STRUCTURE OF ATOM

In continuation

Dr. Madhu Gupta

3 ppt.
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

It is not possible to measure simultaneously both the position and

momentum of a microscopic particle ,with absolute accuracy.
In order to determine the position of an object ,we
must be able to see the object .This can be done
with the light of suitable wavelength. When a beam
of light falls on an object, the photons of the
incident light are scattered at the object and the
reflected light enters our eye. Now if the object is
large ,its position and velocity will not change by the
impact of striking photons. However In case of
microscopic objects such as electrons , the
interaction of striking photon of light with the
particle will cause appreciable displacement of the
particle from its normal path.
 As a result of this the particle undergoes a
considerable change in its path and velocity due to
the impact of single photon used to observe it.
Thus the very act of measuring the position of the
microscopic particle causes a change in its
Momentum.
The figure shows : how the position of an electron
changes by the impact of photon.
The collision of photon with the electron sends it
in an unpredictable direction.
Change in the path of the electron by the
impact of striking photon
In our daily life this principle has no
significance. This is because we come across
only large objects i.e the objects which can
be observed with naked eyes without
changing their motion .During the interaction
between the object and the measuring
device , the changes in the position and
velocity are negligible.
Quantum Mechanical Model of an atom

Scientists started looking for a model which could incorporate

the dual character of matter and uncertainty principle. This
resulted into a new approach called quantum mechanics or
wave mechanics.
Quantum mechanics was developed independently by
Heisenberg and Schrodinger.
Shrodinger proposed a model of an atom which considered
wave particle duality of matter and Heisenberg Uncertainty
principle. This model was known as quantum
Mechanical model of an atom.
He described the wave motion of the electron in three
dimensional space around the nucleus by a mathematical
equation known as Schrodinger wave equation.
Physical significance of wave function
Psi gives the amplitude of the wave associated with the
electron.
Psi square may be taken as intensity of the electron at any
point.
Psi square has been called the probability density and psi the
probability amplitude.
The solutions of Schrodinger wave equation
replaced the discrete energy levels or orbits
proposed by Bohr and led to the concept of most
probable region in space in terms of psi square.
A large value of psi square means a high probability
of finding the electron at that place . These most
probable regions in space are called orbitals.
Thus
An orbital may be defined as a region in space
around the nucleus where the probability of
finding the electron is maximum.
The region where this probability of finding an
electron reduces to zero is called nodal
surfaces or simply nodes.
In general, for an ns orbital , an ns orbital has
(n-1)nodes, that is number of nodes increases
with the increase of quantum number
[Link] for 2s it will be 1 and for 3s it will
be 2.
 In the boundary surface diagrams the nucleus is
taken to be at the origin or rather it is . Here, ,
diagrams are not spherical like the s-orbital. Here
the p-orbital consists of two sections called
lobes. That are on either sides of the plane where
the two lobes touch each other. The size, shape
and energy of the three orbitals are identical .
 Since the lobes are considered along the x, y and
the z axis they are designated as the above:-

 It should be understood that there is no relation

between first magnetic quantum number and x, y,
z directions 64
 ANGULAR
Nodes
When two nodal planes pass through the same
origin and bisecting the xy-plane and z-plane these
nodes are called angular nodes.

Angular nodes are denoted by ’l’.

There are one angular node for the p-orbitals and 2
angular nodes for d-orbitals
The total number of nodes are given by (n-1)
l =angular nodes and (n-l-1)= radial nodes.
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 The orbitals which have the same energy are
called degenerate. The 1s orbital in a hydrogen
atom corresponds to the most stable condition
and is called the ground state. And an electron
residing in this orbital is strongly held by the
nucleus
 The electrons residing in the 2s , 2p or higher
orbitals in the hydrogen atom are said to be in
the excited state.
 The attractive interactions of an electron
increases with the increase of the positive charge
(Ze) on the nucleus.
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 QUANTUM NUMBERS
To describe each electron in an atom in different
orbitals we need a set of three numbers known as
Quantum numbers. These are designated as n,l and
ml . These three [Link] determine size,shape and
orientation of the orbitals.
In addition to these numbers another quantum
number is also needed which specifies the spin of
the electron in an orbital.
Principal Quantum Number n: This
Quantum number determines the main
energy shell or level in which the electron is
present.
n= 1,2,3,4……[Link] K,L,M,N shells etc.
It gives the average distance of the electron
from the nucleus means size of the orbital
and energy associated with it.
Azimuthal Quantum Number l :This
Quantum number determines the angular
momentum of the electron . It determines
subshell in a given principal energy shell to which
electron [Link] depends on n and its values
varies from 0 to n-1,where n is the principal
quantum number.
For example when n=1 l=0 i.e only one value
means one subshell.
n=2 l=0,1 i.e two subshells
n=3 l=0,1,2 i.e three subshells
This [Link]. determines no of subshells present in a
principal shell .
Value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5
..……………………………………………………………
………….
Designation s p d f g h

This [Link]. determines shape of the orbital

.
This [Link]. determines the angular
momentum of the electron by the formula
= h/2∏ √ l(l+1)
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
It determines orientation of the orbital . It tell us the
number of orbitals in a given subshell.
It depends on the value of l. Its values varies from
–l through 0 to +l.
There are 2l+1 values for each value of l.
If l=0 m has only one value i.e s subshell has only one
orbital called s-orbital
If l=1 m has three values -1.0,+1 i.e p subshell has three
orbitals called p orbitals.
If l=2 m has five values -2,-1,0,+1,+2 i.e d subshell has five
orbitals called d-orbitals.
If l=3 m has seven values -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 i.e f subshell
has seven orbitals called f orbitals.
Spin Quantum Number ms : It refers to the
orientation of spin of the electron. Since
Electron can spin in two ways –clockwise or
anticlockwise., therefore the spin quantum
number can take only two values +1/2 or -1/2.
Also designated by arrows
pointing up and pointing down.↑ ↓
 Aufbau principle
 Aufbau principle deals with filling up of electrons.
The principle states:- In the ground state of the
atoms , the orbitals are filled in order of the
increasing energies.
 In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest
energy orbitals available to them and then enter
into higher energy orbital only after lower energy
orbital is filled.
 Order of increasing order of energies in the
orbital is as follows:-
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,4f,5d,6p,7s…….. 27
Order of filling
up of electrons

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 Pauli exclusion principle
 According to this principle :- no two electrons
in this atom have the same set of four
quantum numbers.
Or
It can also be stated otherwise as only two
electrons may exist in the same orbital and
these orbital must have opposite spins
The maximum number of electrons which can be
accommodated in the shell with the quantum
number n is according to the 2n2 rule. 72
 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
This rule deals filling of electrons in the orbitals
belonging to the same subshells of equal energy
called degenerate orbitals.
 It states that pairing of electrons in the

orbitals belonging to the same sub shell (p,d,

or f ) does not take place until each orbital of
that sub shell gets one electron that is singly
occupied.
 Some of the orbitals acquire extra stability due to

their symmetry. 30
 Electronic configuration
 The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an
atom is called its electronic configuration.
 Electronic configuration can be represented in

two ways:-
(a) Normal notation and
(b) orbital diagram

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