Dr.

Burcu Erbaş

2020-2021 Fall
▪ This chapter deals with 3 equations commonly used in fluid
mechanics
▪ The mass equation is an expression of the conservation of mass
principle.
▪ The Bernoulli equation is concerned with the conservation of kinetic,
potential, and flow energies of a fluid stream and their conversion to
each other.
▪ The energy equation is a statement of the conservation of energy
principle.
▪ After completing this chapter, you should be
able to
▪ Apply the mass equation to balance the incoming and
outgoing flow rates in a flow system.
▪ Recognize various forms of mechanical energy, and
work with energy conversion efficiencies.
▪ Understand the use and limitations of the Bernoulli
equation, and apply it to solve a variety of fluid flow
problems.
▪ Work with the energy equation expressed in terms of
heads, and use it to determine turbine power output
and pumping power requirements.
Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a
change is expressed as msys = constant or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the
statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a
process.

Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:

the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of mass within the

control volume boundaries.

Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of

mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually
called the continuity equation.
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The Linear Momentum Equation
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a
body is called the linear momentum or just the momentum of the
body.
The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity
V is mV.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional
to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its
mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is
equal to the net force acting on the body.
Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a
system remains constant only when the net force acting on it is
zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved.
Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s
second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum
equation.

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Conservation of Energy
The conservation of energy principle (the energy balance): The
net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal to
the change in the energy content of the system.
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.
Control volumes also involve energy transfer via mass flow.

the total rates of energy transfer into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of energy

within the control volume boundaries

In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to

mechanical forms of energy only.
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▪ Conservation of mass principle is one of the
most fundamental principles in nature.
▪ Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it
cannot be created or destroyed during a
process.
▪ For closed systems mass conservation is implicit
since the mass of the system remains constant
during a process.
▪ For control volumes, mass can cross the
boundaries which means that we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving
the control volume.
▪ The amount of mass flowing through
a control surface per unit time is
called the mass flow rate and is
denoted m
▪ The dot over a symbol is used to
indicate time rate of change.
▪ Flow rate across the entire cross-
sectional area of a pipe or duct is
obtained by integration
 ▪ Integral in m can be replaced with
average values of r and Vn
1
Vavg = 
Ac Ac
Vn dAc

▪ For many flows variation of r is very

small: m = rVavg Ac
▪ Volume flow rate V is given by

V =  Vn dAc = Vavg Ac = VAc

Ac

▪ Note: many textbooks use Q instead

of V for volume flow rate.
▪ Mass and volume flow rates are
related by
The volume flow rate is the m = rV
volume of fluid flowing through
a cross section per unit time.
▪ The conservation of
mass principle can be
expressed as

dmCV
min − mout =
dt
▪ Where min and mout are the
total rates of mass flow
into and out of the CV, and
dmCV/dt is the rate of
change of mass within the
CV.
 ▪ For CV of arbitrary shape,
▪ rate of change of mass within the CV
dmCV d
dt
= 
dt CV
r dV
▪ net mass flow rate

mnet =   m =  rVn dA =
CS CS
 r (V n ) dA
CS

▪ Therefore, general conservation of

mass for a fixed CV is:
d

dt CV
(
r dV +  r V n dA = 0 )
CS

The conservation of mass

equation is obtained by
replacing B in the Reynolds
A control surface should always be selected transport theorem by mass m,
normal to the flow at all locations where it and b by 1 (m per unit mass =
crosses the fluid flow to avoid complications, m/m = 1).
even though the result is the same.
▪ For steady flow, the total
amount of mass contained in
CV is constant.
▪ Total amount of mass entering
must be equal to total amount
of mass leaving
m = m
in out

▪ For steady, incompressible

flows,
 V A = V A
in
n n
out
n n
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▪ Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by
an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
▪ Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:
Flow P/r, kinetic V2/g, and potential gz energy are the forms of
mechanical energy emech= P/r + V2/2 + gz
▪ Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible
flow becomes
P2 − P1 V22 − V12
Demech = + + g ( z2 − z1 )
r 2
▪ The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow
if its pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain constant.
▪ In the absence of loses, Demech represents the work supplied to
the fluid (Demech>0) or extracted from the fluid (Demech<0).
▪ Transfer of emech is usually accomplished by a rotating
shaft: shaft work
▪ Pump, fan, propulsion: receives shaft work (e.g., from an
electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical
energy
▪ Turbine: converts emech of a fluid to shaft work.
▪ In the absence of irreversibilities (e.g., friction),
mechanical efficiency of a device or process can be
defined as E E
hmech = mech ,out
= 1− mech ,loss

Emech,in Emech,in
▪ If hmech < 100%, losses have occurred during conversion.
▪ In fluid systems, we are usually interested in
increasing the pressure, velocity, and/or
elevation of a fluid.
▪ In these cases, efficiency is better defined as
the ratio of (supplied or extracted work) vs.
rate of increase in mechanical energy
DEmech , fluid
h pump =
Wshaft ,in
Wshaft ,out
hturbine =
DEmech , fluid

▪ Overall efficiency must include motor or

generator efficiency.
 Motor
efficiency

Generator
efficiency

Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator overall efficiency:

The overall efficiency of a turbine–

generator is the product of the
efficiency of the turbine and the
efficiency of the generator, and
represents the fraction of the
mechanical energy of the fluid
converted to electric energy. 19
The efficiencies defined range between 0 and 100%.
0% corresponds to the conversion of the entire
mechanical or electric energy input to thermal energy, and
the device in this case functions like a resistance heater.
100% corresponds to the case of perfect conversion with
no friction or other irreversibilities, and thus no conversion
of mechanical or electric energy to thermal energy (no
losses).

For systems that involve only mechanical

forms of energy and its transfer as shaft
work, the conservation of energy is

Emech, loss : The conversion of mechanical

energy to thermal energy due to
irreversibilities such as friction.

Many fluid flow problems involve

mechanical forms of energy only, and
such problems are conveniently solved
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by using a mechanical energy balance.
▪ One of the most fundamental laws in nature is the 1st
law of thermodynamics, which is also known as the
conservation of energy principle.
▪ It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms

Falling rock, picks up speed

as PE is converted to KE.
If air resistance is neglected,
PE + KE = constant
▪ The energy content of a closed system
can be changed by two mechanisms:
heat transfer Q and work transfer W.
▪ Conservation of energy for a closed
system can be expressed in rate form
as
dEsys
Qnet ,in + Wnet ,in =
dt
▪ Net rate of heat transfer to the system:

Qnet ,in = Qin − Qout

▪ Net power input to the system:

Wnet ,in = Win − Wout

  V2   V2 
Qnet ,in + Wshaft ,net ,in = m h + + gz  −  m  h + + gz 
out  2  in  2 
▪ For steady flow, time rate of change of the
energy content of the CV is zero.
▪ This equation states: the net rate of energy
transfer to a CV by heat and work transfers
during steady flow is equal to the difference
between the rates of outgoing and incoming
energy flows with mass.
 ▪ For single-stream
devices, mass flow rate
is constant.

V22 − V12
qnet ,in + wshaft ,net ,in = h2 − h1 + + g ( z2 − z1 )
2
P1 V12 P2 V22
wshaft ,net ,in + + + gz1 = + + gz2 + ( u2 − u1 − qnet ,in )
r1 2 r2 2
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 + wpump = + + gz2 + wturbine + emech ,loss
r1 2 r2 2
▪ Divide by g to get each term in units of length
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + z1 + hpump = + + z2 + hturbine + hL
r1 g 2 g r2 g 2 g
Magnitude of each term is now expressed as an
equivalent column height of fluid, i.e., Head
▪ If we neglect piping losses, and have a system without pumps
or turbines
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
r1 g 2 g r2 g 2 g

▪ This is the Bernoulli equation

▪ It can also be derived using Newton's second law of motion
(see text, p. 187).
▪ 3 terms correspond to: Static, dynamic, and hydrostatic head
(or pressure).
▪ The Bernoulli equation
is an approximate relation
between pressure,
velocity, and elevation and
is valid in regions of
steady, incompressible
flow where net frictional
forces are negligible.
▪ Equation is useful in flow
regions outside of
boundary layers and
wakes.
▪ Limitations on the use of the Bernoulli Equation
▪ Steady flow: d/dt = 0
▪ Frictionless flow
▪ No shaft work: wpump=wturbine=0
▪ Incompressible flow: r = constant
▪ No heat transfer: qnet,in=0
▪ Applied along a streamline (except for irrotational
flow)