Vector operators and plane curves
Radu MICULESCU
Transilvania University of Braşov
December 2020
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 1 / 45
Scalar …elds and vector …elds
A function ϕ : U ! R, where U is an open set from R3 , is called a scalar
…eld.
A function v : U ! R3 , where U is an open set from R3 , is called a vector
…eld.
Here v = Pi + Qj + Rk, where P, O, R : U ! R.
We say that ϕ belongs to C 1 if it there exist
∂ϕR ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∂x , ∂y and ∂z and they are
continuous.
We say that v belongs to C 1 if it there exist ∂P ∂P ∂P ∂Q ∂Q ∂Q ∂R ∂R
∂x , ∂y , ∂z , ∂x , ∂y , ∂z , ∂x , ∂y
∂R
and ∂z and they are continuous.
In a similar way we de…ne what does it mean that ϕ and v belong to C 2 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 2 / 45
Examples
If we consider the temperature in each point of a open set of R3 we get a
scalar …eld.
If we consider the velocity in each point of a water ‡ow we get a vector
…eld.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 3 / 45
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 4 / 45
The gradient of a scalar …eld
If ϕ : U ! R is a C 1 scalar …eld, the vector …eld grad ϕ : U ! R3 ,
described by
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
grad ϕ = i+ j+ k,
∂x ∂y ∂z
is called its gradient.
The physical meaning of the gradient: it represents the direction in which
ϕ changes most rapidly.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 5 / 45
Example
If ϕ : R3 ! R is given by
ϕ(x, y , z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
for every (x, y , x ) 2 R3 , then grad ϕ : R3 ! R3 is described by
grad ϕ(x, y , z ) = 2(xi + y j + zk ),
for every (x, y , x ) 2 R3 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 6 / 45
The divergence of a vector …eld
If v = Pi + Qj + Rk : U ! R3 is a C 1 vector …eld, the scalar …eld
div v : U ! R described by
∂P ∂Q ∂R
div v = + + ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
is called its divergence.
The physical meaning of the divergence: it represents the density of the
‡ux, i.e. a local measure of its "outgoingness". A point whose divergence
is positive is called a source (the ‡ux is outgoing). A point whose
divergence is negative is called a sink.
A vector …eld whose divergence is 0 is called solenoidal (or incompressible).
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 7 / 45
Example
If v : R3 ! R3 is given by
v (x, y , z ) = x 2 y i + yzj 2xyzk
then div v : R3 ! R is described by
∂ 2 ∂ ∂
div v = (x y ) + (yz ) + ( 2xyz ) = z,
∂x ∂y ∂z
for every (x, y , x ) 2 R3 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 8 / 45
The curl of a vector …eld
If v = Pi + Qj + Rk : U ! R3 is a C 1 vector …eld, the vector …eld
curl v : U ! R3 described by
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
curl v = ( )i + ( )j + ( )k =
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
=" ∂x ∂y ∂z "
P Q R
is called its curl.
The physical meaning of the curl: it represents the vorticity (circulation
per unit area) of the …eld. It measure the tendency for the vector …eld to
swirl around.
A vector …eld whose curl is 0 is called irrotational.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 9 / 45
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 10 / 45
Example
If v : R3 ! R3 is given by
v (x, y , z ) = x 2 y i + yzj 2xyzk,
then curl v : R3 ! R is described by
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl v = " ∂x ∂y ∂z "=
x 2y yz 2xyz
= (2xz + y )i + 2yzj x 2 k,
for every (x, y , x ) 2 R3 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 11 / 45
"Del" or "Nabla" operator
∂ ∂ ∂
r= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
grad ϕ = r ϕ
div v = r v
curl v = r v
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 12 / 45
Vector operator identities I
If ϕ : U ! R is a C 2 scalar …eld, then
∂2 ϕ ∂2 ϕ ∂2 ϕ
div(grad ϕ) = ∆ϕ = + 2 + 2
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
and
curl(grad ϕ) = 0 i.e. r (r ϕ) = 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 13 / 45
Vector operator identities II
If v : U ! R3 is a C 2 vector …eld, then
div(curl v ) = 0 i.e. r (r v) = 0
∂2 v ∂2 v ∂2 v
curl(curl v ) = grad(div v ) ( + + ),
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
where the partial derivative of a vectorial …led is computed on components.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 14 / 45
A plane curve
A plane curve can be described in two ways:
Parametric description
Im c
where c : I R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t in the interval I is such that
0 0
(x (t ))2 + (y (t ))2 6= 0,
for all t 2 I
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 15 / 45
Example
c : [0, 2π ) ! R given by
c (t ) = (r sin t, r cos t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ), where r > 0
Note that
0 0
((r sin t ) )2 + ((r cos t ) )2 = r 2 (cos2 t + sin2 t ) = r 6= 0,
for every t 2 [0, 2π ).
Since
Im c = f(x, y ) 2 R2 j x 2 + y 2 = 1g
the curve is the circle centered in origion and of radius r .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 16 / 45
Implicit description
∂f ∂f
f(x, y ) 2 R2 j f (x, y ) = 0 and ( (x, y ), (x, y )) 6= 0g,
∂x ∂y
where f : D R2 ! R is a di¤erentiable function.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 17 / 45
Example
f(x, y ) 2 R2 j x 3 + 3x 2 y y 3 + 9 = 0g
Note that in this case we have f : R2 ! R given by
f (x, y ) = x 3 + 3x 2 y y 3 + 9,
for every (x, y ) 2 R2 .
We have
∂f
(x, y ) = 3x (x + 2y )
∂x
and
∂f
(x, y ) = 3(x 2 y 2 ),
∂y
∂f ∂f
so the only point which satis…es ∂x (x, y ) = ∂y (x, y ) = 0 is (0, 0) but it
3 2 3
does not satisfy the equation x + 3x y y + 9 = 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 18 / 45
Tangent line and normal line
Parametrized curves
Let us consider the curve C = Im c, where c : I R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t 2 I and P0 = c (t0 ) 2 C .
The tangent line to C at P0 is the line passing through P0 and having the
0
direction given by c (t0 ) and it has the equation
x x (t0 ) y y ( t0 )
0 = 0 .
x ( t0 ) y (t0 )
The normal line to C at P0 is the line passing through P0 which is
perpendicular to the tangent line to C at P0 . It has the equation
0 0
(x x (t0 ))x (t0 ) + (y y (t0 ))y (t0 ) = 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 19 / 45
Example
Write the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C at the
intersection points with the Ox axis, where C is given by Im c,
c : Rrf0, 2g ! R2 being described by
3 t2 3
c (t ) = ( , ),
t2 2t t
for every t 2 Rrf0, 2g.
The intersections with the Ox axis are
p
P1 = c ( 3)
and p
P2 = c ( 3).
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 20 / 45
We have
0 6(t 1) 3
c (t ) = ( 2 2
, 1 + 2 ),
(t 2t ) t
so p p
0
c( 3) = (2(3 3 5), 2)
and
0 p p
c ( 3) = ( 2(3 3 + 5), 2)
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 21 / 45
The tangent line to C at P1 has the equation
3p
x 3 +2 3 y
p = .
3 3 5 1
and the normal line to C at P1 has the equation
3 p
(x p )(3 3 5) + y = 0.
3+2 3
The tangent line to C at P2 has the equation
3p
x 3 2 3 y
p = .
3 3 5 1
and the normal line to C at P2 has the equation
3 p
(x p )(3 3 + 5) y = 0.
3 2 3
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 22 / 45
Homework
Write the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C at the
intersection points with the Ox axis, where C is given by Im c,
c : Rrf0g ! R2 being described by
1 1
c (t ) = (t + , t ),
t t
for every t 2 Rrf0g.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 23 / 45
Implicitly Defined curves
Let us consider the curve
∂f ∂f
C = f(x, y ) 2 R2 j f (x, y ) = 0 and ( (x, y ), (x, y )) 6= 0g,
∂x ∂y
where f : D R2 ! R is a di¤erentiable function.
The tangent line to C at P0 (x0 , y0 ) has the equation
∂f ∂f
(x x0 ) (x0 , y0 ) + (y y0 ) (x0 , y0 ) = 0.
∂x ∂y
and the normal line to C at P0 has the equation
x x0 y y0
∂f
= ∂f
.
∂x (x0 , y0 ) ∂y (x0 , y0 )
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 24 / 45
Example
Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C given by
C = f(x, y ) 2 R2 j 4xy + 3y 2 + 16x + 12y 36 = 0g.
at the point (0, 2).
Let us consider f : R2 ! R given by
f (x, y ) = 4xy + 3y 2 + 16x + 12y 36,
for every (x, y ) 2 R2 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 25 / 45
We have
∂f
(x, y ) = 4y + 16
∂x
and
∂f
(x, y ) = 4x + 6y + 12.
∂y
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 25 / 45
So
∂f
(0, 2) = 24
∂x
and
∂f
(0, 2) = 24.
∂y
The tangent line to C at P0 (0, 2) has the equation
x + y = 2.
and the normal line to C at P0 has the equation
x y= 2.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 26 / 45
Homework
Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C given by
C = f(x, y ) 2 R2 j 4xy + 3y 2 + 16x + 12y 36 = 0g.
at its intersection points with the coordinate axes.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 27 / 45
The Frénet frame
Let us consider the curve C = Im c, where c : I R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t 2 I and P = c (t ) 2 C .
The Frénet frame …eld associated to C at P is the orthonormal moving
frame
Rt = fc (t ), T (t ), N (t )g,
where
def 1 0 1 0 0
T (t ) = 0 c (t ) = 0 (x (t ), y (t ))
kc (t )k kc (t )k
is the unit tangent vector to C at P and
1 0 0
N (t ) = 0 ( y (t ), x (t ))
kc (t )k
is the unit normal vector to C at P.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 28 / 45
The curvature
Let us consider the curve C = Im c, where c : I R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t 2 I and P = c (t ) 2 C .
The real number
0 00 0
x (t )y (t ) x 00 (t )y (t )
k (t ) = 0 3
((x 0 (t ))2 + (y (t ))2 ) 2
is called the curvature of C at P.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 29 / 45
Frénet’s formula
Let us consider the curve C = Im c, where c : I R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t 2 I and P = c (t ) 2 C .
Then
0
T (t ) = k (t )v (t )N (t )
and
0
N (t ) = k (t )v (t )T (t ),
where
0
v (t ) = c (t ) .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 30 / 45
Example
Find the curvature of the curve C = Im c, where c : R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (3t 2 , 3t t 3 ),
for every t 2 I at the point P = c (1).
We have
x (t ) = 3t 2 , y (t ) = 3t t3,
0 0
x (t ) = 6t, y (t ) = 3 3t 2 ,
and 00 00
x (t ) = 6, y (t ) = 6t.
Hence 00 0
0
x (t )y (t ) x 00 (t )y (t ) 2
k (t ) = 0 3 = ,
0
((x (t ))2 + (y (t ))2 ) 2 3(1 + t 2 )2
1
so the curvature of C at P is 6.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 31 / 45
Homework
Find the curvature of the curve C = Im c, where
c : Rrf2l π j l 2 Zg ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (r (t sin t ), r (1 cos t )),
for every t 2 Rrf2l π j l 2 Zg at the point P = c (t ).
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 32 / 45
The length of a plane curve
The length of the curve C = Im c, where c : [a, b ] ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (x (t ), y (t )),
for every t 2 I , is de…ned by the formula
Zb Zb q
0 0
L(C ) = c (t ) dt = (x 0 (t ))2 + (y (t ))2 dt
a a
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 33 / 45
Example
Compute the length of the circle C = Im c, where c : [0, 2π ] ! R2 is
given by
c (t ) = (r cos t, r sin t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ], where r > 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 34 / 45
We have
0
c (t ) = ( r sin t, r cos t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ], so
2π
Z 2π q
Z
0
L(C ) = c (t ) dt = ( r sin t )2 + (r cos t )2 dt =
0 0
2π
Z
= rdt = 2πr .
0
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 35 / 45
Homework
Compute the length of the curve C = Im c, where c : [0, 2π ] ! R2 is
given by
c (t ) = (2 cos t cos 2t, 2 sin t sin 2t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ].
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 36 / 45
Extra example
Write the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C at P,
where C is given by Im c, c : R ! R2 being described by
c (t ) = (t 3 4t, t 2 + 3t 2),
for every t 2 R and P = c (1).
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 37 / 45
We have
c (1) = ( 3, 2)
and
0
c (t ) = (3t 2 4, 2t + 3),
so
0
c (1) = ( 1, 5).
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 38 / 45
The tangent line to C at P has the equation
x +3 y 2
= .
1 5
and the normal line to C at P has the equation
(x + 3) + 5(y 2) = 0,
i.e.
x + 5y 13 = 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 39 / 45
Extra example
Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve C given by
C = f(x, y ) 2 R2 j x 3 + 3x 2 y 2xy 2 + 3x 4 = 0g.
at the point P (1, 0).
Let us consider f : R2 ! R given by
f (x, y ) = x 3 + 3x 2 y 2xy 2 + 3x 4,
for every (x, y ) 2 R2 .
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 40 / 45
We have
∂f
(x, y ) = 3x 2 + 6xy 2y 2 + 3
∂x
and
∂f
(x, y ) = 3x 2 4xy .
∂y
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 40 / 45
So
∂f
(1, 0) = 6
∂x
and
∂f
(1, 0) = 3.
∂y
The tangent line to C at P has the equation
6(x 1) + 3y = 0,
i.e.
2x + y 2=0
and the normal line to C at P has the equation
x 1 y
=
6 3
x 2y = 1.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 41 / 45
Extra example
Compute the length of the curve C = Im c, where c : [0, 2π ] ! R2 is
given by
c (t ) = (a cos3 t, a sin3 t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ], where a > 0.
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 42 / 45
We have
0
c (t ) = ( 3a cos2 t sin t, 3a sin2 t cos t ),
for every t 2 [0, 2π ],
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 43 / 45
so
2π
Z
0
L(C ) = c (t ) dt =
0
2π q
Z
= ( 3a cos2 t sin t )2 + (3a sin2 t cos t )2 dt =
0
2π
Z 2π
Z
3
= 3a jsin t cos t j dt = a jsin 2t j dt = 6a.
2
0 0
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 44 / 45
Extra example
Find the curvature of the curve C = Im c, where c : R ! R2 is given by
c (t ) = (t 2 + 2t, 3t 5),
for every t 2 I at the point P = c (t ).
We have
x (t ) = t 2 + 2t, y (t ) = 3t 5,
0 0
x (t ) = 2t + 2, y (t ) = 3,
and 00 00
x (t ) = 2, y (t ) = 0.
Hence
0 00 0
x (t )y (t ) x 00 (t )y (t ) 6
k (t ) = 0 0 3 = 3 .
((x (t ))2 + (y (t ))2 ) 2 (4t 2 + 8t + 13) 2
Radu MICULESCU (Institute) Vector operators and plane curves December 2020 45 / 45
