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Outline

15-441 Computer Networking z ICMP

Lecture 10 – Routers and Routing
z How do Routers Works?
Peter Steenkiste
Departments of Computer Science and z Routing
Electrical and Computer Engineering
z Distance vector
15-441 Networking, Spring 2008
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dga/15-441/S08
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Internet Control Message

Protocol (ICMP) IP MTU Discovery with ICMP
z Short messages used to send error & other control MTU =
information 2000 host
router
z Examples router MTU = 1500
host
» Ping request / response MTU = 4000
– Can use to check whether remote host reachable
z Typically
yp y send series of p
packets from one host to another
» Destination
D i i unreachable
h bl
– Indicates how packet got & why couldn’t go further z Typically, all will follow same route
» Flow control » Routes remain stable for minutes at a time
– Slow down packet delivery rate z Makes sense to determine path MTU before sending real packets
» Redirect
z Operation
– Suggest alternate routing path for future messages
» Router solicitation / advertisement » Send max-sized packet with “do not fragment” flag set
– Helps newly connected host discover local router » If encounters problem, ICMP message will be returned
» Timeout – “Destination unreachable: Fragmentation needed”
– Packet exceeded maximum hop limit – Usually indicates MTU encountered
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IP MTU Discovery with ICMP IP MTU Discovery with ICMP

ICMP ICMP
Frag. Needed Frag. Needed
MTU = 2000 MTU = MTU = 1500 MTU =
2000 host 2000 host
router router
router
t MTU = 1500 router
t MTU = 1500
host host
MTU = 4000 MTU = 4000

Length = 4000, Don’t Fragment Length = 2000, Don’t Fragment

IP IP
Packet Packet

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IP MTU Discovery with ICMP Outline

MTU =
2000
router
host z ICMP
router MTU = 1500
host
MTU = 4000
z How do Routers Works?
Length = 1500, Don’t Fragment

IP
Packet z Routing

» When successful, no reply at IP level

– “No news is good news”
z Distance vector
» Higher level protocol might have some form of
acknowledgement
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Router Architecture: Key Functions Router Physical Layout

z Run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
» Done by routing processor Juniper T series
z Switching datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
» Common case handled by line cards
Crossbar
Line Card
Line Card

Linecards
output port

L
Line Card

input port
Cisco 12000

Switch

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Line Cards Line Card: Input Port

z Often uses special purpose hardware (e.g.

ASICs)

z Network interface cards

Decentralized switching:
Physical layer:
z Process common case (fast-path) packets
z Fast path (common-case) processing bit-level reception
» Decrement TTL, update checksum, forward
» Decrement TTL Data link layer: packet

» Recompute checksum e.g., Ethernet z Given datagram dest., lookup output port
using routing table in input port memory
» Forward to next hop line card
z Queue needed if datagrams arrive faster than
– Forwarding engine forwarding rate into switch fabric

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Line Card: Output Port Router Processor

z Runs routing protocol and downloads

forwarding table to forwarding engines
z Performs “slow” path processing
» ICMP error messages
» IP option processing
» Fragmentation
z Queuing required when datagrams arrive from fabric
faster than the line transmission rate » Packets destined to router

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Three Types of Switching Fabrics Switching Via a Memory

First generation routers Æ looked like PCs
z Packet copied by system’s (single) CPU
z Speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus
crossings per datagram)
Input Memory Output
P t
Port P t
Port

System Bus

Modern routers
• Input port processor performs lookup, copy into memory
• Cisco Catalyst 8500

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Switching Via an Interconnection

Switching Via a Bus Network
z Datagram from input port z Overcome bus bandwidth
memory to output port limitations
memory via a shared bus z Crossbar provides full NxN
interconnect
z Bus contention: switching
» Expensive
speed
p limited by
y bus
bandwidth z Banyan networks & other
interconnection nets initially
z 1 Gbps bus, Cisco 1900: developed to connect
sufficient speed for access processors in multiprocessor
and enterprise routers (not » Typically less capable than
complete crossbar
regional or backbone)
z Cisco 12000: switches Gbps
through the interconnection
network
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Buffering Outline

z Suppose we have N inputs and M outputs z ICMP

»Multiple packets for same output Æ
output contention z How do Routers Works?
»Switching
Switching fabric may force different
inputs to wait Æ Switch contention
z Routing
z Solution – buffer packets when/where
needed: input, switch, or output
z What happens when these buffers fill up? z Distance vector
»Packets are THROWN AWAY!! This
is where packet loss comes from
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IP Forwarding versus Routing Graph Model

z Represent each router as node
z The Story So Far… z Direct link between routers represented by edge
» IP addresses are structure to reflect
Router
» Symmetric links ⇒ undirected graph
Internet structure
z Edge “cost” c(x,y) denotes measure of difficulty of using link
» IP packet headers carry these addresses » delay, $ cost, or congestion level
» When Packet Arrives at Router
z Task
– Examine header to determine intended » Determine least cost path from every node to every other node
destination
– Path cost d(x,y)
E = sum
3
of link costs C
– Look up in table to determine next hop in 1

path F 1
2
– Send packet out appropriate port 6
1
z How do we generate the forwarding table? A 4
3 D

B
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Routes from Node A Ways to Compute Shortest Paths

Forwarding Table for A E C z Centralized
3 1
Dest Cost Next
» Collect graph structure in one place
Hop 1
2 F » Use standard graph algorithm
A 0 A 6
1 » Disseminate routing tables
B 4 B
3 D
C 6 E A 4
D 7 B B z Link-state
E 2 E » Every node collects complete graph structure
F 5 E » Each computes shortest paths from it
» Each generates own routing table
z Properties
» Some set of shortest paths forms tree z Distance-vector
– Shortest path spanning tree » No one has copy of graph
» Solution not unique » Nodes construct their own tables iteratively
– E.g., A-E-F-C-D also has cost 7 » Each sends information about its table to neighbors
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Outline Distance-Vector Method

Initial Table for A
Dest Cost Next E 3 C
1
z ICMP Hop
A 0 A 1
2 F
B 4 B 6
1
z How do Routers Works? C ∞ –
3 D
D ∞ – A 4

E 2 E B
z Routing F 6 F

z Idea: At any time, have cost/next hop of best known path to

destination
z Distance vector
» Use cost ∞ when no path is known
z Initially
» Only have entries for directly connected nodes
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Distance-Vector Update Algorithm

z
d(z,y)
c(x,z) z Bellman-Ford algorithm
z Repeat
y
x
d(x y)
d(x,y)
For every node x
z Update(x,y,z) For every neighbor z
d ← c(x,z) + d(z,y) # Cost of path from x to y with first hop z For every destination y
if d < d(x,y)
d(x,y) ← Update(x,y,z)
# Found better path
z Until converge
return d,z # Updated cost / next hop

else
return d(x,y), nexthop(x,y) # Existing cost / next hop
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Start Iteration #1
Optimum 1-hop paths Optimum 2-hop paths
Table for A Table for B Table for A Table for B
E 3 C E 3 C
Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop 1 Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop 1
A 0 A A 4 A 1 A 0 A A 4 A 1
2 F 2 F
B 4 B B 0 B B 4 B B 0 B
6 6
C ∞ – C ∞ – 1 C 7 F C 2 F 1
D ∞ – D 3 D 3 D D 7 B D 3 D 3 D
A 4 A 4
E 2 E E ∞ – E 2 E E 4 F
B B
F 6 F F 1 F F 5 E F 1 F
Table for C Table for D Table for E Table for F Table for C Table for D Table for E Table for F
Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop
A ∞ – A ∞ – A 2 A A 6 A A 7 F A 7 B A 2 A A 5 B
B ∞ – B 3 B B ∞ – B 1 B B 2 F B 3 B B 4 F B 1 B
C 0 C C 1 C C ∞ – C 1 C C 0 C C 1 C C 4 F C 1 C
D 1 D D 0 D D ∞ – D ∞ – D 1 D D 0 D D ∞ – D 2 C
E ∞ – E ∞ – E 0 E E 3 E E 4 F E ∞ – E 0 E E 3 E
F 1 F F ∞ – F 3 F F 0 F F 1 F F 2 C F 3 F F 0 F
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Distance Vector: Link Cost

Iteration #2 Changes
Optimum 3-hop paths
Link cost changes:
Table for A Table for B
E C 1
Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop 3 1 • Node detects local link cost change Y
4 1
A 0 A A 4 A • Updates distance table
X
1
2 F Z
B 4 B B 0 B
6 • If cost change in least cost path, notify 50
C 6 E C 2 F 1 neighbors
D 7 B D 3 D 3 D
A 4
E 2 E E 4 F algorithm
B
terminates
F 5 E F 1 F
“good
Table for C Table for D Table for E Table for F
Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop news
A 6 F A 7 B A 2 A A 5 B travels
B 2 F B 3 B B 4 F B 1 B
fast”
C 0 C C 1 C C 4 F C 1 C
D 1 D D 0 D D 5 F D 2 C
E 4 F E 5 C E 0 E E 3 E
F 1 F F 2 C F 3 F F 0 F
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Distance Vector: Link Cost

Changes Distance Vector: Split Horizon
Link cost changes: If Z routes through Y to get to X : 60
60 Y
• Good news travels fast Y • No need for Z to tell Y about its route to X 4 1
4 1
X Z
• Bad news travels slow - X Z • Z does not advertise its route to X back to Y 50
“count to infinity” problem! 50

algorithm
algorithm terminates
continues
on! ? ? ?

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Distance Vector: Poison Reverse Poison Reverse Failures

If Z routes through Y to get to X : 60 Table for A Table for B Table for D Table for F
Y Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop Dst Cst Hop
• Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t 4 1
∞1
C 7 F C 8 A C 9 B C 1 C
route to X via Z) X Z
50 Table for A
Forced
Table for F F C
• Eliminates some possible timeouts with split horizon Dst Cst Hop Forced
Dst Cst Hop
6
Update Update
• Will this completely solve count to infinity problem? C ∞ – C ∞ – A
1
algorithm Table for A
4
terminates Dst Cst Hop Better
1
Route B
C 13 D D
Table for B
Forced
Dst Cst Hop z Iterations don’t converge
Update
C 14 A
z “Count to infinity”
Table for D
Forced z Solution
Dst Cst Hop
Update
C 15 B » Make “infinity” smaller
Table for A •
Dst Cst Hop Forced » What is upper bound on
•
Update
• maximum path length?
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Routing Information Protocol

(RIP) RIP Updates
z Initial
z Earliest IP routing protocol (1982 BSD) » When router first starts, asks for copy of table for
» Current standard is version 2 (RFC 1723) every neighbor
z Features » Uses it to iteratively generate own table
» Every link has cost 1 z Periodic
» “Infinity” = 16 » Every 30 seconds, router sends copy of its table to
– Limits to networks where everything reachable within each neighbor
15 hops
» Neighbors use to iteratively update their tables
z Sending Updates
» Every router listens for updates on UDP port 520
z Triggered
» RIP message can contain entries for up to 25 table » When every entry changes, send copy of entry to
entries neighbors
– Except for one causing update (split horizon rule)
» Neighbors use to update their tables
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RIP Staleness / Oscillation

Control

z Small Infinity
» Count to infinity doesn’t take very long
z Route Timer
» Every route has timeout limit of 180 seconds
– Reached when haven’t received update from next
hop for 6 periods
» If not updated, set to infinity
» Soft-state refresh Æ important concept!!!
z Behavior
» When router or link fails, can take minutes to
stabilize
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