BAMBOO AS

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
A Seminar report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree, of
Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering.
7Th Semester

By:-
Gaurav Chakroborty
Regd No.: 1701298230
Roll No: 16

Guided By: Prof. Abhijit Mangaraj

Department of Civil Engineering,

Gandhi Institute for Technology, Bhubaneswar.
10th Sep 2020

1
 CERTIFICATE
I hereby Certify that the work which is being presented in the report entitled
“BAMBOO AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL” In partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree, of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering
under Gandhi Institute For Technology, Bhubaneswar is an authentic record of
my own work carried out under the guidance of Prof. Abhijit Mangaraj.

The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted by me for the award
of any other degree of this or any other University/Institute.

Student Name & Signature.

Date:

This is to certify that above statement made by the student is correct to the best
of our knowledge.

Prof. Abhijit Mangaraj Prof. Surajit Pattnaik,

Guide, HOD,
Department of Department of
Civil Engineering Civil Engineering
GIFT, Bhubaneswar. GIFT, Bhubaneswar

2
 Abstract

Self-Bamboo is one of the oldest traditional building materials used by mankind.

They are the largest members of the grass family and are the fastest-growing in
the world. In fact, within a 24 hour period, bamboo can grow four feet. Bamboos
are of notable economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia
and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source, and as a
versatile raw product. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood,
brick or concrete and a tensile strength that rivals steel. This is a substitute
building material, which is renewable, environment friendly and widely
available, as the wood resources are diminishing and restrictions are imposed on
felling the natural forests. Due to its rapid growth, its adaptability to most climatic
conditions and due its properties, bamboo emerges as a very suitable alternative
.
.

3
 Acknowledgements

I express my sincere gratitude towards my guide Prof. Abhijit Mangaraj for his
constant help, encouragement and inspiration throughout the project work. Also,
I would like to thank our Head of Department, Prof. Surajit Pattnaik for his able
guidance and for providing all the necessary facilities, which were indispensable
in the completion of this project.

I take this opportunity to express my hearty thanks to all those who helped me in
the completion of my project work. I am very grateful to the authors of various
articles on the Internet, for helping me become aware of the research currently
ongoing in this field.

I am very thankful to my parent for their constant support. I would also like to
thank all other faculty member of Civil Engineering Dept. for their valuable
suggestions and helpful discussions. Last, but not the least, I would like to thank
my classmates for their valuable comments, suggestions and unconditional
support.

4
Table of Contents

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 6
2. General uses…………………………………………………………………………..7
3. Properties ..................................................................................................................... 8
4. The working of bamboo............................................................................................... 9
5. Preservation of bamboo ………………………………………………………........12
5.1 non chemical method……………………………………………………12
5.2 chemical method………………………………………………………...13
6. Bamboo housing ........................................................................................................... 16
6.1 foundation ………………………………………………………………..17
6.2 flooring …………………………………………………………………..18
6.3 walls………………………………………………………………………19
6.4 roofing ……………………………………………………………………20
6.5 scaffolding………………………………………………………………..21
7. Advantages……………………………………………………………………………22
8. Disadvantages ............................................................................................................... 23
9. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 33
10. References ................................................................................................................... 34

5
 Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION

Bamboo has a long and well-established tradition as a building material through out the
world’s tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is widely used for many forms of construction, in
particular for housing in rural areas. Bamboo is a renewable and versatile resource,
characterized by high strength and low weight, and is easily worked using simple tools. It is
widely recognized as one of the most important non-timber forest resources due to the high
socio-economic benefits from bamboo based products. It is estimated that there are 1200
species growing in about 14.5 million hectares area. Most of them grow in Asia, Africa and
Latin America.

Bamboo is the world’s fastest growing woody plant. It grows approximately 7.5 to 40cm a day,
with world record being 1.2m in 24 hours in Japan. Bamboo grows three times faster than most
other species. Commercially important species of bamboo usually mature in four or five years
time, after which multiple harvests are possible every second year, for upto 120 years in some
species and indefinitely in others. Bamboo also excels in biomass production, giving 40 tons
or more per hectare annually in managed stands. It accounts for around one-quarter of biomass
produced in tropical regions and one-fifth in subtropical regions.

It has been used successfully to rehabilitate soil ravage by brick making in India, and
abandoned tin-mine sites in Malaysia. It shelters top soil from the onslaught of tropical
downpours, preserves many exposed areas, providing micro-climate for forest regeneration and
watershed protection It is often introduced into the banks or streams or in other vulnerable
areas, for rapid control of soil erosion; one bamboo plants closely matted roots can bind upto
six cubic meters of soil.

6
 Chapter 2:

GENERAL USES

a) Soil stabilization, wind break, urban waste water treatment and reduction of nitrates
contamination

b) Creating a fire line in traditional forests-due to the high content of silica.

c) Removing atmospheric carbon- bamboo can capture 17 metric tons of carbon per hectare
per year, i.e., effectively than any other species.

d) The shoots are edible.

e) Building and construction.

f) Small scale and cottage industries, for handicrafts and other products.

g) New generation products as wood substitutes

h) Industrial products

i) Transportation industry- truck bodies, railway carriages etc.

j) Boards and furniture

k) Medicine

l) Paper and pulp industry

m) Long time source of biomass for industry

n) Fuel source- capable of generating 1000-6000 cal/g- for households and small industries is
an age-old, continuing practice
7
 Chapter 3:

PROPERTIES

 TENSILE STRENGTH

Bamboo is able to resist more tension than compression. The fibres of bamboo run
axial. In the outer zone are highly elastic vascular bundle, that have a high tensile
strenght. The tensile strenght of these fibres is higher than that of steel, but it’s not
possible to construct connections that can transfer this tensile strength. Slimmer tubes
are superior in this aspect too. Inside the silicated outer skin, axial parallel elastical
fibers with a tensile strength upto 400 N/mm2 can be found. As a comparison,
extremely strong wood fibers can resist a tension upto 50 N /mm2.

 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compared to the bigger tubes, slimmer ones have got, in relation to their cross-section,
a higher compressive strength value. The slimmer tubes possess better material
properties due to the fact that bigger tubes have got a minor part of the outer skin, which
is very resistant in tension. The portion of lignin inside the culms affects compressive
strength, whereas the high portion of cellulose influences the buckling and the tensile
strength as it represents the building substance of the bamboo fibers.

 ELASTIC MODULUS

The accumulation of highly strong fibers in the outer parts of the tube wall also work
positive in connection with the elastic modulus like it does for the tension, shear and
bending strength. The higher the elastic modulus, the higher is the quality of the
bamboo. Enormous elasticity makes it a very useful building material in areas with very
high risks of earthquakes.

8
 ANISOTROPIC PROPERTIES

Bamboo is an anisotropic material. Properties in the longitudinal direction are

completely different from those in the transversal direction. There are cellulose fibers
in the longitudinal direction, which is strong and stiff and in the transverse direction
there is lignin, which is soft and brittle.

 SHRINKAGE

Bamboo shrinks more than wood when it loses water. The canes can tear apart at the
nodes. Bamboo shrinks in a cross section of 10-16 % and a wall thickness of 15-17 %.
Therefore it is necessary to take necessary measures to prevent water loss when used
as a building material.

 FIRE RESISTANCE

The fire resistance is very good because of the high content of silicate acid. Filled up
with water, it can stand a temperature of 400° C while the water cooks inside.

Fig 1: Fire resistance of bamboo cane when filled with water.

9
Chapter 4:
THE WORKING OF BAMBOO

METHODS

1. Splitting

The cane is split in halves and quarters and then driven apart by a wedge. It can also be split
with a knife frame into four or eight segments as shown in (Fig 2(a) and 2(b)). By means of
splitting you get halved canes, strips and battens. To get planks, all the nodes are smashed
and the wall of the pole is split over its entire length and forced open until the wall of the pole
lies flat. Up to the age of 18 months, the canes can be peeled. The strips can be used as ties or
be woven to make strings and ropes.

Fig 2(a) Splitting of a bamboo cane.

Fig 2(b) Splitting bamboo with a knife frame

2. Shaping

Bamboo available in nature is usually circular in cross section. But if bamboo is made to grow
in a box of square shape it attains the shape of that box, so that it can be better used for making
connections.

10
 Fig 3 Bamboo being forced to grow in a box

3) Bending

Freshly cut, bamboo can be bent by heating and will keep this shape after drying. When heated
above 150° C, bamboo starts changing its shape and remains as such after it goes cold.

Fig 4 Bamboo being subjected to bending.

11
Chapter 5:

PRESERVATION OF BAMBOO

Bamboo is subject to attack by microorganisms and insects in almost any construction

applications. The decay and biodegradation of bamboo culms during outdoor storage can be
checked to a great extend by adopting a good storage yard practices. Culms should be stacked
horizontally over raised wall to facilitate water drainage and air circulation. For reed bamboos,
vertical stacking results in a small gain in pulp yield over horizontal stacking because the
former suffers less fungal damage. The service life of bamboo is therefore, mainly determined
by the rate of attack. A variety of methods to improve the durability of bamboo have however,
been developed. Basically, there are two methods for increasing the durability of bamboo.

5.1 NON CHEMICAL METHODS OR TRADITIONAL METHOD

Non-chemical methods are otherwise known as traditional methods of preservation are widely
used by villagers and is usually done on bamboos used for structural purposes. However, the
treatment cost is almost nothing and thus can be carried out at village level without special
equipment. This method includes curing, smoking, whitewashing and soaking.

a) Smoking

Traditionally, bamboo culms are placed above fireplaces inside the house so that the smoke
and heat rises up and both dries and blackens the culms. It is possible that the process produces
some toxic agents that provide a degree o protection. Alternatively, the heat generated by the
fire could possibly destroy or reduce the starch content of the parenchyma cells by pyrolysis.
This is considered an effective treatment against insects and fungi.

12
b) White washing

Bamboo culms and bamboo mats for housing construction are often painted with slaked lime.
This is carried out mainly to enhance the appearance, but there is also an expectation that the
process will prolong the life of the bamboo structure by preventing moisture entering the culms.
It is possible that the water or moisture absorption is delayed or in some cases prevented which
will provide a higher resistance to fungal attack.In Indonesia, bamboo mats are tarred and later
sprinkled with a layer of sand. When this is dry, upto 4 coats of whitewash are applied.
Plastering is also a common practice using cow dung mixed with either lime or mortar.

c) Curing

Bamboo culms are treated during or immediately after extraction and before stacking in the
storage yard. Curing involves harvested culms, with branches and leaves intact, in open air.
The leaves continue to transpire causing the starch content of the culms to fail.

d) Soaking

The culms are submerged in either stagnant or running water, or mud for several weeks. This
is one of the best methods to preserve bamboo against the attack of microorganisms and insects.

5.2 CHEMICAL METHODS

Methods that use preservative chemicals are generally more effective than non-chemical
methods in the protection of bamboo under storage, but they are not always economical or
feasible. The penetration of liquids into the culms takes place through the vessels in the actual
direction from end to end. The vessels account for only 5-10% the bamboo cross-section. Thus
even when the vessels are filled to saturated point, the bamboo can still be vulnerable to fungal
insect attack if the preservative does not diffuse sufficiently into the main tissue of the culms.
The chemical treatment techniques are as follows:
13
a) Butt treatment

The butt ends of the freshly cut culms with the branches and leaves intact are placed in a drum
containing the preservative. The continued transpiration of the leaves draws the chemical
solution into the vessels of the culms. This process is very slow and often the vessels do not
take up enough of the liquid to preserve by diffusion, the surrounding fibers and parenchyma
cells. The preservative in the barrel must be replenished regularly in order to maintain the
desired level. When the treatment has been completed, care should be taken in the disposal of
the contaminated foliage. Butt treatment is usually adopted to bamboo posts.

b) Open tank method for cold soaking

This method is economical simple and provides good effective protection for bamboo. Culms,
which have been prepared to size, are submerged in a solution of water-soluble preservative
for a period of several days. The solution enters the culms through the ends and sides by means
of diffusion.

c) Boucherie method

This method requires the culms to be in green condition. Best results are obtained when the
bamboo is used during or shortly after the rainy season. The water transporting part of the culm
can be penetrated completely and the treatment itself is applied by an inexpensive installation.
Preservative is fed by gravity from a container placed at a higher level than the culms through
pipes into the base ends. The treatment is terminated when the solution at the dripping end
shows a sufficiently high concentration of chemicals. Allowing the bamboo to dry slowly in
the shade for a period of at least two weeks after treatment ensures that the solution diffuses
into all of the tissues surrounding the vessels.

d) Pressure treatment

Pressure treatment, using either creosote or water borne preservatives offers the best method
of preservation for bamboo culms. The applied pressure ranges from around 0.5-1.5N/mm2
14
and as such requires special plants and equipment. Costs are high, but a service life upto 15
years can be expected from adequately treated bamboo when used in the open and in contact
with the ground.

e) Hot and cold bath process

The bamboo is submerged in a tank of preservative, which is then heated, either directly over
a fire or indirectly by means of steel coils in the tank. The bath temperature is raised to 90o C
and maintained as such for 30 minutes and then allowed to cool. The bamboo should be allowed
to dry slowly to provide further diffusion of the preservative to take place.

f) Glue line treatment

This is specific to bamboo mat board and involves adding preservatives to the glue during
manufacture. Additives that have been shown to provide effective preservation treatment
without impairing the bond strength of the mat include 1% chlordane or 1% sodium octaborate
tetra hydrate with a 1:2 diluted pH solution containing 17% solid content.

15
Chapter 6:

BAMBOO HOUSING

The majority of bamboo construction relates to the rural community needs in developing
countries. As such domestic housing predominates and in accordance with their rural origins,
these buildings are often simple in design and construction relying on a living tradition of local
skills and methods. Other common types of construction include farm and school building s
and bridges. Further applications of bamboo relevant to construction include its use as
scaffolding, water piping and as shuttering and reinforcement for concrete. In addition, the
potential number of construction applications has been increased by the recent development of
a variety of bamboo-based panels.

DOMESTIC HOUSING AND SMALL BUILDINGS

There is a long-standing tradition of bamboo construction, dating back to many hundreds of

years. Different cultures have found in this material an economical system of building, offering
sound yet light and easily replaceable forms of shelter. The methods, activities and tools are
often simple, straightforward, accessible even to the young and unskilled. Despite human
exploitation and unfavorable treatment, trees maintain its contributively role towards the
dwelling of mankind. Man has for centuries enjoyed the benefits of the free gift of nature.
Housing is one of the priority items and sensing the current shortage of the dwelling units, the
present administrative leaders around the world find tough to hit upon a solution for. The search
for an efficient economical and replicable housing solution based on the contextual needs is the
need of the hour. Apart from the other substances already in practice, bamboo appears to be the
most promising material. Bamboo building construction is characterized by a structural frame
approach similar to that applied in traditional timber frame design and construction. In this case,
the floor, the wall, the roof elements are all interconnected and often one dependent on the other
for overall stability.
Bamboo culms are used in building. The thicker culms or strands made up of several culms are
employed for load bearing materials such as girder, purlin, post or rafter. Bamboo based

16
materials are widely used too. In its natural condition as solid culms, halved culms or as
longitudinally split strips, bamboo has been used in almost all parts of house construction except
for the fireplace and the chimneys. These are described in detail below:

6.1 Foundation

The use of bamboo for foundation is rather restricted. This is mainly due to the fact that like
timber when in contact with damp ground, they deteriorate and decay very quickly unless
treated with some very effective preservatives. However, in spite of their short life considerable
use of bamboos is made as foundation or supporting posts in case of houses built on raised
platforms. The types of bamboo foundations identified are:

(a) Bamboo in direct ground contact:

Bamboo is placed either on the surface or buried. For strength and stability, large diameter and
thick walled sections of bamboo with closely spaced nodes should be used. Where these are not
available, smaller sections can be tied together. It can decay within six months to two years,
and hence preservative treatment is recommended.

(b) Bamboo on rock or preformed concrete footings:

where bamboo is being used for bearings, it should be placed out of ground contact on footings
of either rock or preformed concrete. The largest and stiffest sections of bamboo should be
used.

(c) Bamboo incorporated in to concrete footings:

the poles are directly fit into concrete footing. It can take the forms of single posts or strip
footings.

(d) Composite bamboo/concrete columns:

17
a concrete extension is given to a bamboo post using a plastic tube of the same diameter. The
result is a bamboo post with an integral durable foundation.

(e) Bamboo piles:

it is used to stabilize soft soils and reduce building settlement. The treated split bamboo piles
were filled with coconut coir strands wrapped with jute. The sections were then tied with wire.
After installation of the piles the area was covered with a sandy material.

6.2 Flooring

The floors may be at ground level, and therefore consists only of compacted earth, with or
without a covering of bamboo matting. The preferred solution is to raise the floor above the
ground creating a stilt type of construction. This improves comfort and hygiene and can provide
a covered storage area below the floor. The surface of earth floor is sometimes made more
stable by paving it with crude bamboo boards made by opening and flattening whole culms.
The various types used are:

(a) Small bamboo culms: they are directly tied and nailed together.

(b) Split bamboo: culms are split along their length into strips, several centimeters wide.

(c) Flattened bamboo: formed by splitting green bamboo culms removing the diaphragms, then
rolling and flattening them. The resulting board is laid across the joists and fixed by nailing or
tying. They are screeded with cement mortar for reasons of hygiene and comfort as they are
uneven and difficult to clean.

(d) Bamboo mats: thin strips varying in size from 5-6mm or 10-15mm and thickness of 0.6-
1.2mm. These slivers are then woven into mats of different sizes according to the available hot-
press plates and user’s demands. After drying the mats to 6-10% moisture content, sufficient
glue is applied to ensure enough bonding between the overlapped areas. In construction using
bamboo mats, phenolic resins are employed.

18
(e) Bamboo plastic composites: it is an innovative technology in which bamboo fiber is the raw
material and compounded with plastic as the core material of the flooring. This has higher water
resistance and dimensional stability properties than those of normal floorings.
The ratio of plastic should be over 30% for higher water resistance and dimensional stability.
Polypropylene is recommended, and if recycled plastic is used it is ideal to reduce the cost of
production. The density of substrate should be higher than 1gm/cm3 to ensure best mechanical
properties. It prevents the floor from swelling and cracking, which is the disadvantage of other
timber based flooring materials.

6.3 Walls

The most extensive use of bamboo in construction is for the walls and partitions. The major
elements, the posts and beams, generally constitute part or structural framework. They are to
carry the self-weight of building and loads imposed by the occupants and the weather. An infill
between framing members is required to complete the wall. The purpose of the infill is to protect
against rain, wind and animals, to offer privacy and to provide in plane bracing to ensure the
overall stability of the overall structure when subjected to horizontal forces.

6.4 Roofing

The roof offers protection against extremes of weather including rain, sun and wind, and to
provide shelter, clear and usable space beneath the canopy. Above all it must be strong enough
to resist the considerable forces generated by wind and roof coverings. In this respect, bamboo
is ideal as a roofing material- it is strong, resilient and light weighted. The bamboo structure of
a roof can comprise of purlins, rafters and trusses.

(a) The simplest form consists of a bamboo purlin and beams, supported on perimeter posts.
Halved culms are then laid convex side down, edge-to-edge, spanning from the ridge to the
eaves. A second layer, convex side up, is then laid to cover the joints.

(b) Corrugated sheets made out of bamboo are also used commonly as roof covering. The
bamboo mats are dipped in resin, dried and heat pressed under pressure in a specially made

19
platen, to give strong, reliable sheets of bamboo, which is lightweight. It has good insulation
properties too.
(c) A layer of bitumen is sandwiched between two mats of bamboo forming a semi rigid panel.
The mats can be fixed to rafters at 200-250mm center to center. A bituminous or rubberized
weatherproof coating is then applied to the finished roof.

(d) Plastered bamboo: A cement plaster, with or without the addition of organic fibres, is
traditionally applied to bamboo roofs, to get stronger roof coverings. Various forms of trusses
are also adopted using bamboo culms of diameter ranging from 40mm-100mm. The king post
trusses are the most common and the simplest.

Fig 5(a) Double layers of bamboo shingles Fig 5(b) Lancet shingles.

6.5 Scaffolding

Because of the favourable relationship between load-bearing capacity and weight, bamboo can
be used for the construction of save scaffoldings even for very tall buildings. Even at their
connections the canes are not treated in any way. Only lashed joints are used. The cane
extension is carried out by lashing the cane ends together with several ties. The ties are arranged
in such a way that a force acting vertically downwards wedges the nodes in the lashing. With
larger cane diameters the friction can be increased by tightening the rope between the canes.
The vertical and horizontal canes used for scaffolding are almost exclusively joined using soft
20
lashing. This technique has the great advantage that the joints can be re-tensioned to the right
degree without difficulty and also quickly released again.

Fig 6 Bamboo canes used for scaffoldings

21
Chapter 7:

ADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO
The various advantages of bamboo are mentioned below.

1) Light, strong and versatile.

2) Light, strong, versatile.

3) Environment friendly.

4) Accessible to the poor.

5) Self renewing resource

6) Fast growing.

7) Highly productive

22
 Chapter 8:

DISADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO

The major disadvantages of bamboo are as follows:

1) Requires preservation

2) Shaped by nature

3) Durability- bamboo is subjected to attack by fungi, insects; for this reason, untreated bamboo
structures are viewed as temporary with an expected life of not more than 5 years.

4) Jointing- although many jointing techniques exist, their structural efficiency is low.

5) Lack of design guidance and codes.

6) Prone to catch fire very fast by the friction among the culms during wind, and is seen to
cause forest fires.

23
Chapter 9:
CONCLUSION :

Since time immemorial, bamboo has played an important role in the development of
mankind. It is used for a wide range of day-to-day purposes, both as a woody material
and as food. It has been the backbone of much of the world’s rural life and will remain
so as the population increases. Bamboo will continue to play an important part in the
development of enterprises and the transformation of rural environments, in all regions
of the developing world where it grows.

On account of the enforcement of our natural forest protection project, wood is

becoming increasingly scarce. The realization that bamboo is the most potentially
important non-timber resource and fast-growing woody biomass, has evoked keen
interest in the processing, preservation, utilization and the promotion of bamboo as an
alternative to wood. The properties as top grade building material and increased
availability of bamboo in our country makes it possible to use, bamboo in the field of
construction extensively. Its high valued utilization not only promotes the economic
development, but also saves forest resources to protect our ecological environment as
a wood substitute.

As an economic building material, bamboo’s rate of productivity and cycle of annual

harvest outstrips any other naturally growing resource, if today you plant three or four
structural bamboo plants, then in four or five years later you will have mature clumps,
and in eight years you will have enough mature material to build a comfortable, low
cost house.

24
Chapter 10 :
References

BOOKS

1) “Bamboo as reinforcement in structural concrete elements” by:-Khosrow Ghavami

2) “Design and building with bamboo” by:- Jules J.A.Jansse

REPORTS

3) “Bamboo Reinforced Concrete Wall as a Replacement to Brick and Mud Wall” by:- M
Mishra, S Mujumdar

4) “Connections and slab for bamboo construction” by Guzman David, PhD candidate ,Morel
Claude,Professor

5) ”Adobe Construction” by Marcial Blondet and Gladys Villa Garcia M. Catholic University
of Peru, Peru

6) Karamchandani, K.P., ‘Role of bamboo as a construction material’; Symposium on timber

and allied products; National Buildings Organization, New Delhi, 18 May 1959.

7) Manjunath, Neelam;‘The bamboo house’, Journal of Indian Institute of Architects;Vol

69;Issue 01;Jan 2004; pp 38.

8) López, M.; Bommer, J.; Méndez, P. (2004). "The seismic performance of bahareque
dwellings in El Salvador". Proceedings of 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Vancouver, Canada, Paper 2646.

25
9) Seixas, M.; Ripper, JLM.; Ghavami, K. (2016). "Prefabricated Bamboo Structure and Textile
Canvas Pavilions". Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures. 57 (Vol 57 (2016)): 179–188. doi:10.20898/j.iass.2016.189.782

10) Cassandra adams. "Bamboo Architecture and Construction with Oscar Hidalgo". Natural
Building Colloquium. Retrieved 11 August 2009.

11) Li, Hongbo; Shena, Shengping (2011). "The mechanical properties of bamboo and vascular
bundles". J. Mater. Res

12) Janssen, J. (2000). "INBAR Technical Report 20: Designing and Building with Bamboo".
INBAR: Beijing, China.

13) Liese, W.; Kumar, S. (2003). "INBAR Technical Report 22: Bamboo Preservation
Compendium". INBAR: Beijing, China.

26