Lecture 18: 5.

3
Linear Independence

Wei-Ta Chu

2008/11/26
Linearly Dependent & Independent

 Definition
 If S = {v1, v2,…,vr} is a nonempty set of vector, then the vector
equation k1v1 + k2v2 +… +krvr = 0 has at least one solution,
namely k1 = 0, k2 =0,… ,kr = 0.
 If this the only solution, then S is called a linearly independent (
線性獨立) set. If there are other solutions, then S is called a
linearly dependent (線性相關) set.

 Examples
 If v1 = (2, -1, 0, 3), v2 = (1, 2, 5, -1), and v3 = (7, -1, 5, 8).
 Then the set of vectors S = {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent,
since 3v1 + v2 –v3 = 0.

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Example

 Let i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0, 1) in R3.

 Consider the equation k1i + k2j + k3k = 0
 k1(1, 0, 0) + k2(0, 1, 0) + k3(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
 (k1, k2, k3) = (0, 0, 0)
 The set S = {i, j, k} is linearly independent.
 Similarly the vectors
e1 =(1,0, 0,…, 0)
,e2 =(0,1, 0,…,0) ,
…,en =(
0,0,
0,…,1)
form a linearly independent set in Rn.

 Remark:
 To check whether a set of vectors is linear independent or not, write
down the linear combination of the vectors and see if their coefficients
all equal zero.

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Example
 Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, -2, 3), v2 = (5, 6, -1), v3 = (3, 2, 1)
form a linearly dependent set or a linearly independent set.

 Solution
 Let the vector equation k1v1 + k2v2 + k3v3 = 0
 k1(1, -2, 3) + k2(5, 6, -1) + k3(3, 2, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
 k1 + 5k2 + 3k3 = 0
-2k1 + 6k2 + 2k3 = 0
3k1 –k2 + k3 = 0 Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
det(A) ≠0
 det(A) = 0
 The system has nontrivial solutions
 v1,v2, and v3 form a linearly dependent set

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Theorem 5.3.1

 Theorem 5.3.1
 A set with two or more vectors is:
 Linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the
vectors in S is expressible as a linear combination of the
other vectors in S.
 Linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is
expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors
in S.

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Proof of Theorem 5.3.1

 Let S={v1,v2,…, vr} be a set with two or more vectors. If we

assume that S is linearly dependent, then there are scalars k1,
k2 ,
…,kr, not all zero, such that
k1v1 + k2v2 +… +krvr = 0
 To be specific, suppose that . Then it can be rewritten as

which expresses v1 as a linear combination of the other vectors

in S.
 Similarly, if for some j=2, 3,
…, r, then vj is expressible
as a linear combination of the other vectors in S.

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Proof of Theorem 5.3.1

 Conversely, let us assume that at least one of the vectors in S is

expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors. To
be specific, suppose that
v1 = c2v2+c3v3+…+crvr
 So v1 –c2v2 –c3v3 - … - crvr = 0
 If follows that S is linearly dependent since the equation
k1v1+k2v2+…+krvr = 0
is satisfied by k1=1, k2=-c2, …,kr=-cr
which are not all zero. The proof in the case where some
vector other than v1 is expressible as a linear combination of
the other vectors in S is similar.

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Example

 The vectors v1 = (2,-1,0,3), v2=(1,2,5,-1), and v3=(7,-

1,5,8)
 From Theorem 5.3.1, at least one of these vectors is
expressible as a linear combination of the other two.
 3v1 + v2 –v3 = 0.

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Example

 The vectors i=(1,0,0), j=(0,1,0), and k=(0,0,1)

 Suppose that k is expressible as k = k1i + k2j
 Then, in terms of components,
(0,0,1) = k1(1,0,0) + k2(0,1,0)
(0,0,1) = (k1,k2,0)
 The last equation is not satisfied by any values of k1 and
k2, so k cannot be expressed as a linear combination of i
and j.

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Theorem 5.3.2

 Theorem 5.3.2
 A finite set of vectors that contains the zero vector
is linearly dependent.
 A set with exactly two vectors is linearly
independently if and only if neither vector is a
scalar multiple of the other.

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Proof of Theorem 5.3.2(a)

 For any vectors v1, v2, …, vr, the set S={v1, v2,
…, vr, 0}
is linearly dependent since the equation
0v1 + 0v2 +…+0vr + 1(0) = 0
expresses 0 as a linear combination of the vectors in S with
coefficients that are not all zero.

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Geometric Interpretation of Linear
Independence
 In R2 and R3, a set of two vectors is linearly independent if and
only if the vectors do not lie on the same line when they are
placed with their initial points at the origin.
 In R3, a set of three vectors is linearly independent if and only
if the vectors do not lie in the same plane when they are placed
with their initial points at the origin.

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Theorem 5.3.3

 Theorem 5.3.3
 Let S = {v1, v2, …,vr} be a set of vectors in Rn. If
r > n, then S is linearly dependent.
 Proof
 Suppose that
v1 = (v11, v12,…,v1n)
v2 = (v21, v22,…,v2n)
…
vr = (vr1, vr2,
…,vrn)

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Proof of Theorem 5.3.3

 Consider the equation k1v1+k2v2+…+krvr=0.

 We express both sides of this equation in terms of
components and then equate corresponding components,
we obtain the system

 This is a homogeneous system of n equations in the r

unknowns k1, …, kr. Since r > n, it follows from Theorem
1.2.1 that the system has nontrivial solutions. Therefore, S
is a linearly dependent set.

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Lecture 18: 5.4
Basis and Dimension

Wei-Ta Chu

2008/11/26
Nonrectangular Coordinate Systems

 The coordinate system establishes a one-to-one correspondence

between points in the plane and ordered pairs of real numbers.
 Although perpendicular coordinate axes are the most common, any
two nonparallel lines can be used to define a coordinate system in
the plane.

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Nonrectangular Coordinate Systems

 A coordinate system can be

constructed by general vectors:
 v1 and v2 are vectors of length 1
that points in the positive


direction of the axis: OP av1 bv 2

 Similarly, the coordinates (a, b, c)

of the point 
P


can be obtained by
expressing OP as a linear
combination of the vectors

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Nonrectangular Coordinate Systems

 Informally stated, vectors that

specify a coordinate system are
called“ basisve ctors”fort ha t
system.

 Although we used basis

vectors of length 1 in the
preceding discussion, this is
not essential –nonzero vectors
of any length will suffice.

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Basis

 Definition
 If V is any vector space and S = {v1, v2,…, vn} is a set of vectors
in V, then S is called a basis (基底) for V if the following two
conditions hold:
 S is linearly independent.
 S spans V.
 Theorem 5.4.1 (Uniqueness of Basis Representation)
 If S = {v1, v2,…,vn} is a basis for a vector space V, then every
vector v in V can be expressed in the form
v = c1v1 + c2v2 +… +cnvn
in exactly one way.

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.1

 Since S spans V, it follows from the definition of a

spanning set that every vector in V is expressible as a
linear combination of the vectors in S.
 To see that there is only one way to express a vector as a
linear combination of the vectors in S, suppose that some
vector v can be written as
v = c1v1 + c2v2 +… +cnvn
 And also as
v = k1v1 + k2v2 +… +knvn

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.1

 Subtracting the second equation from the first gives

0 = (c1-k1)v1+(c2-k2)v2+…+( cn-kn)vn
 Since the right side is a linear combination of vectors in S,
the linear independent of S implies that
c1 –k1 = 0, c2 –k2 =0, …, cn –kn = 0
 That is c1=k1, c2=k2, …, cn=kn.
 Thus, the two expressions for v are the same.

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Coordinates Relative to a Basis
 If S = {v1, v2, …, vn} is a basis for a vector space V, and
v = c1v1 + c2v2 + ··· + cnvn
is the expression for a vector v in terms of the basis S, then the scalars c1,
c2, …, cn, are called the coordinates (座標) of v relative to the basis S.
 The vector (c1, c2, …, cn) in Rn constructed from these coordinates is called
the coordinate vector of v relative to S (v對於基底S的座標向量); it is
denoted by
(v)S = (c1, c2,
…, cn)

 Remark:
 Coordinate vectors depend not only on the basis S but also on the order
in which the basis vectors are written.
 A change in the order of the basis vectors results in a corresponding
change of order for the entries in the coordinate vector.

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Example (Standard Basis for R3)
 Suppose that i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0, 1), then S = {i,
j, k} is a linearly independent set in R3.

 This set also spans R3 since any vector v = (a, b, c) in R3 can be

written as
v = (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = ai + bj + ck
 Thus, S is a basis for R3; it is called the standard basis for R3.

 Looking at the coefficients of i, j, and k, it

follows that the coordinates of v relative to
the standard basis are a, b, and c, so
(v)S = (a, b, c)
 Comparing this result to v = (a, b, c), we have
v = (v)S

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Standard Basis for R n

 If e1 =( 1,0, 0, …, 0),e2 =(0, 1,0, …, 0)

,…, en =(
0,0,
0,…,
1),
the
n
S = {e1, e2,
…, en}
is a linearly independent set in Rn.

 This set also spans Rn since any vector v = (v1, v2, …, vn) in Rn can be
written as
v = v1e1 + v2e2 +… +vnen
 Thus, S is a basis for Rn; it is called the standard basis for Rn.

 The coordinates of v = (v1, v2, …, vn) relative to the standard basis are v1,
v2,…, vn, thus
(v)S = (v1, v2,…, vn)
 As the previous example, we have v = (v)s, so a vector v and its coordinate
vector relative to the standard basis for Rn are the same.

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Example (Demonstrating That a Set of
Vectors is a Basis)
 Let v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (2, 9, 0), and v3 = (3, 3, 4).
Show that the set S = {v1, v2, v3} is a basis for R3.

 Solution:
 To show that the set S spans R3, we must show that an arbitrary vector
b = (b1, b2, b3)
can be expressed as a linear combination
b = c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3
of the vectors in S.

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Example

 Let (b1, b2, b3) = c1(1, 2, 1) + c2(2, 9, 0) + c3(3, 3, 4)

 c1 +2c2 +3c3 = b1
2c1+9c2 +3c3 = b2
c1 +4c3 = b3

 We must demonstrate that the system has a solution for all

choices of b=(b1,b2,b3)

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Example

 To prove that S is linearly independent, we must show that the

only solution of
c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0
is c1=c2=c3=0.
 Express it in terms of components, the verification of
independence reduces to showing that the homogeneous
system

has only the trivial solution

  det(A) 0
 S is a basis for R3

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Example (Representing a Vector Using
Two Bases) v = (1, 2, 1), v = (2, 9, 0), and v = (3, 3, 4)
1 2 3

 Let S = {v1, v2, v3} be the basis for R3 in the preceding example.
 Find the coordinate vector of v = (5, -1, 9) with respect to S.
 Find the vector v in R3 whose coordinate vector with respect to the basis
S is (v)s = (-1, 3, 2).

 Solution (a)
 We must find scalars c1, c2, c3 such that v = c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3, or, in
terms of components, (5, -1, 9) = c1(1, 2, 1) + c2(2, 9, 0) + c3(3, 3, 4)
 Solving this, we obtaining c1 = 1, c2 = -1, c3 = 2.
 Therefore, (v)s = (-1, 3, 2).
 Solution (b)
 Using the definition of the coordinate vector (v)s, we obtain
v = (-1)v1 + 3v2 + 2v3 = (11, 31, 7).

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Standard Basis for Pn

 S = {1, x, x2,…,xn} is a basis for the vector space Pn

of polynomials of the form a0 + a1x +… +anxn. The
set S is called the standard basis for Pn.
Find the coordinate vector of the polynomial p = a0 +
a1x + a2x2 relative to the basis S = {1, x, x2} for P2 .

 Solution:
 The coordinates of p = a0 + a1x + a2x2 are the scalar
coefficients of the basis vectors 1, x, and x2, so
(p)s=(a0, a1, a2).

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Standard Basis for Mmn
Let M 1 
1 0 
0 1 
0 0 
0 0


0 0 , M 2 
0 0 , M 3 
1 0 , M 4 
0 1
       
 The set S = {M1, M2, M3, M4} is a basis for the vector space M22 of 2×2
matrices.

a b
 To see that S spans M22, note that an arbitrary vector (matrix)  can
be written as c d


a b  1 0  0 1  0 0  0 0
 a
  b
  c
  d
  aM 1 bM 2 cM 3 dM 4
c
 d 0 0 0 0
         1 0 0 1
 To see that S is linearly independent, assume aM1 + bM2 + cM3 + dM4 = 0. It
follows that a b  0 0. Thus, a = b = c = d = 0, so S is lin. indep.

c d 
0 0
   
 The basis S is called the standard basis for M22.
 More generally, the standard basis for Mmn consists of the mn
different matrices with a single 1 and zeros for the remaining
entries.
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Basis for the Subspace span(S)

 If S = {v1, v2,
…, vn} is a linearly independent set in a
vector space V, then S is a basis for the subspace span(S)

since the set S spans span(S) by definition of span(S).

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Finite-Dimensional

 Definition
 A nonzero vector space V is called finite-dimensional (有限維的)
if it contains a finite set of vector {v1, v2,…, vn} that forms a
basis. If no such set exists, V is called infinite-dimensional (無限
維的). In addition, we shall regard the zero vector space to be
finite-dimensional.

 Example
 The vector space Rn is finite-dimensional.

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Theorem 5.4.2

 Theorem 5.4.2
 Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and {v1, v2,…,
vn} any
basis.
 If a set has more than n vector, then it is linearly dependent.
 If a set has fewer than n vector, then it does not span V.

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.2(a)
If a set has more than n vector, then it is linearly dependent.

 Let S’={w1,w2, …, wm} be any set of m vectors in V, where

m > n. Since S={v1,v2, …,vn} is a basis, each wi can be
expressed as a linear combination of the vectors in S, say

 To show that S’isli

ne arlyde pende nt
,wemus tf
ind
scalars k1, k2,
…,km, not all zero, such that

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.2(a)
If a set has more than n vector, then it is linearly dependent.

 Using the previous results, we can rewrite

 Thus, from the linear independence of S, the problem of

proving that S’isal ine ar
lyde pendents etr educ est o
showing there are scalars k1,k2,…,km, not all zero, that
satisfy

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.2(a)
If a set has more than n vector, then it is linearly dependent.

 It has more unknowns than equations (m > n), so the

proof is complete since Theorem 1.2.1 guarantees the
existence of nontrivial solutions.

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.2(b)
If a set has fewer than n vector, then it does not span V.

 Let S’ ={w1,w2, …, wm} be any set of m vectors in V, where

m < n. The proof will be by contradiction: We will show
that assuming S’s pa nV leads to a contradiction of the
linear independence of {v1,v2, …, vn}.
 If S’spa nsV, then every vector in V is a linear
combination of the vectors in S’ .Inpa rticular,eac hba s
is
vectors vi is a linear combination of the vectors in S’ ,say

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Proof of Theorem 5.4.2(b)
If a set has fewer than n vector, then it does not span V.

 To obtain our contradiction, we will show that there are

scalars k1,k2,
…,kn, not all zero, such that

 Thus the computation now yield

 This linear system has more unknowns than equations (m

< n) and hence has nontrivial solution by Theorem 1.2.1.

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Theorem 5.4.3

 Theorem 5.4.3
 All bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have
the same number of vectors.

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