UNIT I PISTON ENGINES

CARBURETOR

Carburetor is a device which is used in spark ignition engine to mix air-fuel in

correct ratio outside the cylinder. This process is known as carburation.
Carburetor Parts:
1. Float Chamber: The float chamber serves as a storage tank of fuel for
continuous supply of fuel. It contains afloat valve which maintains the level of
fuel in float chamber. When the level of fuel decreases in float chamber the
float moves downward, which open the fuel supply valve and allow flow of fuel into
float chamber. As the fuel level increases, the float moves upward which close and
stop the fuel supply. This fuel level is maintained below the discharge nozzle outlet
hole to prevent overflow.
2. Strainer: It is a device which is used to filter the fuel before entering into
float chamber. It consist a fine wire mesh which filters the fuel and removes dust and
other suspended particles from it. These particles if not removed can cause blockage
of nozzle.
3. Metering System: The metering system controls the flow of fuel into
nozzle. It is responsible to form correct mixture of air fuel. It consist two main parts,
first one is known as metering orifice and other one is known as fuel discharge nozzle.
When the air passes through venturi, it generates a low pressure field across throat
compare to pressure at float chamber. Due to this pressure difference, fuel
is discharge into the air stream. The quantity of fuel is control by the metering orifice
and discharge hole at the exit of fuel discharge nozzle.
 4. Idling System: It consist a passage directly from the float chamber to
venturi tube. It provides rich mixture during idling and at low speed. It works during
idling or when the throttle is open below15%.
5. Throttle Valve: It is a butterfly valve situated at the exit of the venturi tube.
It controls the speed of the vehicle by providing control amount of mixture. It controls
the quantity of air fuel mixture. If throttle is fully opened, than more mixture drawn
into cylinder and thus gives high output. But if it is little opened, less mixture is drawn
into the cylinder, which gives less power.
6. Choke Valve: It is same as throttle valve in construction but situated at the
entrance of venturi tube. It is used to provide very rich mixture during starting in cold
season. It controls the quantity of airflow through the venturi tube. If the choke is fully
open, normal amount of air flow through venturi, which forms a normal mixture. But
if the choke is partially closed, it results low amount of air flow through venturi and
large amount of fuel flow through discharge nozzle. It gives rich mixture.
Working of Carburetor:
Now we know about basic parts of carburetor and its function. These all parts
work together to perform a common function of providing homogenous air-fuel
mixture in proper ratio. Its working can be summarized into following points.
 First fuel is supplied into the float chamber through strainer. Strainer works
as a filter. It does not allow dust and other suspended particles into the float chamber
which can choke any fuel passage.
 The float maintains a constant level of fuel into float chamber. If the amount
of fuel in the float chamber goes down below designed limit, the float goes down
which opens the fuel supply valve and allow fuel to flow into float chamber. If the
fuel reaches designed limit, the float goes up, which closes the fuel supply valve and
thus stop fuel supply into float chamber.
 The fuel discharge nozzle connects float chamber to venturi tube. The one
end of fuel supply nozzle connected to the bottom of the float chamber and other one
is to the venturi tube slightly above the designed fuel level in the float
chamber. This will avoid overflow when engine is not running.
 During suction stroke air is drawn into cylinder through venturi tube.
Venturi is a tube of decreasing cross section and has a minimum area at
throat. The fuel supply nozzle connects at the throat of venturi tube. This air has
maximum velocity at throat. Due to this high velocity, the pressure at the throat goes
down below float chamber pressure.
 This will create a pressure difference between float chamber and venturi
tube. This pressure difference is known as carburetor depression. It acts as driving
force for fuel. It drives fuel from float chamber to venturi tube through fuel supply
tube and the fuel is discharged into the airstream.
  The fuel-air ratio depends on the size of discharge jet and metering system.
So they are chosen as such, they can give desired air-fuel ratio. This air fuel mixture
provided to the cylinder through throttle valve. The SI engine is a quantity governed
engine. So the quantity of the mixture provided into the cylinder is controlled by the
throttle valve and hence control output power.
 For idling or when required rich mixture, extra fuel is supplied by the idling
system into venturi tube.
Air fuel Ratio
Air fuel Ratio is the mass ratio of Air/fuel in the combustion chamber of
internal combustion engine. For complete burning adequate air and fuel is provided
called stoichiometric ratio. For gasoline engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is
14.7:1. For diesel engines, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is 14.5:1

Battery Ignition
Battery Ignition System is used in automobile to produce spark in the spark
plug for thecombustion of fuel in the I.C. engine. Here the main source for the spark
generation is thebattery. It is mostly used in light commercial vehicles.
Main parts
 1. Battery It is a device which provides electrical energy for the ignition. The
battery is charged by dynamo driven by engine. Generally two types of batteries are
used in spark ignition engine, lead acid battery & alkaline battery. The lead acid
battery is used in light duty commercial vehicle whereas alkaline battery is used in
heavy duty commercial vehicle.
2. Ignition switch. It is a switch which is used to ON or OFF ignition system.
One end of the ignition switch is connected to the battery and the other with the
primary winding through a ballast resistor.
3. Ballast Resistor It is connected in series with the primary winding. It is
present in between the ignition switch and ignition coil. The function of ballast
resistor is to prevent the overheating of primary winding of ignition coil. How it does
this? The Ballast Resistor is made of iron wire and iron wire has a property that
its electrical resistance increases rapidly with small increase in temperature. If
the current from the primary winding flows continuously, the temperature of the
ballast resistor increases and this increases the electrical resistance and reduces flow
of electric current through the primary winding. The reduction of current by ballast
resistor prevents the overheating of the primary winding.
4. Ignition Coil It is used to produce high voltage sufficient to generate spark
across the electrodes of sparkplug. It acts a step transformer and converts a 6 or 12 V
of a battery into very high voltage of about 15000 to 30000 V. It Consist of a soft iron
core surrounded by two insulated coil, named as primary winding and secondary
winding. The primary winding consists of 200-300turns of 20 gauge wires capable of
producing resistance of 1.15 ohm. The secondary winding consists of 21000 turns of
38-40 gauge enameled wire and it is sufficiently insulated to with stand high voltage.
One end of the primary winding is connected to the battery terminal through ballast
resistor and ignition switch. And other end is connected with the contact breaker as
well as secondary winding. In the case of secondary winding, its one end id
connected to the central high tension terminal of the distributor. And other end is
connected with the primary winding.
5. Contact breaker It is a mechanical device which is used for making and
breaking of the primary circuit of the ignition coil. It has two metal points made up of
tungsten and place against each other. These metal point shave circular flat face of
about 3mm diameter. Among the two metal points, one is fixed and other is moveable.
The fixed contact point is being earthed by mounting it on the base of the contact
breaker assembly. The movable contact point is attached to the spring loaded pivoted
arm which is electrically insulated. The pivoted arm generally has a heel or rounded
part (cam follower) made up of some plastic material and attached in the middle of the
arm. The heel is rest on the cam driven by the engine. Every time when the cam
passes under heel, the contact points are forced apart and the circuit is broken. The
pivoted arm is spring loaded and in the case when the points are not separated by the
cams, it is held together by the spring force and closes the primary circuit. When the
points are closed, the current flows through the primary circuit and it stops if open.
6. Capacitor The capacitor used in the ignition system is similar to the
electrical capacitor. The capacitor is an electrical device in which two metal
plates are separated from each other through insulating materials (air).It is
connected in parallel with the contact breaker. It prevents the contact points of the
contact breaker from being damage. If there is no condenser or capacitor used in the
primary circuit, the high primary voltage caused by the collapse of the magnetic field
around the primary winding would cause an arc across the breaker points. The arc
produced would burn and destroy the points and would also prevent the rapid drop in
primary current and magnetic field which is necessary for the generation of high
secondary voltage.
7. Distributor It is a device used in the Battery Ignition System to distribute
the ignition pulses (surges) to the individual spark plug in a correct sequence and at
the correct instant in time.
There are two types of distributor 1. Brush type: In the brush type distributor, it
contains carbon brush carried by the rotor arm slides over the metallic segments
embedded in the distributor cap. 2. Gap type: In this type of distributor the rotor arm
pass very close to the segments of the distributor cap but do not touch it. It also
contains some other auxiliary units too.
In lower part of the housing, it has a speed sensitive device or governor whose
main function is to advance the spark with increase in the engine speed. Contact
breaker assembly is present above this, which can be rotated to adjust the timing of the
spark. In the upper part of the housing, high tension distributor is located. It also
carries the vacuum ignition governor which serves to retard the spark as the load on
the engine increases. Each metallic segments of the distributor is connected to each
spark plug. As the rotor rotates, the contact point opens; this allows the high tension
current to pass to the spark plug through the segments to which the spark plug is
connected. The sequence in which the spark plug is connected to the distributor cap
depends upon the firing order of the engine.
8. Spark Plug The spark plug is used to generate sparks to ignite the air-fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber. Each spark plug is connected to the distributor of
the ignition system.
Working Of Battery Ignition System
  In the Battery ignition system as the ignition switch is ON, the current from
the battery starts to flow through the primary circuit through ballast register, primary
winding and contact breaker.
 The current flowing through the primary winding induces magnetic field
around it. The more will be the current, the stronger will its magnetic field.
 As the contact breaker opens, the current through the primary winding
collapse and this immediate collapse in the current induces a voltage of about 300V in
the primary winding. This voltage induced in the winding charges the capacitor to the
much greater voltage than the battery. As the capacitor charged, the current through
the primary winding stops and the current starts to flow to the battery form the
capacitor. This reverses the direction of current and magnetic field in the primary
winding. Due to the collapsing and reversing of the current and magnetic field, a very
high voltage of about 15000 to 30000 V induced in the secondary winding.
 The high voltage current induced in the secondary winding is transferred to
the distributor through a high tension cable.
 The distributor has a rotor that rotates inside the distributor cap. The
distributor cap has metallic segments embedded into it. As the rotor rotates, it presses
and opens the contact breaker point. This allows the high tension current to transfer to
the spark plugs through the metallic segments.
 As the high tension current reaches the spark Plug, it produces spark in the
engine cylinder for the combustion of the air-fuel mixture.
Advantages
1. It provides good spark at low engine speed.
2. Low maintenance cost.
Disadvantages
1. In battery ignition system, battery is necessary for the ignition. It becomes
difficult to start the engine when the battery is discharged.
2. Occupies large space
3. Efficiency of the system decreases as the engine speed increases.
4. Since the breaker contact points are continuously subjected to mechanical as
well electrical wear which results in short maintenance intervals.
Aircraft Reciprocating Engine Ignition System Maintenance and Inspection
An aircraft’s ignition system is the result of careful design and thorough
testing. The ignition system usually provides good, dependable service, provided it is
maintained and inspected properly. However, difficulties can occur with normal wear,
which affects ignition system performance, especially with magneto systems.
Breakdown and deterioration of insulating materials, breaker point wear, corrosion,
bearing and oil seal wear, and electrical connection problems are all possible defects
that can be associated with magneto-ignition systems. The ignition timing requires
precise adjustment and painstaking care so that the following four conditions occur at
the same instant:
1. The piston in the No. 1 cylinder must be in a position a prescribed number of
degrees before top dead center on the compression stroke.
2. The rotating magnet of the magneto must be in the E-gap position.
3. The breaker points must be just opening on the No. 1 cam lobe.
4. The distributor finger must be aligned with the electrode serving the No. 1
cylinder.
If one of these conditions is out of synchronization with any of the others, the
ignition system is out of time. If the spark is out of time, it is not delivered to the
cylinder at the correct time and engine performance decreases.
When ignition in the cylinder occurs before the optimum crankshaft position is
reached, the timing is said to be early. If ignition occurs too early, the piston rising in
the cylinder is opposed by the full force of combustion. This condition results in a loss
of engine power, overheating, and possible detonation and pre ignition.
If ignition occurs at a time after the optimum crankshaft position is reached,
the ignition timing is said to be late. If it occurs too late, not enough time is allowed to
consume the fuel-air charge, and combustion is incomplete. As a result, the engine
loses power and requires a greater throttle opening to carry a given propeller load.
Moisture forming on different parts of the ignition system causes
more common irregularities. Moisture can enter ignition system units through cracks
or loose covers, or it can result from condensation. Breathing, a situation that occurs
during the readjustment of the system from low to high atmospheric pressure, can
result in drawing in moisture-laden air. Ordinarily, the heat of the engine is sufficient
to evaporate this moisture, but occasionally the moist air condenses as the engine
cools. The result is an appreciable moisture accumulation which causes the
insulation materials to lose electrical resistance. A slight amount of
moisture contamination may cause reduction in magneto output by short-circuiting to
ground a part of the high-voltage current intended for the spark plug. If the moisture
accumulation is appreciable, the entire magneto output may be dissipated to ground by
way of flashover and carbon tracking. Moisture accumulation during flight is
extremely rare because the high operating temperature of the system is effective in
preventing condensation. Difficulties from moisture accumulation are probably more
evident during starting and ground operation.
Spark plugs are often diagnosed as being faulty when the real
malfunction exists in a different system. Malfunctioning of the carburetor, poor
fuel distribution, too much valve overlap, leaking primer system, or poor idle speed
and mixture settings show symptoms that are the same as those for faulty ignition.
Unfortunately, many of these conditions can be temporarily improved by a spark plug
change, but the trouble recurs in a short time because the real cause of the malfunction
has not been eliminated. A thorough understanding of the various engine systems,
along with meticulous inspection and good maintenance methods, can substantially
reduce such errors.
SERVICING PROCEDURE OF SPARK PLUG
PURPOSE
Scheduled servicing intervals are determined by the individual
aircraft operator. These intervals will vary according to the operating conditions,
engine models, and spark plug types. The principal determining factor in the
removal and servicing of spark plug is the width of the spark –gap that is, the
distance between the electrodes where the spark isproduced.
SERVICING PROCEDURE
1. Removal
a. Shielded terminal connectors are removed by loosening the elbow nut
with the proper size crowfoot or open end wrench. (Care must be taken to
avoid damage to the elbow and sleeve or the barrel insulator.
b. Remove the spark plug from the cylinder by using the proper
size of deep-socket wrench.(recommended 6point wrench)
c. Removed spark plug should be placed in a tray with numbered holes
so that the engine cylinder from which the spark plug has been removed can be
identified.
d. Spark plug should not be dropped on hard surface because cracks may
occur in ceramic insulation which is not apparent on visual inspection. Any
plug which has been dropped should be rejected or returned
2. PRELIMINARY INSPECTION
a. Immediately after removal, the spark plug should be given a careful
visual examination. All unserviceable plugs should be discarded.(spark plugs
with cracked insulators, badly eroded electrodes, damaged shells or threads
should be rejected)
3. DEGREASING
 a. All oil and grease should be removed from both interior
and exterior of the plug according to the approved degreasing method.
(Either vapour degreasing)
4. DRYING
a. After degreasing spark plugs should be dried inside and outside either
by compressed air or a drying oven.
5. CLEANING
a. Spark plug should be cleaned for lead and carbon deposits form on the
ceramic core, the electrodes, and inside of the spark plug shell by abrasive
blasting machine designed for cleaning spark plug.
b. Immediately after cleaning by the wet-blast method the plugs must be
oven dried to prevent rusting and to ensure satisfactory electrical test.
6. REGAPPING
a. The tools and methods used to set spark plug gaps will vary with
shape, type, and arrangement of electrodes.
b. The gap in any spark plug is measured by round wire gages.
c. To measure minimum and maximum widths for the gap, a spark plug
gap gage will have two wires.(0.011’-0.015’)
d. Smaller dimension gage must pass through and larger dimension gage
must be too large to pass through the gap.
e. If the gap is too large it is closed by means of a special gap setting
tool.
7. INSPECTION AND TESTING
a. Visual inspection is done with a magnifying glass. Good lighting must
be provided.
b. The following item are examined: threads, electrodes, shell
hexagons, ceramic insulation, and the connector seat.
c. Spark plugs are tested by applying high voltage, equivalent to normal
ignition voltage. While plug is under pressure.
d. Spark plug which fails to function properly during the pressure test
should be baked in an oven for about 4hrs at 225ºF.
8. GASKET SERVICING
a. When spark plugs are installed either new or recondition gasket
should be used.
b. Used gaskets should be annealed by heating to a cherry red and
immediately quenched in light motor oil.
c. After quenching oil to be removed with a solvent.
d. Then immerse it in a solution of 50%water and 50% nitric acid to
remove oxides.
e. After the acid bath gasket should be rinsed in running water and air
dried.
9. PLUG ROTATION
a. Excessive electrode erosion is caused by magneto constant
polarity firing and capacitance after firing.
 b. To equalize this wear, keep the plugs in engine sets, placing them in
the tray identified by cylinder locations. After the plugs have been serviced,
rotate them as instructed.
10. INSTALLATIONS
a. Before installing, proper type of the plug to be selected.
b. Long and short reach should not be interchanged.
c. Before installing plug and cylinder threads are to be cleaned
d. Anti seize compound to be applied on the threads
e. Install the plug along with gasket and tighten with hand
f. At last tighten them with wrench
Superchargers :-
Superchargers are pressure boosting devices(compressors) which increase the
pressure of the air before letting it get into cylinder of the internal combustion engine.
The process of increasing the pressure OR forcing more air to get into engine is called
as supercharging. The power generated by engine is a function of the
mean effective pressure. Average pressure in the cylinder. Power is
directly proportional to the average pressure. Power ∝ Mean effective
pressure (MEP). Pressure goes on increasing during compression stroke & goes
on decreasing during exhaust stroke.

Working of a supercharger
Superchargers are powered mechanically by the belt or chain that goes to the
crankshaft. They force more air into the engine so that more fuel can be
burned, which in turn creates more energy. Superchargers increase air intake
by compressing the air above atmospheric pressure. A supercharger draws its
power directly from the crankshaft. Most of them use an accessory belt, which is
wrapped around a pulley that is connected to a drive gear. Once the drive gear rotates,
it rotates the compressor gear. The compressors job is to draw in more air and squeeze
it into a smaller space. This is then discharged into the intake manifold. The drive gear
has to be bigger than the compressor gear in a supercharger. This is because the
supercharger must spin faster than the engine itself to pressurize the air. Some
superchargers can spin at speeds of up to 65,000 rpm, far above any normal engine.
Like a turbocharger, the compressed air created by the supercharger becomes hot and
loses its density. This means that it can’t expand as much during the explosion period,
which reduces power produced. An intercooler is responsible for cooling the hot air
before it enters the intake manifold. Cool air or water is sent through a series of pipes
that cool the compressed air as it is passed over them. This reduces the density and
makes for more power
Advantages of supercharging :-
 Higher power output.
 Reduced smoke from exhaust gases. The extra air pushed into cylinder,
helps the air to complete combust leading to lesser smoke generation.
 Quicker acceleration of vehicle. Supercharger starts working as soon as the
engine starts running. This way the engine gets a boost even at the beginning
leading to quicker acceleration.
 Cheaper than turbocharger.
Limitations :-
 Draws power from engine. Though the overall mechanical efficiency
is increased but it consumes power from the engine. The same job is
done by a turbo charger without consuming extra power
 Increased heat generation. The engine should have proper heat dissipation
systems as well as it should be able to withstand thermal stresses
 Induces stress. The engine must hold up against the high pressure
& bigger explosions generated in the cylinder. If the engine is not
designed considering these stresses, it may damage the piston head.
Spark Plugs
As we discussed previously, the spark plug is the device responsible for
starting the combustion process in a petrol engine. The spark plug consists of three
primary layers. The outermost layer is a threaded metal shell which gives it structural
integrity. Connected to this shell on one end is the side electrode which is grounded as
it is connected to the metal casing. Inside the metal shell is a porcelain layer which
acts as an insulating surface for the main electrode inside. Within this insulated
porcelain casing lies the main electrode through which the current passes. This main
electrode is completely electrically isolated from the side electrode with the help of
the porcelain casing.
How Spark Plugs Work
The spark plug is connected to a high voltage source like the magneto or the
ignition coil at one end. The other end with the two electrodes is immersed into the
combustion chamber. When current passes through the terminal and into the main
centre electrode, a potential difference (voltage drop) is created between two
electrodes. The gas mixture that occupies the gap between them acts as an insulator
and thus the electricity doesn’t flow beyond the tip of the centre electrode.
But as the voltage increases, the gases in the gap begin to get energized. Once
the voltage increases to the point that crosses the dielectric strength (resistance to
conduct electricity) of the gases, they become ionized. Once the gases get ionized,
they begin to act as conductors and permit the current to travel through the insulating
gap. When the dielectric strength is crossed, the electrons begin to surge through that
gap. This sudden movement of electrons rapidly increases the heat in that region due
to which they begin to expand rapidly causing a mini explosion which results in the
formation of a spark.
Spark Plug Types
Spark Plugs can be put into two different primary classifications, based on their
operating temperatures and based on their construction.
Based on Operating Temperatures
Once the combustion process is completed in the combustion cycle, the heat
generated needs to dissipate. The heat escapes through the exhaust gases, the cylinder
wall of the engine and the spark plug surface. Based on the operating temperature and
level of heat dissipation, spark plugs can be classified into two types:
Hot Spark Plug: A hot spark plug operates in a higher temperature range. It
has a lesser ceramic area which is used to insulate the heat. A hot spark plug dissipates
lesser combustion heat and allows the tip and electrode to stay hotter. This ensures
that any deposit accumulation is burned off and isn’t allowed to stay for long.
Cold Spark Plug: For high-performance engines that run hot by default, using
a hot spark plug will cause pre-ignition. In extreme cases, it can also lead to the tip
melting off. In such cases, a cold spark plug is used. Here the ceramic insulation area
is higher and this it will dissipate more heat. But on the flipside, it is prone to greater
deposit accumulation. Be sure to follow your instruction manual and use the correct
type of plug recommended for your engine for optimum performance.
Based on Material Used
Spark Plugs are further classified based on the material used on the ends of the
electrodes. They are of 4 types:
Copper- Nickel Type: These are the most basic types of spark plugs. Here the
centre electrode is made of a copper-nickel alloy as copper on its own is very weak
and will melt off due to engine heat. Nickel is added to strengthen the plug but even
then these are the weakest types available in the market. They are also required to be
made with a larger diameter and hence require more voltage for operation.
Single Platinum Type: These plugs have a small platinum disc on the tip of
the centre electrode. This platinum tip is exponentially stronger than a copper-nickel
coating making this type of plug last long as well. They are also less prone to debris
build up.
 Double Platinum Type: These plugs have platinum tips on both the centre
electrode and the side electrode. They spark up twice in the combustion cycle, once
before the combustion and once during the exhaust stroke. The second spark is wasted
and so this spark plug can only be used if your vehicle is equipped with a waste spark
ignition type distributor.
Iridium Type: These are the best spark plugs available in the market. Here the
tip of the centre electrode is made of Iridium which is the strongest out of nickel,
copper, and platinum. Hence, they are the least prone to deposits and damage. They
also have a small sized electrode which requires less voltage for operation as well.
Iridium plugs are much more expensive than the other types but then again you pay
for what you get.
Spark Plug Problems and Maintenance:
Over time your car spark plug’s health will begin to deteriorate. Manufacturers
have their own recommended change intervals but ideally, your car’s spark plugs
should last 20,000 km before requiring a change. The common indications that your
car spark plugs require to be changed include:
 Rough Idling once you turn on your vehicle
 Car struggles during the first morning start
 Engine Misfiring
 Increased fuel consumption
 Decreased acceleration
 Sudden surges in power
COMPRESSION TESTING OF AIRCRAFT ENGINE CYLINDERS
The purpose of testing the cylinder compression is to determine the internal
condition of the combustion chamber by ascertaining any appreciable leakage is
occurring.
TYPES OF COMPRESSION TESTERS
1. Direct compression tester
2. Differential- pressure tester
DIRECT COMPRESSION TESTER
Record all readings and compare to specifications. It indicates the actual
pressure in the cylinder.
1. DRY COMPRESSION CHECK
2. WET COMPRESSION CHECK
DRY COMPRESSION CHECK
Procedure:
1. Warm up the engine and shut it down.
2. Remove the spark plug as soon as possible.
3. Rotate the engine with a starter to expel any excess oil or loose carbons.
4. Install tester in one of the cylinder.
5. Using engine starter, rotate the engine three revolutions and note the reading.
(External power source e.g. battery can be used to run engine starter.
6. Compare the readings with each other. Any cylinder having approximately
15 psi lower than the other should be suspected defective.
WET COMPRESSION CHECK
1. A wet compression check should be done on defective cylinder to findout the
problematic area
2. Squeeze oil or throw oil into the cylinder having low pressure reading
3. With the compression tester gauge re check the pressure.
4. If the compression gauge reading goes up while oiling the cylinder
indicating problem in piston rings or wall of the cylinder.
5. If the readings remain same then valve or cylinder head gasket having the
problem.
DIFFERENTIAL- PRESSURE TESTER
To check the compression of a/c engine by measuring the leakage through the
cylinder that is caused by worn or damaged components.

PRINCIPLE
The regulator air pressure is applied to one side of the orifice with the air valve
closed and no leakage on the other side of the orifice, and then both the pr. gauge will
read the same. When the air valve is opened the leakage through the cylinder
increases. The cylinder pr. gauge will record a proportionally low reading.

PROCEDURE
1. Warm up the engine and shut it down.
2. Remove the spark plug as soon as possible.
3. With the air valve closed apply an external source of clean air approx. 100-
120 psi
4. Install an adapter in the spark plug bushing and connect the compression
tester to one of the cylinder.
 5. Adjust the pressure regulator gauge to 80 psi; at this the cylinder pr gauge
should also register 80psi.
6. Now turn the crankshaft by hand in the direction of rotation until the piston
is coming up on its compression stroke.
7. Open air valve and pressurize the cylinder to approx. 20 psi
8. Continue rotating the engine against the pressure until the piston reaches the
TDC.
9. Open the air valve completely. Check the regulated pr and adjust, if
necessary to 80 psi.
10. Observe the pressure indication on cylinder pr gauge
11. Compare the cylinder pr. Gauge with regulator pr. Gauge
12. The difference between the cylinder pr. and pr. of regulator pressure gauge
is the amount of leakage through the cylinder
13. If the leakage is more than 25% go for the wet test.
PROBLEMATIC AREA (when leakage occurs)
1. Air is leaking through crank case breather (leakage around the piston rings or
hole in the piston)
2. Air leaking from the valve because of the carbon piece (can be hear air
exiting from the exhaust stacks)
TROUBLE SHOOTING
Trouble shooting is the step by step procedure used to determine thecause of a
given fault and then select the best and quickest solution.
SIX STEP TROUBLE SHOOTING PROCEDURE
1. SYSTEM RECOGNITION: The first step in trouble shooting – involves
having knowledge of engine condition that is not normal and knowing to what extent
the fault is affecting the engines performance.
2. SYMTEM ELABORATION: It is the next logical step, once a fault or
malfunction has been detected. Test equipment helps the technician to evaluate the
performance of the engine and its components. The technicians should use these aids
to assess the effects of the symptoms and to provide additional information to further
define the symptoms.
3. LIST OF PROBABLE FAULTY FUNCTIONS When the technician has
located all the symptoms of malfunction or fault it is the third step to list the possible
causes. To aid this process, manufacturer manual list the ‘probable cause’ for the
symptom and corrective action.
4. LOCALIZING THE FAULT Localizing the fault means, to determine
which functional system of the engine is creating problem. This trouble may be traced
by trouble shooting charts.
5. Isolating The Fault To A Component Once the malfunction is isolated to
one system, additional testing is done to isolate the fault to a specific component. The
technicians use test equipments to measure the correct output for various components.
6. Failure Analysis Once the fault or malfunction traced to a specific
component, attempt to be made to determine the cause of failure. Without analyzing
the reason, substituting a new component into the system will damage the new
component. If the component is the probable cause for all the abnormal symptoms
noticed earlier steps, then it can be assumed that the component is at fault.
INDUCTION SYSTEM ICING
A short discussion concerning the formation and the place of formation of
induction system ice is helpful to the mechanic, even though he is not normally
concerned with operations that occur only when the aircraft is in flight. But the
mechanic should know something about induction system icing because of its effect
on engine performance. Even when inspection shows that everything is in proper
working order, induction system ice can cause an engine to act erratically and lose
power in the air, yet the engine will perform perfectly on the ground. Many engine
troubles commonly attributed to other sources are actually caused by induction system
icing.

Induction system icing is an operating hazard because it can cut off the flow of
the fuel/air charge or vary the fuel/air ratio. Ice can form in the induction system while
an aircraft is flying in clouds, fog, rain, sleet, snow, or even clear air that has a high
moisture content (high humidity). Induction system icing is generally classified in
three types: (1) Impact ice, (2) fuel evaporation ice, and (3) throttle ice.
Induction System Inspection and Maintenance
The induction system should be checked for cracks and leaks during all
regularly scheduled engine inspections.
The units of the system should be checked for security of mounting.
The system should be kept clean at all times, since pieces of rags or paper can
restrict the airflow if allowed to enter the air intakes or ducts, and loose bolts and nuts
can cause serious damage if they pass into the engine.
On systems equipped with a carburetor air filter, the filter should be checked
regularly. If it is dirty or does not have the proper oil film, the filter element should be
removed and cleaned.
After it has dried, it is usually immersed in a mixture of oil and rust-preventive
compound. The excess fluid should be allowed to drain off before the filter element is
reinstalled.
Induction System Troubleshooting
The following chart provides a general guide to the most common induction system
troubles.
Turbocharger System Troubleshooting

RECIPROCATING ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

PRACTICES
Any exhaust system failure should be regarded as a severe hazard. Depending
on the location and type of failure, an exhaust system failure can result in carbon
monoxide poisoning of crew and passengers, partial or complete loss of engine power,
or an aircraft fire. Exhaust system failures generally reach a maximum rate of
occurrence at 100 to 200 hours of aircraft operating time. More than 50% of all
exhaust system failures occur within 400 hours.
Exhaust System Inspection
While the type and location of exhaust system components vary somewhat with
the type of aircraft, the inspection requirements for most reciprocating engine exhaust
systems are very similar. The following paragraphs include a discussion of the most
common exhaust system inspection items and procedures for all reciprocating engines.
Before the removal and installation of representative exhaust systems are
discussed, a precaution to be observed when performing maintenance on any exhaust
system should be mentioned. Galvanized or zinc-plated tools should never be used
on the exhaust system, and exhaust system parts should never be marked with a
lead pencil. The lead, zinc, or galvanized mark is absorbed by the metal of the
exhaust system when heated, creating a distinct change in its molecular structure. This
change softens the metal in the area of the mark, causing cracks and eventual failure.
After a complete exhaust system has been installed, the air induction scoop or
duct, the fuel drain lines, the cowl flaps, and all pieces of engine cowl are installed
and secured. When these items have been inspected for security, the engine is
operated to allow the exhaust system to heat up to normal operating temperatures. The
engine is then by a flat gray or a sooty black streak on the pipes shut down and the
cowling removed to expose the in the area of the leak. An exhaust leak is usually
exhaust system the result of poor alignment of two mating exhaust each clamped
connection and each exhaust port system members.
When a leaking exhaust connection should be inspected for evidence of section
is discovered, the clamps should be loosened exhaust gas leakage. An exhaust leak is
indicated and the leaking units repositioned to ensure a gas tight fit. After
repositioning, the system nuts should be re-tightened enough to eliminate any
looseness without exceeding the specified torque. If tightening to the specified torque
does not eliminate looseness, the bolts and nuts should be re-placed, since they have
probably stretched. After tightening to the specified torque, all nuts should be safetied.
With the cowling removed, all necessary cleaning operations can be performed.
Some exhaust units are manufactured with a plain sandblast finish. Others may have a
ceramic-coated finish. Ceramic-coated stacks should be cleaned by de-greasing only.
They should never be cleaned with sandblast or alkali cleaners.
During the inspection of an exhaust system, close attention should be given to
all external surfaces of the exhaust system for cracks, dents, or missing parts. This
also applies to welds, clamps, sup-ports, and support attachment lugs, bracing, slip
joints, stack flanges, gaskets, and flexible couplings. Each bend should be examined,
as well as areas adjacent to welds; and any dented areas or low spots in the system
should be inspected for thinning and pitting due to internal erosion by combustion
products or accumulated moisture. An ice pick or similar pointed instrument is useful
in probing suspected areas. The system should be disassembled as necessary to inspect
internal baffles or diffusers.
If a component of the exhaust system is inaccessible for a thorough visual
inspection or is hidden by non removable parts, it should be removed and checked for
possible leaks. This can often best be accomplished by plugging the openings of the
component, applying a suitable internal pressure (ap-proximately 2 p.s.i.), and
submerging it in water. Any leaks will cause bubbles that can be readily detected.
The procedures required for an installation in- spection are also performed
during most regular inspections. Daily inspection of the exhaust sys- tem usually
consists of checking the exposed exhaust system for cracks, scaling, excessive
leakage, and loose clamps.
Muffler and Heat Exchanger Failures
Approximately half of all muffler and heat ex-changer failures can be traced to
cracks or ruptures in the heat exchanger surfaces used for cabin and carburetor heat
sources. Failures in the heat ex-changer surface (usually in the outer wall) allow
exhaust gases to escape directly into the cabin heat system. These failures, in most
cases, are caused by thermal and vibration fatigue cracking in areas of stress
concentration.
Failure of the spot-welds which attach the heat transfer pins can result in
exhaust gas leakage. In addition to a carbon monoxide hazard, failure of heat
exchanger surfaces can permit exhaust gases to be drawn into the engine induction
system, causing engine overheating and power loss.
Exhaust Manifold and Stack Failures
Exhaust manifold and stack failures are usually fatigue failures at welded or
clamped points; for example, stack-to-flange, stack-to-manifold, and crossover pipe or
muffler connections. Although these failures are primarily fire hazards, they also
present carbon monoxide problems. Exhaust gases can enter the cabin via defective or
inadequate seals at firewall openings, wing strut fittings, doors, and wing root
openings.
Internal Muffler Failures
Internal failures (baffles, diffusers, etc. ) can cause partial or complete engine
power loss by restricting the flow of the exhaust gases. As op- posed to other failures,
erosion and carburization caused by the extreme thermal conditions are the primary
causes of internal failures. Engine back- firing and combustion of unburned fuel
within the exhaust system are probable contributing factors. In addition, local hot-spot
areas caused by uneven exhaust gas flow can result in burning, bulging, or rupture of
the outer muffler wall.
Exhaust Systems with Turbocharger
When a turbocharger or a turbo supercharger system is included, the engine
exhaust system operates under greatly increased pressure and tempera- ture
conditions. Extra precautions should be taken in exhaust system care and
maintenance. During high-pressure altitude operation, the exhaust system pressure is
maintained at or near sea level values. Due to the pressure differential, any leaks in the
system will allow the exhaust gases to escape with torch-like intensity that can
severely damage adjacent structures.
A common cause of malfunction is coke deposits (carbon buildup) in the waste
gate unit causing erratic system operation. Excessive deposit build- ups may cause the
waste gate valve to stick in the "closed" position, causing an overboost condition.
Coke deposit buildup in the turbo itself will cause a gradual loss of power in flight and
low manifold pressure reading prior to takeoff. Experience has shown that periodic
de-coking, or removal of carbon deposits, is necessary to maintain peak efficiency.
Clean, repair, overhaul, and adjust the system components and controls in accordance
with the applicable manufacturer's instructions.
Augmentor Exhaust System
On exhaust systems equipped with augmentor tubes, the augmentor tubes
should be inspected at regular intervals for proper alignment, security of attachment,
and general overall condition. Even where augmentor tubes do not contain heat ex-
changer surfaces, they should be inspected for cracks along with the remainder of the
exhaust system. Cracks in augmentor tubes can present a fire or carbon monoxide
hazard by allowing exhaust gases to enter the nacelle, wing, or cabin areas.
Exhaust System Repairs
It is generally recommended that exhaust stacks, mufflers, tailpipes, etc., be
replaced with new or reconditioned components rather than repaired. Welded repairs
to exhaust systems are complicated by the difficulty of accurately identifying the base
metal so that the proper repair materials can be selected. Changes in composition and
grain structure of the original base metal further complicate the repair.
However, when welded repairs are necessary, the original contours should be
retained; the exhaust system alignment must not be warped or otherwise affected.
Repairs or sloppy weld beads which protrude internally are not acceptable as they
cause local hot-spots and may restrict exhaust gas flow. When repairing or replacing
exhaust system components, the proper hardware and clamps should always be used.
Steel or low-temperature, self-locking nuts should not be substituted for brass or
special high-temperature locknuts used by the manufacturer. Old gaskets should never
be re-used. When disassembly is necessary, gaskets should be replaced with new ones
of the same type provided by the manufacturer.
Classification of Fuels
Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways, i.e.
(a) according to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid, liquid and
gaseous, and
(b) according to the mode of their procurement – natural and manufactured.

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as
wood, coal, etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc.
The various advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below :
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.
The liquid fuels can be classified as follows :
(a) Natural or crude oil, and
(b) Artificial or manufactured oils.
The advantages and disadvantages of liquid fuels can be summarized as follows :
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid
fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
(e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(g) Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
(h) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
(i) They require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of fire hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable
and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.
(e) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying
apparatus are required.
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and
liquid fuels.
The advantages and disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below :
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the
following advantages over solid or liquid fuels :
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby
eliminating manual labor in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
(d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy
in heat.
(e) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or
reducing atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
(f) They are clean in use.
(g) They do not require any special burner.
(h) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
(i) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Lubricants can be fluids (gases or liquids) or solids.
Fluids
Gases are not always considered as lubricants, but air lubricated bearings are
becoming increasingly important. However, air for specialist applications may not be
a cheap lubricant. For hydrostatic spindle bearings on machine tools, for instance. air
cleaned and dried to adequate standards can cost as much as three times as much as
lubricating oil.
Lubricating oil-hydrocarbon oil produced from crude petroleum-is of course
the most common of all lubricants.
Hydrocarbon oils are used because:
a. They are widely available in a range of viscosities that gives a wide choice of load,
speed and temperature conditions to the designer,
b. They give a low, consistent coefficient of friction and have low compressibility.
c. They are reasonably effective in carrying away heat from bearing surfaces.
d. They are inexpensive lubricants.
Hydrocarbon lubricating oils fall into two main categories:
Paraffinic oils have high pour points (because of the wax they contain), high
viscosity indices, and good resistance to oxidation.
Naphthenic oils have low pour points and relatively low viscosity indices and
oxidation stability.
Synthetic lubricants (esters, phosphates, silicones) may cost up to ten times as much
as hydrocarbon oils but they are necessary for some specialized applications, like
aircraft gas turbines where resistance to degradation at temperatures of up to perhaps
300°C is necessary.
Water is much better at carrying away heat than are hydrocarbon oils, but its
low viscosity and its relatively high freezing point and low boiling point greatly limits
its use as a lubricant.
Solids and semi-solids
Grease is the most important solid or semi-solid lubricant, and it is normally
made from hydrocarbon oils thickened with metallic soaps, in consistencies ranging
from slightly thickened liquid to block-hard. Although grease will not carry heat away
from a bearing as liquid lubricant will, it can be an effective seal against dirt and water
reaching the bearing surfaces. It can also provide a reservoir of lubricant in a bearing
lubricated at long intervals, or even sealed for life.
Other solid lubricants, functioning in a different way. include molybdenum
disulpbide and graphite. These may be used on their own or in combination with oils
and greases. Chemical coatings on bearing metals and bearing-. made from plastics
such as PTFE can also be included in this category.
NDT
The various methods adopted for Non- Destructive testing are
1. Magnetic particle testing
2. Liquid penetrant inspection
3. Eddy current inspection
4. Ultrasonic inspection
5. Radiography
Magnetic particle testing
Magnetic particle testing is a nondestructive method for locating surface and
subsurface discontinuities (cracks or defects) in ferromagnetic materials such as steel.
The parts are magnetized by passing a strong electric current through or around them.
An electric current is always accompanied by a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of
flux travel through the part when it is magnetized. A crack or discontinuity will create
a flux leakage. A flux leakage occurs when the lines of flux leave the surface of the
material, resulting in a concentration of magnetic strength at the discontinuity.
Magnetic particles are applied to the magnetized part and concentrate in the areas of
flux leakage, giving a sign of discontinuity. After the parts have been inspected, they
must be demagnetized. If this is not done the parts will pick up and hold small steel
particles, which can cause serious damage in the engine during operation.
Liquid penetrant inspection
Engine parts made of aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, bronze, or any other metal
which cannot be magnetized are inspected by means of a fluorescent penetrant, a dye
penetrant, ultrasonic equipment, or eddy current equipment. The parts are thoroughly
cleaned and stripped of paint. The penetrant is applied to the part and allowed to enter
any surface discontinuities. The excess penetrant is cleaned off, and then the part is
given a coat of developer. The developer draws out any penetrant that may have
entered surface discontinuities, making them visible either under white light in the
case of visible penetrant or black light in the case of fluorescent penetrant.
Eddy current inspection
Eddy current inspection is to discover defects inside metal parts. The eddy current
tester applies high frequency electromagnetic waves to the metal, and these waves
generate eddy currents inside the metal. If the metal is uniform in its structure, the
eddy current will flow in a uniform pattern and this will be shown by the indicator. If
a discontinuity exists, the effect of the eddy currents will be changed and the indicator
will produce a reading greater than normal for the particular test.
Ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic inspection utilizes high frequency sound waves to reveal flaws in metal
parts. The element transmitting the waves is placed on the part, and a reflected wave is
received and registered on a oscilloscope. If there is a flaw in the part, the reflected
wave will show a “blip “on the oscilloscope trace. The position of the blip indicates
the depth of the flaw.
Radiography
X ray or radiographic inspection is to detect certain types of metal defects. The x-ray
is effective in detecting discontinuities inside casting, forging and welds. A power full
x-ray can penetrate metal or several inches and produce an image which will reveal
defects within the metal.