COLUMN FORMULAS

3. COLUMN FORMULAS

3.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Columns are structural members subjected to direct compression. All columns can be grouped into the following
three classes:

1. Compression blocks are so short (with a slenderness ratio—that is, unsupported length divided by the least radius
of gyration of the member—below 30) that bending is not potentially occurring.
2. Columns so slender that bending under load is given are termed long columns and are defined by Euler’s theory.
3. Intermediate-length columns, often used in structural practice, are called short columns.

Long and short columns usually fail by buckling when their critical load is reached. Long columns are analyzed using
Euler’s column formula, namely,

(3.1)

In this formula, the coefficient n accounts for end conditions. When the column is pivoted at both ends, n = 1; when
one end is fixed and the other end is rounded, n = 2; when both ends are fixed, n = 4; and when one end is fixed and
the other is free, n = 0.25. The slenderness ratio separating long columns from short columns depends on the
modulus of elasticity and the yield strength of the column material. When Euler’s formula results in (P cr/A) > S y,
strength instead of buckling causes failure, and the column ceases to be long. In quick estimating numbers, this
critical slenderness ratio falls between 120 and 150. Table 3.1 gives additional column data based on Euler’s formula.

3.2. SHORT COLUMNS

Stress in short columns can be considered to be partly due to compression and partly due to bending. Empirical,
rational expressions for column stress are, in general, based on the assumption that the permissible stress must be
reduced below that which could be permitted were it due to compression only. The manner in which this reduction
is made determines the type of equation and the slenderness ratio beyond which the equation does not apply. Figure
3.1 shows the curves for this situation. Typical column formulas are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.1. Strength of Round-Ended Columns According to Euler’s Formula*

*P =allowable load, lb; l= length of column, in; b = smallest dimension of a rectangular section, in; d = diameter of a circular section,
in; r = least radius of gyration of section.
†To convert to SI units, use: 1b/in 2 × 6.894 = kPa; in 4 (25.4) 4 = mm 4.

Figure 3.1. L/r plot for columns.

3.3. ECCENTRIC LOADS ON COLUMNS

When short blocks are loaded eccentrically in compression or in tension, that is, not through the center of gravity
(cg), a combination of axial and bending stress results. The maximum unit stress S M is the algebraic sum of these
two unit stresses.

In Fig. 3.2, a load, P, acts in a line of symmetry at the distance e from cg; r = radius of gyration. The unit stresses are (1)
S c, due to P, as if it acted through cg, and (2) S b, due to the bending moment of P acting with a leverage of e about
cg. Thus, unit stress, S, at any point y is

(3.2)

y is positive for points on the same side of cg as P, and negative on the opposite side. For a rectangular cross section of
width b, the maximum stress, S M = S c(1 + 6e/b). When P is outside the middle third of width b and is a compressive
load, tensile stresses occur.
For a circular cross section of diameter d, S M = S c(1 + 8e/d). The stress due to the weight of the solid modifies these
relations.

Note that in these formulas e is measured from the gravity axis and gives tension when e is greater than one-sixth the
width (measured in the same direction as e), for rectangular sections, and when greater than one-eighth the
diameter, for solid circular sections.

Table 3.2. Typical Short-Column Formulas

*Scr = theoretical maximum; c = end fixity coefficient; c = 2, both ends pivoted; c = 2.86, one pivoted, other fixed; c = 4, both ends fixed;
c = 1 one fixed, one free.
†Is initial eccentricity at which load is applied to center of column cross section.

If, as in certain classes of masonry construction, the material cannot withstand tensile stress and, thus, no tension can
occur, the center of moments (Fig. 3.3) is taken at the center of stress. For a rectangular section, P acts at distance k
from the nearest edge. Length under compression = 3k, and S M = 2/3 P/hk. For a circular section,
, where r = radius and k = distance of P from circumference. For a circular ring, S =
average compressive stress on cross section produced by P; e = eccentricity of P; z = length of diameter under
compression (Fig. 3.4). Values of z/r and of the ratio of S max to average S are given in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
Figure 3.2. Load plot for columns.

Figure 3.3. Load plot for columns.

Figure 3.4. Circular column load plot.

Table 3.3. Values of the Ratio z/r

(SeeFig. 3.5)
Table 3.4. Values of the Ratio S max/S avg

(In determining S average, use load P divided by total area of cross section)

Figure 3.5. Column characteristics.

The kern is the area around the center of gravity of a cross section within which any load applied produces stress of
only one sign throughout the entire cross section. Outside the kern, a load produces stresses of different sign. Figure
3.5 shows kerns (shaded) for various sections.

For a circular ring, the radius of the kern r = D[1+ (d/D) 2]/8.

For a hollow square(H and h = lengths of outer and inner sides), the kern is a square similar to Fig. 3.5(a), where

(3.3)
For a hollow octagon, R a and R i are the radii of circles circumscribing the outer and inner sides respectively;
thickness of wall = 0.9239(R a − R i); and the kern is an octagon similar to Fig. 3.5(c), where 0.2256R becomes 0.2256R
a[1+ (R i / R a) 2].

3.4. COLUMNS OF SPECIAL MATERIALS

Here are formulas for columns made of special materials. The nomenclature for these formulas is:

Nomenclature for formulas Eqs. (3.4) through (3.12):

Q = allowable load, lb
P = ultimate load, lb
A = section area of column, sq in
L = length of column, in
r = least radium of gyration of column section, in
S u = ultimate strength, psi
S y = yield point or yield strength of material, psi
E = modulus of elasticity of material, psi
m = factor of safety
(L/r) = critical slenderness ratio

For columns of cast iron that are hollow, round, with flat ends, used in buildings:

(3.4)

(3.5)

(3.6)

(3.7)

(3.8)

For structural aluminum columns with the following specifications:

used in nonwelded building structures in structural shapes or in fabricated form with partial constraint:
(3.9)

(3.10)

(3.11)

(3.12)

3.5. COLUMN BASE PLATE DESIGN

Base plates are usually used to distribute column loads over a large enough area of supporting concrete construction
that the design bearing strength of the concrete is not exceeded. The factored load, P u, is considered to be uniformly
distributed under a base plate.

The nominal bearing strength, f p, kip/in 2 or ksi (MPa) of the concrete is given by

(3.13)

where = specified compressive strength of concrete, ksi (MPa)

A 1 = area of the base plate, in 2 (mm 2)
A 2 = area of the supporting concrete that is geometrically similar to and
concentric with the loaded area, in 2 (mm 2)

In most cases, the bearing strength, f p is , when the concrete support is slightly larger than the base plate or
, when the support is a spread footing, pile cap, or mat foundation. Therefore, the required area of a base plate
for a factored load P u is

(3.14)

where is the strength reduction factor = 0.6. For a wide-flange column, A 1 should not be less than b f d, where b f is
the flange width, in (mm), and d is the depth of column, in (mm).

The length N, in (mm), of a rectangular base plate for a wide-flange column may be taken in the direction of d as

(3.15)

The width B, in (mm), parallel to the flanges, then, is

(3.16)
The thickness of the base plate t p, in (mm), is the largest of the values given by the equations that follow

(3.17)

(3.18)

(3.19)

where m = projection of base plate beyond the flange and parallel to the web, in (mm)
= (N – 0.95d)/2
n = projection of base plate beyond the edges of the flange and perpendicular
to the web, in (mm)
= (B − 0.80b f)/2
n =
λ =
X=

3.6. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION ALLOWABLE-STRESS DESIGN APPROACH

The lowest columns of a structure usually are supported on a concrete foundation. The area, in square inches (square
millimeters), required is found from

(3.20)

where P is the load, kip (N) and F p is the allowable bearing pressure on support, ksi (MPa).

The allowable pressure depends on strength of concrete in the foundation and relative sizes of base plate and
concrete support area. If the base plate occupies the full area of the support, , where is the 28-day
compressive strength of the concrete. If the base plate covers less than the full area, ,
where A 1 is the base-plate area (B × N), and A 2 is the full area of the concrete support.

Eccentricity of loading or presence of bending moment at the column base increases the pressure on some parts of
the base plate and decreases it on other parts. To compute these effects, the base plate may be assumed completely
rigid so that the pressure variation on the concrete is linear.

Plate thickness may be determined by treating projections m and n of the base plate beyond the column as
cantilevers. The cantilever dimensions m and n are usually defined as shown in Fig. 3.6. (If the base plate is small, the
area of the base plate inside the column profile should be treated as a beam.) Yield-line analysis shows that an
equivalent cantilever dimension n can be defined as , and the required base plate thickness t p can be
calculated from
Figure 3.6. Column welded to a base plate.

(3.21)

where l = max (m, n, n ), in (mm)

f p = P/(BN) F p, ksi (MPa)
F y = yield strength of base plate, ksi (MPa)
P = column axial load, kip (N)

For columns subjected only to direct load, the welds of column to base plate, as shown in Fig. 3.6, are required
principally for withstanding erection stresses. For columns subjected to uplift, the welds must be proportioned to
resist the forces.

3.7. COMPOSITE COLUMNS

The AISC load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD) specification for structural steel buildings contains provisions for
design of concrete-encased compression members. It sets the following requirements for qualification as a composite
column: The cross-sectional area of the steel core—shapes, pipe, or tubing—should be at least 4 percent of the total
composite area. The concrete should be reinforced with longitudinal load-carrying bars, continuous at framed levels,
and lateral ties and other longitudinal bars to restrain the concrete; all should have at least 1 1/2 in (38.1 mm) of clear
concrete cover. The cross-sectional area of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement should be at least 0.007 in 2 (4.5
mm 2) per in (mm) of bar spacing. Spacing of ties should not exceed two-thirds of the smallest dimension of the
composite section. Strength of the concrete should be between 3 and 8 ksi (20.7 and 55.2 MPa) for normal-weight
concrete and at least 4 ksi (27.6 MPa) for lightweight concrete. Specified minimum yield stress F y of steel core and
reinforcement should not exceed 60 ksi (414 MPa). Wall thickness of steel pipe or tubing filled with concrete should
be at least or , where b is the width of the face of a rectangular section, D is the outside diameter of
a circular section, and E is the elastic modulus of the steel.

The AISC LRFD specification gives the design strength of an axially loaded composite column as , where
and P n is determined from

(3.22)
For λ c 1.5

(3.23)

For λ c > 1.5

(3.24)

where λ c =

KL= effective length of column, in (mm)

A s = gross area of steel core, in 2 (mm 2)
F my =
E m = E + c 3E c (A c/A s)
r m = radius of gyration of steel core, in 0.3 of the overall thickness of the
composite cross section in the plane of buckling for steel shapes
A c = cross-sectional area of concrete, in 2 (mm 2)
A r = area of longitudinal reinforcement, in 2 (mm 2)
E c = elastic modulus of concrete, ksi (MPa)
F yr = specified minimum yield stress of longitudinal reinforcement, ksi
(MPa)

For concrete-filled pipe and tubing, c 1 = 1.0, c 2 = 0.85, and c 3 = 0.4. For concrete-encased shapes, c 1 = 0.7, c 2 = 0.6,
and c 3 = 0.2.

When the steel core consists of two or more steel shapes, they should be tied together with lacing, tie plates, or batten
plates to prevent buckling of individual shapes before the concrete attains .

The portion of the required strength of axially loaded encased composite columns resisted by concrete should be
developed by direct bearing at connections or shear connectors can be used to transfer into the concrete the load
applied directly to the steel column. For direct bearing, the design strength of the concrete is where
2 2
and A b = loaded area, in (mm ). Certain restrictions apply.

3.8. ELASTIC FLEXURAL BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

Elastic buckling is a state of lateral instability that occurs while the material is stressed below the yield point. It is of
special importance in structures with slender members. Euler’s formula for pin-ended columns (Fig. 3.7) gives valid
results for the critical buckling load, kip (N). This formula is, with L/r as the slenderness ratio of the column,

(3.25)
Figure 3.7. (a) Buckling of a pin-ended column under axial load. (b) Internal forces hold the column in
equilibrium.

where E = modulus of elasticity of the column material, psi (Mpa)

A = column cross-sectional area, in 2 (mm 2)
r = radius of gyration of the column, in (mm)

Figure 3.8 shows some ideal end conditions for slender columns and corresponding critical buckling loads. Elastic
critical buckling loads may be obtained for all cases by substituting an effective length KL for the length L of the
pinned column, giving

(3.26)

In some cases of columns with open sections, such as a cruciform section, the controlling buckling mode may be one
of twisting instead of lateral deformation. If the warping rigidity of the section is negligible, torsional buckling in a
pin-ended column occurs at an axial load of

(3.27)
Figure 3.8. Buckling formulas for columns.

where G = shear modulus of elasticity, psi (MPa)

J = torsional constant
A = cross-sectional area, in 2 (mm 2)
I p = polar moment of inertia = I x + I y, in 4 (mm 4)

If the section possesses a significant amount of warping rigidity, the axial buckling load is increased to

(3.28)

where C w is the warping constant, a function of cross-sectional shape and dimensions.

3.9. ALLOWABLE DESIGN LOADS FOR ALUMINUM COLUMNS

Eulers equation is used for long aluminum columns, and depending on the material, either Johnson’s parabolic or
straight-line equation is used for short columns. These equations for aluminum follow Euler’s equation

(3.29)

Johnson’s generalized equation

(3.30)

The value of n, which determines whether the short column formula is the straight-line or parabolic type, is selected
from Table 3.5. The transition from the long to the short column range is given by

(3.31)

where F e = allowable column compressive stress, psi (MPa)

F ce = column yield stress and is given as a function of F cy (compressive
yield stress), psi (MPa)
L = length of column, ft (m)
ρ = radius of gyration of column, in (mm)
E = modulus of elasticitynoted on nomograms, psi (MPa)
 c = column-end fixity from Fig. 3.9
n, K, k = constants from Table 3.5

Figure 3.9. Values of c, column-end fixity, for determining the critical L/ρ ratio of different loading conditions.

3.10. ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN CONCRETE COLUMNS

At ultimate strength P u, kip (N), columns should be capable of sustaining loads as given by the American Concrete
Institute required strength equations in Chap. 5, “Concrete Formulas” at actual eccentricities. P u, may not exceed
, where is the capacity reduction factor and P n, kip (N), is the column ultimate strength. If P 0, kip (N), is the
column ultimate strength with zero eccentricity of load, then

(3.32)

where f y = yield strength of reinforcing steel, ksi (MPa)

= 28-day compressive strength of concrete, ksi (MPa)
A g = gross area of column, in 2 (mm 2)
A st = area of steel reinforcement, in 2 (mm 2)

For members with spiral reinforcement then, for axial loads only,

(3.33)

For members with tie reinforcement, for axial loads only,

(3.34)

Eccentricities are measured from the plastic centroid. This is the centroid of the resistance to load computed for the
assumptions that the concrete is stressed uniformly to and the steel is stressed uniformly to f y.

Table 3.5. Material Constants for Common Aluminum Alloys

Ref: ANC-5

The axial-load capacity P u kip (N), of short, rectangular members subject to axial load and bending may be
determined from
(3.34)

(3.35)

where e = eccentricity, in (mm), of axial load at end of member with respect to

centroid of tensile reinforcement, calculated by conventional methods
of frame analysis
b = width of compression face, in (mm)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular compressive-stress distribution, in
(mm)
= area of compressive reinforcement, in 2 (mm 2)
A s = area of tension reinforcement, in 2 (mm 2)
d = distance from extreme compression surface to centroid of tensile
reinforcement, in (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression surface to centroid of compression
reinforcement, in (mm)
f s = tensile stress in steel, ksi (MPa)

The two preceding equations assume that a does not exceed the column depth, that reinforcement is in one or two
faces parallel to axis of bending, and that reinforcement in any face is located at about the same distance from the
axis of bending. Whether the compression steel actually yields at ultimate strength, as assumed in these and the
following equations, can be verified by strain compatibility calculations. That is, when the concrete crushes, the
strain in the compression steel, 0.003 (c − d )/c, must be larger than the strain when the steel starts to yield, f y/E s. In
this case, c is the distance, in (mm), from the extreme compression surface to the neutral axis and E s is the modulus
of elasticity of the steel, ksi (MPa).

The load, P b for balanced conditions can be computed from the preceding P u equation with f s = f y and

(3.36)

The balanced moment, in. × kip (k · Nm), can be obtained from

(3.37)

where e b is the eccentricity, in (mm), of the axial load with respect to the plastic centroid and d is the distance, in
(mm), from plastic centroid to centroid of tension reinforcement.

When P u is less than P b or the eccentricity, e, is greater than e b, tension governs. In that case, for unequal tension
and compression reinforcement, the ultimate strength is
(3.38)

where m=
m = m− 1
ρ = A s/bd
ρ =

3.10.1. Special Cases of Reinforcement

For symmetrical reinforcement in two faces, the preceding P u equation becomes

(3.39)

3.10.2. Column Strength When Compression Governs

For no compression reinforcement, the P u equation becomes

(3.40)

When P u is greater than P b, or e is less than e b, compression governs. In that case, the ultimate strength is
approximately

(3.41)

(3.42)

where M u is the moment capacity under combined axial load and bending, in kip (kNm) and P o is the axial-load
capacity, kip (N), of member when concentrically loaded, as given.
For symmetrical reinforcement in single layers, the ultimate strength when compression governs in a column with
depth, h, may be computed from

(3.43)

3.10.3. Circular Columns

Ultimate strength of short, circular members with bars in a circle may be determined from the following equations:

When tension controls,

(3.44)

where D = overall diameter of section, in (mm)

D s = diameter of circle through reinforcement, in (mm)
ρ t = A st/A g

When compression governs,

(3.45)

The eccentricity for the balanced condition is given approximately by

(3.46)

3.10.4. Short Columns

Ultimate strength of short, square members with depth, h, and with bars in a circle may be computed from the
following equations:

When tension controls,

(3.47)

When compression governs,

(3.48)
3.10.5. Slender Columns

When the slenderness of a column has to be taken into account, the eccentricity should be determined from e = M
c/P u, where M c is the magnified moment.

3.11. DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED STEEL COLUMNS

Design of columns that are subjected to compression applied through the centroidal axis (axial compression) is
based on the assumption of uniform stress over the gross area. This concept is applicable to both load and resistance
factor design (LRFD) and allowable stress design (ASD).

Design of an axially loaded compression member or column for both LRFD and ASD utilizes the concept of effective
column length KL. The buckling coefficient K is the ratio of the effective column length to the unbraced length L.
Values of K depend on the support conditions of the column to be designed. The AISC specifications for LRFD and
ASD indicate the K should be taken as unity for columns in braced frames unless analysis indicates that a smaller
value is justified. Analysis is required for determination of K for unbraced frames, but K should not be less than unity.
Design values for K recommended by the Structural Stability Research Council for use with six idealized conditions of
rotation and translation at column supports are illustrated in Fig. 9.1.

The axially compression strength of a column depends on its stiffness measured by the slenderness ratio KL/r, where
r is the radius of gyration about the plane of buckling. For serviceability considerations, AISC recommends that KL/r
not exceed 200.

LRFD strength for a compression member wf;P n (kips) is given by

(3.49)

where = LRFD resistance factor, less than unity

P n = LFRD design strength (kips) of member (also called “maximum load”
for columns, kips):

with . For λ c 1.5

(3.50)

for λ c > 1.5

(3.51)

where λ c =
F y = minimum specified yield stress of steel, ksi
A g = gross area of member, in 2
E = elastic modulus of the steel = 29,000 ksi

For ASD, the allowable compression stress depends on whether buckling will be elastic or inelastic, as indicated by
the slenderness ratio

(3.52)
When KL/r < C c, the allowable compression stress F a (kips) on the gross section should be computed from

(3.53)

When KL/r > C c, the allowable compression stress is

(3.54)

Table of allowable loads for columns are contained in the AISC “Manual of Steel Construction” for ASD and for LRFD.

3.11.1. Columns Supporting Wind Turbines

With increasing emphasis on renewable energy throughout the world, wind turbines are finding wider use. Today’s
wind turbines are growing in generating capacity, with 5-mW the norm per unit, and 20-mW a near-time goal of
turbine designers.

As the electrical capacity of a wind turbine increases, so too does the direct load of the nacelle on the supporting
column and the wind loads on propeller blades. Both loads must be considered when designing the support column
and the foundation for the column.

In the United States, land-based wind turbines (also called onshore turbines) have been the most popular type
because there is sufficient land area for, single or multiple, wind turbine installations. In Europe, land scarcity led to
offshore wind farms where the wind strength and dependability are also a direct benefit.

Designing columns for wind turbines involves two steps: (1) the column foundation for either land-based or sea-
based wind turbines, and (2) the column itself and the loads it must carry.

Most land-based commercial wind turbines in the United States are supported on a tubular steel column
manufactured specifically for the site and the expected wind velocities at the site. A concrete foundation for the
column is generally used, depending on the soil conditions. In northern Europe, precast concrete piles are popular for
onshore wind-turbine bases, with the column being tubular steel. Overturning moments are produced by the wind
load on the turbine blades. Groundwater levels can be a consideration when designing the column foundation.
Dynamic loads also occur during wind gusts on the propeller blades.

For sea-based commercial wind turbines, six types of support structures are available: (1) monopile driven into the
sea bed; (2) gravity base which can be a steel or concrete caisson with suitable ballasting to resist the overturning
moment caused by the wind; (3) tripod with piles driven into the seabed; (4) suction bucket in which an inverted
type caisson is sunk into the sea bed using suction; (5) tension legs in which the vertical wind turbine column is
supported by an underwater float anchored to the bottom by vertical anchors; and (6) floating support—a concept
still being worked on in various parts of the design world.

Designers of sea-based wind turbine farms and individual units must be aware of the dangers to, and from, local
shipping routes posed by the turbine structure. Large European wind turbines have a total height of 650 ft (198 m),
and diameter of 413 ft (126 m).

Citation
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Tyler G. Hicks: Civil Engineering Formulas, Second Edition. COLUMN FORMULAS, Chapter (McGraw-Hill
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