 m 3) (x10 6 m 3) (mm)

Boundary(25)and 25 25 310.53 310.53 7.76 7.76 24.99

25 and 30 27.5 2220.71 2531.24 61.07 68.83 27.2
30 and 35 32.5 2968.38 5499.62 96.47 165.3 30.06
35 and 40 37.5 2231.86 7731.48 83.69 248.99 32.2
40 and 45 42.5 2303.52 10035 97.9 346.89 34.57
45 and 50 47.5 2731.9 12766.9 129.77 476.66 37.34
50 and 55 52.5 2689.7 15456.6 141.21 617.87 39.97
55 and Boundary (6 0) 57.5 1484.99 16941.6 85.36 703.23 41.5
Total 16,941.60 699.54

Average Precipitation over the area = 703.23 x 1000 .;. 16941.60 = 41.5 mm

Table 3.17 12 - Hour Rainfall

Isohyet Value Av. Area Between Cumulative Volume Cumulative Equivalent
(mm) Tsohyet Consecutive Area (km 2 ) Volume Uniform
Value Isohyets Depth

(mm) (km 2 ) (x10 6 m 3) (XI06 m3) (mm)

Boundary(45)&45 45 675.27 675.27 30.39 30.39 45
45 and 50 47.5 698.88 1,374.15 33.20 63.59 46.28
50 and 55 52.5 805.13 2,179.29 42.27 105.86 48.58
55 and 60 57.5 1,360.77 3,540.06 78.24 184.1 52
60 and 65 62.5 960.18 4,500.24 60.01 244.11 54.24
65 and 70 67.5 1,396.98 5,897.21 94.30 338.41 57.38
70 and 75 72.5 1,777.90 7,675.11 128.90 467.31 60.89
75 and 80 77.5 1,871.56 9,546.67 145.05 612.36 64.14
80 and 85 82.5 1,863.69 11,410.36 153.75 766.11 67.14
85and 90 87.5 1,677.95 13,088.30 146.82 912.93 69.75
90 and 95 92.5 1,875.49 14,963.79 173.48 1086.41 72.6
95 & Boundary(1 00) 97.5 1,977.81 16,941.60 192.84 1279.25 75.5
Total 16,941.60 1,279.25

Average Precipitation over the area = 1279.25 x 1000 .;. 16941.60 = 75.5 mm

80
 81
Table 3.18 : 24 - Hour Rainfall
Isohyet Av. Area Cumulative Volume Cumulative Equivalent
6
Value (mm) Isohyet Between Area (x10 m3 ) Volume Uniform
Value Consecutive (km2) (x10 6 m3 ) Depth
(mm) Isohyets (mm)
(km2)
Area
enclosed 145 138.50 138.50 20.08 20.08 145.00
by 145
145 and 140 142.5 83.10 221.59 11.84 31.92 144.06
140 and 135 137.5 592.76 814.36 81.50 113.43 139.29
135 and 130 132.5 893.50 1,707.85 118.39 231.82 135.74
130 and 125 127.5 1,164.95 2,872.80 148.53 380.35 132.40
125 and 120 122.5 1,582.02 4,454.82 193.80 574.14 128.88
120 and 115 117.5 3,303.32 7,758.14 388.14 962.28 124.04
115 and 110 112.5 1,205.31 8,963.45 135.60 1,097.88 122.48
110 and 105 107.5 1,179.19 10,142.64 126.76 1,224.65 120.74
105 and 100 102.5 1,620.80 11,763.44 166.13 1,390.78 118.23
100 and
93.5 5,178.16 16,941.60 484.16 1,874.94 110.67
Boundary (87)
Total 16,941.60 1,874.94

Average Precipitation over the area = 1,874.94 x 1000 16941.60 = 110.67 mm

Depth-Area-Duration Curves
200

-E 150 l-....
- -
.s 100 -.. - - - --
Cl
:::J
w
50
b~· :- : : •
A
• •
ts: :
0+------------.------------,------------.------------.
o 5000 10000 15000 20000

Cumm. Area (km2)

\--.::-- 6 hour rain - 1 2 hour rain ---.- 24 hour rain I

Figure 3.15 Depth-Area-Duration Curves for 6, 12 & 24 hours rainfall

81
QUESTIONS
I. What is meant by Precipitation'?

2. Define the terms' Amount of Rainfall' and 'Intensity of Rainfall' '?

3. What are the types of precipitation based on the mechanisms that produce
it'?

4. What are different forms of precipitation on the basis of lifting

mechanism?

5. How precipitation is measured?

6. Explain how a network of rain-gauge stations is designed?

7. Categorize different instruments used for measurement of precipitation

with respect to their merits and limitations?

8. Explain various methods used for analysis of precipitation data. What is

meant by reliable data?

9. Describe the 'Double Mass Curve Technique' for checking the

consistency of precipitation data'?

10. How missing precipitation data is interpolated'?

I I. How precipitation data is checked for consistency and homogeneity?

12. Explain the utility of "Mass Curve" and "Double Mass Curve",?

13. What are Depth-Area-Duration Curves? What important information is

extracted from these curves'?

14. Explain procedure for Depth-Area-Duration Analysis?

IS. Define Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) of a catchment?

82
EXERCISE

Problem 3.1
Assuming the rain falling vertically, express the catch of a gauge inclined 15°
from the vertical as a percentage of the catch of a gauge installed vertically.

Problem 3.2
A 3-hour storm occurred at a place and the precipitation in the neighboring rain-
gauge stations P, Q and R were measured as 3.8, 4.1 and 4.5 cm respectively. The
precipitation in the neighboring station S could not be measured since the rain
gauge was damaged. The normal annual precipitation in the four stations P, Q, R
and S were 45, 48, 53 and 50 cm, respectively. Estimate the storm precipitation at
station'S' .

Problem 3.3
In a catchment one precipitation station 'A', was inoperative for part of a month
during which storm occurred. The respective storm totals at three surrounding
stations I, 2 and 3 are 35, 40 and 30 mm, respectively. The normal annual
precipitations at A, I, 2 & 3 are respectively 985, 1125, 940 and 1210 mm. Estimate
the storm precipitation for Station 'A'.

Problem 3.4
The average annual precipitation for the four sub-basins constituting a large river
basin is 58, 67, 85 and 80 cm. The sub-basin areas are 900, 690, 1050 and 1650
km 2 , respectively. What is the average annual precipitation for the basin as a
whole?

83
Problem 3.5

The annual precipitation at station . A' and the average precipitation at

15 surrounding stations are given in the Table 3,19 given below:
a, Determine the consistency of the record at station 'A',
b, In which year, there is a regime change indicated?

Table 3,19 Data Table

Annual Precipitation Annual Precipitation
Year Station A 15 Station Year Station A 15 Station
(cm) Average (cm) (cm) Average (cm)
1971 50,S 71.5 1981 36,0 27,S
1972 90,0 57,0 1982 42.0 60.5
1973 16.0 27.5 1983 18.0 55.0
1974 21.5 25.0 1984 30.0 38.5
1975 50.5 60.0 1985 54.0 38.5
1976 62.5 22.0 1986 48.0 47.5
1977 69.5 55.0 1987 12.0 49.5
1978 36.0 57.0 1988 36.0 24.0
1979 42.0 36.5 1989 42.0 44.0
1980 42.0 19.5 1990 36.0 60.5

Problem 3.6
The Table 3.20 given below gives the annual rainfall at a station 'A' and the
average annual rainfall of 10 stations in the vicinity for a period of 17 years. It is
suspected that there has been a change in the location of the rain gauge at Station
'A' during the period of this record. Determine the year when this change
occurred and the corrected rain gauge readings prior to this year.

84
 Table 3.20 Rainfall Data
Rainfall Rainfall
Average Average
Year Station A Annual Year Station A Annual
(mm) Rainfall of 10 (mm) Rainfall of 10
Stations (mm) Stations (mm)
1931 505 615 1941 420 605
1932 900 570 1942 180 550
1933 60 275 1943 300 385
1934 215 250 1944 540 385
1935 505 605 1945 480 475
1936 625 220 1946 120 495
1937 695 550 1947 360 240
1938 360 570
1939 420 365
1940 360 - 275

Problem 3.7
Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain-gauge stations in a basin are shown in
Fig. 3.16. Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin.

zone Area(km')
I 410
II 900
III 2850
IV 1750
V 720
VI 550
Area of the Basin = 7180 km'

Figure 3.16lsohyetal Map

85
 LOSSES FROM
PRECIPITATION

The life of the world is like the rain that waters the crops of the earth which are
used as food by men and cattle. But when the earth is embellished and
adorned with gold, and its tillers begin to feel that [the crops) are under control,
Our command descends suddenly at night or in the day, and we mow them
down as though there was nothing there yesterday. This is how We distinctly
explain Our signs to those who think. [Ayat 24, Yunus)
88
 LOSSES FROM PRECIPITATION
INTRODUCTION
Various processes of the hydrologic cycle were discussed in Chapter One. The
final goal of a hydrologic study is usually to obtain runoff from a catchment due
to a storm or storms. There are losses from storm-water due to evaporation,
evapotranspiration, infiltration, interception and depression storage, etc. Of
which, evaporation and infiltration are considered as major losses. These two are
discussed in this chapter.

Evaporation

A few terms related to evaporation are defined below:

Vaporization: It is a physical process in which liquid changes to gaseous state

without boiling from free surfaces of water bodies and wet soil masses and returns
to atmosphere due to high temperature effects.

Evaporation: Water loss due to vaporization is called evaporation. It is measured

in depth units.

Traspiration: The process by which water is returned to the atmosphere by

evaporation from the surface of the leaves after movement from the soil through
the root and stem system of the plant, is called transpiration.

Evapotranspiration: It is combined evaporation and transpiration. The total

water loss from soil or free water surface and from trees and plants is termed as
evapotranspiration.

Potential Evapotranspiration: It is water evaporated and transpired by plants

when it is available in abundance. Of course, quantity of available water affects
the rate and magnitude of evapotranspiration.

89
Factors Affecting Evaporation

a. Temperature: Evaporation is highly dependent upon temperature. Higher the

temperature, greater will be the evaporation.

b. Surface area of water body: Evaporation takes place from free surface of
water body. Larger the area exposed to atmosphere, greater will be evaporation.

c. Humidity: Greater the humidity, lesser will be the evaporation.

d. Wind speed: Higher the wind speed more will be evaporation.

e. Solar radiation: Evaporation increases with increasing solar radiation.

f. Atmospheric Pressure: Evaporation decreases with increasing atmospheric

pressure.

g. Depth of Water: Greater the depth of water, lesser will be the evaporation.

Estimation of Evaporation

Evaporation can be estimated by:

a. direct measurement using pans, or
b. indirect or theoretical method

From theoretical point of view there are three recognized approaches and are
named as:
1. Water Budget Approach,
2. Energy Budget Approach, and
3. Mass Transfer Approach

Water Budget Approach

The water budget approach is the least complicated method of estimating

evaporation but results obtained from it are not so accurate. It is based on the
assumptions that change in storage '~S' and all components of inflow 'I' (mainly
precipitation 'P') and outflow '0' (Runoff 'R') along with losses 'L' except

90
evaporation 'E' can be measured, and evaporation IS the quantity of water
required to balance the continuity equation.

E =P - R - L ± ~S - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4.1)

Example 4.1

From a 50 mm rainfall 35 mm of runoff is generated that was measured at stream

gauging station. If infiltration losses are estimated as 10 mm, determine the
evaporation loss assume there is no storage in system .

Solution

Given,
P=50mm R = 35 mm
L = IO mm ~s =0
E =P-R- L-~S

E = 50 - 35 - 10 = 5 nun

Energy Budget Approach

The energy budget approach makes use of the law of conservation of energy
which indicates that the total energy reaching a body of water must be equal to the
total energy leaving the water plus the increase in the internal energy of the water
body. The continuity equation for energy budget approach is given below.

Qe = Qs - Qr - Qh - Qh - Qt ± Q, - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - (4.2)

Where,
Qe = the energy available for evaporation.
Qs = the solar radiation (short wave)
Qr = Reflected solar energy
Qb = Long wave loss
Qh = Latent heat between the water surface and the atmosphere.
Qt = Heat transfer to and from the lake
Qv =Change in stored energy.

91
All these quantities can be measured or estimated indirectly. The evaporation then
is estimated by some relationship between heat available for evaporation and
evaporated water quantity. Many researchers have worked on relationship. A
simple one from Bowen is given below:

Er = Rn/( Iv pw) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4.3)

Where,

Er = Evaporation Rate
Rn = Net radiation at Earth's Surface

Iv = Latent Heat of Vaporization

pw = Density of Water

Example 4.2

Calculate the evaporation rate from an open water surface usmg Bowen's
Equation from the following data:

Rn = 200 Watt/m 2 Iv = 2500x 10 3 Joule/kg pw = 1000 kg/m3

Solution

Er = 200 7 (2500 X 103 x 1000)

= 8 x 10-8 m/s
= 8 x 10-8 X 1000 x 86400
= 7 mm/day

Mass Transfer Approach

The mass transfer approach contains Dalton's original idea that evaporation ratio
is determined by a combination of influences including wind, humidity, sunshine
and surface characteristics. His equation is given below:

E = C (eo - ea) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4.4)

92
In this equation the evaporation 'E' is a product of the vapor pressure gradient
existing between the evaporating surface 'eo' and the air above the surface 'e a '
and a constant including wind and empirical functions given by following
equation:

C = 0.622 k2 Pa v /( p pw [In (z/zo)F) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4.5)

k = Von Karman constant = 0.4
Pa = Density of air
v = Velocity of wind at elevation z above the water surface
p = Air pressure
Pw = Density of water
z = Elevation at which 'v' is measured
Zo = Height of roughness

Example 4.3

Calculate evaporation from an open water surface in a region where air pressure is
105 KN/m 2 . The vapor pressure of water is 3.167 KN/m 2 and that of air is 1.583
KN/m 2 . The wind speed measured at elevation of 1.75 m above water surface is
2.7 m/s. Assume height of surface roughness as 0.3 mm. The density of water and
air may be taken as 1,000 kg/m3 and 1.2 kg/m3 and the Von Karman constant is
0.40.

Solution

The given data is arranged below with consistent units:

k = 0.4 Pa = 1.2 kg/m3 v = 2.7 m/s

p = 105xlO3 N/m 2
Pw = 1000 kg/m3 z = 1.75 m
Zo = 0.0003 m eo = 3167 N/m 2 ea 1583 N/m 2

Substituting known data in Equation 4.4 and 4.5, gives:

C = 4.084 X 10- 11 m2 s /kg
E = 6.47 X IO- R m/s = 5.59mm/day.
93
Measuring Evaporation by Pans

Because of many difficulties encountered in the indirect measurement of lake-

evaporation using water budget or energy budget methods, direct methods of
estimation are used. The estimation is done on the basis of evaporation from a
pan. Pan is filled to a standard level, represented by a hook at the end of a rod /
wire at some standard time in the morning. Next day at the same time, water is
added so that the water level comes to the same standard level represented by.
hook. This water added indicates the evaporation of that day. In case there is rain
during that time, its account must be taken by adding mathematically the amount
of precipitation to water added; the total represents the evaporation of that day. In
case, precipitation is more than evaporation, then water from pan is to be
extracted.

Evaporation Pans

The pan is the most widely used evaporation instrument. There are three types of
pans.

a. Sunken pans
b. Above ground or surface pans
c. Floating pans.

Sunken Pan

This is installed inside the earth surface. (see figure 4.1). This pan tends to
eliminate objectionable boundary effects such as radiation on the side walls and
heat exchange between the atmosphere and the pan. The results obtained from this
pan are more accurate than those obtained from other pans.

Drawbacks

1. It is difficult to clean the pan

2. If there is any leakage it cannot be easily detected and rectified.
3. The height of the vegetation adjacent to the pan is quite critical.

94
4. As it is open and just 5-10 em above the ground surface so seaweeds, leaves,
garbage, debris etc. can easily enter into the pan.
Sunken pans are of three types.

1. Bureau of Plant Industry ( B. P. I. ) Pan

This pan is circular in shape. These are l.80 m in diameter and 0.60 m deep.
These are sunken into the ground to a depth of 0.55 m and 0.05 m above the
ground i.e. total depth is 0.60 m.

2. Colorado Pan

These are square in shape. These are 0.90m x 0.90m and 0.45m deep. These are
American pans, with 5 cm of rim projecting from the ground. The water is
maintained two inch below the rim.

0.025 ill

Fig. 4. I The Colorado Sunken Pan

3. Young's Pan

It is also circular in shape, about 0.60 m in diameter and 0.90 m deep covered
with a 6 mm wire mesh screen. Other conditions are same as that of Colorado pan.

95
Above-Ground or Surface Pan

The surface pan which has found international recognItIon is U.S. Weather
Bureau class-A pan. This is made of galvanized iron (G.!,) sheet. The pan is
placed on a wooden frame to allow free access of air at the bottom (see figure
4.2). The principle advantage of the surface pan is the easy operation and
maintenance. However more evaporation takes place as compared to the sunken
and t10ating pan but this type of pans are most widely used all over the world.
Certain correction factors are applied to every pan.
Needle

....._ _ _ _ _ _---..:!1~.2~2~m!!....__ _ _ ____:~_..,~~I---- Scale

E O.05m'H_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~_b_-___l
;"g Pan
~
o~~~~r-_ _ _ _~~~._----_,~~.

Wooden Planks
FIG 4.2 US weather Bureau Class A Pan

Floating Pans

As the name indicates the t10ating pans t10at over the surface of lake ( Fig. 4.3).
With a certain arrangement the pan is installed in the lake so that it could t10at
over the surface of lake. Evaporation from a t10ating pan is approximately the
same as that directly from the lake, because the atmospheric conditions around the
pan are the same as those for the lake. Lake evaporation measured by such pans is
free from the effects of the atmosphere.

Fig. 4.3 FLOATING PAN

96
Drawbacks

1. It is difficult to operate and maintain.

2. The reader when he will go by boat for reading may disturb the water causing
some water to enter the pan leading to an inaccurate reading.
3. Leakage, if any, cannot be detected and measured easily.

PAN COEFFICIENT

The depth of water evaporated from a pan is always greater than the evaporation
from water bodies. So evaporation depth measured from pans must be multiplied
by a factor to get actual evaporation. This factor is known as Pan Coefficient. Its
value ranges usually from 0.60 to less than unity.

If,
EL= Lake Evaporation
E = Pan Evaporation, then
EL = kpE
Where kp = Pan Coefficient

Example 4.4

The rainfall during a particular day was 10 mm. Class - A Pan is installed in this
area. If water added to Pan on that particular day was 12 mm, find the
evaporation. Take the Pan coefficient as 0.60.

Solution

= 10 mm
Rainfall

Water Added = 12 mm

Depth of water evaporated from pan =10+ 12 = 22 mm

Evaporation = 0.60 x 22 = 13 mm

97
Example 4.5

If the Pan of Example 4.4 is installed near a Lake having surface area of 500
Hectares, find the volume of water lost due to evaporation. Other observations
remam same.

Solution

On that particular Day, evaporation = 13 mm = 0.013 m

Surface area of lake = 500 Hectares = 500 x 10,000 = 5,000,000 m 2
Volume of water lost due to evaporation = 0.013 x 5,000,000 = 65,000 m3

Measurement of Evapotranspiration

There are many methods of measuring evapotranspiration. The instrument most

commonly used for the measurement of evapotranspiration is known as
'Lysimeter'

Lysimeter

The lysimeter consists of a small tank filled with soil and having the same
vegetation cover as that of the adjacent area. It contains a drain and all facilities
for measuring the quantity of water entering and leaving the tank. The vegetation
in the tank is either watered from lower side of the tank by maintaining a constant
water table or from above. Some of common uses of Iysimeters are:

a. to provide direct measurement of evapotranspiration from soil surfaces on

which plants are grown for use in studies of factors affecting this process.
b. to serve as a standard of comparison for evaluating indirect empirical methods
of predicting or evaluating evapotranspiration, and
c. to provide accurate measures of water loss from soil 111 studies of upward
movement of water in soil as a result of surface drying.

98
Infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which precipitation water is abstracted by seeping

into the soil below the land surface. It is also taken as water lost due to absorption
of water by the ground surface.

The infiltrated water may move horizontally, vertically or in both the directions.
The horizontal movement of water is called Interflow. The interflow joins
streams, lakes and rivers. In large reservoirs substantial movement of water
towards the reservoirs is observed due to interflow from the adjacent areas.

The vertical movement of water from deeper layers of soil is called percolation.
The percolated water moves as Groundwater flow.

Infiltration is measured in terms of depth of water lost in unit time. This is

necessary as amount of infiltration varies with time (storm interval for example).
At a particular instant, infiltrated depth of water divided by time is called
Instantaneous Infiltration Rate. If total infiltrated water depth is divided by
total time, it is known as Average Infiltration Rate.

Factors Affecting Infiltration

Infiltration is a complex process and depends on many factors like condition of

ground, presence of vegetation, type of soil, storm characteristics, temperature
and properties of water.

Measurement of Infiltration

Infiltration rate can be measured by simultaneous measurements of rainfall and

runoff. Infiltration may be determined by using equations or infiltration indices.

Measurement of Infiltration Using Equations

Various researchers proposed formulae to calculate Rate of Infiltration for a given

soil. One of these formulae which is most commonly used is 'Horton's Equation'
as given below:

f = fc + (fo-fc)e- kt - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4.6)

99
Where,

f = infiltration rate at any time 't'

t~) = Initial infiltration rate

t~ = final infiltration rate
k = a constant having units of I It

Integration of Equation 4.6 gives total infiltration as given by equation 4.7 below.

Total Infiltration 'F' = [ (fo-O I k ] [1 - ekt 1+ fet - - - - - - - - (4.7)

Figure 4.4 shows typical plot of Horton's Equation. The area under the curve
gives total amount of infiltration. Usage of Horton's Equation requires three
parameters, the initial Infiltration rate, the final infiltration rate and value of
constant.

Plot of Horton's Equation

L:' 0.9
::::s
0 0.8
..c:
E 0.7
.s 0.6
2ctI
c:: 0.5
t::
0.4
:8
ctI
.E 0.3
;;::
.E 0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1.5 2
Time (hours)

Fig. 4.4 Plot of Horton's Equation

100
Example 4.6

A storm occurred and lasted for 2 hours giving a total rainfall of 50 mm. If initial
infiltration rate is 15 mmlh and final infiltration rate is 8 mmlh, find the total
infiltration depth if value of 'k' is 1 h- i . If other losses are negligible, find the
effective depth of rainfall.

Solution

fo = 15 mmlh fc = 8 mmlh k = 1 h- 1 t = 2hrs

Total rainfall = 50 mm

Using Equation 4.7,

Total infiltration = [( 15 - 8) /1] [1- e- 1x2 ] + [8 x 2] =6+16 = 22mm
Effecti ve rainfall = 50 - 22 = 28 mm

Infiltration Indices

Although rate of infiltration varies with time, for practical purposes, it is assumed
constant. Two types of infiltration indices are used:

a. <l> Index
b. W Index

<l> Index

It is mean infiltration rate for a particular storm. <l> (pronounced 'Phi') index can
be found if rainfall occurrence with respect to time is known. It is assumed that
total depth of rain minus 9> gives depth of runoff. <l> value is found by trial and
error procedure. A value for 9> is assumed and subtracted from total rainfall for
each time interval. The sum of values after subtraction should be equal to total
direct runoff. That value of <l> which gives this value is taken as <l> index.

Example 4.7

A flood was measured from a catchment of 375 square kilometers. The direct
runoff from this flood was found to be 3.58 cm. The time distribution of the

101
rainfall is given below in Table 4.1. Find the <I> index for this storm. Also find
total infiltrated volume of water.

Table 4.1 Time Distribution of the Rainfall

Hour (Time)
Rainfall (cm)

Solution
The first step is to assume a value of 'f' in cm and calculate rainfall excess for
each hour of rainfall. This rainfall excess is summed up to give total depth for the
storm. Next, another value of 'f' is assumed and total depth of rainfall excess
determined. This procedure is repeated till a sufficient set of 'f' and rainfall
excess is determined. Now, plot 'f' values against rainfall excess (direct runoff).
The value of 'f' corresponding to known depth of runoff is <I> index read from the
plot.

Calculations on the basis of above procedure are given in Table 4.2. The 'f' V s
'Rainfall Excess' plot is shown in figure 4.5. The value of <I> comes out to be 1.45
cm.

Table 4.2 Calculations for '<I>' Index

Rainfall (em) 'f' values (em\

1.40 1.50 1.75
(2) = (1) -
(1 ) (3) = (1) - 1.50 (4)=(1)-1.75
1.40
1.02 - - -
1.50 0.10 - -
3.68 2.28 2.18 1.93
1.60 0.20 0.10 -
2.60 1.20 1.10 0.85
1.50 0.10 - -
Total 3.88 3.38 2.78

102
 ') Index Determination
10
E
()
9 ? = 1.45 em
;;- 8
g 7
:J
0:: 6
~CJI 5
~ 4
W 3
~t: 2
Oro 1
0:: B
B 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
f values (em)

Figure 4.5 'f' vs Rainfall Excess Plot

Volume of infiltration = 1.45xlO-2 x 375 X 106 = 5.44x10 6 m 3

W Index

W index gives the average rate of infiltration. It can be found by subtracting the
sum of total direct runoff, interception and depression storage from the total
rainfall.

If, F = Total Infiltration

T = Duration of Storm
P = Depth of Precipitation
R = Runoff Depth
I = Interception and depression storage, then
F=P-R-I
And 'W' index = F / T = ( P - R - I ) / T
For I = 0, 'w' Index = <l> Index

103
QUESTIONS

I. What is meant by Evaporation, Transpiration, Evapotranspiration and

Potential Evapotranspiration?

2. How evaporation is measured? Describe different kinds of pans with

relative merits and demerits.

3. Describe the specifications and use of 'Surface Pan' in detail.

4. Define 'Pan Evaporation' and 'Pan Coefficient'. Discuss the merits

and demerits of the three pan exposures.

5. What are different analytic and empirical methods employed for

measurement of evaporation.

6. What is Lysimeter?

7. What is infiltration loss from the rainfall? Discuss mechanics of

infiltration and the factors affecting the infiltration rate.

8. Explain what is a III index. For a drainage basin having a number of

recording rain gauges, the precipitation record for each station and the
total runoff from the basin are available for a series of major and
minor storms. Describe in detail how you would determine the
minimum infiltration index for the basin?

104
EXERCISE
1. A reservoir operator has to release water from reservoir for being picked
up at a distance of 50 km for downstream users. The average width of the stream
for the anticipated discharge is 40 m. The mean daily class A tank evaporation for
this season is 0.5 cm. Estimate the mean daily evaporation from the stream in
Acre-Feet, if the pan coefficient is 0.7. Assuming 15% losses due to seepage,
find discharge at the head of canal if the required discharge at tail is to be 50 m 3/s.

2. An engineer incharge of a reservoir operation has to release water from

reservoir to provide ilTigation supplies at a distance of 40 km for downstream
users. The average width of the stream for the anticipated discharge is 25 m. The
mean daily class A pan evaporation for this season is 5 mm. Estimate the
mean daily evaporation losses from this stream in hectare-meter.

3. A small catchment of area 150 hectares received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in

90 minutes due to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the
catchment was dry before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours
with an average discharge value of 2 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the
runoff event.
a. What is the amount of water in acre-feet which was not available to
runoff due to combined effect of infiltration, evaporation and
transpi rati on?
b. What is the ratio of total and direct runoff to precipitation?

4. For data given in Example 4.6, find total infiltration during the storm
period using Horton's Equation assuming fo:::= 1.5 cm/h, and fc:::= 0.5 cm/h.

5. A storm with 10 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff as 5.8 cm.

Given the time distribution of the storm in Table 4.3, estimate the <l> index.

Table 4.3 Time Distribution of the Storm

Hour (Time)
Incremental Rainfall (cm)

105
6. Instantaneous infiltration rate can be estimated by the equation,
o5
f=(O.5AI t . ) + B
where 'A' and 'B' are constants and 't' is the time elapsed from the
beginning of the storm. Find total infiltration during 10 hours if A = 10 mmlh 112
and B = 5 mmlh.

7. For a 3-hours duration 225 mm of total rainfall was observed over a 3,200
square kilometers catchment area. The infiltration capacity curve for this area can
be given by Horton's Equation (Equations 4.6 and 4.7) in which fo = 10 mm/h and
flO = 0.5 mmlh. Evaporation and other losses during the storm period were
observed to be 50 mm. Find excess rainfall over the catchment. And also
estimate:

a. Direct runoff volume in m3 and Hectare-m from excess rainfall.

b. Total runoff in Hectare-m.

8. An infiltration capacity curve prepared for a catchment indicated an initial

capacity of 2.5 cm/h and attains a constant value of 0.5 cm/h after 10 hours of
rainfall. With the Horton's constant, k = 6 dai l , determine the total infiltration
loss.

9. In a storm, total rainfall is 2.29 cm and the total infiltration loss is 0.88
cm, calculate the rainfall excess. Neglect evaporation during the period.

10. Determine the runoff from a catchment of area 2.3 km 2 over which 7.5 cm
of rainfall occurred during 1 day storm. An infiltration curve prepared indicated
an initial infiltration capacity of 0.6 cm/h and attained a constant value of 0.15
cm/h after 12 hours of rainfall with the Horton's constant k = 3 h- I . A class A Pan
installed in the catchment indicated a decrease of 2.5 cm in water level on that
day. All other losses were found to be negligible.

106
 STREAM GAUGING

It is God who created the heavens and the earth, and sent down rain from
the sky producing fruits for your food thereby, and made you master of the
ships that ply in the oceans by His command, subjected the rivers to your
control, (Ayat 32,lbrahim)
108
 STREAM GAUGING
INTRODUCTION
Among various hydrologic networks, stream flow is the largest operation. The
necessity for stream gauging arises because of many reasons; streams provide
water supply for man and animals, irrigation water for vegetation, dilution and
transport for removal of waste, and energy for production of power. Records of
stream flow are important in each of these uses.

Water in streams can also be a hazard. Floods cause extensive damages and
hardships. Records of flood events obtained at gauging stations serve as the basis
for the design of bridges, culverts, spillways, reservoirs, etc.

RIVER STAGE

River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the elevation of the water
surface at a specified station above some arbitrary datum.

The zero elevation is sometimes taken as mean sea level but more often it is set
slightly below the point of zero in the stream. The river stage is denoted by "g".
Fig 5.1 shows definition sketch.

a
l
,17////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
FIG 5.1 RIVER STAGE

109
Channel Control

It is the reach of a channel or a channel section where there exists a unique

relationship between stage and discharge. There are two types of channel control.
It may be an artificial or a natural one.

Artificial Control

It is an amended section or length of stream for measurement purposes. Examples

are weir, flumes etc. The design of an artificial control should be based on the
following considerations:

a. The profile of crest should be such that a small change III discharge
indicates appreciable change in stage.
b. The structure should not create undesirable disturbance III the channel
above or below the control.
c. The control should have structural stability and should be permanent.

Selection of a Gauging Site

The conditions regarding depth of water are depending upon the physical features
of the stream on the downstream side. The relation between stage and discharge is
controlled by the physical features of the channel downstream from the gauge
site. Essential requirements for stream gauging are:

a. Permanence of control.
b. Opportunity to install an artificial control.
c. Possibility of no backwater effect from downstream tributaries or other
sources.
d. Availability of a good metering station where good discharge
measurement can be made.
e. Availability of a site for proper placement of stage gauge to record all
fluctuations of water level and free from debris and floating matter with
respect to the control and the metering section.
f. Suitability of existing structures for use in making flood discharge
measurements, or the availability of a site for the proper placement of a
cable way for this purpose.

110
 g. No possibility of flow bypassing the gauging site in groundwater or in
flood channels.
h. A vailability of power line or telephone lines, where needed for special
instrumentation.
1. Accessibility of the site by roads, particularly during floods.
J. Economic construction is possible.

MEASUREMENT OF RIVER STAGE

The river stage is measured by two types of gauges.

A. Non-recording gauges
B. Recording gauges.
C. Crest - Stage Gauge

A. Non-Recording Gauges

The non-recording gauges are of three types

1. Staff gauge
2. Float type gauge
3. Electric tape gauge

1. Staff Gauge

The staff gauges are further of the following types.

a. Vertical Staff Gauge

The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff gauge. A portion of
the vertical staff gauge is immersed in the water at all times. The gauge may
consist of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge pier, or other structure that
extends into the low water channel of the stream. Figure 5.2 shows a typical
vertical staff gauge.

111
 Figure 5.2 Vertical Staff Gauge

b. Sectional Staff Gauge

If no suitable structure exists in a location, which is accessible at all stages, a

sectional staff gauge (as shown in figure 5.2) may be used. Short sections of staff
are mounted on available structures or on specially constructed supports in such a
way that one section is always accessible.

Fig. 5.3 Sectional Staff Gauge

112
c. Inclined Staff Gauge

An alternative to the sectional staff gauge is an inclined staff gauge as shown in

the figure 5.4. Inclined staff gauge is placed on the slope of the stream bank and
graduated so that the scale reads directly in the vertical depth. The inclined staff
gauges are considered better than the sectional staff gauges due to better accuracy.

-~«.

Figure 5.4 Inclined Staff Gauge

2. Float Type Gauge

This gauge is generally used as an inside reference gauge and is installed in a

stilling well to avoid wave effects. The stilling well is 1.20 m in diameter or with
inner dimensions 1.20 m x 1.20 m. It is built on side of a bank. A pipe connects
well to river at its lowest level.

The gauge consists of a float, graduated steel tape, counter weight and a pulley.
The pulley is grooved to accommodate the tape and mounted on a stand. An arm
extends from the stand to a point slightly beyond the tape to carry an adjustable
index, which shows the gauge reading. The index is adjusted at the initial setting
of the gauge at the site. If the adjustments to the tape readings are too large to be
accommodated by the adjustable index further adjustments can be made with the
help of a clamp connecting the tape to the float.

113
A float type water stage recorder requires a shelter house and stilling well as
shown in figure 5.5. The stilling well serves to protect the float and counter-
weight cables from floating debris and if the intakes are properly designed,
suppress fluctuations resulting from surface waves in the stream.

Stilling Well
Fig. 5.5 Float Type Gauge

3. Electric Tape Gauge

It consists of a graduated steel tape, a cylindrical weight, a reel for the tape, a
battery and voltmeter. One terminal of the battery is attached to ground
connection and the other to one terminal of the voltmeter. The other terminal of
the voltmeter is connected through the frame reel, and tape to the weight. The
weight is lowered until it touches the water surface. This contact completes the
electric circuit and produces a signal on the voltmeter. The tape reading is then
taken at the index provided on the reel mounting. This gives river stage with
respect to a datum on the site. To find stage with respect to another datum further
addition/subtraction will be required.

114
 Fig 6.4 Electric Tape Gauge

B. RECORDING GAUGES

These are similar to the non-recording gauges but have some arrangement to give
a continuous record. In recording gauges motion of a float for example. is
recorded on a chart, and in a continuous recorder, the motion of the float moves a
pen across a long strip chart. The chart is usually 25 cm wide and at a scale of
I: 12. When the pen reaches the edge of the chart it reverses direction and records
the next readings in the other directions across the chart. The chart roll contains
enough paper to operate for a year at a scale of 6 cm/day.

C. CREST - STAGE GAUGE

A third type of stage measuring device is the crest gauge, used to obtain a record
of flood crests at sites where recording gauges are not installed. It gives the
information about maximum water level in the past.

A variety of such gauges have been devised, including small floats which rise
with the increase in stage but are restrained at the maximum level. Water-soluble
paints on bridge piers where they are protected from rain and can indicate a

115
definite high water mark are also in use as crest stage gauge. The piers of bridge
are repainted after a flood. The gauge used by U.S. geological survey consists of
a length of vertical pipe containing a graduated stick and a small amount of
ground cork. The cork floats, as the water rises and some adheres to the stick at
the highest level reached by water. The stick can be removed, the crest reading
recorded, the cork wiped off and the stick replaced ready for the next reading. Fig
5.5 shows crest type staff gauge.

STANDARD PIPE
L........r---r-~ BRACKET

10
9

6 GRADUATED STAFF
5

2
1

HOLE TO ADMIT WATER

PIPE CAP
FIG 5.5 CREST STAFF GAUGE

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
Stream discharge represents the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle. Stream
discharge can be measured more accurately than other components of hydrologic
cycle such as precipitation, evaporation, infiltration, etc. In this section methods
of measurement of discharge are described. Methods for determining discharge
can be classified as:

1. Velocity area method (Free flow method).

2. Measurement by permanent structures.
3. Chemical gauging method.

116
1. Free Flow Method (Velocity Area Method)

In these methods, certain instruments are used to observe the velocity in the
stream, and the discharge is calculated from the data thus obtained. In this
method the regime of the channel is not affected, that is for example depth
remains unaffected when instrument is inserted in stream. Also free flow method
can be employed at any suitable section. The basic principle that Q = A V is used
in this method.
Where,
Q = Discharge
A = Area of cross-section of flow, and
V = mean flow velocity.

This needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the flow cross-sectional
area. The channel is divided into sub-sections, the mean velocity and the area of
flow is measured at each sub-section and finally the total discharge is the sum of
the discharges through these sub-sections.

Q=q]+q2+q3+ .................... +qn - ---- ---- ------ ------ --- -- (5.1)

Where 'Q' is total discharge and 'q / is the discharge through a sub-section 'i' of
stream.

Finding Mean Velocity

The velocity in the free flow method can be found by Current meter, or Pitot tube
or Floats. These are described below:

A. Current Meter

A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of water in open

channels or streams. One of the most commonly used current meter is the Price
Meter. This type of current meter is used by U.S. Geological Survey. It consists
of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis. Electric contacts driven by the
cups close a circuit through a battery and a wire of supporting cable causes a click
in headphones worn by the operator for each 5 or 10 revolutions of cups. For
shallow depths wading (depth measurement by rods) is done and for
measurements in deep water the meter is suspended from a cable. The meter

117
reader is either in a boat or on a bridge. There is a heavy weight suspended at the
bottom of this cable to keep the whole family vertical. The velocity of water is
given as

V= a + bN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.2)

Where 'N' is the number of revolutions per second of cups and 'a' and 'b' are the
coefficients for a gi ven current meter.

Following steps are adopted to take measurements by the current meter.

a. Measuring depth of flow (Sounding)

b. Taking reading for 'N', the revolutions per second (i.e. rev/sec).
Figure 5.5 shows a photograph of current meter.

Figure 5.8 Price Current Meter

a. Measuring Depth of Flow (Sounding)

The depth is measured by a rigid rod called wading rod or by a sounding weight
suspended from a cable. The cable is controlled either by a reel fixed on a pulley
or by hand line of a bridge. The wading rod is placed in the stream so that the
base plate rests on the stream bed and the depth of water is read on the graduated
main rod.

118
A sounding weight (Coulomb's Weight) is suspended below the current meter to
keep it stationary in the water. The weights offer minimum resistance to flowing
water and have sufficient weight not to be taken away by the water. Reading is
taken when the weights just touch the water surface. These are further lowered till
these touch the base of the channel. The reading of reel is taken again. The
difference of these readings gives the depth of flow.

b. Methods of Measuring Average Velocity

There are four alternatives for current meter readings.

1. Single point Method

2. Two point Method
3. Multiple Point Method
4. Direct Integration Method

Choice of the method to be used for measuring average velocity is governed by

the following factors:

a. Degree of accuracy is required.

b. Time available, and
c. Behavior of the stream.

1. Single Point Method

The current meter is placed at 0.6 of depth of the stream to find mean velocity.
This is least time consuming method. This is done when the depth of flow is less
than I m. The average velocity is denoted as V=V O.6d , Where VO.6d represents
velocity at 0.6 of depth.

2. Two point Method

The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at 0.2 of depth
and then at 0.8 of the depth. This is more accurate than single point method. The
average velocity is mean of the velocity at 0.2 depth and that at 0.8 depth i. e.

V= (V 02d +V08d)/2.

119
3. Multiple Point Method

In this method current meter is placed at different points. Velocity at each point is
measured and then mean of these velocities is taken. This method, though
accurate, but is very time consuming.
4. Direct Integration Method

This method is same as Multiple Point Method. In this method it is essential that
the worker should be an experienced person. The current meter is lowered from
the surface to the bed of stream with the uniform velocity and from bed of
channel to the surface with the same velocity. The number of revolutions made by
the propeller is recorded and dividing it by time consumed in this operation gives
the mean velocity directly.

The behavior of flow in channel is also an important factor. i.e. in case of

unsteady flow where the discharge is changing during the measurements as that in
floods, etc. we have to use the quickest method.

Methods of Holding Current Meter

i. Measurement by Wading Rods

The wading rod is placed in the stream so that the base of the rod rests on the
stream bed and the depth of water is read on the graduated main rod.

The wading rod is used to hold the current meter when the depth of stream is not
high and the stream section is known to be safe. For deep streams which are
dangerous for wading the current meter is held by cable having sounding weights.

When the depth of stream is 0.45 to 0.75 m., the top setting rod (the position of
Current meter) should be at 0.6d and velocity is then found and if depth is more
than 0.75 m, then the two velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d are found and the mean
velocity V = ( VO.2d +V O.8d ) / 2 is calculated.

ii. Measurement from Bridge

Wc can measure the depth of water from upstream as well as down stream side of
the bridge. On the upstream side the hydraulic characteristics are usually more
favorable, the approaching drift can be seen and avoided and the stream-bed is
less likely to scour. On the other hand, on downstream side vertical angles are
more easily measured, in case the cable is not exactly vertical because of the
sounding lines moving away from the bridge. Moreover, the flow lines may be
straight.

120
The meter is suspended from a handrail of the bridge or a sounding reel supported
by a bridge board or a portable crane, the latter is most commonly used. The
method of measurement of depth and velocity is same as discussed earlier.
However the current meter is not used near the bridge piers and abutments.

iii. Measurements from a Cableway

The cableway provides a track for the operation of a cable from which an
observer takes measurement on current meter. Cable also supports the sounding
reel and other necessary equipment. The car is moved from one point to another
on the cableway by means of rollers. As a rule of thumb, the size of the sounding
weight in pounds should be greater than the maximum product of velocity and
depth in the cross-section. The depth is measured by sounding reel and the
velocity is measured by current meter.

iv. Measurement from Boat

If the cableway and bridge are not available and the water depth is too deep to be
waded, a boat is used. The measurement is made by first stretching the tagline
across the stream and then moving the boat at each tag to take depth and velocity
measurements. When the stream is very wide and the tagline can not be used, the
boat can be kept in position at the cross-section by lining up with flag-positions
on either ends of the cross-section. The position of the boat is determined by a
transit on the stand and a standard rod held in the boat.

B. Pitot Tube

A pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to calculate
discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams. However the use of pitot
tube may not be recommended for rivers due to following reason. Supporting the
pitot tube is very difficult when the channel is very wide and deep. The head
generated by a pitot tube in open channel is generally very small due to very low
velocities, and therefore discharge can not be accurately measured. The use of
pitot tube may however be recommended for estimating discharge in laboratory
flumes and small channels. The formula for calculating velocity is

V=(2gh)o.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.3)

Where 'h' is water height in tube above surface of water. It is the velocity head.
Fig 5.6 shows method of velocity measurement by a pitot tube.

121
 ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Fig 5.6 PITOT TUBE
C. Floats

This method consists of putting a float in the channel and noting the time and
distance covered by the float, the velocity will be equal to the distance traveled in
a unit time. i.e.

v = Sit - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.4

Where 's' is distance covered by float in time '1' .

A straight reach of the channel is selected where the depth is nearly uniform.
Following alternatives can be used to find average velocity.

a. Type-l floats

The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance and time is noted as
mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is determined which is the velocity at the
surface of water. The mean velocity then is about 0.85 of surface velocity.

b. Type-2 floats

Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept above water surface, the
string length is so adjusted so that the weight is at a depth of 0.60 of total depth.
This directly gives the mean velocity.

c. Type-3 floats

A hollow box is provided at top. Canvas skirts are connected with stiffening rings.
The mean velocity is found by the formula:

Vm=Vo (1.012 - 0.116 did]) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.5)

122
Where.
VITI = Mean velocity.
Vo = Observed velocity.
d=Total depth. and
d l = Clearance of lower edge of float from the bed of channel.

Processing Field Data and Calculation of Discharge

Mid-Section Method of Estimating Discharge

The following data is required for estimation of discharge by mid-section method:

1. Location of sampling points 1. 2. 3 •..... n across the stream in reference to
the distance from an initial point on one of the banks. Say b l • b2 •
bJ •.......... b n are the distances from the initial point to the observation points
1. 2. 3..... , n
2. Stream depth d, at each observation point. Say d I, d 2, dJ, ......... ,d n represent
depths of water at observation point to the observation points I, 2, 3, .... , n
3. Mean stream velocity perpendicular to the cross-section at each
observation point.l. 2. 3 ........ n (observation points)

With the above information being known. the partial discharge can be computed
for any partial section at location 'i' as qi=d i Vi ( b i+ 1 - b i _I )/2

Where.
g i = discharge through partial section i
Vi = Mean velocity at location "i"
bi = distance from initial point to location I
bi-1 =distance from initial point to location i-I.
b i+ 1 =distance from initial point to location i+ 1.
di = depth of water at location "i".

The discharge at first section 'I' and last section 'n' are calculated separately as
follows.
g 1=d I V I ( b2 - b I ) / 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.6)
gn=d n Vn (b n -b n- I ) / 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.7)
The total discharge.
Q=ql+ g2+ gJ+ ......................... + gil - - - - - - - - - - - (5.8)

123
ESSENTIAL REQUIRMENTS FOR GOOD DISCHARGE EASUREMENT
The essential requirements for good discharge measurement are:

1. Keep the current meter clean and properly oiled to reduce the friction
losses.
2. The stream cross-section should be sub-divided into as small sub-sectors
as possible (15··20 sub-stations). If this requirement causes verticals to be
less than 0.15 m. then increase the spacing accordingly.
3. Use the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth when the depth is
greater than 0.60 m otherwise take a single measurement at 0.6 times the
depth.
4. Keeping the meter clean of floating materials by raising the meter out of
water to let the debris pass by.
5. When using the wading rod keep it vertical and keep your feet 0.45 - 0.60
meters down stream from the meter.
6. Read and record the river stage from an auxiliary staff gauge periodically
during the discharge measurement. If the stage begins to change by
greater than 5% the procedure may be speeded up by:
a. Decreasing the sounding time.
b. Reducing the number of verticals.

Example 5.1

Compute the stream flow for the measurement data given below columns 1 to 5 of
table 5.1 below. Take the meter rating from equation. V = a + b N with a = 0.03
and b = 0.66

Solution
J
As V =a + b N
So, V = 0.03 + 0.66 N (V is in m/s and N is in revolutions/s). Using this
the following calculations in columns 6 to 11 of Table 5.1 below are made. Find
the discharge using Mid-Section method.

124
 Table 5.1 Computations for Current Meter Observations

Current Width of
Distance Depth Velocity at Mean
Meter Revolutions Time N sub- Area Discharge
from bank (m) point Velocity
Depth section

(m) (m) (m) (Sec) (Revis) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m2) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)= a+bN (8) (9) (10)=(2)x(9) (11)= (8) x (10)

0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50 0.20 0.162 0.162 0.30 0.09 0.015

1.20 1.05 0.84 22 55 0.40 0.294 0.384 0.60 0.63 0.242
0.21 35 52 0.67 0.474
1.80 1.56 1.26 28 53 0.53 0.379 0.432 0.75 1.17 0.505
0.3 40 58 0.69 0.485
2.70 1.89 1.5 32 58 0.55 0.394 0.460 0.75 1.418 0.652
0.39 45 60 0.75 0.525
3.30 1.32 1.15 28 45 0.62 0.441 0.472 0.60 0.792 0.374
0.27 33 46 0.72 0.503
3.90 0.66 0.39 22 50 0.44 0.320 0.320 0.60 0.396 0.127
4.50 0.24 0.15 12 49 0.24 0.192 0.192 0.30 0.072 0.014
5.10
Total 4.568 1.929

N
VI
 Q=1.929 m 3/s
Total area, A= 4.568 m2
Average velocity = V = (Q/A) = (1.929 14.568) = 0.422 mlsec
A verage depth (hydraulic depth) "D" = AREA I TOP WIDTH
=4.568 15.1 = 0.896 m

Example 5.2

From the data given in columns' l' to '4' of the table 5.2 below, find discharge.

Table 5.2 Calculation 0 DischarRe

Distance Width
Mean
from Depth(m) of sub- Area Discharge
Velocity
bank section
(m) (m) (mls) (m) (m2) (m3/s)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2.00 0.50 2.50 2.00 1.00 2.50
5.00 2.00 3.00 4.50 9.00 27.00
8.00 2.50 3.00 6.00 15.00 45.00
11.00 2.40 3.00 6.00 14.40 43.20
14.00 1.50 3.00 4.00 6.00 18.00
17.00 1.00 3.50 2.00 2.00 7.00
21.00 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.00
Total 47.90 143.70

Q=143.7 m 3/s

(ii) CHEMICAL GAUGING METHOD (Dilution Method)

This method is particularly useful when plenty of turbulence exists in the flow
and the measurement of discharge by current-meter is not feasible. The situation
may include a weir, or a fall, a sharp bent or turbine. A reach in which hydraulic
jump is taking place, is the most appropriate. In this method one section is
selected upstream and other at downstream end of the reach of channel. The
upstream section is called the 'dosing section' and downstream end is called
sampling section. At the dosing section some soluble chemical salt made up to a
known concentration is fed into the stream at a measured rate. By the time the

126
flow reaches the sampling section the salt solution is properly mixed with the
whole flow. Samples of water are drawn from the sampling section from the
downstream section and are analyzed for the quantity of salt. There are two
alternatives for injection:
a. Sudden injection
b. Injection at constant rate.

a. Sudden Injection

In this method a know volume 'V' of the dosing solution or tracer is added to the
stream as rapidly as possible. The concentration at the sampling point rises
rapidly to a peak and then slowly diminishes. Samples are then taken at regular
intervals of time and chemical concentration is determined in laboratory. A
concentration-time curve is then drawn. Discharge 'Q' is:

VCI
Q --17 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.9
I(C 2 - Co)dt
II

I(c
II
2- Co)dt = area under the concentration-time curve

V = Volume of injected solution

C] = Concentration of chemical in dozing solution.
Co = Cone. of chemical already existing in stream water
C 2 = Cone. of chemical in water at sampling point.

b. Constant rate of Injection

In this method the dosing of the chemical or any other tracer has to be continued
at a constant, pre-determined rate say 'q' until the concentration of the chemical is
constant at the sampling point downstream, where mixing is adequate. The
discharge is given as

Q = q(C] - C 2 ) / (C 2 - Co ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.10

Where Co = Concentration of chemical already existing in flowing fluid of

Stream

127
If "H" is the head over the weir just upstream of the weir, "V", is the critical
velocity "Yc" is the critical depth, on neglecting the approach velocity and
applying energy equation. (In MKS system)

Q = Cd 1.7BH 15 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.12)

Where
B = width of weir,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge

Example 5.4

Depth of water just upstream of a broad crested weir was measured to be 0.5 m in
a 10m wide channel. Find discharge. The height of weir was 0.2 m

Solution

Given Data
Head above weir crest = H = 0.5 - 0.2 = 0.3 m
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.60
B = Width of weir = 10 m
Q = 0.6x1.7xlOx(0.3)15 = 1.676 m3/s

The coefficient of discharge depends on type of weir structure.

STAGE AND DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP (RATING CURVE)

The graphical curve between stage and discharge is called the stage-discharge
curve or rating curve. The rating curve is nothing but the graph giving the
relation between stage and discharge. Stage is plotted along y-axis and discharge
is plotted along x-axis. The shape of rating curve looks like parabola.

The stage discharge rating depends upon the channel control. For a permanent
control this relation may be applicable for years. It may be necessary to take at
least three discharge measurements in a week to check the rating curve because of
random shifting of the stream channel particularly during flood season.

129
There may be three types of rating curve for any type of river.

1. Low Flow Rating Curve:

It is the most frequently occurring.
2. Intermediate Flow Rating Curve:
It is the stage between a flood and low flows.
3. High flow Rating Curve:
This occurs in high flood days, so is for rarely occurring situation. Because of
this, it is often represented by dotted lines and is obtained by extension of low
flow rating curve.

Not all rating curves are divided into three segments. This division IS purely
artificial.

Extension of Rating Curve

The most important use of the stage discharge rating curve is obtaining discharge
for any measured stage. Because of infrequency of floods it may seldom be
practicable to obtain correct rating curve for high flows. Some times due to
unprecedented floods the stage may be so high that it may not be possible to get
the discharge from the original rating curve. So we need an extension of the rating
curve to obtain discharge during high stage floods.
Special methods have to be used to extend the original rating curve to extrapolate
the discharge corresponding to the measured high stage. The most reliable
method would be the one which straightens the approximated parabolic rating
curve for the convenience of its extension. The most commonly used methods
which comply with this condition are

1. The Logarithmic Method

II. A-iD Method
111. Slope area Method.

1. THE LOGARITHMIC METHOD:

This method is used if the cross section of the stream at the gauging station is of a
regular shape and there is no possibility of getting a number of straight line.s of
varying slopes. In general

130
 Q = C(g-at - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.13)

Where, (g-a) is the actual water depth and 'a', is the vertical distance between the
zero flow and zero datum. 'c' and 'n' are any constants.

Now taking 'log' on both sides,

log Q = log C (g - at = log C + log (g-at
log Q = log C + n log (g-a) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(5.14)

The equation (5.14) is the equation of a straight line with Log C being the
intercept and 'n' the slope. In this equation the gauge height 'a' is
determined by assuming the various values of 'a' until log Q, when plotted
against log (g-a), forms a straight line. This straight line can then be extended to
extrapolate discharge corresponding to the measured gauge height.

11. AfD Method

This method is based on the Chezy's formula

Q = AC-VRS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5.15)
where
C = roughness coefficient (Chezy's Constant)
S = Slope of energy line
A = Cross-sectional area
R = Hydraulic radius

If C-VS is assumed to be constant for the station and 'D' the mean depth IS
substituted for 'R', only when the section is wide, then:

Q =K A -VD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5. 16)

This can be explained as follows:

If the stream is assumed to be a large rectangular channel (wide channel), then

R = A I P = Bxy I (B + 2y) Where 'P' is the Wetted Perimeter

For a wide channel '2y' can be neglected.
R= AlP = B x y I ( B + 2y ) ~ Y= D

131
 Q = K A~D, or
QaA~D

Knowing the values of Q and A we can plot a graph and get a straight line, which
may be extended. Values of A for stages above the existing rating can be obtained
by field measurements and used with the extended curve for estimates of Q.

iii. SLOPE AREA METHOD

This method of estimating high flows is by application of hydraulic principles.

Sufficient high water marks must be located along a reach of channel to determine
water surface slope at the time of peak.

Cross sections of the channel may be determined by leveling or sounding, and the
area and hydraulic radius calculated. The Chezy -Manning formula is ordinarily
used to calculate discharge.

Manning's Formula is different for both M.K.S. and F.P.S systems.

Q= A(lIn) R2I3~Sf (M.K.S) - - - - - - - - - - - 5.17

Q= A(1.49/n) R2/3~Sf (F.P.s) - - - - - - - - - - - - 5.18
A= Area of cross section, Sf = Frictional slope
n= Manning's Constant, R= Hydraulic Radius

The main source of error in applying this equation is in estimating the roughness
coefficient 'n'. Since 'Q' depends upon lin and the average value of 'n' for
natural stream is about 0.035, an error of 0.001 in 'n' represents about 3% in
discharge.

Under the most favorable conditions an error of 10% may be expected in a slope
area estimate of flow.

132
Example 5.5

Find discharge in a rectangular channel having Manning's n=0.04,

Sf= 0.0005, width of 5 m and depth of flow of 1.5 m.

Solution

From Equation 5.17

Q= A (lin) R2/3-VSt
We have the values of
n = 0.04 &
Sf =0.0005
B=5 m and
y=I.5 m.
So we have to calculate,
R(hydraulic radius) R=A / P, Where 'P' is the wetted perimeter
Now, P = 5 + 2x 1.5 = 5 + 3=8 m
Area A = 5 x 1.5 = 7.50 m2
R = A / P = 7.5/8 = 0.94 m
Discharge Q= 7 .5x (110.04) x (0.94)°·667 x (0.0005)°·5
Q=4.02 m3/s

Example 5.6

Given in Table 5.4 below is data for a station rating curve. Find the flow at 4.42 m
stage, both by logarithmic and A-VD methods.

133
 Table 5.4 Stage vs Discharge Data
Stage 'g' (m) A = Cross-Sectional D = Mean Discharge 'Q'
Area (m2) Depth (m) (m3/s)

0.52 24.43 0.46 29

0.76 62.62 0.55 76
1.06 111.5 0.64 139
1.23 145.86 0.85 187
1.3 166.3 0.98 218
1.55 199.74 1.19 268
1.71 221.11 1.4 303
1.82 270.35 1.49 371
2.04 304.72 1.58 428
2.08 317.73 1.65 456
2.38 367.9 1.74 538
2.67 447.79 1.83 682
2.81 464.52 1.86 708
3.02 487.74 1.98 773
4.42 761.81 2.74

Solution - Logarithmic Method

The method involves choosing trial values of 'a', finding logarithm of (g-a) and
Q. Then plotting Log Q against Log (g-a) as shown in Fig. 5.7. The best fit line is
drawn through points for most suitable 'a' value. This line is extended to read
required discharge.

The calculations are shown in Table 5.5 and graph is shown in Figure 5.7. The
value of 'a' for which we obtain a straight line is 0.4 m. The discharge required is
corresponding to log (4.42-0.4) = 0.60. The value of log Q against stage of 4.42 m
is therefore 3.1 which corresponds to a discharge of = 1260 m3/s.

The value of discharge found by logarithmic method is approximated one because

it depends upon plotting accuracy and judgment of drawing best fit line. Suppose
for example if value of log Q would have been read as 3.15, the discharge value
would have been 1412 m3/s which is 12 % more than previous computed value of
1260 m3/s.

134
 Extension of Rating Curve by Logarithmic Method

o
Cl
.2

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

log (g-a)

Fig 5_7 Rating Curve

Table 5_5 Extension of Rating Curve

Stage Discharge LoglO(g-a)
LOglOQ
'g' (m) 'Q' (m3/s) a = 0.3 a=O.4 a = 0.5
0.52 29 1.46 -0.658 -0.921 -1.699
0.76 76 1.88 -0.337 -0.444 -0.585
1.06 139 2.14 -0.119 -0.180 -0.252
1.23 187 2.27 -0.032 -0.081 -0.137
1.30 218 2.34 0.000 -0.046 -0.097
1.55 268 2.43 0.097 0.060 0.021
1.71 303 2.48 0.149 0.117 0.083
1.82 371 2.57 0.183 0.153 0.121
2.04 428 2.63 0.241 0.215 0.188
2.08 456 2.66 0.251 0.226 0.199
2.38 538 2.73 0.318 0.296 0.274
2.67 682 2.83 0.374 0.355 0.336
2.81 708 2.85 0.399 0.382 0.363
3.02 773 2.89 0.434 0.418 0.401
4.42 0.615 0.604 0.593

Solution - AfD Method

The cross sectional area A and Mean Depth D are given. Value of A --JD is
calculated for each stage value as shown in table 5.6. A --JO is plotted against Q as
shown in Fig 5.8. The value of Q corresponding to stage in question is required
discharge. For example, for a stage of 4.42 m, value of A --JD is 1261. This
corresponds to 1375 m 3/s. Here again an estimated discharge is found.

135
 Table 5.6 Extension of Rating Curve
Stage 'g' A = Cross- D = Mean Discharge A--iD
(m) Sectional Area Depth (m) 'Q' (m3/s)
(m2)
0.52 24.43 0.46 29 16.57
0.76 62.62 0.55 76 46.44
1.06 111.5 0.64 139 89.20
1.23 145.86 0.85 187 134.48
1.3 166.3 0.98 218 164.63
1.55 199.74 1.19 268 217.89
1.71 221.11 1.4 303 261.62
1.82 270.35 1.49 371 330.00
2.04 304.72 1.58 428 383.03
2.08 317.73 1.65 456 408.13
2.38 367.9 1.74 538 485.29
2.67 447.79 1.83 682 605.76
2.81 464.52 1.86 708 633.52
3.02 487.74 1.98 773 686.31
4.42 761.81 2.74 1261.02

Extension of Rating Curve by Chezy's Method

2000

-
rn
~ 1500

-o
~ 1000
I..
n:I
..s::::
~ 500
C

o ~==~====~~==~~==~~~~~~~~~~

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Value ofAxSQRT(D)

Fig 5.8 Rating Curve

136
Stream Flow Units

1. Rate of Runoff

It may be measured in cubic foot per second or cubic meter per second. One
cubic foot per second is a volume of one ft3 when collected in one second.

The ft 3/second are also called cusec or 'cfs'. In the metric system the cubic meter
per second are also called cumec.

ii. Volume Runoff

Volume of flow is expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, cubic inches and also in
Acre foot and second foot days.

Second Foot Day (SFD)

It is the volume of water collected in 24 hours (one day) at the rate of 1 cubic foot
per second.

1 Sfd = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 86400 ft3

The smaller unit is second foot hour i.e. volume collected in one hour at the rate
of Icfs.

I sfh = I x 60 x 60 = 3600 ft3

Acre Foot

If an area of one acre is covered by a uniform depth of 1ft of water. The total
volume thus collected is 1 Acre foot.

One Acre = 4840 (yards)2

: I Acre - foot = (4840x9)x 1 = 43560 ft3
and 1 Sfd = 1.9835 Acre foot.

Hectare Meter

If an area of one hectare is covered by a uniform depth of 1m of water. The total

volume thus collected is 1 Hectare-meter.

One Hectare-meter = 104 m3

137
Inches of Runoff

If a certain catchment area is having a uniform depth of I inch of water,

the total Runoff is 1 inch for that catchment area.

Example 5.7
What volume is represented by 3.5 cm of run off from a basin of 650 Square
Kilometers. Give answer in cubic meters and Hectare-meter.

Solution
Volume = 3.5xlO- 2 x 650 X 106
= 22.75 X 106 m 3 = 2,275 Hectare-meters
Example 5.8
Given below are the daily mean flows in Cubic meters per second at a gauging
station for a period of 5 days. What is the mean flow rate for the period in cubic
meters per second? What is the total flow during the period in Hectare-meters.
The drainage area is 1935 square kilometers what is runoff depth in cm.

Table 5.7
Day Discharge 'Q' (m3/s)

1 20
2 136
3 88
4 57
5 37

Solution
Mean Flow = 338 = 67.6 m3/s.
5
Discharge in Hectare-meters = 67 .6x5x24x360011 04
= 5x584.06 Hectare-meters = 2920.32 Hectare-meters.
Drainage area = 1935 km 2
Run off depth in cm = 5 x 584.06 X 104 x 102 -:- 1935 x 106
= 5 x 0.30 cm = 1.50 cm
138
Components of Runoff

Following are the components of runoff:

I. Overland or Surface Flow

When rain falling on ground attains sufficient depth, water begins flowing down
slope and establish surface channel. A route to the channel is formed. Then the
water is designated as overland flow and upon entering channel it becomes
surface runoff.

2. Inter Flow or Sub Surface Flow

Water which infiltrates the soil may move laterally through the upper layer of the
soil until it enters a stream channel. This water is known as inter flow or sub-
surface flow.

3. Base Flow or Groundwater Flow

The infiltrated water may percolate downward until it reaches the water table.
This water may ultimately discharge into the stream as groundwater flow if the
water table intersects the stream channel. This type of flow is known as Dry
Weather Flow.

However, the total flow is divided into two parts depending upon the time of
arrival in the stream rather than the path of flow, viz. Direct Runoff (DRO)
and Base Flow.

The direct runoff is the sum of surface runoff and the initial part of the inter flow
and the base flow is the sum of the groundwater and the latter portions of the inter
flow.

139
QUESTIONS
1. Define 'River Stage'. Describe the 'Staff Gauges' used for measunng
river stage.
2. Describe with the help of a neat sketch, the 'Price Current Meter'. What is
the difference between Price Current Meter and Propeller Type Current
Meter?
3. Why is the stage-discharge relationship important in hydrologic analysis?
What are the different methods of extending the stage-discharge
relationship?
4. What do you understand by the term 'control point' with reference to a
stream gauging station?
5. What is meant by a 'Rating Curve'? Describe the 'Logarithmic Method'
of extension of rating curves.
6. Describe the working principle and use of 'Water Stage Recorder'.
7. Explain measurement of depth of flow in a ri ver.
8. Describe chemical gauging method of discharge measurement.
9. Describe discharge measurement by:
a. Floats
b. Current Meter

140
EXERCISE
Problem 5.1

Following is the data for a rating curve given in Table 5.8. Extend this rating
curve to find out the discharge against a stage of 4.42 m by Logarithmic Method
as well as Chezy' s Method

Table 5.8 Data for Rating Curve

Stage (m) Discharge (m3/s) Stage (m) Discharge (m3/s)
0.52 28.88 2.04 427.59
0.76 76.46 2.08 455.90
l.06 138.75 2.38 538.02
l.23 186.89 2.67 682.44
1.30 218.04 2.81 707.92
1.55 267.60 3.02 773.05
1.71 302.99 4.42 --
1.82 370.95

Problem 5.2

Data given in Table 5.9 below was obtained using the current meter, determine
the cross-sectional area, the discharge, the mean velocity and the average depth
for the entire section.

Table 5.9 Data for Discharge Measurement

Distance from initial Depth of Flow Observational Velocity
point on the bank (m) (m) Depth (m) (m / sec)
4.57 (LEW) 0.0 - -
4.88 0.55 0.33 0.51
5.49 0.67 0.402 0.81
5.54 0.61 0.36 0.64
6.13 0.81 0.48 0.68
7.01 0.37 0.22 0.34
7.32 (REW) 0.0 - -

141
Problem 5.3

Given below in, Table 5.10, are the daily mean flows (m3/s) at a gauging station
for a period of 5 days. What is the mean flow rate for the period in m3/s? What is
the total discharge during the period in second-m-days and Hectare-m? If the
drainage area is 2048 km2, what is the runoff depth in mm ?

Table 5.10 Mean Flows

Day Flow (m3/ s) Day Flow (m3/ s)
I 26.90 4 72.77
2 143.00 5 44.17
3 94.86

Problem 5.4

Using the data obtained with the help of a current meter having constants a=O.05
and b=2.3 as given in Table 5.11 below, determine the cross-sectional area,
discharge, mean velocity and average depth for the entire stream.

Table 5.11 Current Meter Observations

Distance from Depth of Meter Depth(m) Revolution Time (sec)
the bank (m) Stream (m)
0.90 0.30 0.20 15 40
1.50 0.90 0.75 25 42
0.20 30 45
2.10 1.40 1.10 40 43
0.27 50 48
2.75 1.90 1.50 60 48
0.40 50 44
3.70 1.50 1.20 35 42
0.30 25 40
4.60 0.45 0.30 20 35
5.20 0

142
Problem 5.5

One field party measured the following data (Table 5.12) using the current
metering approach to measure the discharge. Assuming a=0.05 and b=2.3 for
computing velocity in m/s. Calculate the discharge of the stream.

Table 5.12 Current Meter Observations

Distance from Depth Meter Depth Revolution Time
the bank (m) (m) (m) (sec)
0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50
1.20 1.07 0.85 22 55
0.21 35 52
1.80 1.59 1.28 28 53
0.30 40 58
2.70 1.92 1.52 32 58
0.40 45 60
3.30 1.34 1.07 28 45
0.27 33 46
3.90 0.67 0.40 22 50
4.50 0.24 0.15 12 49
5.10 0.00 - - -

143
144
 HYDROGRAPH

On the earth are tracts adjoining one another, and vineyards, fields of
corn and dote-palm trees, some forked, some with single trunks, yet all
irrigated by the self-some water, though We make some more excellent
than the others in fruit. There are surely signs in them for those who
<·'1 ,leo I~j')rrj (Ayat 4, Ar-Raad)
146
 HYDROGRAPH
INTRODUCTION

When a storm occurs it contributes to the stream-flow. Various instruments are

used to document storm characteristics, for example, rain gauges are used to
record period and depth of rainfall, current meter is used to find discharge in
streams, etc. The data thus collected is analyzed for its beneficial use. The stream-
tlow characteristics are analyzed by what is called hydrograph analysis.

HYDROGRAPH
The graphical relation between any hydrological quantity (stage, velocity,
discharge, etc.) and the time is known as a hydrograph. Hydrographs are of three
types:

a. Discharge Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of discharge against time. Generally a

hydrograph means discharge hydrograph.

b. Stage Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of stage against time. Stage hydro graph is useful
only for the design of flood-protection works like embankment.

c. Velocity Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of velocity against time.

147
Effective Rainfall

As discussed under Hydrologic Cycle (Chapter One), all of the rain usually does
not go into the stream but a certain part of it reaches the stream and causes rise in
the stream-flow while the remaining part of rain is accounted for in various forms
of precipitation losses. The portion of rainfall which contributes to stream-flow is
called Effective Rainfall.

Basin Lag or Time Lag

A useful index to define the location of the peak of the hydrograph is the basin
lag, which is the time difference between the center of mass of the rainfall and the
center of the mass of the hydrograph. Rise of the stream-flow depends upon the
effective rainfall and type of the soil, and time lag depends upon type of area and
also upon characteristics of rainfall (Figure 6.1 ).

Hydrograph
Lag
5.0
4.5
4.0
CJ
- 3.5
Q)
3.0
...CIl
CI
2.5
J:
CJ 2.0
til
1.2
c 1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Ti me, t

Figure 6.1 Time lag in Surface Runof

148
Parts of a Hydrograph
A hydrograph consists of three parts (fig 6.2):

a. The rising Limb 'BC'

b. The crest or peak 'C'.
c. The falling Limb or Recession curve 'CDE'

The shape of the rising limb depends upon the storm characteristics which are the
duration of rainfall, intensity of rainfall, areal distribution of the rainfall, etc.

The crest segment is controlled by the storm characteristics and the distribution of
streams in the area, which further depends upon geological structure of the area.

The falling limb depends upon the control on storage release, which itself depends
upon the geological structure.
Hydrograph

6.0 Crest
C
5.0
a
<Ii 4.0
OJ
....
ro 3.0
ARiSing~ Falling Limb or
..c Recession Curve
(.)
en 2.0
0
1.0 E

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t
Fig 6.2 Parts of Hydrograph

Components of Hydrograph
A hydrograph normally consists of the four components:

1. Channel Precipitation
H. Direct Runoff (DRO)
HI. Inter Flow or Sub-surface Flow
IV. Ground or Base Flow

149
HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS
Separation of Hydrograph Components
Hydrograph Analysis means dividing total runoff indicated by the hydrograph
into its (above-mentioned) components, of which direct runoff (DRO) and Base
Flow are more important.

The separation of hydro graph components is done by one of the following four
methods.

a. Straight Line Method

b. Fixed Base Length Method
c. Variable Slope Method
d. Recession Curve Equation

a. Straight Line Method

Let us consider a hydrograph as shown in figure 6.3. From point 'A' draw a
straight horizontal line which meets the falling limb of hydrograph at point 'B'.
Above line 'AB' is the direct runoff and below this line is the base flow. The
volumes of direct runoff and base flow (i.e. area under the curve) can be
calculated by any suitable method.

The Straight Line Method for separation of hydrograph has the advantage of
producing an extremely long time base for the direct runoff hydrograph. The time
base varies from storm to storm depending on the flow at the point of rise. It is a
computationally easy method.

Hydrograph
6.0

5.0 Horizontal Line from the

a point of rise in rising limb
ai 4.0 of hydro graph
e'
~ 3.0
(.)
(/)
(5 2.0

1.0 A B
0.0 +-----=~~==::;::::~~::;::====::;:===~--____.
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t
Fig. 6.3 Separation of Hydrograph Components
150
b. Fixed Base Length Method

Let us have the hydro graph shown in figure 6.4. From point 'A' (existing prior to
the storm) extend the curve to point 'B' which is vertically below the peak. Now
draw a line from point 'B' to point 'C' on the hydrograph equal to a distance on
X-axis given by equation below:

N=AdO. 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.1
Where,
N = Length of time in days, and
Ad = Drainage area in square miles
This line will meet the falling limb at, say point 'C'. Join the point 'B' to 'C' by a
line 'BC'. Area below 'ABC' is the base flow and that above it is the direct
runoff.

Hydrograph

600 A°.2
d

500
Extended
a 400 Recession
Q)
0)
s.....
Curve
C\'l 300
.!::
()
(/)
200
0
A C
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t

Figure 6.4 Separation of Base Flow by Fixed Base Length Method

151
c. Variable Slope Method

This method is based on the fact that if water rises in the stream the water level in
the stream becomes greater than the adjoining ground water table level. As a
result the flow occurs from the stream to the groundwater and is stored there as
bank storage.

Refer to figure 6.5, below. Take a point 'A' on the previous recession curve, and
the line' AE' by extending the previous recession curve. Point 'E' is under the
peak. Now take a point 'B' on the recession curve and extend it backward. T~ke a
point 'C' on recession

Hydrograph

600
500
Extended
a 400 Recession
Q) Curve Point of Inflexion
..... 300
0)

co
..c 200
C)
(/)
B
0 100 A

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, t
Figure 6.5 Separation (~l Base Flow hy Variable Slope Method

curve where the recession curve is changing slope, this point is called the point of
inflexion. Draw a vertical line from the point 'C'. It cuts the line drawn backward
from point 'B', at point 'D'. Join point 'E' and point 'D'. The area under the line
'AEDB' shows the base flow component.

This method is not a well defined one. It depends upon experience, so it may vary
from one expert to another.

In general, Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest but also the least
accurate. Fixed Base Method is widely used and gives practically good results.

152
Whereas Variable Slope Method is not commonly used and is difficult but can
give better results depending upon the expertise of the person using it.

d. Recession Curve Equation

The recession side of the hydro graph is formed of the surface recession, interflow
recession and base flow recession. Although the interflow, because of similar
characteristics, is taken as part of the surface runoff in the hydrograph analysis;
there are means to separate the three components on the basis of the exponential
recession equation of the form.

Q = Qo e -ot - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.2
Where,
Qo = initial discharge
Q = discharge a time interval afterwards
o = recession constant
The equation can be written in a general form.
Q I+i = Q 1 e -is!
Taking log on both sides
log (Qt+i) = log (Q t e -iSl)
log Qt+i = log Qt - ot log e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.3

Graph of this equation for different recessIOn constants '0' will give the
components of hydro graph.

Factors Affecting Hydrograph Shape

Hydrograph shape depends on climatic and catchment characteristics. Among the

climatic characteristics the most important are the rainfall intensity, duration and
weather. Among the catchment characteristics the topography and geological
conditions are more important. These are discussed below:

153
A. Storm Characteristics
a. Intensity of Rainfall

The intensity of rainfall has a predominant effect on the shape of the hydrograph.
If other conditions remain the same, a higher intensity storm will produce a rapid
rise in the hydrograph and a higher peak than that in case of a low intensity
rainfall. Such floods give little warning time and so are dangerous.

b. Duration of Rainfall

The duration of rainfall is important if it is greater than the time of concentration

(defined as the time of travel from the farthest point in the catchment area to the
gauging station). In such a situation, if the rainfall of certain intensity occurs
uniformly, the whole of the catchment area is contributing runoff at the gauging
station and the hydro graph attains its high peak. The runoff will remain constant
at the peak rate if the rainfall occurs for duration longer than the time of
concentration. If rainfall of the same intensity occurs for duration less than the
time of concentration, the hydrograph will rise to a smaller peak.

c. Weather
The shape of the hydrograph greatly depends on the seasonal distribution of
rainfall. During summer losses due to evaporation may produce a small peak
hydrograph. On the other hand, in winter. losses are small with the result that
even a small intensity storm may produce a relatively rapid rise and high peak of
the hydrograph. Antecedent soil moisture conditions (generally being higher in
winter) are important as for high soil moisture; the storm will produce more
runoff.

B. Catchment Characteristics
a. Size of Catchment

The catchment area affects the stream-flow in a variety of ways. Even if the
intensity and depth of precipitation is assumed to be constant, the hydrograph of a
smaller catchment rises to its peak and then recedes more rapidly than that for a
larger catchment, because for the latter, it takes longer for the runoff to reach the
gauging station. The hydro graph of a larger catchment area, therefore, has broader
base than that of a smaller one. Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be
the heterogeneity in soil and vegetation cover, with a consequent effect on the
stream-flow of each part of the catchment. The vegetation cover increases the
time of concentration.

154
b. Shape of the Catchment Area

The shape of the catchment area affects stream-flow by altering the time of
concentration and the pattern of drainage tributaries. If the length of the catchment
along the main stream is less than the width across the same stream, separate
runoff peaks generated by a heavy rainfall are likely to reach the gauging station
at the same time from the tributaries, with the result that the flood peak in the
main stream increases. Thus a hydrograph with a high peak and narrow base is
obtained.

However, if the length of the catchment along the mam stream is larger than
width, the tributaries will be of shorter length and contribution from each tributary
area is likely to reach the gauging stations at intervals. After an intense storm
over the whole of the catchment area there will be some lag between the times at
which the peak from each tributary reaches the gauging station. The hydrograph
will therefore, have a low peak and broader base, because the remote tributaries
will continue contributing for some time even after the rainfall has stopped.

c. Elevation of the Catchment

The elevation of the catchment also plays an important role in some hydrologic
characteristics of hydrograph, particularly due to variation in temperature and
precipitation. The temperature reduces with the increase in elevation with the
result that above a certain elevation, the temperature becomes so low that all
precipitation falls as snow. In the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent, contribution from
areas at altitude 15,000 ft. above the mean sea level, is mainly due to snowmelt.
The floods from snowmelt are of usuaIly low peak and broader base.

d. Catchment Slope

The slope of the catchment affects stream-flow by reducing the rate of infiltration
due to increased speed of water-movement towards drainage channels. The
steeper the slope, the faster will be the flow and rise in the hydrograph. The
hydrograph in such a situation will have higher peak and smaller base.

155
RATE OF RUNOFF

While designing hydraulic structures such as bridges, culverts, weirs, barrages,

we are mostly interested in estimating maximum probable rate of runoff.
Various methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff are as under:

a. Frequency Analysis

It may be used provided adequate stream-flow records are available.

b. Empirical Formulae

Involving various physical characteristics of the basin

1. e. Q = C I A (Rational Formula) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6.4
Where,
I = Intensity of rainfall,
C = Constant, and
A = Area of cross-section
Very detailed rainfall-runoff models have been developed which estimate losses
separately and hence calculate the direct runoff.

c. Flood Routing

Flood Routing has been discussed in Chapter 8, in detail.

d. Unit Hydrograph Method

Of the four methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff, the unit
hydrograph method is being discussed in detail in this chapter.

UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The T -hour unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph of direct runoff
resulting from unit rainfall-excess of a duration 'T' hours having occurred
uniformly all over the catchment and having a constant rate of occurrences.

156
The unit hydrograph theory is based on principles of linearity of runoff to rainfall-
excess and superposition. This is a linear process applied to a non-linear situation.

Physical characteristics of the basin remain relatively constant. The variable

characteristics of the storm cause variation in the shape of resulting hydrograph.
The storm characteristics as discussed earlier are the rainfall duration, time-
intensity pattern, areal distribution of rainfall and the amount of rainfall.

a. Rainfall Duration

The volume under unit hydrograph is always the same for a given catchment and
is equal to one unit, say one inch of runoff ( note that volume of one inch of
runoff means that one inch of rainfall excess over the whole catchment. The
actual volume will be the catchment area multiplied by one ). Peak value for a
lesser duration unit hydrograph is higher and is sharp, but the peak value for a
higher duration unit hydrograph is lower with larger base length.

b. Time Intensity Pattern

An infinite number of hydrographs would be required if an attempt is made to

draw separate unit hydro graph for each of the possible time-intensity patterns.
Practically the unit hydrograph may be based only on an assumption of uniform
intensity. Higher - intensity storms will have higher peak with low base, and
vIce versa.

c. Areal Distribution of Rainfall

The unit hydrograph is based upon uniformly distributed rainfall over whole of
the catchment. So the actual flood hydrograph has to be estimated accordingly
from the unit hydrograph taking into account the effect of areal distribution of
rainfall.

Here we will discuss only the concept of unit hydrograph.

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

The following steps are followed in deriving a unit hydrograph:
I. Select an isolated storm, for which reliable rainfall and runoff data are
available.
2. Separate the base flow from the total runoff hydrograph and calculate the
volume of direct runoff.

157
 3. Divide the ordinates of direct runoff by the effective rainfall. The resulting
hydrograph is a unit hydrograph for the catchment area for the given
duration of rainfall-excess. Estimation of rainfall-excess is illustrated in
numeric~l Example No. 6.1, below.

A unit hydrograph derived from a single storm may have some error, and it is
desirable to average the unit hydrograph from several storms of the same duration.
This should not be an arithmetic average of concurrent coordinates; since, if peaks
do not occur at the same time, the average peak will be lower than many of the
individual peaks. The proper procedure is to compute the average of the peak
flows and times to peak. The average unit hydrograph is then 'sketched to conform
to those of the other graphs, passing through the computed average peak, and
having a volume of one-inch.

Example 6.1
From the data given in Table 6.1 below, derive a 6-hour unit hydrograph if this
data is obtained from a six-hour duration storm and the catchment area is 3,200
square kilometers.

Table 6.1: Datafor Unit hydrograph

Date Time Discharge Base Flow
(day) (m3/s ) (m3/s )
( I) (2) (3) (4)
II-Jan 1'1 21 21
12-Jan 2nd 21 21
I3-Jan 3'd 21 21
14-Jan 41h 20 20
15-Jan 51h 20 20
16-Jan 61h 20 20
17-Jan 71h 20 20
18-Jan 81h 20 20
19-Jan 91h 521 11
20-Jan 10lh 160 21
21-Jan Illh 82 29
22-Jan 121h 63 35
23-Jan 13 1h 59 47
24-Jan 14th 53 53
25-Jan 15 1h 47 47
26-Jan 161h 45 45
27-Jan 17th 38 38

158
Solution
The calculations are shown in Table 6.2. The Direct Runoff (DRO) is obtained by
subtracting base flow from discharge values. The DRO is then multiplied by time
interval to get total volume. This total volume is divided by catchment area to get
depth of effective rainfall in centimeters spread uniformly over whole catchment.
By definition of unit hydro graph , its ordinates are obtained by dividing ordinates
ofDRO by effective rain.

Table 6.2: Datafor Unit hydrograph

Date Time Discharge Base DRO Volume Ordinates of Unit

Flow Hydrograph
(day) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (x10 6 m3) (m3/s)
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3)-(4) (6) m=(5)lEff. Rain
II-Jan 1st 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
12-Jan 2nd 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
I3-Jan 3rd 21 21 0 0.00 0.00
14-Jan 4th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
15-Jan 5th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
16-]an 6th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
17-]an 7th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
18-]an 8th 20 20 0 0.00 0.00
19-]an 9th 521 II 510 22.03 255.00
20-]an 10th 160 21 139 28.04 69.50
21-]al1 11th 82 29 53 8.29 26.50
22-]al1 12th 63 35 28 3.5 14.00
23-Jan 13th 59 47 12 I. 73 6.00
24-]al1 14th 53 53 0 0.52 0.00
25-]al1 15th 47 47 0 0.00 0.00
26-]al1 16th 45 45 0 0,00 0.00
27-]al1 17th 38 38 0 0.00 0.00
6
Total Volume 64.11 x10 m3
Area 3200 x10 6 m2
Effective Rain 2.00cm

Volume = DRO x Time

6
= {( 0 + 5 10 ) / 2} x (24 x 60 x 60) = 22032000 = 22.032 x 10
Similarly other values can be calculated.

159
 600

~ 500
M~
Q) 400
E:'
C1l
.c
u
300
if)
(5 200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (Day)

.................. Total Hydrograph DRO Hydrograph - - Unit Hydrograph

Fig 6.6 Developing a 6-hr unit hydrograph

Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Once the unit hydrograph of certain duration is determined, it can be used to

compute a hydrograph of the same duration. In order to derive the hydrograph of
same duration as that of the unit hydrograph, we have to proceed in reverse to the
process used to derive unit hydrograph. The procedure will be as follows:

I. The unit hydrograph of a certain duration is given.

2. Derive the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph by multiplying the unit
hydrograph ordinates by effective rainfall.
3. Add base flow to the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph to get total
runoff hydrograph. The peak of this hydrograph gives the maximum flow
due to the storm.

Example 6.2

Given the unit hydrograph of 4-hour duration (Table 6.3), calculate the ordinates
of total runoff hydrograph of same duration from an excess precipitation of 10
cm. Assume constant Base Flow of 14 m 3/sec.

160
 Table 6.3: Data for unit hydro graph and derivation of total runoffhydrograph.

Date Time Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph

(Hours) (m 3/s)
(I) (2) (3)
I-Jan 12 Noon 0.00
24 Midnight 3.00
2-Jan 12 Noon 17.00
24 Midnight 34.00
3-Jan 12 Noon 51.00
24 Midnight 17.00
4-Jan 12 Noon 6.00
24 Midnight 0.00

Solution

The rainfall-excess has been reported as 10 cm. The ordinates of unit hydrograph
are simply multiplied by excess rainfall to get ordinates of Direct Runoff (DRO).
Once the ordinates of ORO are obtained, base flow is added to it to get Total flow
ordinates. These computations are given in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Derivation of total runoff hvdrograph.

Date Time Time Ordinates 4-hr ORO Base Total Flow

of Hydrograph Flow
4-hr Unit
(Hours) Hydrograph (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(m3/s)
(5)=(4) x Excess
(I) (2) (3) (4) (6) (7)=(5)+(6)
Rainfall Depth

I-Jan 12 Noon 0 0.00 0 14 14

24 Midnight 12 3.00 30 14 44
2-Jan 12 Noon 24 17.00 170 14 184
24 Midnight 48 34.00 340 14 354
3-Jan 12 Noon 60 51.00 510 14 524
24 Midnight 72 17.00 170 14 184
4-Jan 12 Noon 84 6.00 60 14 74
24 Midnight 96 0.00 0 14 14

161
The unit hydrograph, ORO hydrograph and total hydrograph is shown in fig. 6.7

Derivation of Total Run off Hydrograph

600 -
550
500
450
<Il 400
;;;-
E 350
300
~
0 250
LL 200
150
100
50
0 I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (Hours)

I~ 4 Hour Unit Hydrographll- - - -ORO Hydrograph I I...... ~ .....·Total Runoff Hydrograph I

Fig. 6. 7 Total Runqff Hydrograph

5 Curve

The S curve is hydrograph obtained by summation of infinite number of unit

hydrographs of given duration each lagged by time interval equal to the duration
of the given hydrograph. The S curve can be used to derive unit hydrograph of
any desired duration. The Derivation of the S curve is very simple. We keep on
adding given unit hydrograph ordinates each lagged by time equal to the duration
of given hydrograph from the previous one till we obtain a constant value after
addition or it starts fluctuating between some values.

The procedure of derivation of unit hydrograph from a given unit hydrograph is

explained further in the following example.

Example 6.3

Given is a unit hydro graph of 2 hour duration (column 2 of Table 6.5). Derive the
2 hours duration'S' curve.

162
 Table 6.5: Ordinates of 2 -Hour Unit Hydrograph
Time (Hours) Flow (m 3/s)
0 0
2 95
4 164
6 121
8 91
10 54
12 18
14 0

SOLUTION

First, we derive'S' curve: The calculations are shown in Table 6.6. In this table
ordinates of unit hydrograph of 2-hour duration are given in column 2. Column 1
is time in hours. Other columns have ordinates in m 3/s. Columns 3 to 14 show
lagged unit hydrographs. Column 15 is the addition which is the'S' curve.

The'S' curve is shown in Figure 6.8

5 Curve
600
500
en 400
..;-
..s 300
3:
0
LL
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (Hours)

Figure 6.8 'S' Curve

163
-
0\
.j::.

Table 6.6:
Unit hydrograph data and derivation qf S curve.

(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) J91 (10) (11 ) (12) (13) (14) (15)

0 0 0
2 95 0 95
4 164 95 0 259
6 121 164 95 0 380
8 91 121 164 95 0 471
10 54 91 121 164 95 0 525
12 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
14 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
16 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
18 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
20 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
22 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
24 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 0 543
26 0 18 54 91 121 164 95 543
28 0 18 54 91 121 164
30 0 18 54 91 121
32 0 18 54 91
34 0 18 54
36 0 18
38 0
Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph
The procedure for derivation of any required duration unit hydrograph from a
given-duration unit hydro graph is described below:

I. Derive the S-Curve (as per procedure explained above).

2. Offset the position of the S-curve for a period equal to the desired duration
of hydro graph to be derived. This is called the lagged S-curve.
3. Subtract the ordinates of lagged S-curve from the original S-curve at the
respective time intervals.
4. The ordinates of unit hydrograph of required duration are obtained by
multiplying the difference obtained in Step-3 with the ratio ' given
duration over required duration' ( i. e. multiply by the ratio = given
duration/desired duration)

Example 6.4
Given is unit hydrograph of 2-hours duration (Column (2), Table 6.5 of Example
6.3). Find 6-hours unit hydrograph for the same catchment.

Solution
The derivation of S curve is given in Example 6.3. Using that S curve the
derivation of 6 hours unit hydrograph is given below in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Derivation (~l6 hours unit h.vdrograph from 2 hours unit hydro graph.

Time 2-hour Unit S-Curve Lagged Difference 6 Hour Unit

Hydrograph S-Curve Hydrograph
Ordinates Ordinates
( 1) (2) (3) (4) (5 )=(3 )-(4 ) = (5) x 2/6
0 0 () 0 ()

2 95 95 95 32
4 164 259 259 86
6 121 380 0 380 127
8 91 471 95 376 125
10 54 525 259 266 89
12 18 543 380 163 54
14 0 543 471 72 24
16 543 525 18 6
18 543 543 0 0

165
The given 2-hr hydrograph and developed 6-hr hydrographs are shown in Figure
6.9. It may be noted that increasing the duration of unit hydrograph has decreased
peak flow.

180
160 / ,
- 140 I
I \
\

"" "'i//'<~·~·~:::: . . . . ..
I I) 120

-
ME 100
3: 80
0
u. 60
40
20 1".. · · · · . .- '",~. . . . . . . . . .
I.,.'" ....
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (Hours)

1- --- 2 Hour Unit HYdrograPhl I .......·....·6 Hour Unit Hydrograph I

Figure 6.9 Two Hour and Six Hour Unit Hydrograph

Composite Hydrograph

The stream-flow hydrograph may be due to more than one storm. In that case we
have to separate the effect of each storm. This is composite hydrograph
separation. Here the analogy is used that ordinates of composite hydrograph are
proportional to intensity of rainfall.

Example 6.5

Given is hydrograph resulting from two storms each of 6-hours duration (Table
6.8). The rainfall excess of first storm is 0.8 em and that of second storm is 0.6
em each of 6-hr duration. Separate the hydrograph of both storms and find 6 hr
unit hydrograph for each storm.

166
Solution

Refer to Table 6.9. The following steps illustrate the procedure

I. Total rainfall is 0.8 + 0.6 = 1.4 cm. The contribution of second storm
relative to the first storm is 0.6 / 0.8 = 0.75. The ordinates of first
hydrograph are, therefore obtained by subtracting effect of second
hydrograph from composite hydrograph. Since second storm occurs 6
hours later than the first one, the first ordinate of composite hydrograph is
due to contribution of first storm. Therefore first ordinate of first
hydrograph is 750 - 0 = 750.
II. The second ordinate is obtained by subtracting (0.6 / 0.8) x 750 = 562.50
from second ordinate of composite hydrograph i.e. 1400 - 562.50 =
837.50. The third ordinate of first storm hydrograph is obtained by
subtracting 0.75 x 837.50 = 628. I 2 from third ordinate of composite
hydrograph i.e. 1671.88 and so on. The calculations are shown in table
6.9.
111. The ordinates of second hydrograph are obtained simply by subtracting
ordinates of first hydrograph from composite hydrograph.
IV. For unit hydrograph ordinates of each hydrograph are divided by their
respective rainfall excess.

Table 6.8.
Data (~f" Composite Hydrog raph
Date Time Composite Date Time Composite Date Time Composite
Hydrograph Hydrograph Hydrograph
(Hours) (cumecs) (Hours) (cumecs) (Hours) (cumecs)

22-04-65 0 - 60 19,100.00 27-04-65 120 3)00.00

6 750.00 66 15,000.00 126 2,900.00
12 1,400.00 25-04-65 72 11,400.00 132 2,600.00
18 2,300.00 78 9,300.00 138 2, 100.00
23-04-65 24 3,000.00 84 7.800.00 28-04-65 144 1,700.00
30 7,000.00 90 6,300.00 150 lJOO.OO
36 13,000.00 26-04-65 96 5,700.00 156 900.00
42 23,000.00 102 4,800.00 162 600.00
24-04-65 48 29,700.00 108 4,000.00 29-04-65 168 -
54 25,000.00 114 3,700.00

167
 Table 6.9 Separation of Component Hydrographs

Date Time Composite First 6 Hour Second 6 6 Hour Unit 6 Hour Unit
Hydrograph Hydrograph Hour Hydrograph Hydrograph
Hydrograph (First Storm) (Second
Storm)

(Hours) (cumecs) (O.S em) (0.6 cm)

22-04-65 0 - - - -
6 750.00 750.00 - 937.50 -

12 I AOO.OO 837.50 562.50 1,046.88 937.50

IS 2,300.00 1,671.88 628.13 2.089.84 1,046.88
23-04-65 24 3,000.00 1,746.09 1,253.91 2,182.62 2,089.84
30 7,000.00 5,690.43 1,309.57 7,113.04 2,182.62
36 13,000.00 8,732.18 4,267.82 10,915.22 7,113.04
42 23,000.00 16,450.87 6,549.13 20,563.58 10,915.22
24-04-65 48 29,700.00 17,361.85 12,338.15 21,702.31 20,563.58
54 25,000.00 11,978.61 13,021.39 14,973.27 21,702.31
60 19,100.00 10,116.04 8,983.96 12,645.05 14,973.27
66 15,000.00 7,412.97 7,587.03 9.266.21 12,645.05
25-04-65 72 11,400.00 5,S40.27 5.559.73 7,300.34 9.266.21
78 9,300.00 4,919.80 4,380.20 6,149.74 7,300.34
84 7,800.00 4.110.15 3,689.85 5,137.69 6.149.74
90 6,300.00 3,217.38 3,082.62 4,021.73 5,137.69
26-04-65 96 5.700.00 3.286.96 2,413,C)4 ..UOS.70 4,021.73
102 4.800.00 2,334.78 2.465.22 2,918.47 4,108.70
lOS 4,000.00 2,248.92 1,75UJ8 2,811.14 2,918.47
114 3,700.00 2,013.31 1,686.69 2,516.64 2.811.14
27 .. 04-65 120 3,300.00 1,790.02 1,509.98 2,237.52 2,516.64
126 2,900.00 1,557.49 1,342.51 1.946.86 2,237.52
132 2,600.00 1,431.88 1,168.12 1,789.85 1.946.86
138 2,100.00 1,026.09 1,073.91 1,282.61 1,789.85
28-04-65 144 1,700.00 930.43 769.57 1,163.04 1,282.61
150 1,300.00 602.17 697.83 752.72 1,163.04
156 900.00 448.37 451.63 560.46 752.72
162 600.00 263.72 336.28 329.65 560.46
29 .. 04-65 168 .. .. .. - -

168
Composite hydrograph along with component hydrograph is shown
in Figure 6.10.

SEPARATION OF COMPOSITE HYDROGRAPH

35,000 r-------.,...--~-----.---~---.----.----.----.---____,

30,000
------ ~ - - --- -:-
I I

(\.: - -: ------ -- - -- -:- -- - - - -: ------ - ---- -:- ------

I I

~
I I I

~
I

U - - - - - -. - - - - - -'-.- - - it- • - - - - - -. - - - - - -,- - - - - -

ell
25,000
, :t . ., : ' , ~
,- - - - - - •, - - - - - -., - - - - - -
E .: ',.
.,[ 20,000 ------.- -----T ----- -----.- ------.- ------, ------; ------.- ------
r .: ",.
-~.-
I I I I I

ell
OJ - - - - - -
I /: , --, :
I. _ _ _ _ _ :'-'/- __ -\ __ .. _
"""
~
I
_ _ _ _ .. _ _ _ _ _
I
.1. _____
I I
J. _ _ _ _ _ _ ...
I
_ _ _ _ _ _ '- _____ _
~ 15,000
.r:.
(J , ~l '....' , , , ,

:::::I,/'~: :-:::,'::~··:~:~:;J~:.:~:L:.-~.:: :::;::::::-

I/)
i5 10,000

5,000

... ..,.
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time (Hours)

I. . ·....· Composite Hydro graph 11- -- First 6 hr Hydro graph 11- Second 6 hr Hydro graPhl

Fig 6.10 Separation (~l Component Hydrographsfrom Composite Hydrograph

Example 6.6
Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 6.10,
Take R2/ R1 =1.2

Table 6.10

Solution

Table 6.1 I below gives calculations for determination of q2 & Q, in which

ordinates of q2 have been calculated by using a modified but simple formula given
in the table.

169
 Table 6.11 Hydrograph Data
N TIME ql Ordinates of Discharge Q of
Q2=(R2/R 1)xQl(n-l)' complex hydrograph ,

0 1 0 0
1 2 200 0 200
2 3 400 240 640
t-
3 4 1000 480 1480
- 4 5 2800 1200 4000
5 6 1400 3360 4760
6 7 900 1680 2580
7 8 700 1080 1780
8 9 480 840 1320
9 10 200 576 776
10 11 0 240 240
11 12 0 0

Composite hydro graph along with component hydrograph is shown

in Figure 6.11.

COMPLEX HYDROGRAPH

6000
5000
w
c.!) 4000
0::
«
:I: 3000
U
(/)
C 2000
1000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
TIME

Figure 6.11

170
Example 6.7

Repeat example 6.6 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table
6.12 below) for its separation into its components ql & q2 with R2/R1 =1.2

Solution: Table 6.12 Calculations for Separation of Complex hydrograph

n TIME Discharge a Ordinates of ql = an - Ordinates of
(Hours) of complex (RiR l ) x Ql(n.l)' Q2 = (R2/R l )xQl(n'1)'
hydrograph (Cumecs) (Cumecs)
(Cumecs)
0 1 0 0
1 2 200 200 0
2 3 640 400 240
3 4 1480 1000 480
4 5 4000 2800 1200
5 6 4760 1400 3360
6 7 2580 900 1680
7 8 1780 700 1080
8 9 1320 480 840
9 10 776 200 576
10 11 240 0 240
11 12 0 0

COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX HYDRO GRAPH

-
en
U
6000
~ 5000 ............
::> ... ...
-w
U 4000
C) 3000 .. ~

0:: '. .....

«
J:
2000 ~ .•....
...............
U 1000
CJ)
C 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

TIME (HOURS)
Figure 6.12 (With Example 6.7)

171
Example 6.8
Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 6.13, Take
K,f RJ= 1.2 and R3f RJ = 1.5
Table 6.13 Hydrograph Data

Solution

Table 6.14 below gives calculations for determination of q2. q3 and Q, in which
ordinates of q2 and q3 have been calculated by using modified but simple formulae
given in the table.

Table 6.14 Hydrograph Data

n TIME q, Ordinates of Ordinates of Discharge Q of
q2=(R2/R,)xq,(n.,). q3=(R 3/R ,)xql(n.2). complex
hydrograph

(1 ) (2) (3) (1) + (2) + (3)

0 1 0 0
1 2 200 0 200
2 3 400 240 0 640
3 4 1000 480 300 1780
4 5 2800 1200 600 4600
5 6 1400 3360 1500 6260
6 7 900 1680 4200 6780
7 8 700 1080 2100 3880
8 9 480 840 1350 2670
9 10 200 576 1050 1826
10 11 0 240 720 960
11 12 0 300 300
12 13 0 0

172
Figure 6.13 shows complex hydrograph
8000
7000
6000
w
(')
0:::
5000
«
I 4000
U
(J)
3000
0
2000
1000
0 ...
....
.. -
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
TIME

Figure 6.13 Complex Hydrograph

Example 6.9
Repeat example 6.8 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table
6.15 below) for its separation into its components ql. q2 & q3 with R2/R1 =1.2 &
R3/R1 =1.5.

Table 6.15 Calculationsfor Separation of Complex hydrograph (see Fig. 6.14)

N Time Discharge Ordinates of Ordinates of Ordinates of
Q of q, = On- q2 = (R 2/R 1)x q1(n-1)- q3=(R:JR 1)x q1(n-2)-
complex (R 2/R 1)xq1(n-1) -
hydrograph
(R:JR1 )xq1(n-2).

0 1 0 0
1 2 200 200 0
2 3 640 400 240 0
3 4 1780 1000 480 300
4 5 4600 2800 1200 600
5 6 6260 1400 3360 1500
6 7 6780 900 1680 4200
7 8 3880 700 1080 2100
8 9 2670 480 840 1350
9 10 1826 200 576 1050
10 11 960 0 240 720
11 12 300 0 300
12 13 0 0

173
 COMPLEX HYDRO GRAPH

8000
7000
6000
w
l')
0::
5000
«
I 4000
U
(j)
3000
0
2000
1000
0 .. '
.....
.. -
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
TIME

Figure 6.14 Complex Hydrograph

Synthetic Hydrograph

For un-gauged catchments, unit hydrograph developed from characteristics of

similar catchments is called Synthetic hydrograph.

Synthetic hydrograph is obtained by mathematically correlating catchment

characteristics. Different approaches are available for developing a synthetic
hydrograph, some of which are:

a. Bernard's method
b. McCarthy's Method
c. Snyder's Method
d. Taylor and Schartz Method

Of these, Snyder's Method is the most commonly used method, which is briefly
described here.

Snyder' 5 method

Following are the steps involved in unit hydrograph construction according to

Snyder's method.

174
To find 'Time to Peak' , Snyder proposed,
tp = Cr (L Lc/ J·3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.5)
Where,
tp = Basin Lag in Hours. Basin Lag is the time between centre of mass of
unit rain and peak flow (See Figure 6.15).
L = Distance from gauging station to catchment boundary.
Lc = Distance in kilometers between gauging station and centroid of
catchment. It is measured from gauging station along the main stream to the point
nearest to centroid of catchment.
Cr = A regional constant representing watershed slope and storage.
The value ofCt in Snyder's study ranged from 1.35 to 1.65. However studies have
shown that C t depends upon region and varies from 0.3 to 6.0.
Snyder adopted a standard duration tr hours of effective rainfall given by
tr = tp I 5.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.6)
if t R :s; tr then the peak discharge Qp (m3 Is) of a unit hydro graph is given by
Qp=(2.78 CpA)/t p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.7)
where A = catchment area in km and C p = regional constant. The value of Cp range
from 0.56 to 0.69 for Snyder's study areas and is considered as an indication of the
retention and storage capacity of the watershed. The value ofC p vary considerably

Snyder's Standard Unit Hydro graph

45

40

35

a 30
ai
OJ 25
c
ro
.c
() 20
en
0 15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time t
Figure 6. J5 Definition of tr and tp in Sn.vder's Method

175
depending on the characteristics of the region and values of Cp in the range 0.31 to
0.93 have been reported.
If t R> tr then tpR = tp+ ( t R- tr ) /4

= {(21/22)xt p } +(tR/4) ----------(6.8)

QpR =(2.78 CpA)/ t pR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.9)

tR - Effective duration measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar

catchment.
tpR - Basin lag measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar
catchment.
QpR - Peak Discharge from unit hydrograph derived for similar catchment.

The time base of a unit hydro graph is given by Snyder as

tb = 3 x (1 + tpR 124) days = (72 + 3 tpR) hrs - - - - - - - - - - (6.10)

Eq. (6.1 0) gives reasonable estimate of tb for large catchments, it may give
excessively large values of time base for small catchments.

Required Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

45
40
35
Q)
OJ 30
I-
m 25
.c
u 20
(/)

is 15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time
.
I

:. ..
I tb I

~:
Figure 6.16 Definition of tR. tPR and th

176
 Synthetic Unit Hydro graph by Snyder's Method

45

40
35

30
a
ai 25
0)
c
co
£
u 20
C1)
(5
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time t

Figure 6.17 Definition of ql" W50 and W 75

Width of Hydrograph 'W' is given by equation 6.11. The coefficient 'C w ' defines
value of peak discharge where width of hydrograph is required. For example,
width at discharge which is 75% and 50% of Peak discharge is to be calculated:

W = Cw qPR -I.OR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6.11 )

For qPR = 75%, Cw = 3.35
For qPR = 50%, C w = 5.87
qPR = Q PR I A = Peak discharge per unit catchment area in m 3 Is I km 2

Example 6.10

Develop 3-hour unit hydro graphs for a catchment area measuring

135.8 Sq. miles with following data:
C t = 1.50, C p = 0.60 L = 29.5 miles Lc = 15 miles

Also calculate total run-off in inches for the catchment.

177
Solution
Step-1

• Basin Lag, tp = C x (L X L c )0.3o

= 1.50 x (29.5 x 15)°·30
= 9.33 hours
• Standard duration of rainfall,
tr = tp 15.50
= 9.33/5.50
= 1.70 hours

Step-2 3-hour duration unit hydrograph

• tR = 3 hours> tr

• Basin Lag, tpR = tp + [tR - t r]/4

= 9.33 + [3-1.70]/4
= 9.66 hours
• Peak discharge, QpR = 640 x C p x A ItpR
= 640 x 0.60 x 135.8/9.66
= 5398.36 cfs
• Time base, tb = 3 x (1 + tpR 124)
= 3 x (1 + 9.66/24)
= 4.21 days
= 101 hours
• 50% of Q PR = 2694.5 cusecs
W so = 770/[Q PR /A]1.08=770/[5398.36/135.8]10R
= 14.40 hours
• 75% of Q PR = 4048.70 cusecs
W 75 = 440 I [Q PR I A ]I.OR = 440 I [5398.36 I 135.8 ]1.08

= 8.24 hours

178
• Plot unit hydrograph using above calculated values. The graph is shown
in Fig 6.18 below. It has been plotted using definitions given in Figs. 6.16
and 6.17 above.

• From Fig. 6.18, tabulate the values of discharge against equal time
interval of any length say at 6 hours interval (17*6 = 102 close to 101).
These values have been shown in Table 6.16

SYNTHETIC 3-HOUR UNIT HYDRO GRAPH BY SNYDER'S METHOD

(EXAMPLE6.10)

6000
f\
en 5000
13
~ 4000
/\
~ 3000 j \
«
G 2000 / \
(f)
15 1000 L ~
1/
o I
"----
I I I I

o 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME (HOURS)

Fig. 6.18 Synthetic Hydrograph

179
 Table 6.16 Hydrograph Data
Time (Hours) Q (cfs)
0 0
6 2550.00
12 5200.00
18 3100.00
24 1300.00
30 950.00
36 530.00
42 300.00
48 200.00
54 150.00
60 110.00
66 100.00
72 80.00
78 60.00
84 30.00
90 20.00
96 10.00
101 (say 102) 0
Total 14690

• Total run-off = [14690 x 6 x 60 x 60]

[24 x 60 x 60]
= 3672.50 sfd
= 3672.50/26.90
= 136.52 inches-mile
Run-off = 136.52/ 135.8
= 1.00 inch

180
Example 6.11

Two catchments A and B are considered meteorology similar. Their catchment

characteristics are given below

Catchment Characteristics of Catchments A and B

Catchment A Catchment B
L = 35km L = 40km
Lc = 15 km Lc = 25 km
A = 250 km 2 A =400 km 2

For catchment A, a 2-h unit hydro graph was developed and was found to have a
peak discharge of 50 m 3/s. The time to peak from the beginning of the rainfall
excess in this unit hydrograph was 9.0 h. Using Snyder's method, develop a unit
hydrograph for catchment B.

SOLUTION: For Catchment A:

tR = 2.0 h

Time to peak from beginning of ER = ( t R 12 ) + t PR = 9.0 h

tpR = 8.0 h
from Eg. (6.8)
tpR = (21/22) x tp+ tR 14

= ( 21122 ) x tp + 0.5 = 8.0

tp = (7.5 x 22) 1 21 = 7.857 h

from Eg. (6.5).

tp = Ct (L Lc )0.3

0.3
7.857 = Ct (35 x 15)

Ct = l.2

18 I
from Eq. (6.9).

50 = 2.78 x C p x 250 I 8.0

Cp = 0.576

For Catchment B: Using the values ofCt = 1.2 and C p = 0.576 in catching B, the
parameters of the synthetic-unit hydrograph for catchment B are determined.
From Eq. (6.5)
0.3
tp = l.2 (40x25) = 9.53 h

By Eq. (6.6).

tr = 9.53 I 5.5 = l.733 h

Using t = 2.0 h, i.e. for a 2-h unit hydrograph, by Eq. (6.8),

tpR = 9.53 x (21122) + (2.0/4) = 9.6 h

By Eq. (6.9).

QpR = (2.78xO.576x400)/9.6
= 66.72 m Is, say 68 m Is

From Eq. (6.11).

1.08
W50 = 5.87/(68/400) = 39.79 h

1.08
W75 = 3.35/(68/400) = 22.7 h

Time base: From (Eq. 6.10)

t b = 72 + (3 x 9.6) = 100.8 h

182
QUESTIONS
1. Define Hydrograph and explain its significance in Hydrology.

2. Discuss shape of hydrograph with respect to catchment characteristics.

3. Explain various methods for separating base flow from direct runoff in
hydrograph. Can a unit hydrograph used directly to forecast DRO and
peak of a flood, if the intensity of rainfall is not constant?

4. Define Unit Hydrograph and compare it with DRO Hydrograph. Criticize

the assumptions involved in unit hydrograph theory.

5. What is the practical significance of a unit hydrograph? What are the three
propositions of the unit hydrograph theory?

6. Explain the step by step procedure for deriving unit hydrograph from
DRO hydrograph and vice versa?

7. What is S Curve? Explain its utility in hydrology.

8. How ordinates of unit hydrograph are related to rainfall intensity?

9. Why we need separation of composite hydrographs?

10. What is synthetic hydrograph? Explain the method employed for deriving
synthetic hydrograph. Comment on the merits and demerits of these
methods.

183
EXERCISE
Problem 6.1

Table P6.1 shows the ordinates at 24 hour intervals for a hydrograph. Separate the
base flow from the direct runoff. Compute the volume of DRO.

Table P6.1 Hydrograph Data

Time (days) Flow (m3/s ) Time (da.xs) Flow (m3/s )

1 2 8 3
2 28 9 2
3 20 10 2
4 11 II 2
5 7 12 1
6 5 13 1
7 3 14 1

Problem 6.2

The hydrograph tabulated below in Table P6.2 resulted from a 6-hour period of
rainfall. Considering the base flow as 11 m3/s. find the 6-hour unit hydrograph for
the basin having 148 sq. km drainage area.

Table P6.2 Unit Hydrograph Data

Time (hours) Flow (m3/s ) Time (hours) Flow (m3/s )

0 11 21 100
3 33 24 67
6 91 27 38
9 103 30 20
12 125 33 14
15 135 36 I1
18 120

184
Problem 6.3

Given below in Table P6.3 is the data for the unit hydrograph resulting from a 4-
hours duration rainfall, for a certain basin. Derive the S-curve ordinates. Hence
derive the ordinates for unit hydrographs of 2-hours and 6-hours durations.

Table P6.3 Unit Hydrograph Data

Time (hours) Flow (m3/s ) Time (hours) Flow (m3/s )

0 0 8 lO9
2 117 10 64
4 197 12 21
6 145 14 0

Problem 6.4

Table P6.4 shows the data for the hydro graph resulting from a 3-hours duration
rainfall for a catchment having area of 3,200 km 2 . Derive the unit hydrograph.

Table P6.4 Hydrograph Data

Time Day 1 Flow (m3/s ) Day 2 Flow (m3/s )

3AM 17 130
9AM 170 99
12 Noon 269 88
6PM 198 68
9PM 173 59
12PM 150 54

185
Problem 6.5

The hydrograph of Table P6.5 resulted from three successive 6-hour period
rainfall, having rainfall excess as 3.0, 3.9 and 4.8 cm, respecti vel y.
Assuming a constant base flow of 8 m 3/s, separate the hydro graph into its
components Ql' Qz' Q3·

Table P6.5 Discharge Data

Time (Hours) Flow (m 3/s) Time (Hours) Flow (m 3/s)

0 8 21 171
3 20 24 135
6 38.5 27 97
9 85.5 30 69
12 128.5 33 42
15 179 36 22
18 187 39 8

Problem 6.6

Two catchments A and B are considered meteorology similar. Their catchment

characteristics are given below

Catchment Characteristics of Catchments A and B

Catchment A Catchment B
L = 40km L = 50km
Lc = 15 km Lc = 25 km
A = 250 km2 A = 400 km 2

For catchment A, a 2-h unit hydro graph was developed and was found to have a
peak discharge of 50 m 3/s. The time to peak from the beginning of the rainfall
excess in this unit hydrograph was 9.0 h. Using Snyder's method, develop a unit
hydrograph for catchment B.

186
Problem 6.7

A basin has 400 sq. km. of area, L=35 km and Lea = 10 km. Assuming Cr = 1.5
and Cp = 0.70, develop a 3-hour synthetic unit hydro graph for this basin
using Snyder's method.

Problem 6.8

Table P6.8 shows the ordinates of the 9-hour unit hydrograph for the entire
catchment of a river up to a dam site.

Table P6.8 Discharge Data

Time Discharge Time Discharge
(Hours) (m3/s ) (Hours) (m3/s )
0 0 36 118
9 69 45 74
18 1000 54 46
27 210

The catchment characteristics are:

A = 4480 km2, L = 318 km, Lea = 198 km

Derive a 3 hour unit hydrograph of another catchment which is meteorologically

and hydrologically similar and has the following characteristics.

A = 3780 km2, L = 284 km, LC<l = 198 km

Use Snyder's approach with necessary modifications for the shape of the
hydrograph.

187
Problem 6.9
Using Snyder's method, derive the 6-hour unit hydrograph by using the following
data.

C = 2.65, Cp = 0.56, A = 3500 km 2

L= 150km, Lea = 75 km

188
 GROUNDWATER

Consider the water that you drink. Do you send it down from the clouds, or We
send it down? We could make it brackish, if We pleased; so why do you not
acknowledge thanks?
(Ayat 66, 69, 70, AI-Anaam)
190
 GROUNDWATER
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is that portion of the water, beneath the surface of the earth that
can be collected with wells, tunnels, or drainage galleries, or which tlows
naturally to the earth's surface via seeps or springs.

This water is due to infiltrated part of the rainfall. The water may have infiltrated
directly into the ground where it landed or it may first have collected in streams
and lakes and then seeped into the ground. The water moves downwards under the
influence of gravity until it reaches the impervious strata. It then begins to move
in a lateral direction towards some outlet.

IMPORTANCE OF GROUND WATER

Because groundwater is relatively free of pollution it is especially useful for
domestic purposes, particularly for isolated farms and small towns in the arid
regions. In such places groundwater is often the only source of water for
irrigation. As per data collected in 2004, there are about 400,000 tube-wells in
Pakistan which pump about 66 billion cubic meters of groundwater annually. In
villages almost every household has a hand-pump to pump groundwater for
domestic use. About one - sixth of the total water used in the country exclusive of
hydroelectric- power generation comes from groundwater pumped each day.
Groundwater temperature remains relatively low during the summer, and is
therefore, also used for air conditioning and industrial cooling.

Aside from its great economic importance, groundwater is also an important

phase of the hydrologic cycle. Most perennial streams derive the greater part of
their flow from groundwater, while in arid regions, much of the surface stream
flow percolates to the groundwater. The occurrence and movement of sub-surface
water are necessarily intimately related to geological structures, and knowledge of
Geology is a pre-requisite to a thorough comprehension of groundwater
hydrology.

191
 Origin and Age of Groundwater

Precipitation is the main source of fresh groundwater. As stated earlier the water
may have infiltrated directly into the ground where it landed, or it may first have
collected in streams and lakes via surface runoff and then seeped into the ground.
For the countries like United States, it is estimated that about 25 percent of the
precipitation becomes groundwater.
The age of ground water may range from a few years or less to tens of thousand of
years or more. Assuming that 25 per cent of the rainfall infiltrated in countries
. like United States becomes groundwater, the volume of groundwater within a
depth of 800 m is equivalent to the recharge of a 160-years period, which
indicates the order of magnitude of the average groundwater age in the United
States and other areas with similar climatic and geologic conditions.

Aquifers
Groundwater bearing formations sufficiently permeable to transmit and yield
water in sizeable quantities are called aquifers. These are of two types:

a. Confined or Artesian Aquifer

It is a soil formation which can store and can transmit water under pressure. There
is no atmospheric pressure on the top surface of groundwater.
It is found between two impervious strata as shown in Fig. 7.1. Confined aquifers
are completely filled with ground water, and they do not have a free water table,
The pressure condition in a confined aquifer is characterized by the piezometric
surface, which is the surface obtained by connecting equilibrium water levels in
tubes/wells or piezometers, penetrating the confined aquifer as shown in Fig. 7.1
below.

_________'1____________"-
-------~

PEIZOMETER
SURFACE

IMPERVIOS
STRATE

~ZZZZZ~ZZZZ777ZlZZZZZZ7777ZZZZZZZZZZZ~
Fig. 7.1 Confined Aquifer

192
B. Unconfined Aquifer

It is soil formation which can store water and can transmit it in vertical as well as
in lateral direction. It is defined as that water bearing strata in which there is a
free surface of groundwater at the top having atmospheric pressure. This top
surface having atmospheric pressure is called the water table. Refer Fig. 7.2
below.

Fig. 7.2 Unconfined Aquifer

Aquiclude

An aquiclude is a soil formation which can store water but cannot transmit it. Its
permeability is negligibly small.

Aquitard

A soil formation which is permeable in vertical direction and is impermeable in

lateral direction is called an aquitard.

Aquifuge

Soil formation which can neither store water nor can transmit it is called an
aquifuge. Its permeability is nearly zero.

Storage Coefficient and Specific Yield

The storage coefficient of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water yielded per
unit horizontal area and per unit drop of water-table in case of unconfined
aquifers. In case of confined aquifers it is volume of water yielded per unit

193
horizontal area and per unit drop of piezometric surface. For unconfined aquifers,
the storage coefficient can also be called specific yield, which is the volume of
water released from a unit volume of saturated aquifer material drained by water-
table falling down by depth equal to unity.

Darcy's Law
Darcy's law states that the velocity flux 'V' is directly proportional to hydraulic
gradient. ( Velocity flux is the discharge divided by total cross-sectional area of
soil formatioI1 perpendicular to flow).

Va dh/dl

where 'h' is the total hydraulic head (pressure head + elevation head) of water

V =k dh I dl - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.1)

The factor of proportionality 'k' is a property of the soil or rock material, and it is
called the hydraulic conductivity. If piezometers are placed at two points on a
groundwater stream line (points I and 2 in figure 7.3 ). The velocity of the
groundwater in that stream can be calculated with the equation.

V =k « ZI + hi) - ( Z2 + h 2 » I L - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.2)

Where,
V = Darcy velocity of water (length I time)
hi = Pressure head at point 1 (length)
ZI = Elevation head at point 1 (length)

h2 = Pressure head at point 2 (length)

Z2 = Elevation head at point 2 (length)

L = Distance along flow between points 1 and 2 as measured along stream

line (length)

Equation (7.1) or modifications thereof are called Darcy's Equation, after the
French Hydrologist Henry Darcy. The Darcy velocity is not the real macroscopic
velocity of water, but the discharge is divided by entire cross-sectional area
(solids as well as pores) normal to the flow, to get Darcy's velocity. The pressure

194
head 'h' at a gi ven point in the flow system is the height to which water will rise
in a piezometer inserted down to that point. The elevation head of a given point is
the vertical distance of that point above an arbitrary, horizontal reference plane.
The sum of pressure head and elevation head at a given point in the flow system is
called the total hydraulic head 'H'. Thus 'hi + ZI' in equation. (7.2) is the total
head 'HI', at point' I' and 'h2 + Z2' is the total hydraulic head 'H2' at point '2'.
The distance 'L' between points' I 'and '2' must be measured along the streamline
on which the points are located. The ratio '( HI-H2 ) / L' is called the hydraulic
gradient of the flow.

Validity of Darcy's Law

Darcy's Law (Darcy's Equation) is valid only for steady laminar flow. With this
type of flow, velocities are relatively small and water molecules travel in smooth
paths, more or less parallel to the solid boundaries of the pores (in capillary tubes
with uniform diameters, water molecules, move exactly parallel to the tube walls).
Laminar flow is governed by the viscous forces of the t1uid, so that head losses
vary linearly with velocities, as in Darcy's equation.

If the velocities increase, a point is reached whereby the inertial forces increase
significantly and particles travel in irregular paths, forming eddies, swirls and
other turbulences as can be observed in rapidly flowing streams. In this type of
flow, which is called turbulent flow, head losses vary exponentially with the
velocities of the fluid and not as per Darcy's Law.

Groundwater movement occurs almost always as laminar flow. Turbulent flow

may develop where the pores and the hydraulic gradient are both large. This could
happen in the immediate vicinity of pumped walls or in very porous formations,
particularly near springs or seeps where the flow is concentrated.

195
 --------------~
H1-H2

DATUM

Fig. 7.3 Flow through Porous Media

Well Hydraulics for Steady State Pumping

I. Confined Aquifers

The flow system around a pumped or flowing well in a confined aquifer can be
analyzed with the Dupuit Forchheimer assumption of horizontal flow. At steady
state, the flow in the aquifer comes from far away, so that the flow across an
imaginary cylindrical surface in the aquifer at radius "r", from the pumped well is
the same as the flow 'Q' from the well. The well has its influence to a certain
radial distance after which the water levels remain unchanged. This radial
distance is called radius of influence.
In general the flow can be expressed as
Q = AV - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.3)

'A' is the cross-sectional area and 'V' is the Darcy's velocity.

From Darcy's Law, we have, V = k dh/dl with usual notations and in case of
pumped well at steady state the flow is radial, so, V = k dh I dr, where 'h' is the
hydraulic head and 'r' is the radius. 'd' represents small value as delta.
Cone of depression due to steady state pumping in a confined aquifer is shown in
figure 7.4. In this figure's' represents the draw down at radial distance 'r', which
is drop of piezometric level due to pumping from its original level before
pumpmg.

196
The area of cylindrical surface at radial distance 'r' from the center of well.
A=2 TC rD

Now the flow can be represented as:

Q = 2rcrD k dh / dr (see figure 7.4)
Where,
Q = t10w from well ( volume/time)
k = hydraulic conductivity of aquifer
r = radial distance from well centre
o = thickness of aquifer
dh / dr = hydraulic gradient (slope of piezometric head 'h' at distance 'r'
from pumped well).

i" i J j } } } " } " " " , , } , , } } } } } } } } } } " " " } , , , } } } , , } i J j » » ~;:':':':":'1""'''''' iJj»»» iJj»»),,) "

--r--I
---r2 1

Fig 7.4 cone of depression for Steady state pumping in a conficed aquifer

The piezometric head "h" is expressed with respect to the top of aquifer.
Rearranging above equation

Q dr / r = 2 TC k D dh
Integration both sides from radial distance r1 where the hydraulic head is h1 to r2
where the hydraulic head is h2.

197
Q (In(r2/ rl) = 21tk.D (h2 - hi) OR
Q = 21tk.D (h2 - hd/ {In(r2/ rd} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7.4)

This equation is known as the Thiem equation, after the father son team of
Adolph and Gunter Thiem that developed this equation late in the nineteenth
century.

UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Cone of depression due to steady state pumping in an unconfined aquifer is shown

in figure 7.5. In this figure's' represents the drawdown at radial distance 'r',
which is drop of water table level due to pumping from its original level before
pumpmg.

In general the discharge can be expressed as

Q=AV
Where 'A' is area of cross-section of flow and 'V' is the mean velocity (Darcy
Velocity here)
From Darcy's Law,
V=k. dh / dl
and in case of pumped well where the flow is radial,
v = k dh / dr
Now for an unconfined aquifer, the area of cylindrical surface under consideration
(area perpendicular to flow) is

A = 21t rh (see Figure 7.5)

Q=21t rh.k. dh/dr

Q.drlr=21t kh. dh

Integration both sides from radial distance rl where the hydraulic head is hi to r2
where the hydraulic head is h2.

198
 r:-Q------

l- r1 -1
I-r-I
I' r2 ----+I
Fig. 7.5: Cone of depression for steady state pumping in a unconfined aquifer

Example 7.1

A well with a radius of 0.5 m completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer with

k=30 m/day and water table height from an impermeable strata at the bottom of
aquifer H=50 m. The well is pumped so that the water level in the well remains at
40 m above the bottom of the aquifer assuming that pumping has no effect on
water table height at r=500 m.
What is steady state well discharge?

Solution
k=30 m/day
k=30/(24x60x60) m/sec = 0.0003472 m/sec
rl=0.5 m
h l=40m.
r2=500 m
h2=H=50 m
Q= 7tk[(h 2)2-(h l) 2] Iln(r2/rl)
=3.1415 x 0.0003472 (502 - 40 2) I In (500 I 0.5)
=0.142 m 3/sec
199
Example 7.2:

A well is sunk through an unconfined aquifer and is pumped at a constant rate.

The draw-down in the observational wells are measured and the following data is
generated.
Static water depth = IS m

Q = O.OlS m 3/s
Dia of well = 1.2 m
Draw down at 7.S m = 1.26 m
Draw down at lS.O m = 0.84 m

Find out:

a. the coefficient of permeability, k

b. the diameter of circle of influence, and
c. the drawdown in the well.

Solution

(i) hi = IS-1.26 = 13.74 m

h2 = IS-0.84 = 14.16 m,
Q = ]'[ k (h2 2 - hi 2)/ln (r2/1'1)

O.OIS =]'[ k [( 14.16)2 - (13.74)2 ]/ln(1SI7.S)

k = 2.8 x 10 -4 rnIsec

(ii) Q = ]'[ k (H 2 - h2 ) lIn (Rfr)

O.OIS =]'[ x 2.8 x 10 -4 (1S2- 13.74 2 )lIn (Rf7.S)

R=62.7Im
Dia. of circle of influence, 2R = 12S.42 m

200
(iii) Q = It k (H 2 - h 2 ) lIn (Rlr)
0.015 = It x 2.8x 10 -4 (15 2 - h 2 )/ln (62.7110.60)
h = 12.07 m
hence draw down
H-h = 15-12.07 = 2.93 m
Example 7.3

Observational wells were drilled in a cone of depression of artesian (confined)

well, being pumped at the rate of 0.028 m 3/s. The drawdown in the observational
wells at 4.57 m and 12 m were found to be 7.5 m and 3 m respectively. Calculate
, k' of the aquifer if the average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.

Solution
D=30m
Q = 0.028 m 3/s
rl =4.57 m
r2 = 12 m
drawdown S I = 7.5 m
drawdown S2 = 3.0 m
k =?
hi = H - SI
h2 = H - S2
We have the formula,

Q = 2It kD ( h2 - hi )/In (r2/rl)

Q = 2ItkD(H - S2 - H + S1 )
In (r2/rl)
0.028 = 2 x 3.1415x k x 30 (7.50-3.0)1 In (12/4.57)
k = (In (12/4.57) x 0.028) I (2x 3.1415x30 x (7.50-3.0))
k = 3.20 x 10 -5 rnIsec

201
Example 7.4

A 0.20 m diameter well is pumped at a rate of 440 gallons/min. Observations of

drawdowns taken at 1.0 m and 10.0 m distances from the centre of the well were
found to be 10.0 m and 0.50 m respectively. Determine the' k' if the water-
bearing strata assuming that the thickness of the aquifer is 30 m.

Solution

Q = 440 gal I min.

H = 30.0 m
Dia = 0.20 m
rl = 1.0 m

r2=10.Om
SI = 10.Om
S2 = 0.50 m
Q = 4401 (220x60) = 0.033 m 3/s
Note 1m3 = 220 imperial gallons
k=?
hi = H - SI = 30.0-10.0 = 20.0 m
h2 = H - S2 = 30.0-0.50 = 29.50 m
We have the formula as
Q = IT k ( h} - h I~
In (r2/rl)
0.033 = 3.1415 x k [(29.5)2 - (20.0)2]/ln (10.0/1.0)
k = 5.2x 10-5 m/sec

202
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by 'Soil Moisture' and 'Groundwater'? Explain
importance of ground water

2. What is aquifer, aquiclude, aquitard and aquifuge?

3. Define Storage Coefficient and Specific Yield?

4. What is Darcy's Law? Derive an expression based on this principal for

flow through porous medium. What are limitations for validity of this law?

5. Differentiate between confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer?

6. Write down the procedure for determining permeability in the field by

using Theim's Equilibrium Well Formula.

EXERCISE
Problem 7.1

A well having a diameter of 0.50 m and dug in an unconfined aquifer is. being
pumped and is delivering 0.025 m3/s. The depth of water in the well is now 50 m
that was 60 m when pumping was started. Two observation wells are installed at
7.5 m and 15.0 m distances from centerline of well being pumped. The water
level in the well being 7.5 m from centerline of well is at depth of 55 m. Find the
depth in the second observation well?

Problem 7.2

A well of diameter 0.40 m is installed in a confined aquifer to its full depth of 100
m. Its radius of influence is 275 m. When pumped, the well delivers 0.05 m3/s at
draw down of 10m. Find the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer?

Problem 7.3

A 0.30 m diameter well is pumped at a rate of 500 gallons/min. Observations of

draw downs taken at 5.0 m and 20.0 m distances from the centre of the well were

203
found to be 15.0 m and 1.50 m respectively. Determine the 'K' of the water
bearing strata assuming that the thickness of the aquifer is 50.0 m?

Problem 7.4:

Observational wells were drilled in a cone of depression of artesian (confined)

well, being pumped at the rate of 0.05 m3/s. The drawdown in the observational
wells at
5 m and 15 m were found to be 8.5 m and 3.5 m respectively. Calculate 'K' of the
aquifer if the average thickness of the aquifer is 80 m?

Problem 7.5

A well is sunk to the whole of an unconfined aquifer and is pumped at a constant

rate. The drawdowns in the observational wells are measured and the following
data is generated.
Static water depth = 25 m
Q = 0.05 m 3/s
Diameter of well = 1.0 m
Drawdown at 10.0 m = 1.50 m
Draw down at 20.0 m = 1.00 m

Find out the coefficient of permeability 'k', the diameter of circle of influence and
the drawdown in the well.

Problem 7.6:

A well with a radius of 0.30 m completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer with

k=25 m/day and water table height from impermeable strata at the bottom of
aquifer is 45 m. The well is pumped so that the water level in the well remains at
35 m above the bottom of the aquifer assuming that pumping has no effect on
water table height at r = 300 m. What is steady state well discharge?

204
 FLOOD ROUTING

Creation of the heavens and the earth, alternation of night and day, and sailing of
ships across the oceans with merchandise beneficial to man, and the rain God
sends form the sky enlivening the earth that was dead, and the scattering of
beasts of all kinds upon it and the changing of the winds, and the clouds which
remain obedient between earth and sky, are surely signs for the wise,
(Ayat 164, AI-8aqarah)
206
 FLOOD ROUTING
INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of Hydrology is essential to ensure proper functioning of
hydraulic structures like Barrages and Dams. Storm water from catchment
ultimately reaches streams and at a certain time, a peak flow is built up. For safety
of a Barrage or Dam it is necessary to plan its safe-passage over the structure.
This requires flood forecasting. Flood routing is one of techniques which may be
used for flood forecasting.

Flood routing is an analytical technique of determining the flood hydrograph at a

particular location in a channel or a reservoir resulting from a known flood at
some other location upstream.

Basing on the type of equations used, different techniques have been developed to
route the flood. These are Hydraulic Routing and Hydrologic Routing.
Hydraulic Routing is based on equations of continuity and momentum whereas
Hydrologic Routing is based on the equation of continuity and an empirical
equation.

These two techniques are used for catchment routing, reservoir routing and
channel or river routing.

RESERVOIR ROUTING
The main components of Dam are an inflow channel, storage reservoir and
outflow structures like spillways, tunnels etc. Once a flood enters a reservoir, part
of it may be stored in the reservoir and balance safely passes through or over
outflow structures. The main function of a reservoir is to store water, from which
releases are made according to water-demands on downstream of reservoir. A
multipurpose hydroelectric project has storage of water as well as generation of
electricity.

207
The reservoirs may be small or large. An example of small reservoir is pond of a
barrage. A small reservoir has small capacity and hence water levels in barrage
pond are sensitive to quantity of inflow and time of inflow. The outflow from a
small reservoir is solely a function of pond elevation if the outflow is not
controlled. In case of large reservoirs the moderate inflow may not have large
impact on reservoir elevation however large floods need to be negotiated keeping
in view the operational rules. Sometimes the water requirement may have marked
influence on releases from the reservoir. The outflow from the reservoir also
includes discharge through power house. The inflow hydrograph is tackled in
such a way that peak outflow is within safe limits. The inflow hydrograph may be
a forecast flood or an actual one.
The reservoir routing may be classified according to outflow control at a
particular reservoir e.g.

a. Flood routing in reservoirs with uncontrolled outflow

b. Flood routing in reservoirs with controlled outflow

The basic equation applied is:

Inflow - Outflow = Rate of Change of Storage

I- 0 = ds / dt - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.1)
Equation (8.1) shows that if inflow is assumed constant the reservoir storage is a
mere function of outflow. This condition is however a simplification and may not be
met practically. In case of large reservoirs many other factors contribute a substantial
change in storage e.g. groundwater flow. If average values of inflow and outflow are
considered for opted time interval 6t then equation (8.1) can be written as

Where subscript 'j' represents jth time step values of! , 0 and S

Equation (8.2) can be rearranged as

As mentioned above the subscripts 'j' and 'j+ l' denote values of Inflow, Outflow
and Storage at beginning and end of jth time interval 6t. The time 6t is known as
routing period. This period should not be so large that peak of inflow hydro graph
is not intercepted.

208
Flood routing in reservoirs with uncontrolled outflow
The following steps explain procedure of reservoir routing

1. The Elevation V s Storage of reservoir information should be known. Here

storage means volume of water that a reservoir can accommodate at certain
elevation. This elevation vs storage information may either be in the form of
table or graph. A typical elevation vs storage graph is shown in Figure 8.1.

Elevation vs Surface Area Realationship

124
122
120
~ 118
.sc: 116
.2 114
m
> 112
Q)
iIi 110
108
106
104
102+-----~----,-----~----_r----~----~----~
40000 42000 44000 46000 48000 50000 52000 54000
Surface Area (m')

Fig. 8.1 Variation of Surface Area of a Reservoir with Elevation

2. The discharge capacity of overflow structure with change in water level

should be calculated. For this purpose the applicable discharge formula
need to be applied. The well known weir equation is:

Q = Cd B H3/2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.3A)

Where,
Q = Total Discharge
Cd = Coefficient of Discharge
B = Width of Weir
H = Differential head over the crest of the weir neglecting velocity of approach

The coefficient of discharge depends on degree of submergence of the weir. Its

value is determined experimentally e.g. by model tests.

209
The value of coefficient of discharge can also be detennined from Gibson's
curve. Its value generally ranges from 1.6 to 2.2 having units of m lf2/s. A mean
value of l.70 is often used in SI units
For pipe t1ow,

Q = Cd A V - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (S.3B)

Where,

Q = Discharge in m 3 / s
A = Area of Flow
V = velocity of t10w

If 'H' is the head of water up to centre of pipe, Equation (S.3B) can be written as
Q = Cd A H1. 5 -.J2g

Q =4.43 Cd A H 1.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (S.4)

'A' is cross-sectional area of the pipe, 'H' is water head and 'g' is acceleration
due to gravity. Its value is 9.S1 mlsec 2 in SI units. The value of coefficient of
discharge is determined by model tests. If velocity of approach is appreciable the
head 'H' must be increased by velocity head. Equation (S.4) then becomes

Q = 4.43 Cd A (H + V o2 / 2g) 1.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (S.5)

Where, 'Yo' is the velocity of approach.

For other types of outt1ow structures like Sluice Gates, etc. different equations are
used for calculations of discharge and can be found in books of hydraulics. Once
the outflow is determined for different reservoir elevations, a graph is plotted
between storage and outflow. A typical such graph is shown in figure (S.2). Please
note that outt1ow is taken along y-axis and [(2S/i1t) + 0] is taken along x-axis.
Where 'S' is storage and '0' is outt1ow I discharge. The quantity [(2S/i1t)+0] is
called 'Storage Indication' .

210
 300

250

U)
'";:;- 200
.s
~
0 150
5::J
0 100

50

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000

Storage Indication [(2S/L'lt)+O] (m 3/s)

Figure 8.2 Outflow and Storage Indication Relationship for certain reservoir

3. The inflow hydrograph should be known. It may be actual or forecasted flood.

The inflow is added for successive values to get I,+b. The initial outflow is
assumed equal to inflow. Corresponding to this initial outflow storage
indication [(2S/~t) + 0] is found from storage indication curve. To this value
double of outflow is subtracted to get [(2S/~t) - 01. To this value of [(2S/~t) -
0], II+b is added to get next value of [(2S/~t) + 0]. Read out next outflow
from storage indication curve and repeat the procedure till whole of inflow
hydro graph is used to get outflow values.
4. Now the inflow and outflow hydrographs are plotted. The difference in peak
of inflow and outflow hydrograph is known as attenuation and time between
two peaks is known as reservoir Zag. Please note that by routing procedure we
can find expected maximum reservoir level due to certain inflow hydrograph.
This is done to ensure that reservoir level remains within safe limits.

The following example illustrates the procedure of Reservoir Routing.

Example 8.1

Table 8.1 shows Inflow hydro graph entering a small reservoir having a Ogee
shaped overflow spillway. The weir has a length of 3 meters and coefficient of
discharge of 2.2. The weir crest is at elevation 104 m. When the inflow
hydrograph enters the reservoir, its water level is at 104 m and Storage of
40000 m3 . The elevation versus storage relationship is given in Table 8.2. Route
the inflow hydrograph assuming no base flow.

211
 Table 8.1 Inflow Hydrograph (Known Information)
Time Inflow Time Inflow Time Inflow
(h) (m 3 /s) (h) (m 3 /s) (h) (m 3 /s)

0 50 9 295 18 50
1 75 10 252 19 45
2 175 11 212 20 39
3 355 12 177 21 38
4 455 13 145 22 28
5 525 14 108 23 20
6 510 15 84 24 15
7 450 16 64 25 6
8 365 17 53 26 5

Table 8.2 Reservoir Suiface Area (Known Information) .

Water EI. Surface Area Water EI. Surface Area

(m) (m2) (m) (m2)

104 41200 114 45700
106 42000 116 47200
108 42700 118 48700
110 43700 120 50200
112 44700 122 52700

Solution

The first step in flood routing is to establish a relationship between reservoir

water elevation and storage of the reservoir. This can be done by slicing the
reservoir horizontally, detennining surface area by appropriate method e.g. by
planimetring or using computer program. The volume of each slice can be
computed using formulae of solid geometry. The calculation of volume of
reservoir referred here as storage is calculated in Table 8.3. The formula
employed is ~ V = (h/3)[Al +A2+..JAIA2] where h is difference in height between
two consecutive slices/contours. The calculations are shown in table. The
elevation V s surface area is plotted in Figure 8.1.

Noting that slope of curve becomes mild at higher elevations as it should,

because higher elevations can accommodate more volume of water.

212
 Table 8.3 Storage of Reservoir
Volume between Cumulative
Water EI. Surface Area
Successive Elevations Volume (Storage)
(m) (m2) (m3) (m3)
104 41200 40,000
106 42000 83,199 123,199
108 42700 84,699 207,898
110 43700 86,398 294,296
112 44700 88,398 382,694
114 45700 90,398 473,092
116 47200 92,896 565,988
118 48700 95,896 661,884
120 50200 98,896 760,780
122 52700 102,890 863,670

The next step is to calculate discharge using equation 8.3A with known
coefficient of discharge and crest level of spillway. The elevation is changed, net
head over spillway found and discharge calculated as shown in Table 8.4
Table 8.4 Discharge over Spillway

Water EI. Head above Crest, H Q = Cd B H3/2

(m) (m) (m3/s)

104 - -
106 2 18.66
108 4 52.80
110 6 97.00
112 8 149.34
114 10 208.71
116 12 274.36
118 14 345.73
120 16 422.40
122 18 504.03

The routing interval is taken equal to time interval of inflow hydrograph which is
1.0 hour. The routing interval should not be that large so as to miss the peak flow
observation. We now have in hand, at a particular elevation storage and outflow
value which enables us to calculate storage indication against each elevation
(Table 8.5). A curve is drawn between storage indication and out flow as shown
in Figure 8.3.

213
 Table 8.5 Storage Indication
Cummulative Outflow Storage Indication
Water EI.
Volume (Storage) '0' [(2S/"'t) + 0]
(m) (m3) (m 3/s) Jm3/s1

104 0 0
106 123,199 18.66 87.10
108 207,898 52.80 168.30
110 294,296 97.00 260.50
112 382,694 149.34 361.94
114 473,092 208.71 471.53
116 565,988 274.36 588.80
118 661,884 345.73 713.44
120 760,780 422.40 845.05
122 863,670 504.03 983.85

Storage Indication vs Outflow

600

~ 400
~E
~
500

300
:111:
··············· .... ·.. ·t ...... ·· .. ·............ ·i ............·.......... ·; . ..................·: ................ ········r . ·..................·
0
S::I 200 ....................... y......................!..... ···············l·······················\··············.......... !" ........................
0
100 ··············r·····················r·················..... :....................... "]"" ...................... .

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Storage Indication [(2SI L'>t)+O) 'm'ls'
Figure 8.3 Storage Indication vs Ou(flow Curve

The last step is to find outflow hydrograph which is done in Table 8.7. The
column-4 shows sum of two consecutive inflow values.
In this example initial level of reservoir is assumed
flush with spillway crest so outflow is zero. The first value of storage is equal to
reservoir volume up to spillway crest. Both being known so [(2S/"'t) - 0] is
computed. The value of (I j+1 j+l) is added to [(2S/~t)-O] to get [(2S/~t)+O].
Corresponding to this value of storage indication outflow is read from Figure 8.3.
The outflow is subtracted twice from storage indication to give next value of
[(2S/~t)-0]. The process is repeated to get all values of outflow till values
obtained are small enough representing steady flow.

214
 Table 8.7 Calculations for Outflow hydrograph
Time Step Time Inflow,lj I j+l j+1 [(2S/L'lt)-0] [(2S1 L'lt)+O] Outflow
'j' '0-'
number (Hour) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1 0 50 - - 0 0
2 1 75 125 0 125 37
3 2 175 250 51 301 130
4 3 355 530 41 571 272
5 4 455 810 27 837 412
6 5 525 980 13 993 494
7 6 510 1035 4 1,039 519
8 7 450 960 2 962 478
9 8 365 815 6 821 404
10 9 295 660 13 673 326
11 10 252 547 21 568 271
12 11 212 464 27 491 230
13 12 177 389 31 420 193
14 13 145 322 35 357 159
15 14 108 253 38 291 125
16 15 84 192 42 234 94
17 16 64 148 45 193 73
18 17 53 117 47 164 58
19 18 50 103 49 152 51
20 19 45 95 50 145 47
21 20 39 84 50 134 42
22 21 38 77 51 128 38
23 22 28 66 51 117 33
24 23 20 48 51 99 24
25 24 15 35 52 87 17
26 25 6 21 53 74 10
27 26 5 11 54 65 5

Inflow and outflow hydrographs are plotted simultaneously (Figure 8.4) and
following parameters are found:

o The difference in time on x-axis between peak of inflow and outflow

hydrograph. This is termed as Reservoir Lag.
o The difference between peak discharge of inflow and outflow hydro graphs is
calculated. This is termed as attenuation.

215
 600

500
U
Q)
1/1
;;- 400
E
a)
...01300
10
J: ,
CJ
.!!l 200 ,
c ,
,
100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, hours
1- inflow Hydrograph 1 1- .. - outflow Hydrograph 1
Figure 8.4 Determining Reservoir Lag and Attenuation
The inflow should be routed such that outflow hydro graph is flattened enough
having low peak discharge. This is necessary for safe passages of flood. If abrupt
rise in inflow occurs then special consideration is made for outflow at outlet
structures so that sufficient time is available for operation. This aspect is
considered while designing reservoirs.

STREAM OR CHANNEL OR RIVER ROUTING

The routing in channels involves solution of storage equation as was done in case
of reservoir routing. The storage is function of both inflow and outflow. The
method of channel routing is known as Muskingum Method.
Consider a channel reach having prismatic cross section as shown in figure 8.5.

Let,
S = Storage
I = Inflow
0= Outflow
The storage in the channel reach consists of two parts:
a. Prism storage equal to KO.
b. Wedge storage equal to KX(I-O).

216
 Wedge
Storage
=KX(I-O)

Prism
Storage
=KO
Figure 8.5 Prism and Wedge Storage in Channel

Then total storage'S' is therefore sum of prism and wedge storage. That is:

S = K [X I + (1 - X) 0] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.6)

Where 'X' is a dimensionless constant for certain reach or segment of channel.

'K' is storage constant having dimensions of time. Both X and K are determined
from inflow and outflow hydrographs for reach under consideration. These
constants vary from reach to reach and are determined as follows.

1. The inflow and outflow hydro graphs are known for the reach. Find values
of (I-O) for each time interval.
2. Find the mean and cumulative mean values of ( I - 0) which is storage.
3. Assume value of 'X' and find the term [X I + (I-X) 0] for each time
interval using assumed value of 'X'. The storage value is already
calculated against time as explained in step 2.
4. Plot [X I + (1 - X) 0] values against storage. Inspect if data plotted nearly
fits a straight line. If not assume new value of X and repeat steps 1-4.
5. The best-fit straight line corresponds to required value of 'X'. The slope of
this straight line is our required value of 'K'.

Now we proceed for channel flow routing once values of 'X' and 'K' are known
now. Routing mean finding outflow hydrograph for given inflow hydrograph. We
rewrite equation 8.6 at beginning and end of jth time interval ~t.

217
 Sj= XKIj+(l-X)KO j ------------------- (8.7)
S j+1 = XK I j+1 + (1 - X) K 0 j+1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.8)

Subtracting equation (8.7) from equation (8.8), we get

From equation (8.2), (I j+I j+dl2-(O j+O j+l)I2=(S j+I-S j)/6t. Substituting (S j+I-S j)
from equation (8.9) in equation (8.2) and rearranging, we have

Where,

Co = [(6t/K)-2XlH2(l-X)+(6t/K)] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.11)
C 1 = l(6t/K)+2X]+[2( I-X)+(6t/K)] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(8.12)
C 2 = [20-X)-(6t/K)]]+[2(l-X)+(6t/K)] - - - - - - - - - - - - (8.13)
It may be noted that sum of weighing coefficients C) + C 1 + C 2 = 1. Knowing
values of 'X' and 'K' these coefficients are determined simply by substitution of
values in equations (8.11) to (8.13). If Equation (8.10) is used to find outflow
values as all values on right-hand-side are known. The value of '0 1' is assumed
equal to 'II' because steady conditions existed prior to entrance of flood wave in
the channel. The subsequent examples explain the procedure for finding constant
and routing inflow hydrograph.

Example 8.2
Table 8.8 shows Inflow and Outflow hydrographs for certain reach of a channel.
Find the Muskingum's Coefficients 'X' and 'K' and route the given inflow
hydrograph.
Table 8.8 Inflow and OutfZow Hydrograph (Known Information)
Time Inflow Outflow Time Inflow Outflow Time Inflow Outflow
(h) (m 3/s) (m3/s) (h) (m3/s) (m 3/s) (h) (m 3/s) (m 3/s)
0 41 41 84 742 625 168 120 179
12 36 35 96 675 675 180 96 141
24 39 38 108 450 640 192 79 115
36 123 50 120 322 575 204 67 92
48 342 130 132 247 395 216 55 77
60 577 290 144 190 300 228 50 65
72 720 470 156 145 236 240 41 55

218
Solution

The calculations are best done in tabular form. Refer Table 8.9, wherein first
column shows time interval and second column shows known inflow hydrograph.
The known outflow hydrograph is given in column-4. The routing interval is
taken as 12 hours equal to the interval of inflow hydro graph for computational
convenience. However this interval can be reduced if more precise information is
sought. The storage units are (m3/s)-day. The change in storage within an
interval is found using equation 8.2 as given in column 6. The cumulative storage
is shown in column 7.

Table 8.9 Finding Muskingham's Constants

Time Inflow Outflow OJ+O
IJ+Ij+, ~S S2=SI+~S Xl j +( 1-X)O,
Interval (J J) (0,) ,+1
(m 3/s)-
(Hours) (m3/s) (m 3/s) (m3/s ) (m3/ s ) (m3/s)-day X=O.1 X=0.2 X=0.3
day
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
0 41 41 41.00 41.00 41.00
12 36 77 35 76 0.25 0.25 35.10 35.20 35.30
24 39 75 38 73 0.50 0.75 3S.10 38.20 38.30
36 123 162 50 88 18.50 19.25 57.30 64.60 71.90
48 342 465 130 180 71.25 90.50 151.20 172.40 193.60
60 577 919 290 420 124.75 215.25 318.70 347.40 376.10
72 720 1297 470 760 134.25 349.50 495.00 520.00 545.00
84 742 1462 625 1095 91.75 441.25 636.70 648.40 660.10
96 675 1417 675 1300 29.25 470.50 675.00 675.00 675.00
lOS 450 1125 640 1315 -47.50 423.00 621.00 602.00 583.00
120 322 772 575 1215 -110.75 312.25 549.70 524.40 499.10
132 247 569 395 970 -100.25 212.00 380.20 365.40 350.60
144 190 437 300 695 -64.50 147.50 289.00 27S.00 267.00
156 145 335 236 536 -50.25 97.25 226.90 217.S0 208.70
168 120 265 178 414 -37.25 60.00 172.20 166.40 160.60
ISO 96 216 141 319 -25.75 34.25 136.50 132.00 127.50
192 79 175 115 256 -20.25 14.00 111.40 107.80 104.20
204 67 146 92 207 -15.25 -1.25 89.50 87.00 84.50
216 55 122 77 169 -11.75 -13.00 74.80 72.60 70.40
228 50 105 65 142 -9.25 -22.25 63.50 62.00 60.50

Note: ~S = (~t / 2) [(I, + IJ+,) - (OJ + OJ+')]

~t=0.5 day

219
Next an appropriate value of 'X' is assumed between 0.1 to 0.5 and weighted flow
is determined as XI+(l-X)O for each interval of time as shown in column 8, 9
and 10 of Table 8.9. The weighted flow is then plotted against
cumulative storage as is shown in figs. 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8. The value of 'X' giving a
best-fit straight line is the required Muskingham's constant X. The slope of this
best fit straight line is required 'K'
800.00

700.00

600.00
M-
Cii
E- 500.00
0"
9' 400.00
:;:-
8. 300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00 -I---,....----,,....---.----.----.----r---.--...,....---r-----.
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Cumulative Storage'S' [(m 3/S)-day]
Fig 8.6 Weighted Flow against Cumulative Storage for X=O.l

800.00

700.00

600.00

X2E- 50000
.
0"
9' 400.00
~

:;:-
8. 300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00 +----r----r----r----r---....---....---....---...,....--...,....-~
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Cumulative Storage'S' [(m 3/S)-day]

Fig 8.7 Weighted Flow against Cumulative Storage for X=O.2

220
 800.00

700.00

600.00

rn 500.00
~
0" 400.00
>?
~

r 300.00
~

200.00

100.00

0.00 +--~_~.------.----.-----r-----r-----.-----.-----.----'
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Cumulative Storage'S' [(m 3/S)-day]

Fig 8.8 Weighted Flow against Cumulative Storage for X=O.3

From above charts,

x =0.3, and
K = 1.3 days

From known values of 'X' and 'K', constants 'Co', 'C 1', 'C 2 ' are determined
using equations 8.11, 8.12 and 8.13.

Co = [(0.5/ 1.3) - (2 x 0.3)] / [2(1-0.3) + (0.5 /1.3)] = -0.12

C1 = [(0.5/ 1.3) + (2 x 0.3)] / [2(1-0.3) + (0.5 / 1.3)] = 0.55
C2 = [2(1 - 0.3) - (0.5/1.3)] / [2(1-0.3) + (0.5 /1.3)] = 0.57

Check -0.12 + 0.55 + 0.57 = 1.00

The outflow hydrograph is computed using equation 8.l0 as shown in Table 8.10.
The initial outflow is assumed equal to inflow.

221
 Table 8.10 Computations for Channel Routing
Time Constants for X=0.3 and K= 1.3
Inflow (Ii) Outflow '0'
Interval
(m3/ s ) COIi+1 CII] C 20 i (m3/ s )
(Hours)
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

0 41 41.00
12 36 -4.32 22.55 23.37 41.60
24 39 -4.68 19.80 23.71 38.83
36 123 -14.76 21.45 22.13 28.82
48 342 -41.04 67.65 16.43 43.04
60 577 -69.24 188.10 24.53 143.39
72 720 -86.40 317.35 81.73 312.68
84 742 -89.04 396.00 178.23 485.19
96 675 -81.00 408.10 276.56 603.66
108 450 -54.00 371.25 344.09 661.34
]20 322 -38.64 247.50 376.96 585.82
132 247 -29.64 177.10 333.92 481.38
144 190 -22.80 135.85 274.39 387.44
156 145 -17.40 104.50 220.84 307.94
168 120 -14.40 79.75 175.52 240.87
180 96 -11.52 66.00 137.30 191.78
192 79 -9.48 52.80 109.31 152.63
204 67 -8.04 43.45 87.00 122.41
216 55 -6.60 36.85 69.77 100.02
228 50 -6.00 30.25 57.01 81.26

The inflow and outflow hydrograph are shown in figure 8.9. One can find difference in
peak flows and time interval between peak flows which is one of the objectives of
channel now routing.
Channel Routing by Muskingum Method

800
700 1-- Inflow
600
Ul 500 1 - - - outflow
;;;--
E 400
~
0 300
u::
200
100

150 200 250

Time (Hours)
Fig 8.9
222
QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the tenn Routing? Why we need Routing through

reservoirs?

2. Explain Reservoir Routing Procedure. What assumptions are made for it?

3. What information is required prior to routing an inflow hydrograph

through a reservoir?

4. Explain Muskingum's Method for Channel Routing.

5. What factor governs selection of suitable routing interval?

6. Take a sample data for a reservoir and route a forecast flood through it.

EXERCISE
1. A reservoir has the following elevation, discharge and storage relationships:

Elevation (m) StoraQe (10° m3) Outflow DischarQe (m3/s)

100.00 3.350 0
100.50 3.472 10
1Ol.00 3.880 26
1Ol.50 4.383 46
102.00 4.882 72
102.50 5.370 100
102.75 5.527 116
103.00 5.856 130

When the reservoir level was at 100.50 m, the following flood hydrograph entered
the reservoir.

223
 Time (h) Inflow Time (h) Inflow
m 3/ sec. m 3 / sec.
00 10 42 36
06 20 48 27.5
12 55 54 20
18 80 60 15
24 73 66 13
30 58 72 11
36 46

Route the flood and obtain the outflow hydrograph.

2. The inflow hydro graph for a river reach is as given below:

Time (Hours) Discharge Time (Hours) Discharge

(m 3/s) (m 3 /s)
0 40 27 225
3 50 30 175
6 130 33 150
9 220 36 125
12 300 39 98
15 325 42 81
18 330 45 70
21 310 48 62
24 275 51 55

The values of Muskingum' s Constants are X = 0.30 and K = 18 hours. Find the
peak outflow due to given inflow hydrograph.

224
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

Do not these unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were an integrated
mass, then We split them and made every living thing from water? Will they not
believe even then?
(Ayat 30, AI-Anbyia)
226
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of frequency analysis is to estimate frequency of occurrence of
various hydrologic parameters such as floods, droughts, or storms of
maximum rainfall. Frequency Analysis is based on statistical methods. Using
statistical techniques, hydrologic parameters are predicted from available
record of data,. Using these parameters, the data is extrapolated for future
forecasting. The accuracy of prediction depends on accuracy and correctness
of available records. An objective of frequency analysis may be the estimation
of maximum possible discharge of a stream or river that will be encountered
after a certain time period. Such information is required for design of
hydraulic structures (dams, barrages, culverts, bridges, etc.), reservoirs,
floodways, irrigation systems, river improvement works, flood protection
schemes and development of water resources.

The prediction may not be good due to the following factors - which should be
kept in mind, while performing frequency analysis:

a. Non-cyclic nature of random events like floods and droughts,

b. Analysis based on limited data, and
c. Data being non-homogeneous

Some related definitions and rules are given below:

Return Period

It is an average value of interval of occurrence of hydrologic outcome. It is an

average and not the exact period of becoming equal to or exceedance from a
certain value of a hydrologic quantity. For example a flood of say 50,000 cumecs
that has been exceeded on the average once in 20 years has a probability of
exceedance from this value in anyone year equal to 1120. This does not mean that
every 20 years a flood of this magnitude will occur. Return period is also called
recurrence interval.

227
Probability

It is measure of chance for an event to exceed or equal a certain level. For an event
'A', 'probability of A' denoted by 'peA), is the ratio of the number of possible
outcomes favorable to 'A' ( denoted by 'N A ' ) to the total number of possible
outcomes for the hydrologic experiment / phenomenon ( denoted by 'N').
Mathematicall y:

peA) = NA / N - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.1)
Basic Rules of Probability

Rule - 1

The probability of an event 'A' is non-negative and less than or equal to '1'. The
sum of probability of all possible outcomes in any trial is equal to 'I'.

o~ peA) ~1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.2)

More generally, for 'N' possible outcomes,

N
L P(Ai) = 1---------------------------- (9.3)
i=1

Rule - 2

For two independent mutually exclusive events, 'Aj' and 'A 2 ', the probability of
'AI' or 'A 2 ' is equal to the probability of 'AI' plus the probability of 'A 2 '.

Equation (9.4) can be generalized to any number of events.

Rule - 3

For two independent events, 'AI' and 'A2 ', the probability of 'AI' and 'A 2 ' IS
equal to the product of individual probabilities of 'AI' and 'A 2 '.

228
The term 'independent events' implies that the occurrence of one event does not
influence the occurrence of the other event i. e. the two events mayor may not
occur at the same time. Equation (9.5) can be extended to any number of events.
In hydrology, many events are independent, many are mutually exclusive, and
many take place simultaneously and are not mutually exclusive and may not be
even independent. For example, extreme rainfall and extreme yearly temperature
can be considered as independent events. Floods and droughts are mutually
exclusive events in a given watershed. Rainfall and floods are not independent
events. For events that are not independent, the following rule applies.

Rule - 4

For two events, 'AI' and 'A2', the probability of 'AI' or 'A2' is equal to the sum of
individual probabilities of 'AI' and 'A2' minus the joint probability of 'AI' and
'A2'.

If 'AI' and 'A2' are independent, then Equation (9.5) applies and Equation (9.6)
can be written as:

If 'AI' and 'A2' are independent mutually-exclusive events, then

P(A 1 and A 2 ) = 0 and Equation (9.6) specializes into Equation (9.4). Thus
Equation (9.6) is a general equation embracing Equations (9.4) and (9.7) as
special cases. The term P(A 1 and A 2 ) can be expressed using Bayes' theorem as:

Where 'P(A I / A 2)' is the probability of 'AI' conditioned on 'A2'. If 'AI' and 'A2'
are independent events, then

The number of different possible outcomes of 'k' items out of a population of 'n'

J
ilems is [: expressed as:

229
 [l-k-!(-I~-~-k-)! -----------------------------(9.9)
Where ! represents factorial.

Rule-5.

The probability of 'k' successes in the 'n' trials can be determined as:

P('k' successes in the 'n' trials) = r:) pk (l - p) ,-k - - - - - (9.10)

Relationship between Probability and Return Period

Relationship of probability of occurrence of a flood 'p' in any year with its return
period 'T is given as:

p =I / T
The probability that the flood will not occur in any year is given as:

p = 1- p = 1 - 1 / T - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- (9.11)

The probability that the flood will not occur for 'n' successive years is given as:

[~ J = (1-1/ T Y' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.12)

Risk

The probability that the flood of given magnitude (having return period 'T) will
occur at least once in 'n' successive years is called risk (denoted by 'R').

R= 1- [ ~ J
= 1- (I -1/ rY' ----------------------- -(9.13)

230
Random Variable

If outcomes of a hydrologic experiment or phenomenon are quantitative

measurements (numerical values) and the outcomes depend on chance, then the
resulting measurement variable is called a random variable. It is also called a
chance variable, a stochastic variable or simply a variate. The random variables
are usually denoted by capital letters such as X, Y, Z; while the values taken by
them are represented by the corresponding small letters such as x, y, z.

Discrete Random Variable

It is a random variable which can assume only a finite number of values or a

sequence of whole numbers.

Continuous Random Variable

It is a random variable which can assume all possible values on a continuous scale
in a given interval.

Probability Distribution

A function 'f(x)' of hydrologic quantity is a probability function or a probability

distribution of the discrete random variable 'X' if for each possible outcome 'x':

a. f(x) ~ 0
b. If(x) =I
c. P(X = x) = f(x)

A graph of all possible values of random variable along with their respective
probabilities shows a probability distribution or a probability function.

Histogram

A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off
by class boundaries along the x-axis and whose heights are proportional to the
frequencies associated with respective classes.

231
Example 9.1

Table 9.1, below, gives precipitation depth ( in 'cm' ) for first eight months at a
certain location. Construct the frequency distribution diagram.

Table 9.1 Precipitation data

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Jan 7.5 8.2 6.2 8.9 7.8 5·4 9.4 9.9 10.9 10.8 7.4
Feb 9.7 11.6 12.6 5 10.2 9.2 12 9.9 7.3 7.3 8.4
Mar 10.3 10.1 10 11.1 6.5 12.5 7.8 6.5 8.7 9.3 12.4
Apr 10.6 9.1 9.7 9.3 6.2 10.3 6.6 7.4 8.6 7.7 9.4
May 7.7 12.8 8.7 5.5 8.6 9.6 11.9 10.4 7.8 7.6 12.1
Jun 4.6 14 8.1 11.4 10.6 11.6 10.4 8.1 4.6 6.6 12.8
Jul 6.8 7.1 6.6 8.8 8.8 10.7 10.8 6 7.9 7.3 9.3
Auq 9.3 8.9 10.1 3.9 6 6.9 9 8.8 9.4 11.4 10.9

Solution

We note that the largest value is 14.0 and the smallest value is 3.9 so that the
range is 14.0 - 3.9 = 10.1 cm.

As the data are recorded to one decimal place, we may therefore locate the lower
limit of the first group at 3.5. Let us choose a class interval of 1.0. Then the class
limits are specified as 3.5 - 4.4, 4.5 - 5.4, 5.5 - 6.4, .... With this choice, the class
boundaries are 3.45 - 4.45, 4.45 - 5.45, 5.45 - 6.45, .... which do not coincide
with the given values.

Table 9.2 shows the required frequency distribution.

232
 Table 9.2 Frequency Distribution of Rainfall Depths
Precipitation Depth Interval Class Boundaries Frequency
(No. of Occurrences)

3.5-4.4 3.45-4.45 1
4.5-5.4 4.45-5.45 4
5.5-6.4 5.45-6.45 5
6.5-7.4 6.45-7.45 13
7.5-8.4 7.45-8.45 12
8.5-9.4 8.45-9.45 19
9.5-10.4 9.45-10.45 13
1O.5-1l.4 1O.45-1l.45 10
11.5-12.4 11.45-12.45 6
12.5-13.4 12.45-13.45 4
13.5-14.4 13.45-14.45 1
Total 88

Fig. 9.1 shows the histogram for frequency distribution of monthly precipitation
depths.
Class boundaries are along X-axis whereas frequency is along Y-axis.

Histogram for Frequency Distribution

20 19
-
18
16
14 13 13
,...-- 12 -
12 ,...--
10
10 -
8
6
6 5 -
4 ;-- 4
4 ;-- -
2 1 1
o n L{) L{) L{) L{) L{) L{) L{) L{) L{) L{)
n
L{)

"'"<i,;," "'L{j" '"<I:

<D
'"<I:
r-- "'ex)" "'cri" '"<I:
0
.,....
'"<I:
.,....
.,....
'"<I:
N
.,....
'"<I:
('f)
.,.... "'"<i.,...."
,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;, ,;,
'"<I:
('f)
'"<I: '"<I:
L{)
'"<I:
<D "'"
r--:
'"<I:
co '"<I: "'.,....c:i" '.,....
"<I: '"<I: '"<I:
"'" (J)
.,.... N
.,.... ('f)
.,....
Fig. 9.1 Frequency Distribution

233
Example 9.2

Find the risk that a 25-year flood will occur in particular 5-years period.

Solution

Here. risk is required to be determined in a particular 5-year period.

That is:
n=5
T=25
From Equation 9.13
R = 1 - [1-0/25)]5
= 1 - 0.82
= 0.18 or 18%
A simplification of Equation 9.13 yields
n = log 0- R) /log [(T -1 )/T] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.14)

Example 9.3

An embankment is designed for a period of 20-years flood. Find, for 50% risk,
the life of embankment.

Solution

R = 50% = 0.50
T = 20 years
n=?
From Equation 9.14, we have
n = log (1- R) / 10g[(T-l) / T]
= log (1-0.5) / log [(20-1) / 20]
= 13.5 years.

234
Statistical Methods of Analysis of Hydrologic Data

There are two main methods for frequency analysis - Computational and Graphical.

Water resources projects often require frequency distribution of magnitudes. For

example, in design of hydraulic structures t100d of certain magnitude and of
certain return period is required. This needs predictions based on previous data.
The data is extrapolated by matching the data with statistical distribution. There
are different distributions of probability for hydrologic data, some of which are
listed below:

o Normal Distribution
o Lognormal Distribution
o Exponential Distribution
o Gamma Distribution
o Pearson Type-III Distribution
o Log Pearson Type III Distribution
o Gumbel's Extreme Value Distribution

The purpose of all these distributions is to best extrapolate the hydrologic data. Each
distribution has certain advantages. Since a Normal Distribution is defined by only
two parameters - Mean and Standard Deviation, therefore it is simple to use. Its
details can be seen from any book on Statistics. Gumbel's Extreme Value
Distribution, one of the commonly used distribution in Hydrology is described below:

Gumbel's Extreme Value Theory

Gumbel assumed an exponentially distributed variable. He defined the cumulative

probability 'P' as:

P =Exp(e- Y) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.15)
Therefore,
y = -In [-In[I-(1fT)], - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.16)
or, T= 1I[ 1- p 1 ------------------------------- (9.17)
The event 'QT', having return period 'T' years is given by:

235
 QT= Qav + 6 (0.78y-0.45) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.18)
Qav = Average of all values of 'annual flood', Qm
6 = Standard deviation
Therefore,
6 = SQRT [{n/(n-l)}{ {LQ2m/n}-Q2av}] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.19)
n=Number of years of record
The relationship between 'T' and 'y' is shown in figure 9.2.
1,200.00 ...-----,---.,....----,---.,..-----,---.,..------,------,

1,000.00

800.00
['II-I,
600.00

400.00
IIT"1!
, , ,..................,.................
................. .................. .................. ~ ................................... ,................ ..

200.00 . . . . . . . . ·,. . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . T. . . . . . . . t .............. '1" ................ ,................. .

1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00

Y

Fig 9.2 'T' Vs 'y' Plot

Log Pearson Type-III Distribution

According to this, N-year event can be calculated in a similar manner to the

normal distribution method, with Skew Coefficient 'G' given by:

2 3
G = [n (I X ) - 3n(I X)(I X2) + 2(I X)3] _ __________ (9.20)
n(n -l)(n - 2)(J3 X

Where, X = log Q and 6 x = Standard Deviation of 'n' values of 'X'

log Qr = Xav + K 6 x - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9.21)
Where, 'K' is a factor depending upon probability 'r' and Skew Coefficient 'G'
(Table 9.3)

236
 Table 9.3 Pearson Type III Distribution - 'K' Values
Skew Probability of Exceedance (%)
Coefficient 'G' 99 90 50 10 5 2 1

3.0 -0.667 -0.660 -0.396 1.180 2.003 3.152 4.051

2.5 -0.799 -0.771 -0.360 1.250 2.012 3.048 3.845
2.0 -0.990 -0.895 -0.307 1.303 1.996 2.912 3.605
1.5 -1.256 -1.018 -0.240 1.333 1.951 2.743 3.330
1.2 -1.449 -1.086 -0.195 1.340 1.910 2.626 3.149
1.0 -1.558 -1.128 -0.164 1.340 1.877 2.542 3.023
0.9 -1.660 -1.147 -0.148 1.339 1.859 2.498 2.957
0.8 -1.733 -1.166 -0.132 1.336 1.839 2.453 2.891
0.7 -1.806 -1.183 -0.116 1.333 1.819 2.407 2.824
0.6 -1.880 -1.200 -0.099 1.328 1.797 2.359 2.755
0.5 -1.955 -1.216 -0.083 1.323 1.774 2.311 2.686
0.4 -2.029 -1.231 -0.067 1.317 1.750 2.261 2.615
0.3 -2.104 -1.245 -0.050 1.309 1.726 2.211 2.544
0.2 -2.178 -1.258 -0.033 1.301 1.700 2.159 2.472
0.1 -2.253 -1.270 -0.017 1.292 1.673 2.107 2.400
0.0 -2.326 -1.282 0.000 1.282 1.645 2.054 2.326
-0.1 -2.400 -1.292 0.017 1.270 1.616 2.000 2.253
-0.2 -2.472 -1.301 0.033 1.258 1.586 1.945 2.178
-0.3 -2.544 -1.309 0.050 1.245 1.555 1.890 2.104
-0.4 -2.615 -1.317 0.067 1.231 1.524 1.834 2.029
-0.5 -2.686 -1.323 0.083 1.216 1.491 1.777 1.955
-0.6 -2.755 -1.328 0.099 1.200 1.458 1.720 1.880
-0.7 -2.824 -1.333 0.116 1.183 1.423 1.663 1.806
-0.8 -2.891 -1.336 0.132 1.166 1.389 1.606 1.733
-0.9 -2.957 -1.339 0.148 1.147 1.353 1.549 1.660
-1.0 -3.023 -1.340 0.164 1.128 1.317 1.492 1.588
-1.2 -3.149 -1.340 0.195 1.086 1.243 1.379 1.449
-1.5 -3.330 -1.333 0.240 1.018 1.131 1.217 1.256
-2.0 -3.605 -1.303 0.307 0.895 0.949 0.980 0.990
-2.5 -3.845 -1.250 0.360 0.771 0.790 0.798 0.799
-3.0 -4.051 -1.180 0.396 0.660 0.665 0.666 0.667

237
Example 9.4
The following Table 9.4 shows Maximum Annual Discharge for lhelum River.
Estimate the flood discharge for a retum period of 100 years. Assume an
appropriate distribution.

Table 9.4 Maximum Annual Discharge at lhelum River

Year Qm Qm
L
Year Qm QmL
(m3/s) (m3/s ) (m3/s) (m3/ s )
1,937 167.240 27,969 1,967 172.400 29,722
1,938 197.440 38,983 1,968 154.960 24,013
1,939 186.080 34,626 1,969 187.160 35,029
1,940 146.080 21,339 1,970 98.760 9,754
1,941 137.000 18,769 1,971 98.440 9,690
1,942 168.880 28,520 1,972 178.760 31,955
1,943 178.400 31,827 1,973 180.400 32,544
1,944 138.720 19,243 1,974 121.680 14,806
1,945 171.480 29,405 1,975 157.200 24,712
1,946 105.880 11,211 1,976 212.520 45,165
1,947 116.960 13,680 1,977 145.920 21,293
1,948 209.240 43,781 1,978 167.880 28,184
1,949 201.400 40,562 1,979 137.800 18,989
1,950 237.720 56,511 1,980 160.520 25,767
1,951 151.600 22,983 1,981 180.920 32,732
1,952 148.400 22,023 1,982 136.560 18,649
1,953 120.760 14,583 1,983 185.120 34,269
1,954 167.040 27,902 1,984 139.640 19,499
1,955 135.960 18,485 1,985 106.480 11,338
1,956 187.080 34,999 1,986 174.040 30,290
1,957 221.040 48,859 1,987 214.760 46,122
1,958 202.040 40,820 1,988 215.880 46,604
1,959 296.600 87,972 1,989 163.600 26,765
1,960 122.480 15,001 1,990 212.080 44,978
1,961 127.920 16,364 1,991 235.560 55,489
1,962 97.360 9,479 1,992 209.120 43,731
1,963 175.280 30,723 1,993 189.000 35,721
1,964 197.240 38,904 1,994 185.640 34,462
1,965 216.920 47,054 1,995 204.080 41,649
1,966 172.480 29,749 Mean = 170, Total = 1,796,243.75

238
From Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution, given above
QT = Qa\ + 6 (0. ny-0.45)
Where,
y = -In[-In(l- lITJ]
• / 1 ~
6=\I[n/(n-1 )]IQm-/n-Qav-
n = number of values
IOm:2 = sum of squares of recorded discharge

Substituting values,
6= 39.67
For T = 100 years, y = 4.60
QIOO = 170 + 39.67 (0.78*4.60-0.45) =294.50 m 3/s

Graphical Method

The extreme event can also be found by plotting. Different researchers have
proposed different formulae to relate return period with given variable. Some of
them are listed in table 9.5. Here m is the rank of the given variable. It has value
of ill = 1 for highest value of given variable, m = 2 for next highest value and so
on. Also' N ' is the number of the event.

Table 9.5 Return Period Formulae

Sr. No. Formula Proposed by

I Tr = (N+I)/m Wei bull
2 Tr = N/m Californian
3 Tr = 2 N/(2m-l) Hazen
4 Tr = (N+0.12)/ (m-0.44) Gringorten
5 Tr = (N+0.2)/ (m-O.4) Cunnane

239
Example 9.5

The Maximum Annual Discharge for lhelum River are given in Example 9.4.
Estimate the flood discharge for a return period of 100 years by graphical method.

Solution

The calculations are done in spreadsheet below (Table 9.6). The first and second
column are water year and Annual maximum discharge obtained from stream
flow measurements. In third column values are arranged in descending order. A
rank is assigned to each discharge value starting with m= 1 assigned to highest
figure. The fourth column shows calculation of return period T r . Different
formulae have been proposed by different researchers. Here the used formula is Tr
= (N+0.12) / (m-0.44) proposed by Gringorten.

Computations for IOO-year Flood

Table 9.6 Maximum Annual Flow at lhelum

Tr=(N+O.12)/
Water Year Om (m3/s) Arranged (m3/s) Rank'm'
(m-O.44)
1,937 167.240 296.6 1 105.57
1,938 197.440 237.72 2 37.90
1,939 186.080 )35.56 3 23.09
1,940 146.080 221.04 4 16.61
1,941 137.000 216.92 5 12.96
1,942 168.880 215.88 6 10.63
1,943 178.400 214.76 7 9.01
1,944 138.720 212.52 8 7.82
1,945 171.480 212.08 9 6.91
1,946 105.880 209.24 10 6.18
1,947 116.960 209.12 11 5.60
1,948 209.240 204.08 12 5.11
1,949 201.400 202.04 13 4.71
1,950 237.720 201.4 14 4.36
1.951 151.600 197.44 IS 4.06
1,952 148.400 197.24 16 3.80
1,953 120.760 189 17 3.57
1,954 167.040 187.16 18 3.37
1,955 135.960 187.08 19 3.19

240
 Tr=(N+O.12)/
Water Year Om (m3/s) Arranged (m3/s) Rank'm'
(m-O.44)
1,956 187.080 186.08 20 3.02
1,957 221.040 185.64 21 2.88
1,958 202.040 185.12 22 2.74
1,959 296.600 180.92 23 2.62
1,960 122.480 180.4 24 2.51
1,961 127.920 178.76 25 2.41
1,962 97.360 178.4 26 2.31
1,963 175.280 175.28 27 2.23
1,964 197.240 174.04 28 2.15
1,965 216.920 172.48 29 2.07
1,966 172.480 172.4 30 2.00
1,967 172.400 171.48 31 1.93
1,968 154.960 168.88 32 1.87
1,969 187.160 167.88 33 1.82
1,970 98.760 167.24 34 1.76
1,971 98.440 167.04 35 1.71
1,972 178.760 163.6 36 1.66
1,973 180.400 160.52 37 1.62
1,974 121.680 157.2 38 1.57
1,975 157.200 154.96 39 1.53
1,976 212.520 151.6 40 1.49
1,977 145.920 148.4 41 1.46
1,978 167.880 146.08 42 1.42
1,979 137.800 145.92 43 1.39
1,980 160.520 139.64 44 1.36
1,981 180.920 138.72 45 1.33
1,982 136.560 137.8 46 1.30
1.983 185.120 137 47 1.27
1,984 139.640 136.56 48 1.24
1,985 106.480 135.96 49 1.22
1,986 174.040 127.92 50 1.19
1,987 214.760 122.48 51 1.17
1,988 215.880 121.68 52 1.15
1,989 163.600 120.76 53 1.12
1,990 212.080 116.96 54 1.10
1,991 235.560 106.48 55 1.08
1,992 209.120 105.88 56 1.06
1,993 189.000 98.76 57 1.05
1,994 185.640 98.44 58 1.03
1,995 204.080 97.36 59 1.01

241
The values of discharge are plotted on y-axis (linear scale) against computed
return period on x-axis (linear scale). A best fit line is drawn. The line is
extrapolated to find discharge against given return period and vice versa. We now
try best-fit line

Plot (a)

Q is plotted against T with Linear Scale both along X-axis and Y-

axis as shown in Fig. 9.3

Annual Maximum Flow (RiverJhelum 1937-1995)

350

it!L:
300

: 250
E
GI
CI
"-
«I
~ 150
200
:i+[\
............................. :........................·······"I"·····························T················.............. j............................... ,............................... .
(/)

c 100 .......................:::::::1,',.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1,"',.:.:::::.:::-.................... :...............................L............................. j................................

50 ...................... .................... ~................................ j................................ L. ............................

20 40 60 80 100 120
Return Period Tr (Years)

Fig 9.3 Linear Axis Plotting

From plotted curve,

for Tr = 100 years, Q - 298 m3/s.

Plot (b)

Q is plotted on Linear Scale and T with Logarithmic Scale as shown

in Fig. 9.4

242
 Annual Maximum Flow at River Jhelum (1937-1995)
SEMI-LOG PLOT

.,g: 300 ................,........ ".~ ............... +. ........ !. .... '1" ..... ~ .... ;....., ...•... ~..
III
o
I/)

~ 250 ...............:............... ~ ··········I········t····'·1······~·····t····~···j····· ...... . ·········r······)·······~············'········T·

<II
c:
~ 200 ........... ;... ,........... _.................. ·-:-······r·····r·· .... .. .
.~ ~

U)
M"-

E. 150 ...... ~....... ~... ' .. ~ .... '1' "r "'; ···············i·· .... ~ ..........;... ····r·····~······j ...~ ....~ .. .
o
<II ;
~ 100 ~ ........ . ... _..... ····:········.;.······~······i·····~····:···
III
.r:
o
o
VI
50 ..................... ······i············
. . . , , ..
·t·······!·······,····+···;·····t····;···,······················i················;· ..... +...... :- .... j.....:.... -: .. +..

10 100
Return Period Tr (years) - Logarithmic Scale

Fig 9.4 Q vs T plot with Q at Linear Scale and T at Logarithmic Scale

From Fig 9.4,

or T=IOO years, Q= 305 m 3/sec.
This value of flow may be required for hydraulic design of a bridge across the
flver.

Plot (c)

Q is plotted on Linear Scale along Y-axis and Probability in % along X -axis

Plot (d)

Q is plotted on Log Scale along Y-axis and Probability in % along X-axis

The reader may complete the plots (c) and (d) himse?f

243
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by frequency analysis?
2. Describe various methods for finding extreme values where plotting is not
required.
3. Explain plotting methods for extrapolation of hydrologic data.
4. Explain advantages of Pearson Distribution.
5. Compare Gumbel's Theory with that of Pearson's.

EXERCISE
Problem 9.1

Annual maximum recorded floods in a river for the period 1951 to 1977, is given
below. Use the Gumbel's Extreme - Value Distribution.
Estimate the flood discharge with recurrence interval of 100 years. Also,
estimate the flood magnitude in this river with a return period of 500 years.

Year Maximum Flood Year Maximum Flood Year Maximum Flood

(m3/s) (m3/ s ) (m3/ s )
1951 2947 1960 479R 1969 6599
1952 3521 1961 4290 1970 3700
1953 2399 1962 4652 1971 4175
1954 4124 1963 5050 1972 2988
1955 3496 1964 6900 1973 2709
1956 2947 1965 4366 1974 3873
1957 5060 1966 33RO 1975 4593
1958 4903 1967 7R26 1976 6761
1959 3757 1968 3320 1977 1971

244
 APPENDICES

God created every moving thing from water: One crawls on its belly one walks on
two legs, another moves on four. God creates whatsoever He pleases. Indeed
God has power over every thing.
(Ayat 45, AI-Noor)
246
 APPENDIX-A

Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressures with temperature

Temp. Saturation Vapour Pressure 'e s '

(Oe) 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
-10 2.15
-9 2.32 2.30 2.29 2.27 2.26 2.24 2.22 2.21 2.19 2.17
-8 2.51 2.49 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.41 2.40 2.38 2.36 2.34
-7 2.71 2.69 2.67 2.65 2.63 2.61 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.53
-6 2.93 2.91 2.89 2.86 2.84 2.82 2.80 2.77 2.75 2.73
-5 3.16 3.14 3.11 3.09 3.06 3.04 3.01 2.99 2.97 2.95
-4 3.41 3.39 3.37 3.34 3.32 3.29 3.27 3.24 3.22 3.18
-3 3.67 3.64 3.62 3.59 3.57 3.54 3.52 3.49 3.46 3.44
-2 3.97 3.94 3.91 3.88 3.85 3.82 3.79 3.76 3.73 3.70
-1 4.26 4.23 4.20 4.17 4.14 4.11 4.08 4.05 4.03 4.00
-0 4.58 4.55 4.52 4.49 4.46 4.43 4.40 4.36 4.33 4.29
0 4.58 4.62 4.65 4.69 4.71 4.75 4.78 4.82 4.86 4.89
1 4.92 4.96 5.00 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5.18 5.21 5.25
2 5.29 5.33 5.37 5.40 5.44 5.48 5.53 5.57 5.60 5.64
3 5.68 5.72 5.76 5.80 5.84 5.89 5.93 5.97 6.01 6.06
4 6.10 6.14 6.18 6.23 6.27 6.31 6.36 6.40 6.45 6.49
5 6.54 6.58 6.54 6.68 6.72 6.77 6.82 6.86 6.91 6.96
6 7.01 7.06 7.11 7.16 7.20 7.25 7.31 7.36 7.41 7.46
7 7.51 7.56 7.61 7.67 7.72 7.77 7.82 7.88 7.93 7.98
8 8.04 8.10 8.15 8.21 8.26 8.32 8.37 8.43 8.48 8.54
9 8.61 8.67 8.73 8.78 8.84 8.90 8.96 9.02 9.08 9.14
10 9.20 9.26 9.33 9.39 9.46 9.52 9.58 9.65 9.71 9.77
11 9.84 9.90 9.97 10.03 10.10 10.17 10.24 10.31 10.38 10.45
12 10.52 10.58 10.66 10.72 10.79 10.86 10.93 11.00 11.08 11.15
13 11.23 11.30 11.38 11.75 11.53 11.60 11.68 11.76 11.83 11.91
14 11.98 12.06 12.14 12.22 12.96 12.38 12.46 12.54 12.62 12.70
15 12.78 12.86 12.95 13.03 13.11 13.20 13.28 13.37 13.45 13.54
16 13.63 13.71 13.80 13.90 13.99 14.08 14.17 14.26 14.35 14.44
17 14.53 14.62 14.71 14.80 14.90 14.99 15.09 15.17 15.27 15.38
18 15.46 15.56 15.66 15.76 15.96 15.96 16.06 16.16 16.26 16.36
19 16.46 16.57 16.68 16.79 16.90 17.00 17.10 17.21 17.32 17.43
20 17.53 17.64 17.75 17.86 17.97 18.08 18.20 18.31 18.43 18.54
21 18.65 18.77 18.88 19.00 19.11 19.23 19.35 19.46 19.58 19.70
22 19.82 19.94 20.06 20.19 20.31 20.43 20.58 20.69 20.80 20.93
23 21.05 21.19 21.32 21.45 21.58 21.71 21.84 21.97 22.10 22.23
24 22.27 22.50 22.63 22.76 22.91 23.05 23.19 23.31 23.45 23.60
25 23.75 23.90 24.03 24.20 24.35 24.49 24.64 24.79 24.94 25.08
26 25.31 25.45 25.60 25.74 25.89 26.03 26.18 26.32 26.46 26.60
27 26.74 26.90 27.05 27.21 27.37 27.53 27.69 27.85 28.00 28.16
28 28.32 28.49 28.66 28.83 29.00 29.17 29.34 29.51 29.68 29.85
29 30.03 30.20 30.38 30.56 30.74 30.92 31.10 31.28 31.46 31.64
30 31.82 32.00 32.19 32.38 32.57 32.76 32.95 33.14 33.33 33.52

247
 APPENDIX-B

UNITS CONVERSION
AREA

1 square centimeter = 0.155 square inch 1 square inch = 6.4516 square centimeters
1 square meter = 10.764 square feet 1 square foot = 0.0929 square meters
1 hectare = 2.471 acres 1 acre = 0.4047 hectares
1 hectare = 10,000 square meters 1 acre = 43,560 square feet
1 square kilometer = 0.3863 square miles I square mile = 2.589 square kilometers
1 hectare = 0.003863 square miles 1 square mile = 258.9 hectares

DENSITY

1000 kilograms per cubic meter = 1.94 slugs per cubic foot
1 slug per cubic foot = 515.5 kilograms per cubic meter

VOLUME

1 Acre - foot ---- 43 ,560ft3

1 hectare - m --- 10 ,000m 3
1m3 = 3.281x3.281x3.28lfe

DISCHARGE (FLOW RATE)

1 cubic meter per second = 35.315 cubic feet per second

1 cubic foot per second = 0.028317 cubic meters per second
1000 gallons per minute = 2.2278 cubic feet per second
1 million gallons per day = 0.0438 cubic meters per second

ENERGY (WORK OR QUANTITY OF HEAT)

1 joule = 1 newton-meter 1 Btu = 777.8 foot -pound

1 joule = 0.7373 foot-pound 1 foot-pound = 1.356 joules
1 calorie = 4.186 joules 1 Btu = 1055 joules
1 kilowatt-hour = 3412 Btu 1 Btu = 0.000293 kilowatt-hour
1 kilowatt-hour =3,600,000 joules 1 Btu = 252 calories

248