1000 B.C.–A.D.

476
7 The Roman World
Mosaic of a theater
scene from Pompeii

c. 365 B.C.
The Arts
Etruscan actors stage
the first theatrical
performances in Rome.
c. 1000 B.C.–
509 B.C. c. 800 B.C.–701 B.C. 500 B.C.–451 B.C. c. 289 B.C.
Global Events Science and Business and Business
Latins and Technology Finance and Finance
Etruscans set- The Etruscans Winemaking The first
tle west-central introduce horse- develops in Italy Roman mint
Italy. drawn chariots. and Gaul. is established.

1000 B.C. 8 00 B.C. 6 00 B.C. 400 B.C. 200 B.C.

c. 753 B.C. 509 B.C. 264 B.C.–146 B.C.

Global Events Politics Global Events
According to legend, the The Roman Republic The Punic Wars
city of Rome is founded. is established. are fought.

c. 814 B.C. c. 312 B.C.

Business and Daily Life
Finance Construction of the
Carthage Via Appia begins.
becomes a
trading
center.

Carthaginian
general Hannibal

A fter the Persian wars, Athens became the center of Greece’s golden age. The Greek
contributions during this period in science, mathematics, art, and philosophy still influence
civilizations today. They also had an effect on the cultures of the ancient world, especially
that of Rome. Although the Hellenistic Age came to an end as the Romans conquered
much of the Mediterranean, the influence of the Greeks lived on in Roman culture. In
this chapter, you will learn about Roman society and how Rome’s location and its policies
contributed to the expansion of Roman power.

148
 Gold coin showing Roman
Emperor Diocletian

The Roman poet Ovid

60 B.C.
Politics
The First Triumvirate is formed.

43 B.C. A.D. 96–A.D. 180 A.D. 284–A.D. 305

Politics Politics Politics
The Second The Five Good Emperor Diocletian
Triumvirate is formed. Emperors rule Rome. rules Rome.
133 B.C. A.D. 386
Politics A.D.8 c. A.D. 124 The Arts A.D. 476
Tiberius The Arts The Arts Hymns are Global Events
Gracchus The poet Ovid The rebuilding of The introduced The last Roman
is elected writes the Pantheon is completed into Christian emperor in the
tribune. Metamorphoses. by Emperor Hadrian. churches. West is overthrown.

A.D. 1 A.D. 200 A.D. 400

44 B.C. A.D. 79 A.D. 162 A.D. 324 A.D. 410

Global Daily Life Science and Politics Global Events
Events Mount Technology Emperor Rome is attacked
Julius Vesuvius The Greek doctor Galen Constantine by the Visigoths.
Caesar is erupts and begins practicing becomes
assassinated. destroys medicine in Rome. sole Roman ruler.
the city of
Pompeii.

c. A.D. 30
Global Events
Jesus is crucified.

Colored glassware
Julius Caesar from Judaea

What’s Your Opinion?

Do you agree or disagree with the Culture Great civilizations build on the discov-
following statements? Support your point eries, developments, and contributions of earlier
of view in your journal. cultures.

Government A strong army and government Global Relations An empire that enslaves
are necessary to maintain an empire. conquered peoples is destined to fall.
149
 Founding the
1 Roman Republic
The Main Idea The Story Continues Although the power of the Greeks waned,
What role did geography The early Romans their culture would live on in a new civilization that grew out of
play in Italy’s and Rome’s established a powerful
western Italy. In about 750 B.C. a group of villages along the Tiber
development? and well-organized
republic that grew and River formed what would become the center of Roman civilization.
How was the government
changed over time.
of the Roman Republic set
up?
What was the Conflict of The Land: Its Geography and Importance
the Orders, and how did it
change the early Roman The geography of Italy had a great deal to do with the rise of Roman power. Italy looks
Republic? like a giant boot. Its top is sheltered by the Alps to the north. Its toe and heel slice into
How were the roles of citi- the Mediterranean Sea to the south. To the east lies the Adriatic Sea. This location
zens and noncitizens under
made it an excellent base from which to control both the eastern and the western
Roman rule different?
halves of the region. The Apennine Mountains, which run the full length of the boot,
are not very rugged. This made early trade and travel relatively easy.
Not everything about Italy’s geography worked to its advantage, however. The
republic Alps in the north separate Italy from the rest of Europe. Several pathways cut through
dictator
the mountains, creating avenues for the movement of peoples. Over the centuries,
consuls
veto enemy armies have streamed into Italy through these passages. Italy’s long coastline
checks and balances has also made it open to attack from the sea.
praetors
censors ✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect How was Italy helped and hurt by
tribunes its geography?
patricians
plebeians

The United States and other

democracies are in debt to
the Roman Republic for
controls on government
power. Use or
other current event sources
to explore how the United
States protects its people
against abuses of govern-
ment power. Record your
findings in your journal.

Ancient Italy, c. 600 B.C.

Interpreting Maps Rome’s location on the Italian Peninsula protected the city from sea
invasions and encouraged trade in all directions.
■ Skills Assessment: Locate On what island did the Greeks establish colonies?

150 CHAPTER 7
Rome and the Beginning of an Empire
People lived in Italy as early as the Paleolithic period. But it was not until after
2000 B.C. that waves of invaders swept through the mountain passes and overran
the peninsula. As in Greece, these invaders came from north of the Black and
Caspian Seas. Romulus and Remus:
The Legend
The founding of Rome. Sometime before the mid-700s B.C., a group of people called According to legend, Rome
the Latins moved into west-central Italy. This plains region was called Latium was founded by twin brothers,
(LAY·shee·uhm). Some of the Latin settlers built villages along the Tiber River. In time, Romulus and Remus. Livy,
these villages united to form Rome. a Roman historian, retold
In the late 600s B.C., Rome came under the rule of Etruscan kings from northern the legend in his A History
Italy. The Etruscans had a written language, which the Romans adapted. The of Rome.
Etruscans crafted jewelry, made fine clothing, and worked skillfully in metal, pottery, “Romulus and Remus . . .
and wood. These city dwellers also knew how to pave roads, drain marshes, and were suddenly seized by an
urge to found a new settle-
construct sewers. Under the Etruscans, Rome grew into a large and prosperous city.
ment on the spot. . . . they
Over time the Etruscans blended into the general Roman population. Their culture,
determined to ask the
however, continued to influence the Romans.
[guardian] gods . . . to declare
Some Greeks also settled in ancient Italy. Greek colonies in southern Italy and on . . . which of them should gov-
the island of Sicily became city-states. These city-states were as disunited and quarrel- ern the new town once it was
some as those of Greece. Nonetheless, the Greek culture of these colonies strongly founded, and give his name to
influenced the Romans. For instance, although they went by different names, many it. . . . The followers of each
Roman gods mirrored Greek gods. Jupiter, for example, had the same traits as the promptly saluted their masters
Greek god Zeus. Roman myths were also similar to Greek myths. as king. . . . Angry words
ensued, followed all too soon
A strategic location. Rome was built on seven hills along the Tiber River, about by blows, and . . . Remus was
15 miles inland from the coast. This location protected the city from invasion by sea. killed. . . . This, then, was how
Rome’s location gave its people economic advantages as well. The city lay along a Romulus obtained sole power.
shallow part of the Tiber, making it one of the easiest places for miles to cross the The newly built city was called
river. This put Rome at the center of trade routes that spread out across the land in by its founder’s name.” How
all directions. does Livy imply that the
gods participated in the
✔ READING CHECK: Finding the Main Idea How was Rome helped by its founding of Rome?
location?

The Early Roman Republic

In 509 B.C. wealthy Roman landowners overthrew the Etruscan king and vowed never
again to be ruled by a monarch. In place of the monarchy, the Romans established a
republic. A republic is a form of government in which voters elect officials to run the
state. In the Roman Republic, only adult male citizens were entitled to vote and to take
part in government. Three important groups of citizens helped govern the republic:
the Senate, the magistrates, and a variety of popular assemblies.
Senate. The Senate was the most influential and powerful of the three governing
bodies because it controlled public funds and decided foreign policy. Sometimes the
Senate also acted as a court. In times of emergency, the senators could propose that a
citizen be named dictator, or absolute ruler. A dictator could rule for up to six
months. During that period, he had complete command over the army and the courts.
Over time, the size of the Senate changed dramatically.
THE ROMAN WORLD 151
 Magistrates. The magistrates who made up the second group of Roman leaders were
elected officials. The magistrates included consuls, praetors, and censors. After the
monarchy ended in 509 B.C., two individuals were elected to one-year terms to serve
as consuls, or chief executives. The consuls ran the government, commanded the
army, and could appoint dictators. Although powerful, consuls governed with the
advice of the Senate. In addition, each consul could veto, or refuse to approve, the acts
of the other consul. (The Latin word veto means “I forbid.”) This division of power
was an example of the principle of checks and balances, which prevents any one part
of the government from becoming too powerful. The United States and many other
nations of the modern world later adopted the veto and the principle of checks and
balances as safeguards in their own governments.
The Romans elected the praetors (PREE·tuhrz) to help the consuls. In times of war,
praetors commanded armies. In times of peace, they oversaw the Roman legal system.
The number of praetors varied over time, but they continued to head specific Roman
courts. The interpretations of legal questions made by praetors formed much of the
civil law in Rome.
Censors registered citizens according to their wealth, appointed candidates to the
Senate, and oversaw the moral conduct of all citizens. Censors became very powerful
magistrates in the Roman Republic.

The Forum, which was made up Assemblies. Several assemblies existed in the Roman Republic. Citizens in these
of many important and beautiful assemblies voted on laws and elected officials, including the consuls. Some assemblies
buildings, served as the center of
all government business. Today, voted to make war or peace, while others served as courts. The assemblies elected 10
its ruins stand as monuments officials called tribunes, who had some power over actions by the Senate and other
to the grand style of Roman public officials. If the tribunes believed actions were not in the public interest, they
architecture with its towering
columns and graceful arches. could refuse to approve them.
✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information How did the Romans organize the gov-
ernment of their republic?
The Conflict of the Orders
The types of people who served as officials in the Roman government changed over
time. These changes stemmed from the attempts of common people to win more
rights. The struggles became known as the Conflict of the Orders.
In the early republic, Romans were divided into two classes of people: patricians
and plebeians. Patricians were powerful landowners who controlled the government.
As nobles, they inherited their power. Plebeians, who made up most of the popula-
tion, were mainly farmers and workers. For many years, plebeians had few rights. They
could vote, but they were barred from holding most public offices. Plebeians could not
even know Roman laws because the laws were not written down. In court, a judge
stated and applied the law, but only patricians served as judges.
Over time, plebeians increased their power through demands and strikes. They
gained the right to join the army, hold government office, form their own assembly,
and elect tribunes. In one of their greatest victories, they forced the government to
write down the laws of the Roman Republic. In about 450 B.C. the Romans engraved
their laws on tablets called the Twelve Tables. The laws were placed in the Forum, the
chief public square, for all to view.
The first plebeians were appointed to the government in the late 400s B.C.
After 342 B.C. a plebeian always held one of the consul positions. By about 300 B.C.
many plebeians had become so powerful and wealthy themselves that they joined
with patricians to form the Roman nobility. From that time on, the distinction Legionnaires Roman soldiers’
between patricians and plebeians was not as important. Membership in the nobility helmets were made of either
was still very important, however. Since government officials were not paid a salary, bronze or iron. Their body armor
only wealthy nobles could afford to hold office. Thus, the nobles still controlled was first made of hardened
the republic. leather. Later, overlapping bronze
sections were sewn together.
✔ READING CHECK: Drawing Conclusions What effect did the Conflict of the Orders What does the carved relief
sculpture below reveal about
have on the early Roman Republic?
the protection that a Roman
soldier’s uniform gave him?

The Republic Grows

The years of the Roman Republic were not a time of peace. For
more than 200 years after the republic was founded, the
Romans fought many wars against neighboring peoples. By
265 B.C. they controlled all of Italy south of the Rubicon, a
river on Italy’s northeast coast. The Romans extended their
republic with both a well-organized, impressive army and wise
political policies.

The role of the Roman army. Every adult male citizen who
owned land was required by law to serve in the Roman army. In
general the soldiers themselves enforced army discipline, which
tended to be very strict. The major unit of the army was the
legion, consisting of from 4,500 to 6,000 citizens called legion-
naires. The Romans also later established the auxilia, which were
units made up of noncitizens. In general during this time,
Roman army units were well trained, and morale among the
troops was usually high.
THE ROMAN WORLD 153
The census The Romans periodi-
cally took a census—an official
count of their population. Today
the U.S. government takes a
census by mail every 10 years.
Government workers personally
visit those who do not mail in
forms to make sure they are
counted. What does this relief
show about the ways Romans
conducted their census?

How is the
U.S. census today similar to the
Roman census?

The role of wise policies. The Romans had a talent for ruling other people.
Because they wanted the people they conquered to be loyal to Rome, the Romans
granted full citizenship to the inhabitants of nearby Italian cities. They granted par-
tial citizenship to the people of more-distant cities, including the Greek city-states
in Italy. Although partial citizens could own property and marry, under Roman law
they could not vote. As the Romans made allies in more distant areas, they allowed
the allies to remain independent, but these areas had to provide soldiers for the
Roman army.
The Romans also expected conquered peoples to provide land for Roman farmers.
This land policy helped the Romans to maintain control over conquered areas. It also led
to the spread of the Latin language, Roman law, and other aspects of Roman culture
throughout Italy.
✔ READING CHECK: Contrasting What specific right enjoyed by full citizens was
denied to partial citizens as Rome expanded?

SECTION 1 REVIEW
1. Define and explain 2. Categorizing Copy the chart 3.
the significance: below. Use it to organize the three a. How did the location of Rome help it become a seat of
republic main parts of the government of the trade and power?
dictator Roman Republic. b. How was the government of the Roman Republic an
consuls Government Group Functions
example of checks and balances?
veto c. How did the military organization of the Roman army and
checks and balances the republic’s wise policies work together to help Rome
praetors extend its power?
censors
tribunes 4.
patricians Drawing Conclusions How might the granting of the rights
plebeians of citizenship have affected Rome’s ability to rule conquered
peoples?
Consider:
keyword: SP3 HP7 • the rights and roles of citizens
• the rights and roles of noncitizens
154 CHAPTER 7
 Rome Expands
2 Its Borders
The Main Idea The Story Continues “Our republic was not made by the genius
How did Rome gain control Through warfare and of one man, but of many, nor in the life of one, but through many
over Carthage? alliances, the Romans
centuries and generations.” This statesman’s words reflected the
How did expansion change greatly expanded the
lands under their Romans’ pride in their civilization. As generations passed, the
the Roman Republic?
control. power and influence of the republic grew even more.

equites Rome Fights Carthage

By the middle 200s B.C., the Roman Republic controlled all of the Italian Peninsula
south of the Rubicon. Rome soon came into conflict with Carthage, a powerful city on
Punic Wars the coast of North Africa that had once been a Phoenician colony. Carthage was now a
Hannibal
great commercial power whose empire spanned the western Mediterranean. Carthage
Scipio
Spartacus had colonies and markets on Sicily, an island off the southern coast of Italy. After the
Romans moved into southern Italy, Carthage feared that they would also try to take
Sicily. The Romans feared that the Carthaginian navy would control the Mediterranean
and prevent Roman expansion overseas. These fears sparked three costly conflicts that
Economic factors often play we call the Punic Wars because the Latin adjective for Phoenician is punicus.
an important role in conflicts
between countries. Use The First Punic War. The First Punic War began in 264 B.C. At first Rome had no navy,
or other current but it quickly built one. Rome used a Carthaginian ship it had captured as a model.
event sources to find a cur- The Romans employed land warfare tactics at sea. By equipping their ships with
rent conflict in which eco- “boarding bridges,” they could ram their vessel into a Carthaginian ship and then let
nomics plays a role. Record down the bridge. Heavily armed soldiers then stampeded across the bridge and took
your findings in your journal. the enemy. In 241 B.C., after 23 years of war, Carthage asked for peace. The Romans
made Carthage pay a large sum of money for the damages it had caused and forced it
to give up Sicily. Rome now had a major territory outside Italy.
The Second Punic War. The Second Punic War began in 218 B.C. In Spain, Hannibal,
one of the greatest generals of all time, assembled a huge Carthaginian army that
included foot soldiers, horse soldiers, and elephants. The army marched across the Alps
into Italy. The crossing was difficult, and many in Hannibal’s force died.
Despite the losses, the Romans were no match for Hannibal’s army. Hannibal
won several victories, causing the Romans to retreat before him. Because Hannibal

Rome’s navy During the First

Punic War, Rome became a naval
force equal to the Carthaginian
fleet. What does this relief imply
about the size and strength of
Roman ships?
THE ROMAN WORLD 155
 The Growth of the
Roman Republic,
509 B.C.—133 B.C.
did not have the equipment to attack the cities, he spent years laying waste to the
Interpreting Maps Rome
and Carthage fought three
countryside, raiding farms and taking crops and livestock. He also tried to win away
Punic Wars between 264 B.C. Rome’s allies. The Roman policy of sharing citizenship and political power proved its
and 146 B.C. value, however, as most of the republic’s allies remained loyal. The historian Polybius
■ Skills Assessment: Trace wrote that after their defeat at Cannae in 216 B.C., the Romans vowed to conquer the
Hannibal’s route from Spain enemy or die on the field of battle.
to Carthage. 1. Places and
Regions Across which moun-
tain ranges did his army
advance during the journey?
“ Hannibal’s joy in his victory over the Romans was exceeded by his
frustration, as he saw with astonishment the endurance and great-

2. Comparing and
Contrasting What advan-
ness of the Romans when they deliberated on national policy.
”
Polybius, The Histories, Vol. VI

tages and disadvantages did Finally, Rome turned the tables by invading Africa and threatening Carthage.
this route provide?
Hannibal’s government ordered him home to defend the city. In Africa he met his
match—the Roman general Scipio (SIP·ee·oh). In 202 B.C. at the battle of Zama, near
Carthage, Scipio and the Romans defeated Hannibal and his army. Once more
Carthage had to pay a huge sum of money. It also had to give up most of its navy and
its colonies in Spain. Carthage remained independent, but it had lost all its power.
Rome was now the most powerful force in the western Mediterranean.

The Third Punic War. Although Carthage was no longer a threat, some Romans still
hated the city. Thus, the Roman Senate decided to crush Carthage. In 149 B.C. Rome again
declared war on its old enemy. After a bitter siege, Carthage was destroyed in 146 B.C.
156 CHAPTER 7
 During the Second Punic War, Macedonia had been allied with Carthage. To get
revenge, Rome started a war against Macedonia and defeated it in 197 B.C. The Greek
cities came under Roman “protection.” By 133 B.C. Rome had extended its control over
the entire region. It was now the supreme power in the Mediterranean.
✔ READING CHECK: Sequencing How did Rome gain control over the
Mediterranean?

The Problems of Expansion

Because Rome now controlled a vast area, the republic and its government had to
change. It remained a republic, but the Senate gained almost complete control over the
Spartacus
army and foreign policy. The nobles gained even more power.
(unknown–71 B.C.)
The Romans governed the new territories, called provinces, loosely. They did not
allow the people of the provinces to become citizens, nor did they make them allies. Romans often enslaved con-
Instead, the Romans simply made the people of each province subjects of Rome. Each quered peoples. Some slaves
province was administered by a governor who was backed by the power of the Roman enjoyed fairly good treatment.
For example, some slaves
army. Some provincial governors took bribes and paid little, if any, attention to the
could buy their freedom. By
needs of the people. In addition, tax collectors tried to squeeze as much money as they
Roman law, a freed slave
could from the provinces.
became a citizen.
The Romans also had problems at home. The Roman farmer-soldiers who Other slaves led such horri-
returned from the Punic Wars were sickened to find their livestock killed, their homes ble lives that they revolted. The
in ruins, and their olive groves or vineyards uprooted. The farmers did not have most brutal revolt, led by a
enough money to restore their farms and thus had little choice but to sell the land. As slave named Spartacus, began
time passed, Rome became dependent on the provinces for grain, its chief food. in 73 B.C. More than 70,000
Many of the farmers who lost their land moved to the cities. Not all of them slaves took part. By 71 B.C. the
could find jobs there, however, and they depended on the government for food. In Roman army had crushed the
contrast, trade within Rome’s vast empire had created a class of business people and uprising. Spartacus died in
landowners called equites (EK·wuh·teez). They had great wealth and political influ- battle. Some 6,000 rebels were
ence. Within the republic, the gap between rich and poor, powerful and powerless, crucified—nailed or tied to
crosses and left to die. Why do
continued to grow.
you think Spartacus and his
✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect What changes occurred in the followers revolted?
Roman Republic as a result of Roman expansion?

SECTION 2 REVIEW
1. Define and explain 3. Comparing Copy the chart below. Use it to detail 4.
the significance: the changes in the Roman Republic that resulted a. In what ways were Rome and Carthage
equites from Rome’s expansion. different?
Changes in the Roman Republic
b. What were the final results of the Punic
2. Identify and explain Wars?
Government Agriculture Society
the significance:
Punic Wars 5.
Hannibal Making Generalizations Write a character
Scipio sketch describing what an average Roman
Spartacus citizen-soldier might have been like.
Consider:
• soldiers’ actions during and after the Punic
keyword: SP3 HP7 Wars
• the changing society
THE ROMAN WORLD 157
 The Birth of the
3 Roman Empire
The Main Idea The Story Continues As the Roman Republic expanded its
What political events during Bitter political power borders, its problems increased. One Roman official noted the
the first century B.C. helped struggles within the
corruption of the government in a letter to his brother. “Remember
weaken the Roman Roman Republic led
to the creation of the that this is Rome,” he wrote, “a city made up of many people, in
Republic?
How did the reign of
Roman Empire. which plots, lies, and all kinds of vices abound.”
Caesar serve as a transition
between the Roman Repub-
lic and the Roman Empire? A Weakening Republic
What events and conditions
marked the first two cen- By 133 B.C. the Roman Republic faced many problems. Brave leaders attempted
turies of the Roman Empire? reform, but the days of the republic were numbered.
Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius (GAY·uhs) Gracchus (GRAK·uhs), saw the need
for reform. Together the brothers were known as the Gracchi. Tiberius was elected
triumvirate tribune in 133 B.C. He was deeply troubled by the fate of the farmer-soldier. Although
his suggested land reforms made him popular with the common people, they angered
and frightened many senators. A mob of senators and their supporters clubbed
Tiberius and hundreds of his followers to death.
the Gracchi
Gaius was elected tribune in 123 B.C. and again in 122 B.C. He used public funds
Gaius Marius
Lucius Cornelius Sulla to buy grain, which was then sold to the poor at low prices. This and other acts out-
Julius Caesar raged the senators, who sought to cancel some of the laws Gaius had passed. Gaius and
Gnaeus Pompey many of his supporters were eventually killed in a riot. The deaths of the Gracchi
Cleopatra
marked a turning point in Roman history. From this point on, violence replaced
Marc Antony
Augustus (Octavian) respect for the law as the primary tool of politics.
Pax Romana
The Social War. During this period, Rome’s relationship with its allies through-
Julio-Claudian Emperors
Five Good Emperors out the Italian Peninsula entered a crisis. Citizens of the Italian cities had served in
the Roman army and had endured much hardship in defense of Rome during the
Punic Wars. The ruling groups of these cities wanted to share in the benefits of
Rome’s growing power. Above all, they wanted the right to hold public offices
The actions of political lead- in the Roman government, and they called for Roman citizenship. The Senate,
ers can have a strong effect however, sought to maintain its hold on power and stubbornly resisted the
on a country. Use allies’ demands.
or other current event
Finally, in 91 B.C., the allies rebelled. The war that followed was called the Social
sources to find a current
War, from the Latin word socius, meaning “ally.” Many of the allied cities’ troops had
country in which a leader is
served with the legions and were as well trained and disciplined as the Romans
abusing power. Record your
findings in your journal.
themselves. Thus, the war that followed was one of the bloodiest in Rome’s history.
Ultimately, Rome won. The Senate, however, finally agreed to the allies’ calls for
citizenship and political participation. With this decision, people throughout Italy
began to view themselves as Romans, and the Roman state grew to include all of
the peninsula.
Gaius Marius, a Roman general who was elected consul in 107 B.C., brought major
changes to the Roman political scene. He created an army of volunteers who were well
rewarded with money, newly conquered land, and war loot. As more generals followed
suit, troops became more loyal to them than to the government.
158 CHAPTER 7
 In 88 B.C. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected consul. After his term expired, he
wanted to take a military command that promised to gain him great fame and fortune.
His enemies in Rome, led by Marius, tried to prevent him from doing so. Sulla responded
by marching on Rome, an action that led to civil war. Sulla triumphed, and from 82 B.C.
to 79 B.C. he ruled as dictator. Sulla tried to restore power to the Senate, enlarging it by 300
members and giving it complete control over the government. More and more, however,
an army commander with loyal troops could force the Senate to do his bidding.
✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect In what ways did political events
help weaken the Roman Republic?

Caesar in Power
Julius Caesar, a nephew of Marius, was becoming a popular general during this time.
Caesar was a powerful public speaker who spent a great deal of money to win support.
As a result, Caesar built a huge following among Rome’s poor.
The First Triumvirate. In 60 B.C. Caesar joined with two other popular generals,
Gnaeus Pompey (PAHM·pee) and Licinius Crassus. The three formed a political
alliance called the First Triumvirate. Triumvirate means “rule of three.” With the sup-
port of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar became consul in 59 B.C.
Caesar knew he could not win power without a loyal army, so he obtained a spe-
cial command in Gaul, a region that is now France. During the next 10 years, Caesar
brought all of Gaul under Roman rule. Meanwhile, Crassus died in battle in 53 B.C.
Pompey was made sole consul in 52 B.C. Jealous of Caesar’s rising fame, he ordered
Caesar home without his army. Caesar refused to give up his military command and
take second place to Pompey. Instead, he marched his army toward Rome in 49 B.C.
On January 10 Caesar led his troops across the Rubicon into Italy. With this act,
he declared war on the republic. Pompey and his followers fled to Greece, where
Caesar defeated him and then marched into Egypt. He put Cleopatra, a daughter of
the ruling Ptolemy family, on the throne as a Roman ally. In 46 B.C. Caesar returned
triumphant to Rome. Two years later, the Senate declared him dictator for life.
The rule of Caesar. Caesar increased the Senate to 900 members but reduced its
power. Many senators, fearing Caesar’s ambition and popularity, formed a conspiracy Julius Caesar
against him. Two were men Caesar considered friends: Gaius Cassius and Marcus (100 B.C.–44 B.C.)
Brutus. On March 15—the Ides of March—44 B.C., the conspirators killed Caesar in One of Caesar’s greatest quali-
the Senate. Suetonius, a Roman historian, described the scene. ties was his willingness to
show mercy toward his

“ As soon as Caesar took his seat the conspirators crowded

around him. . . . Tillius Cimber came up close, pretending to ask a
defeated enemies. True to
form, once in power, Caesar
question. . . . Cimber caught hold of his shoulders. 'This is vio- forgave Pompey’s supporters
lence!' Caesar cried, and at that moment . . . one of the Casca brothers with a
in the Senate. These men
sweep of his dagger stabbed him just below the throat. . . . Confronted by a
were among those who mur-
ring of drawn daggers, he drew the top of his gown over his face and did not
dered Caesar.
utter a sound . . . though some say that when he saw Marcus Brutus . . . he
What If? How might the
reproached him in Greek with: 'You, too, my child?'
”
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Caesars
history of the Roman
Republic have been different
if Caesar had shown less
✔ READING CHECK: Sequencing What steps did Julius Caesar take to gain and keep
mercy?
power over the Roman Republic?
THE ROMAN WORLD 159
 The Roman Empire
Caesar had chosen his grandnephew, Octavian, as his heir. A struggle for power,
however, broke out after Caesar’s death.

The Second Triumvirate. Octavian was 19 years old when Caesar was murdered.
Marc Antony, a general and an ally of Caesar’s, drove out the conspirators and took
control in Rome. Then Octavian and Antony—along with Lepidus, Caesar’s second-
in-command—formed the Second Triumvirate. Marc Antony led an army east,
reconquering Syria and Asia Minor from the armies of Brutus and Cassius. Then he
joined his ally Cleopatra in Egypt. Meanwhile, Octavian forced Lepidus to retire and
built his own power in Italy.
Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world. Antony took the east, and
Octavian the west. In time, however, Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare war on
Antony and Cleopatra. In 31 B.C., in a naval battle at Actium in Greece, Octavian
defeated their fleet. Within a year, Octavian captured Alexandria. Seeing that they
could not escape, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

Augustus Octavian: the first Augustus. Octavian was determined to avoid Julius Caesar’s fate.
(63 B.C.–A.D. 14) When the Senate appointed him consul, Octavian did not present himself as king or
emperor. Instead, he called himself princeps, or “first citizen.” In 27 B.C. the Senate gave
Augustus’s funeral followed
Roman tradition. His body was
Octavian the title Augustus, or “the revered one.” He has been known ever since as
burned on a funeral pyre and Augustus Caesar, or simply Augustus.
his ashes were buried with Although Augustus never used the title emperor, historians generally refer to him
great ceremony. After a senator as the first Roman emperor. This is because beginning with the reign of Augustus, the
reported seeing Augustus’s Roman Republic became the Roman Empire. Augustus began a series of military con-
spirit rise through the flames, quests that greatly expanded the empire’s frontiers. Under his rule, the empire
the Senate declared that the stretched from Spain in the west to Syria in the east, and from Egypt and the Sahara
Divine Augustus should be in the south to the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the north. Augustus hoped to push the
made a god of the state. How borders of Rome even further. He ordered his legions to drive north of the Rhine
does this sculpture demon- River. Roman forces moved into Germany as far as the Elbe River. In A.D. 9, however,
strate a new Roman view of
German tribes defeated the invaders. The Germans’ victory forced Rome to accept the
a divine ruler?
Rhine River as the boundary of its northern frontier.
The reign of Augustus began a period known as the Pax Romana, or “Roman
Peace.” This period of peace would last for more than 200 years. Peace came at a price,
however. The political system that Augustus created greatly reduced the traditional
powers of the Senate, assemblies, and magistrates. Thus, there was always a threat that
an emperor would abuse his power. Over the years, some did.

The Pax Romana emperors. Augustus died in A.D. 14. For the next 54 years, rela-
tives of Julius Caesar, called the Julio-Claudian Emperors, ruled the empire.
go.hrw.com
KEYWORD: Holt Researcher Tiberius, who reigned from A.D. 14 to A.D. 37, was the adopted son of Augustus.
FreeFind: Caesar Tiberius proved to be an adequate, but disliked, ruler. Caligula, his brutal and
Augustus insane successor, was murdered in A.D. 41. Claudius, an intelligent man who
After reading more about administered the empire wisely, followed Caligula. During his rule the Roman
Caesar and Augustus on the legions conquered Britain. But even Claudius could not escape the violence that
CD–ROM, create political often ended an emperor’s reign. It is believed that his wife, Agrippina, poisoned
campaign posters comparing
him in A.D. 54. Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudians, also came to an untimely end.
the qualities of each
man. Blamed for a disastrous fire that swept Rome, Nero killed himself rather than face
certain assassination.
160 CHAPTER 7
 Emperors of the Pax Romana 27 B.C.–A.D. 180
27 B.C.–A.D. 14* A.D. 14–A.D. 68 A.D.
68–A.D. 69 A.D.69–A.D. 96 A.D.96–A.D. 180
Augustus Julio-Claudian Army Emperors Flavian Emperors The Five Good Emperors
Emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius Vespasian (69–79) Nerva (96–98)
Tiberius (14–37) (Chosen by various Titus (79–81) Trajan (98–117)
Caligula (37–41) legions during a Domitian (81–96) Hadrian (117–138)
Claudius (41–54) succession crisis) Antoninus Pius (138–161)
Nero (54–68) Marcus Aurelius (161–180)

*Dates of reign
Because the Romans never developed a rule for selecting a new emperor, many
emperors named their successors. The Roman army, however, often refused to accept
the new emperors. In A.D. 69 alone, four different emperors ruled Rome.
Vespasian, the last emperor to come to power in A.D. 69, was the first of the Marcus Aurelius was forced to
begin military activity on the
Flavian emperors. The Flavians ruled the empire until A.D. 96, when Emperor frontiers almost immediately
Nerva came to power. He was the first of a series of rulers known as the Five Good after he came to power.
Emperors. Together, they ruled Rome for almost 100 years. Hadrian and Marcus
Aurelius were among this notable group of Roman emperors. Hadrian, who ruled
from A.D. 117 to A.D. 138, was born in Spain. Thus, he understood the provinces
and spent a great deal of time trying to Romanize them. To help protect the bound-
aries of the empire, Hadrian built fortifications along the frontier. In north-
ern Britain, for example, he built Hadrian’s Wall, which stretched from sea
to sea. Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Good Emperors, began his reign in
A.D. 161. He was a well-educated man who preferred studying Stoic philos-
ophy to fighting wars. Nevertheless, he had to defend the empire against
invaders from the north and the east. These invaders would play a key role
in the future of Rome.
✔ READING CHECK: Finding the Main Idea What characterized the first
two centuries of the Roman Empire?

SECTION 3 REVIEW
1. Define and explain the significance: 3. Sequencing Make a 4.
triumvirate time line like the one a. What political changes during the first century B.C.
below. Complete it by helped lead to the end of the Roman Republic?
2. Identify and explain the significance: showing the main events b. In what ways did Julius Caesar’s rule mark a shift from
the Gracchi in Julius Caesar’s rise to a republic to an empire?
Gaius Marius power. c. Contrast the rule of the Julio-Claudians with the rule
Lucius Cornelius Sulla 78 B.C. 44 B.C. of the Five Good Emperors.
Julius Caesar
Gnaeus Pompey returns to made dictator; 5.
Cleopatra Rome murdered Identifying a Point of View Explain how the Roman
Marc Antony view of power and authority changed from the first
Augustus (Octavian) century B.C. through the first two centuries of the Roman
Pax Romana Empire.
Julio-Claudian Emperors Consider:
Five Good Emperors • the earlier vow by Romans never to be ruled by a king
• Rome’s republican government, with its checks and
balances
keyword: SP3 HP7 • the murder of Julius Caesar
• the establishment of the empire

THE ROMAN WORLD 161

 Roman Society
4 and Culture
The Main Idea The Story Continues The Pax Romana was one of the longest
How did the Romans build Over the course of periods of peace and stability the world has ever known. As a result,
a strong and unified centuries, the Romans
the Romans made great advances, many of which affect people even
empire? built a cultural heritage
that continues to influ- today. If you were to travel to Europe today, for example, you could
How did citizens of the
Roman Empire make a liv-
ence us today. find your way by using the same road system built by the Romans
ing and lead their daily two thousand years ago.
lives?
What part did science and
the arts play in the empire?
Building a Strong Empire
Several factors helped the Romans build their empire and maintain order. First, the
Romans organized a strong government and revised their laws. Second, widespread
gladiators
aqueducts
trade and good transportation strengthened the economy and unified the empire.
Finally, a strong army defended the frontiers and controlled the provinces.
Government and law. The Roman government was the strongest unifying force in
Galen the empire. It helped keep order and enforce the laws. The emperor ran the govern-
Ptolemy ment, made all policy decisions, and appointed officials of the provinces, including the
Virgil provincial governors. These officials were responsible to the government in Rome for
Horace the effective, peaceful, and profitable administration of the provinces.
Ovid
Roman law also helped unify the empire. To fit the needs of their huge empire, the
Tacitus
Plutarch Romans changed the laws—the code of the Twelve Tables—in two important ways.
First, the government passed new laws as needed. Second, judges interpreted the old
laws to fit new circumstances. Roman judges helped develop the belief that certain
basic legal principles should apply to all humans. This idea came from the Greek view
European and American that law was dictated by nature and therefore common to all people.
cultures have borrowed
heavily from the culture of Trade and transportation. Widespread trade of farm goods and other products also
the early Romans. Use helped unify the empire. The Roman government developed policies that were
or other current designed to encourage trade and commerce. Throughout the time of the Pax Romana,
event sources to find a cur- agriculture was the most important occupation in the empire. In Italy many farmers
rent example of an idea or worked on large estates. In the provinces, small farms were
object that is based on fairly common.
Roman culture. Record your Most trade within the empire centered around grain,
findings in your journal. wine, oil, other food items, and everyday items such as cloth,
pottery, and glassware. Foreign trade often included luxury
goods such as African ivory, Chinese silk, and Indian pepper.
Most of these goods ended up in Rome. From
there, they could be carried to wealthy cus-
tomers throughout the sprawling empire
along its overland and seagoing trade routes.

During the Pax Romana, the Romans imported

silk, linen, glassware, jewelry, and furniture from
East Asia. From India came spices, cotton, and
many luxuries new to the Romans.
162 CHAPTER 7
 Trade in the Roman
Empire, A.D. 117
Nearly everywhere it went during the Pax Romana, the Roman army built roads and
Interpreting Maps Although
bridges. These well-constructed road systems served to move reinforcements and sup-
an improved system of roads
plies quickly. They also promoted trade, travel, and communication throughout the made it easier to transport
empire. About 60,000 miles of paved highways extended to army outposts. Bridges goods across land, most goods
spanned rivers, and highways linked all provincial cities to Rome. These roads were built still traveled by sea or river in
to last. The top pavement rested on several layers of broken stone and crushed chalk. The the A.D. 100s. Historians
good surfaces made travel fast. This was especially true of Rome’s major road systems, estimate that it was 28 times
more expensive to move
which were designed to carry heavy military and trade traffic.
goods by land than by sea.
The Roman army. The Roman army, too, helped strengthen the empire by keeping ■ Skills Assessment:
peace. Citizen soldiers served for 16 to 20 years in the Roman legions. They were sta- 1. The World in Spatial
Terms How far would it have
tioned in large fortified camps along the frontiers. People often settled around these
been to move goods from
camps, which eventually grew into cities. Often men from the provinces or from border Rome to Alexandria by sea? By
areas enlisted in the Roman army. In return they were promised Roman citizenship at land? 2. Drawing Conclusions
the end of their enlistment. Thus a vast army of veterans guarded the frontiers. Why might the land route have
If necessary, the army used force to maintain peace in the provinces. In A.D. 60, for been more expensive?
example, an uprising in Britain left some 70,000 Romans and their allies dead. The
army soon crushed the rebels and destroyed their lands. More often, however, provin-
cial governors aligned themselves with local leaders. This helped ensure that the locals
would work to keep the peace.
✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing What aspects of Roman rule helped unify and
strengthen the Roman Empire?
THE ROMAN WORLD 163
 Life in the Empire
The Pax Romana was a time of great prosperity throughout the empire. Citizens did
A Roman not share equally in this wealth, however. While the rich enjoyed great luxuries, the
Banquet Menu majority of Romans were poor. Many of the free poor lived on the land. Some owned
Appetizers their own small plots, but many were laborers or tenant farmers. Others crowded into
✦ Jellyfish and eggs the cities. Slavery was also widespread in the empire.
✦ Sow’s udders stuffed with
salted sea urchins Daily life. Rich citizens usually had both a city home and a country home. Each home
✦ Broiled tree fungi with pep- had many conveniences, such as running water and baths. The rich had much time for
pered fish-fat sauce recreation and leisure. They attended huge banquets, at which exotic foods, such as
✦ Sea urchins with spices, jellyfish or boiled ostrich, were often served. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus
honey, oil and egg sauce
noted with contempt that the rich held dinner parties primarily to impress
Main Course one another.
✦ Fallowed deer roasted with
onion sauce, rue, Jericho
dates, raisins, oil and honey
“ Sometimes too at their dinner-parties scales are called for
to weigh the fish, birds and dormice that are served. The
✦ Boiled ostrich with sweet guests are bored to death by repeated expressions of wonder
sauce at the unheard-of size of the creatures, especially when some thirty secre-
✦ Turtle dove boiled in its taries are in attendance with writing-cases and notebooks to take down
feathers
✦ Roasted parrot
”
the statistics .
Ammianus Marcellinus, quoted in Readings in the Classical Historians by Michael Grant
✦ Dormice stuffed with pork
and pine kernels In contrast, many of Rome’s residents lived in crowded multistory apartment
✦ Ham boiled with figs and houses made of wood. The average Roman home was sparsely furnished with simple,
bay leaves, rubbed with very basic furniture made of wood. These pieces offered little style or comfort. Rome’s
honey, baked in pastry crust working people could barely make a living. The government provided free grain to
✦ Flamingo boiled with dates city residents, but food was still scarce. Most Romans ate simple meals that included
Dessert bread, cheese, and fruit.
✦ Stewed roses with pastry
✦ Stoned dates stuffed with Slaves and slavery. Slaves were among the least fortunate of the empire’s
nuts and pine kernels, fried population. Historians estimate that by the time Augustus took power, there were
in honey several million slaves in Italy representing a large fraction of the entire population.
✦ Hot African sweet-wine Slavery was also common in the eastern empire, where it had existed for centuries.
cakes with honey
It was much less common in Britain and other parts of the western empire.
Life could be cruel for slaves. Until the mid-second century A.D., there was
nothing to stop masters from treating slaves in any way they
wished. Records indicate that slaves who worked the mines or
large farms were often treated with extreme harshness and
brutality. Life was probably better for household slaves.
Often, skilled slaves held positions of trust, serving as
doctors, teachers, or secretaries. Unlike slaves in
Greece, Roman slaves could buy their freedom or be
freed by order of their masters. Nevertheless, Roman
slaves enjoyed few legal rights or protections and were
dependent on the good will of their masters.
Historians do not believe that slavery was essential to
the Roman economy. With so many poor workers available,
the labor of a free worker would have been as cheap as—or
Bowl with remains of eggs cheaper than—slave labor. A person gained status, as well as an
recovered from a Roman site easier lifestyle, by owning slaves.

164 CHAPTER 7
The roles of men, women, and children. The family was at the heart of Roman
society. The father held most of the power. He made all important decisions,
controlled family property, and conducted religious ceremonies. Women were not
without power, however. The mother managed the household, did the buying of food Baths
The Romans were fond of
and household needs, and helped her husband entertain guests. Evidence indicates
bathing, and they built baths
that women also participated in family decision-making. By the end of the republic,
wherever they settled. The
moreover, women—especially among the patrician class—had political influence.
baths were often filled with
Women could also own property and accept inheritances. water of different tempera-
Early education took place at home. Fathers taught their sons the duties tures. Bathers would go from
of citizenship, while mothers taught their daughters to manage a household. one pool to another. They
Children from the richest families continued their formal education at home. Other combined the dips with
children attended schools throughout the empire. Boys and girls entered elementary exercises followed by mas-
school at a relatively early age to study reading, writing, arithmetic, and music. If their sages with fine oils. Romans
families could afford it, boys went on to secondary school, where they studied gram- used public baths as social
mar, Greek, literature, composition, and expressive speech. In most cases, girls did not gathering places. Here peo-
receive as lengthy an education as did boys. ple could meet, gossip, and
even carry on business.
Religion. The early Romans sought to achieve harmony with their gods. These Today public baths are
included the lares (LAIR·eez), who were ancestral spirits. Family worship focused on popular gathering places
Vesta, the spirit who guarded fire and hearth. Over time, Roman religious beliefs were throughout Japan and other
increasingly influenced by Greek thought. countries. In the United
By the time of the empire, a state religion had evolved. Based on the old family States, public swimming
religion, this state religion had its own temples, ceremonies, and processions. Its pur- pools serve the same pur-
pose was to promote patriotism and loyalty to the state. In 12 B.C. Augustus became pose as the Roman baths.
its chief priest. Since the Romans believed that gods and spirits were everywhere, it was What role did public
baths serve in Rome?
necessary to please them through rituals and sacrifice. Thus, religious ritual was a part
of daily and state life.
Fun and games. The Romans enjoyed many types of amusements and entertain-
ment. They liked the theater, particularly comedies and satires. Mimes, jugglers,
dancers, acrobats, and clowns were all popular. Romans also enjoyed brutal sports.
Many spectators watched chariot racing in the huge Circus Maximus of Rome, a race-
track that could hold thousands of spectators. Romans also flocked to the Colosseum,
the great arena in Rome. Wild beasts, made more fierce by hunger, fought humans or
other animals in the arena. Combat between gladiators—trained fighters who were
usually slaves—drew the largest crowds. A gladiator fight most often ended in death
for one or both men. Public executions of criminals also drew large crowds and served
as a warning to would-be lawbreakers. Sometimes these executions took the form of
public combat between two or more condemned criminals. The Roman senator
Seneca described one such public execution.

“ The combatants have absolutely no protection. Their whole

bodies are exposed to one another’s blows and thus each
never fails to injure his opponent. . . . The spectators demand
that combatants who have killed their opponents be thrown to combatants
who will in turn kill them. . . . For every combatant, therefore, the outcome is
certain death.
” Seneca, quoted in Egypt, Greece and Rome by Charles Freeman

✔ READING CHECK: Summarizing What was daily life like for the Romans?

THE ROMAN WORLD 165

 Science and the Arts
The Romans were a practical people who were not much interested in learning just to
learn. Rather, they wanted to collect and organize information and put it to use.
Science, engineering, and architecture. During the A.D. 100s, the physician Galen
wrote several volumes that summarized all the medical knowledge of his day. For cen-
turies people thought he was the greatest authority on medicine. People also accepted
Ptolemy’s theories of astronomy for almost 1,500 years. Ptolemy, a scientist and
scholar from the great Egyptian city of Alexandria, developed a system of astronomy
and geography—the Ptolemaic system—based on the belief that the sun, the planets,
and the stars revolved around the earth. Ptolemy’s studies in geography contributed
to the classical world’s understanding of the earth’s physical features.
The Romans used scientific knowledge from the Greeks to plan cities, build water
and sewage systems, and improve farming and livestock breeding. Roman engineers
were masters at building roads, bridges, arenas, and public buildings. In most cities,
the Romans built aqueducts. These bridgelike structures carried water from
the mountains.
The Romans, unlike the Greeks, knew how to build the arch and the vaulted
dome. The most important contribution of Roman architects, however, was the use of
concrete, which made large buildings possible. Roman architects designed great pub-
lic buildings—courthouses, palaces, temples, arenas, and triumphal arches—for the
emperor and the government. Their buildings were large as well as pleasing to the eye.

The Roman Aqueducts

The Roman aqueduct system carried on stone arches. Other parts of the along the aqueduct course. Sediment
water from the mountains to the city, aqueduct system were made of carried in the water was deposited in
often by aboveground channels. These underground stone or terra-cotta these reservoirs.
channels occasionally ran over valleys pipes. Waterproof cement lined the
pipes to stop leaks. The Romans carefully Understanding Science
and Technology
sloped the aqueduct system to allow
gravity to move water along its path. An How does the structure of the
aqueduct not only carried water, it also aqueduct system enable gravity
purified it. Reservoirs were constructed to cause water to flow?

Many Roman aqueducts contained filtering systems. Water

flowed through the filter’s upper chambers. Dirt and sediment
dropped into lower chambers, which were periodically cleaned.
Literature. Augustus and several of the Good Emperors encouraged the
development of art and literature. Virgil, who lived during Augustus’s reign,
was the greatest of the Roman poets. His epic poem, the Aeneid, tells the story
of Aeneas, a prince of Troy. Another Roman poet, Horace, wrote of human
emotions in odes, satires, and epistles (letters). A third poet, Ovid, wrote love
lyrics and the Metamorphoses, a collection of myths written in verse. The
great Roman historian Tacitus wrote Annals, a history of Rome under the
Julio-Claudian emperors. In this work, Tacitus expresses his criticism of the
government set up by Augustus. Tacitus was especially concerned with the
growing gap between rich and poor and with the decline of Roman moral
standards. He strongly criticized the pampered and luxurious lifestyles of the
wealthy and the loss of public virtue and respect for the rule of law. Tacitus
called for a return to the simpler, more straightforward and traditional
behavior that he believed had characterized the republic. Plutarch, a Greek,
wrote Parallel Lives, a collection of Greek and Roman biographies. Each
description of a famous Greek is followed by a description of a Roman whose
life is similar to the Greek’s life in some important way.
Language. Romans learned the alphabet from the Etruscans, who had
adapted the Greeks’ alphabet. Later they changed some of the letters.
Today we use the Roman, or Latin, alphabet of 23 letters, plus J, Y, and W, which the
English added after Roman times. Latin Nearly all medieval
Long after the end of the Roman Empire, the Latin language continued to be used European universities used Latin
in most of Europe. The Roman Catholic Church held services in Latin until the in their classes. What does this
A.D. 1960s. Latin is the parent of the modern Romance (from the word Roman) page tell us about the impact
languages. These include Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Many of of the Latin language over time?
the scientific terms we use today have either Greek or Latin origins. In fact, a large frac-
tion of all English words have Latin origins.
✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information In what ways did the Romans
contribute to science, architecture, literature, and language?

SECTION 4 REVIEW
1. Define and explain the significance: 3. Summarizing Make a chart 4.
gladiators like this to summarize the lives a. What factors contributed to the strength of the
aqueducts of the Romans. Roman Empire? How?
Description
b. What do you think are the five most important
2. Identify and explain the significance: contributions the Romans made to law and
Daily Life
Galen government, engineering and architecture, and
Ptolemy Slavery literature and language? Explain your answers.
Virgil
Horace Roles of men 5.
Ovid and women Making Generalizations Imagine that you are a
Tacitus Religion teenager belonging to the upper class and living in
Plutarch the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana. Write a
Entertainment
short diary entry recounting the events of a typical
day.
Consider:
• the importance of your family
keyword: SP3 HP7 • the kind of schooling and education you receive
• how being a boy or a girl influences your life
THE ROMAN WORLD 167
 The Rise of
5 Christianity
The Main Idea The Story Continues Although the Pax Romana was marked
How did the conditions Jews The rise of Christianity by a lack of military conflicts, the Romans still faced challenges.
faced in Judaea contribute and its gradual spread
Unifying a vast empire that included many different peoples with
to the rise of Christianity? across the empire
changed the culture of varying cultures and beliefs was often difficult. Most Roman
What difficulties did early
Christians experience while
the Romans. officials considered their culture and beliefs superior to all others.
under the influence of the One of their greatest challenges would come from a group of people
Roman Empire? whose ideals and values soon threatened those of the empire.
What changes occurred
during the late Roman
Empire that helped
establish Christianity The Beginning of Christianity
and stabilize the church?
To keep peace, the Romans allowed people in the provinces to practice their different
religions, as long as the people honored the gods of Rome and the “divine spirit” of the
emperor. Since most people of the time were polytheistic, worshipping more gods did
rabbis not present a great problem.
martyrs
bishops Jews and the Roman Empire. In Roman times many Jews lived in Judaea, which
patriarchs became a Roman province in A.D. 6. At first, Jews were not required to honor Roman
pope gods or the “divine spirit” of the emperor because the Romans did not want to violate
the Jewish belief in one God. Still, some Jews, known as the Zealots, feared Judaism
would be weakened by outside influences and therefore supported rebellion against
Jesus Rome to establish their own independent state. Other Jews believed that God would
soon send a Messiah, or savior, to lead the Jews to freedom.
In A.D. 66 to A.D. 70 the Jews revolted against Rome. Afterward, the Romans sacked
the Jewish holy city of Jerusalem and destroyed all but the retaining wall of the Second
Temple. The Jewish historian Josephus recounted the attack on the temple:
The Roman government at
first tried to stop the spread
of Christianity. Use “
As the flames shot into the air the Jews sent up a cry
that matched the calamity and dashed to the rescue, with
or other current event no thought now of saving their lives or husbanding their
sources to find examples of strength; for that which hitherto they had guarded so devotedly was
religious groups around the
world that currently face gov-
disappearing before their eyes.
”
Josephus, quoted in Readings in the Classical Historians by Michael Grant
ernment opposition. Record
your findings in your journal.
Today the western wall is known as the Wailing
Wall. Jews consider it a sacred site of their faith. The
destruction of the Second Temple marked a major
turning point in Jewish history. With the temple
gone, the priests’ role weakened. Rabbis—
Jewish scholars who interpreted scripture and
were learned in Jewish law—became the
leaders of Jewish congregations.

In A.D. 70 Roman soldiers destroyed the

Second Temple and removed many of
its sacred objects as spoils of war.

168 CHAPTER 7
 In A.D. 135 the Roman army, under the emperor Hadrian, brutally put down the
last Jewish revolt. Afterward, Hadrian banned all Jews from the holy city of Jerusalem.
Jews built communities outside Jerusalem, however. Here they carried on their Jewish
faith and culture. In this setting, Christianity arose. This new religion was founded by go.hrw.com
KEYWORD: Holt Researcher
the followers of the Jewish teacher Jesus of Nazareth.
FreeFind: Jesus
The teachings of Jesus. Jesus had begun teaching around A.D. 27. He wandered the After reading more about
countryside with his disciples, or followers. According to the Gospels, Jesus created Jesus on the CD-ROM create
great excitement wherever he went. He performed miracles of healing and defended an illustration or collage that
the poor. The teachings of Jesus as he traveled through the Judaean countryside have describes something about his
life or teachings.
become one of the greatest influences on the Western world. His life and teachings are
recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The Gospels make up the
first four books of the New Testament of the Christian Bible.
Jesus’s teachings were grounded in Jewish traditions. He emphasized that people
must love God above all else, and they must love others as they love themselves. Jesus
taught that there is only one true God. He also taught that God cares more for people,
especially those who are suffering, than he does for laws and rituals. Jesus explained
these views in the Sermon on the Mount.

“ Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the

kingdom of God.
Blessed are you who hunger now, for you will be satisfied.
Blessed are you who weep now, for you will laugh.
Blessed are you when men hate you, when they exclude
you and insult you.
” Luke 6:20–22, N.I.V.

Jesus’s teachings were for all people. They promised forgiveness and eternal life for
those who accepted by faith what God had already done for them.
The death of Jesus. The Romans feared that Jesus would lead an uprising. To them,
he was an enemy of the state. Jesus was arrested and put on trial before Pontius Pilate,
the Roman governor. Soon afterward, Jesus was crucified.
According to the New Testament, Jesus arose from the dead after his crucifixion.
He remained on Earth for 40 more days. Then he ascended into heaven. His followers
believed that the resurrection and the ascension proved that Jesus was the Messiah.
They called him Jesus Christ, after the Greek word for Messiah—Christos. They
believed Christ had died for the sins of human beings. Through his death, all people
could be redeemed, or saved, from God’s final judgment. The resurrection became the
central event of a new religion—Christianity.
✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect What factors and events in Judaea
contributed to the rise of Christianity?

Jesus and children Jesus often

used children as examples in his
The Spread of Christianity teachings. According to the Gospel
Jesus’s disciples believed that the day of God’s final judgment was coming soon. They of Matthew, Jesus once said,
“Unless you change and become
set out to spread this message, working mainly in the Jewish communities of Palestine. like children, you will never enter
At first Christianity spread slowly. Its appeal increased, however, as life in the empire the kingdom of heaven.” Why do
became more difficult. Christianity accepted everyone, poor and rich alike. It prom- you think Jesus suggested his
ised hope and freedom from the penalties of sin and death. followers become like children?

THE ROMAN WORLD 169

 At first the Roman government viewed Christians as a Jewish sect and thus freed
them from the obligation to worship the emperor. By the A.D. 100s, however, Rome
recognized that Christians were different. Christians often spoke out against the idea
of worshiping more than one god. They also tried to convert others to their point of
view. The Romans came to view these actions as an attack on Roman religion and law
and soon outlawed Christianity. The Romans occasionally seized Christian property
and executed Christians. Many Christians became martyrs, meaning they were put
to death for their beliefs. These Roman efforts, however, failed to stop the spread
of Christianity.
In the A.D. 200s, after the era of the Five Good Emperors, violence and unrest
again shook the Roman Empire. Many people turned to Christianity for hope. By the
A.D. 300s, the Christian church had become so large that the government could not
punish all its members. In response, Roman law accepted Christianity as a religion.
One person who did much
to spread Christianity was the
martyr Paul, who founded
✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information What difficulties did Christians
churches throughout the experience under Roman rule?
eastern Mediterranean.

The Spread of Christianity, A.D. 300–A.D. 600

Interpreting Maps Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire.
■ Skills Assessment: 1. Places and Regions Around which physical features did the church establish the five Christian cities
of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem? 2. Evaluating Why might this have been so?

170 CHAPTER 7
The Romans Adopt Christianity
The situation of Christians improved greatly in A.D. 312. In that year, the Roman
emperor Constantine declared his support for Christianity. Constantine promoted
Christianity throughout the empire and was baptized on his deathbed in A.D. 337. In
A.D. 391 the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire.
Within 400 years Christianity had spread across the Roman Empire.
During the later years of the Roman Empire, the Christian church became well
organized. Priests conducted local services and ceremonies. Above the priests were
bishops, who headed the church in each city. Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem became centers of the church. The bishops of these empire
cities were called patriarchs. Over time the patriarch of Rome took the title of pope
(from a Latin word meaning “father”). The pope claimed to be supreme over the
other patriarchs. The bishops traced their authority from Jesus’s disciples,
mainly Peter, who was considered the first pope. Any decisions made by the
bishops and the pope were equivalent to those coming directly from the disci-
ples, who had received their authority straight from Jesus.
Church councils also helped strengthen the Christian church. In A.D. 325
the council at Nicaea (ny·SEE·uh) wrote down the main beliefs of the church.
It claimed the existence of the Trinity—three persons, or forms, in one
God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Today the Trinity is a central belief
of Christians.
✔ READING CHECK: Sequencing What changes and events occurred during the
late Roman Empire that helped establish Christianity and stabilize the church?

The Trinity This

stained glass window from a modern Christian church
in Chicago, Illinois, portrays the idea of the Trinity.

What does this window tell us about

the strength of the Christian church over time?

SECTION 5 REVIEW
1. Define and explain the significance: 3. Sequencing Make a flow chart 4.
rabbis like the one below to sequence a. Review the information about Judaism in Chap-
martyrs the main events that led to the ter 2. In what ways was Christianity the same as
bishops rise of Christianity in the Roman Judaism? In what ways was it different?
patriarchs Empire. b. What caused the church to become stronger
pope Second Temple destroyed and more established during the later years of
the Roman Empire?
2. Identify and explain the significance:
Jesus 5.
Identifying a Point of View Write a paragraph
explaining why the Romans feared Jesus and
considered Christianity a threat.
Consider:
• what Jesus said and taught
keyword: SP3 HP7 • how people responded to Jesus and his
teachings

THE ROMAN WORLD 171

 The Fall of the
6 Western Empire
The Main Idea The Story Continues One Roman leader who strongly supported
What problems did the Internal conflicts and Christianity was Empress Galla Placidia (c. A.D. 390–A.D. 450).
Roman Empire have to invading forces weak-
The era in which she lived was not a good one for the Romans,
deal with during the A.D. ened the Roman
Empire and led to its however. Years of poor leadership and conflicts with other peoples
200s?
How did the reigns of
decline. began to take their toll. Eventually such problems would result in
Diocletian and Constantine the collapse of the Roman Empire.
slow the decline of the
empire?
What factors led to the final
decline of the Roman
Troubled Times Arise
Empire in the West? The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, died in A.D. 180. His son, Commodus,
proved to be an unpopular emperor who was killed in his bed on the last day of
A.D. 192. Within a few years the empire began to slide into crisis. Between A.D. 235 and

inflation A.D. 284, many ambitious men competed for the title of emperor. Throughout this
period invaders threatened the borders and civil war tore at the empire.
Rising inflation. In an effort to collect more taxes, the government had granted citi-
Diocletian zenship to all free people of the empire in A.D. 212. But defense of the frontiers and
Constantine civil wars were costly, and the end of expansion meant wealth was no longer pouring
Goths into the empire. The result was a shortage of silver for coins—the main form of offi-
Vandals
cial currency. Emperors responded by decreasing the amount of silver in each coin so
Huns
Attila that they could mint more money. By A.D. 270 a silver coin contained little actual
silver. To receive the same amount of silver as before, merchants raised prices. A rise
in prices caused by a decrease in the value of money is called inflation.

In many countries today,

Increasing insecurity. As the economic crisis deepened and attacks on the borders
governments depend upon continued, daily life became harder for many people. Many small farmers were forced
military power to control to sell their farms to land speculators and large landowners. During the A.D. 250s and
their citizens. Use 260s, Athens and Antioch were both sacked by invaders. The rich were able to escape
or other current event the cities for the countryside, but city workers were not so lucky. They were unable to
sources to identify modern leave their jobs and, in any case, they had no other place to go.
governments that use
armed force to maintain
✔ READING CHECK: Identifying Cause and Effect How did events and government
policies contribute to the empire’s economic problems in the A.D. 200s?
political power. Record your
findings in your journal.

Inflation became
so severe that some
people stopped using
money and traded
goods and services
with others.

172 CHAPTER 7
Two Able Emperors Attempt Reform Diocletian’s Wage and
By A.D. 284 the Romans had made some progress in pushing back the invaders. Things Price Controls
were far from secure, however, and the economy was still shaky. It would take the Wages per day
efforts of two emperors—Diocletian and Constantine—to slow the empire’s decline. Farm laborer . . . . 24 denarii
Sewer cleaner . . . 25 denarii
Diocletian. Diocletian (dy·uh·KLEE·shuhn), a general in the Roman army, was made
Carpenter . . . . . . 50 denarii
emperor in A.D. 284. An able administrator, he realized that the empire had grown too Wall painter . . . . . 75 denarii
large for one person to manage. He appointed a co-emperor and two assistants, or Picture
caesars. Diocletian ruled in the East, his co-emperor in the West. Under Diocletian the painter . . . . . . . 150 denarii
government controlled almost every aspect of life. Defense and security of the empire Baker . . . . . . . . . . 50 denarii
came first. Individual freedom was second. Diocletian ended lawlessness within Prices per pound
the empire by driving out the invading barbarian tribes. He also tried, although Pork . . . . . . . . . . . 12 denarii
unsuccessfully, to improve the economy by controlling prices and wages. Beef . . . . . . . . . . . 8 denarii
Diocletian and his co-emperor retired in A.D. 305. Their caesars now became co- Sea fish . . . . . . . . 24 denarii
Second-
emperors, with their sons as caesars. When Constantius, the new emperor in the West,
quality fish . . . . 15 denarii
died suddenly in A.D. 306, his son Constantine took his place as emperor. The emperor
in the East, however, refused to recognize Constantine as co-emperor. The divided rule Interpreting the Chart
Diocletian had created quickly broke down. Civil war once again racked the empire. Diocletian passed wage and
price controls in an attempt
Constantine. In the end Constantine won out and became sole emperor in A.D. 324. to curb inflation. The move
Constantine is remembered for many things, including supporting Christianity did not work. People
throughout the empire. According to the historian Eusebius, Constantine began sup- hoarded goods and prices
porting Christianity after receiving a vision the day before his victory over his rival soared. What can you tell
for emperor: about Roman society from
the amounts set for various
jobs and goods?
“ Around noontime, when the day was already beginning to
decline, he saw before him in the sky the sign of a cross of
light. He said it was above the sun and it bore the inscription,
‘Conquer with this.’ The vision astounded him, as it astounded the whole
army that was with him.
”
Eusebius, quoted in Readings in the Classical Historians by Michael Grant

Constantine is also remembered for creating a new capital city in the East called Con-
stantinople. The new capital served as a base from which to defend the eastern empire.
After Constantine died in A.D. 337, the empire was stable for about 50 more years.
The government, however, was inefficient and corrupt. By A.D. 400, two empires Constantinople, the empire’s
existed, one in the West and one in the East. As the western empire grew weaker and new capital city, was built on
the site of the former Greek
weaker, the eastern empire became the center of power and wealth. city of Byzantium. Today it is
✔ READING CHECK: Analyzing Information What
the Turkish city of Istanbul.

reforms and other actions did Diocletian and Constantine

introduce that helped delay the decline of the Roman
Empire?
 Invasions into the
Roman Empire,
A.D. 340–A.D. 481 The Final Invasions
Interpreting Maps By the Diocletian and Constantine were able to hold the empire together through their
A.D. 300s, invading tribes
efforts and reforms. The threat of invasion from the north and east never disappeared,
were attacking the Roman
however. The most troublesome of the invaders were the Germans. These tribes—the
Empire on most of its fron-
tiers. This contributed greatly Goths (made up of the western Visigoths and eastern Ostrogoths), Vandals, Franks,
to the collapse of the and others—lived north of the Rhine and Danube Rivers.
Western Roman Empire.
The Goths and the Vandals. By the late A.D. 300s large numbers of Goths were flood-
■ Skills Assessment:
ing into the empire in an attempt to escape invaders from the east. The Romans treated
1. Locate Locate the place
and date of the major battle
them badly. In response, the Goths revolted in A.D. 378. The heavily armed Goths
that took place in the Eastern quickly crushed the large Roman army when they met in battle at Adrianople. Among
Roman Empire. 2. Analyzing the dead was the eastern emperor Valens. The Romans no longer had the upper hand
Information How did this against the invaders. In the wake of the defeat, the Romans allowed the Goths to settle
attack reflect the weakening in the empire under their own leaders. In return, the Goths agreed to join the Roman
of Roman forces?
army. The peace this brought was short-lived. In A.D. 410 the Visigoth king Alaric and
his troops sacked Rome. It was the first time Rome had been sacked in 800 years.
While the Romans were busy defending themselves against the Visigoths, the
Vandals crossed the border with little opposition. They proved to be a serious threat
to the empire. In A.D. 429 the Vandals invaded North Africa, quickly conquering the
area. In A.D. 455 they returned to Europe to sack Rome. Today’s use of the word “van-
dal” suggests the terror and destruction that accompanied these continuing invasions.
174 CHAPTER 7
The Huns. The Goths had moved into the empire to escape the advancing Huns. The
Huns were nomadic peoples from Asia who lived by raiding and plundering.
The Greek historian Ammianus Marcellinus described the Huns in vivid detail:

“ They have squat bodies, strong limbs, and thick necks. . . .

They wear garments of linen or of the skins of fieldmice
Identifying Bias What evidence
stitched together, and there is no difference between their
of bias is there in Ammianus
clothing whether they are at home or abroad.
Once they have put their necks into some dingy shirt they never take it Marcellinus’s description of
off or change it until it rots and falls to pieces from incessant [constant] the Huns?
wear. . . . Buying or selling, eating or drinking, are all done by day or night by
horseback, and they even bow forward over their beasts’ narrow necks to
enjoy a deep and dreamy sleep.
”
Ammianus Marcellinus, quoted in Readings in the Classical Historians by Michael Grant

By the mid-400s the Huns were led by the fierce Attila. In A.D. 451 Attila launched
an attack on Gaul. His troops were defeated by an army of Romans and Visigoths in a
great battle near Châlons-sur-Marne. Attila’s army quickly broke up, but it was too late
to save the Western Roman Empire. In A.D. 476 a barbarian commander overthrew
Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor in the West.

Results of the invasions. The Germans who invaded the West were made up of many
different tribes. Thus, they set up separate tribal kingdoms once they were in power.
This made it impossible for them to rule a united empire. In many areas, people left the
cities in search of food and greater safety. In the country, soldiers often trampled crops
during battles, and weeds choked the fields. Learning declined as schools and libraries
were destroyed. Over time, knowledge of the world and the past declined.
✔ READING CHECK: Drawing Inferences What roles did the Goths, Vandals, and
Huns play in the decline of the Roman Empire in the West?

Causes of the Decline

People sometimes refer to the overthrow of Romulus Augustulus as the “fall” of the Continuous conflict with
Roman Empire. Actually, no such thing as a single fall occurred. Instead, the empire in nomadic peoples from central
and southwestern Asia posed
the West gradually declined. The empire in the East would remain until A.D. 1453. an ever-growing threat to Rome
For centuries historians have debated how this mighty empire could disappear. during the late empire.
The most obvious cause of the final collapse is the mass of German invasions triggered
by the Huns pushing westward from Asia. This put a terrible strain on Roman
resources, already spread too thin. Overwhelmed and short on Roman recruits, the
army became dependent on German troops, who gained more and more power and
freedom. But this was simply the last blow. It took centuries to set the stage for the final
outcome. Between the A.D. 200s and the A.D. 400s almost no part of Roman life—
political, military, economic, or social—escaped decay.

Political and military weaknesses. In an age of slow transportation, the Roman

Empire grew too fast and too large. Rome tried to control this vast empire with a
government designed for a small city-state. Faced with governing the entire Mediter-
ranean world, the system failed. Competition for power, oppressive public service, and
corrupt courts added to the problems. The army also contributed to the decline by
interfering with the choice of emperor and making the government unstable.
THE ROMAN WORLD 175
 Making Generalizations and Predictions

Why the Western Empire Fell

Many factors contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It is possible
to make generalizations about the causes of the fall by analyzing information
about these factors. It is also possible to use the same information to make
predictions about how the Romans might have prevented the decline. Examine
the information below, then complete the Skills Practice.

A Historian’s View:
Historian Edward Gibbon summed up his view of the causes of the fall
of Rome.

The most
“This long peace, and the uniform government of the Romans,
immediate cause of
introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals of the empire. the fall of the Western
The minds of men were gradually reduced to the same level, the fire Roman Empire was the
of genius was extinguished, and even the military spirit evaporated.” series of invasions by
Germanic groups. This skull shows the topknot
that Germanic soldiers wore to identify themselves.

Economic Social
• High taxes • Growing divisions between
• High inflation rich and poor
• Loss of war loot • Loss of values
• Decline of manufacturing • Loss of patriotism
• Decline of agriculture

Military Political
• German invasions
Causes of the Fall
• Ineffective city-state system
• High cost of defense of the Western • Division of empire
• Dependence on German troops Roman Empire • Growing power of Eastern Empire
• Loss of soldiers’ loyalty to Rome • Corruption and unstable
• Military interference in leadership
government • Burden of public service

Skills Reminder Skills Practice

A generalization is a broad statement about a subject based Making Generalizations Examine the written and visual
on a variety of facts. The statement may not be exactly true information above. Based on this information, write a gen-
for all cases, but represents a safe assumption given the eral statement about the causes of the fall of the Western
existing facts. Roman Empire.
A prediction is a statement about what might happen Making Predictions Use the same information to write a
based on certain events or conditions. To make predictions, short essay predicting how the Romans might have pre-
examine existing information and suggest possible out- vented the decline by avoiding or changing one or more of
comes. the factors.

176 CHAPTER 7
 Ambitious generals often seized control, assassinated the emperor, and took the
throne. The soldiers lost their loyalty to Rome. Instead, they served anyone who could
pay them more. Faced with poor leadership, discipline crumbled. Also, some Roman
leaders recruited whole tribes of German troops, granting them money and goods in
return for their service. As a result, the Romans became too dependent upon German
troops for defense. Rome:
An Enduring Legacy
Economic decline. Strains on the economy were possibly even more damaging. The The Roman Empire collapsed
defense and maintenance of the empire was expensive. Heavy taxes crushed the people. more than 1,500 years ago.
But even heavy taxes could not provide enough money. The problem was compounded Even so, the Roman influence
once the empire stopped expanding. The government could no longer depend upon still survives. The letters you
the gold and goods it plundered during foreign wars. As manufacturing and agricul- see on this page are a gift
ture declined, the Roman economy grew increasingly weaker and more fragmented. from the Romans. Roman
numerals are still used.
Social change. Roman wealth had always been in the hands of a small part of the pop- Also, our calendar is based
ulation. As the empire grew, the number of poor citizens increased. The division on the one developed by
between the rich and the poor contributed to social Julius Caesar in A.D. 46.
decay. Most early Romans were stern, honest, hard- Roman influence is also
working, and patriotic people who believed it was their evident throughout the
duty to serve the government. Romans of the later world. Two key influences
empire lost this patriotism. Most took little interest in are Roman law and Chris-
tianity. In addition, Roman
the government and lacked political
bridges and Roman roads
honesty.
remain today. The ruins of
✔ READING CHECK Analyzing many Roman buildings con-
Information What long-term tinue to inspire people. In
factors contributed to the decline these and many more ways,
of the Roman Empire in the Rome lives on. Can you
West? identify evidence of
Roman influence in the
photograph of St. Peter’s
St. Peter’s Basilica is an enduring Basilica?
example of Roman architecture.

SECTION 6 REVIEW
1. Define and explain the significance: 3. Evaluating Use the following 4.
inflation graphic organizer to outline the fac- a. What problems faced the Roman Empire
tors that led to the rise and fall of during the A.D. 200s?
2. Identify and explain the significance: the Western Roman Empire. b. How did invasions by the Visigoths, Huns,
Diocletian Rome and others contribute to the problems in
Constantine E F the Roman Empire?
Goths S A
I L
Vandals 5.
R L
Huns Problem Solving Write a brief newspaper
Attila editorial expressing your opinion about
what Rome might have done differently to
solve some of its problems and lessen its
decline.
Consider:
• problems within the empire
keyword: SP3 HP7 • solutions tried by Diocletian
• forces outside the empire

THE ROMAN WORLD 177

 7 Review
Creating a Time Line SECTION 5 (pp. 168–171)

Copy the time line below onto a sheet of paper. Complete the The Rise of Christianity
time line by filling in the events, individuals, and dates from the 9. How did Christianity begin and what was unique
chapter that you think were significant. Pick three events and about it?
explain why you think they were significant. 10. What factors helped Christianity gain acceptance in the
1000 B.C. 500 B.C. A.D. 1 A.D. 500 Roman Empire?
SECTION 6 (pp. 172–177)

The Fall of the Western Empire

Writing a Summary 11. How did Diocletian and Constantine try to strengthen
Using standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and the Roman Empire?
punctuation, write an overview of the events in the chapter. 12. What were some causes of Rome’s decline?

Identifying People and Ideas Reviewing Themes

Identify the following terms or individuals and explain their 1. Government What two major factors helped Rome
significance: unify its empire and maintain peace?
1. republic 6. Julius Caesar 2. Culture What ideas and inventions did the Romans
2. checks and balances 7. Augustus (Octavian) borrow and adapt from the Greeks?
3. dictator 8. aqueducts 3. Global Relations How did Rome’s relationship with
4. Punic Wars 9. Jesus the people it conquered change over time?
5. Pax Romana 10. Constantine
Thinking Critically
Understanding Main Ideas 1. Comparing Compare the role of citizens in Athenian
SECTION 1 (pp. 150–154) democracy with that of citizens in Rome’s republic.
Founding the Roman Republic 2. Contrasting How did the governments of the Roman
1. How was the Roman Republic’s government organized? Republic and the Roman Empire differ?
2. How did the Conflict of the Orders change how the 3. Sequencing Trace the spread of Christianity in the
Roman Republic was governed? Roman world.
4. Identifying Cause and Effect How did the use of
SECTION 2 (pp. 155–157)
written law strengthen Rome’s government?
Rome Expands Its Borders
3. What was the outcome of the Punic Wars?
Writing About History
4. What problems occurred as a result of Rome’s expansion?
Analyzing Information Romans were skilled builders who
SECTION 3 (pp. 158–161) developed many new ideas. Write a description of how
The Birth of the Roman Empire Roman engineering ideas are used today. Use the following
5. How did Julius Caesar rise to power? chart to organize your thoughts before you begin writing.
6. How did the republic become the Roman Empire?
Roman Examples Examples Today
SECTION 4 (pp. 162–167)

Roman Society and Culture Ideas and

Innovations in
7. What was the economy of the Roman Empire like?
Architecture
8. In what areas did Rome make great contributions to the and Engineering
world? Give examples to support your answers.

178 CHAPTER 7
Interpreting Maps Analyzing Primary Sources
Study the map below. Then use the information on the map Read the following quote by the historian Polybius, who lived
to help you answer the questions that follow. in Rome during the 100s B.C., then answer the questions.

Ancient Italy, c. 600 B.C. “Having then got rid of these rulers by assassi-
nation or exile, they do not venture to set up a
king again, being still in terror of the injustice
to which this led before; nor dare they intrust
the common interests again to more than one,
considering the recent example of their miscon-
duct: and therefore, as the only sound hope left
them is that which depends upon themselves,
they are driven to take refuge in that; and so
changed the constitution from an oligarchy to a
democracy.”

1. Which of the following statements correctly describes how 3. Which of the following statements best describes the
geographic factors influenced Rome’s rise to power? author’s point of view?
a. The Alps protected Italy from invasion from the north. a. People cannot pick good leaders.
b. The rugged Apennine Mountains made it difficult to b. People have no control over their leaders.
unify Italy. c. Power should be limited to a few people.
c. Italy’s location helped Rome control the eastern and d. Democracy is a response to past abuses.
western Mediterranean.
d. Italy’s rugged coast discouraged sea trade. 4. When interpreting a primary source, historians examine
the historical context in which the source was written.
2. Using information from the map, support your choice What events in Rome’s history might have influenced
of statements in question 1. Polybius’s point of view? Give specific examples.

Alternative Assessment
Building Your Portfolio
Internet Activity: go.hrw.com
Government KEYWORD: SP3 WH7
America’s views on the rights and Choose a topic on the Roman World to:
responsibilities of its citizens, including
• analyze the Aeneid to learn the connection between
the notion of equality before the law, owe much to ancient Troy and Roman culture.
ancient Rome and to Jewish and Christian beliefs. • create a model or structure that employs Roman
Compile a list of the ways in which these legal and architectural, artistic, or decorative styles.
moral traditions have influenced American practices. • research the destruction of Pompeii and review the tec-
Then use the list to create a chart that summarizes tonic causes of volcanoes.
your findings.

THE ROMAN WORLD 179