UNIT–7

Planning and Administering Classroom Tests

Written By:
Muhammad Idrees
Reviewed By:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
 CONTENTS
Sr. No Topic Page No

Introduction ...............................................................................................................135

Objectives .................................................................................................................136

7.1 Planning a Test.............................................................................................137

7.2 General Consideration in Constructing

Objective Test Items ....................................................................................138

7.3 General Consideration in Constructing Essay type Test Items ....................147

7.4 Administering the Test .................................................................................158

7.5 Scoring the Test ...........................................................................................156

7.6 Activities ......................................................................................................159

7.7 Self Assessment Questions ..........................................................................159

7.8 References/Suggested Readings ..................................................................161

 INTRODUCTION
With the approach for increased accountability in the educational system, it is vital that educators are able
to apply a wide range of psychometric skills appropriate to the assessment of the students with different
pace of learning and backgrounds. It is equally critical that educators have a comprehensive
understanding of current measurement and evaluative trends such as competency testing, performance
assessment, curriculum-based assessment and standardized assessment.
There are six major steps in planning and conduction an assessment: defining instructional objectives,
outlining course contents, developing a test specification, construction of test items, administration of
assessment and interpreting test scores.
There are two types of assessment i.e. assessment of learning & assessment for learning. Assessment of
learning is used to assess students learning achievement at terminal stages whereas assessment for
learning enhances teaching–learning process. Tests and assessments are an essential part of the
instructional process. When properly done, they can not only effectively evaluate but also enhance
students' learning and teachers' instruction. When poorly done, they can confuse and alienate students,
distort the curriculum, and hinder good instruction. Test scores and grades sometimes affect "high-stakes"
decisions about students, prompting intense concern that they be accurate and fair.
This course is designed to provide the students/prospective teachers with the principles and techniques
necessary to develop sound student assessment strategies. The primary focus of the course will be on
writing instructional objectives, developing different types of test items (selected response & constructed
response), utilizing performance based and alternative assessment techniques, administering classroom
evaluation procedures and interpreting test score for different purposes. There are eight major steps in
planning and conducting an assessment:
 defining instructional objectives,
 outlining course contents,
 developing a test specification,
 selection of appropriate assessment tasks,
 preparation of relevant assessment tasks or construction of test items,
 assembly of assessment tasks,
 administration of assessment
 Interpreting test scores.
These steps will be discussed in detail in the unit. This unit will be of great value for the
teachers/prospective teachers in developing and assembling suitable test to assess students learning
achievements.
 OBJECTIVES
After intensive study of this unit, the students will be capable to:
 appreciate qualities needed to determine the quality of classroom tests.
 develop different types of test items for selected response test items
 develop different types of test items for constructed response test items
 efficiently administer classroom test
 utilize the techniques of objectively score and grade tests.
7.1 Planning a Test
The main objective of classroom assessment is to obtain valid, reliable and useful data regarding student
learning achievement. This requires determining what is to be measured and then defining it precisely so
that assessments tasks to measure desired performance can be developed. Classroom tests and
assessments can be used for the following instructional objectives:
i. Pre-testing
Tests and assessments can be given at the beginning of an instructional unit or course to determine:-
 weather the students have the prerequisite skills needed for the instruction (readiness,
motivation etc)
 to what extent the students have already achieved the objectives of planned instruction (to
determine placement or modification of instruction)
ii. During the Instruction Testing
 provides bases for formative assessment
 monitor learning progress
 detect learning errors
 provide feedback for students and teachers
iii. End of Instruction Testing
 measure intended learning outcomes
 used for formative assessment
 provides bases for grades, promotion etc
Prior to developing an effective test, one needs to determine whether or not a test is the appropriate type
of assessment. If the learning objectives are of primarily types of procedural knowledge (how to perform
a task) then a written test may not be the best approach. Assessment of procedural knowledge generally
calls for a performance demonstration assessed using a rubric. Where demonstration of a procedure is not
appropriate, a test can be an effective assessment tool.
The first stage of developing a test is planning the test content and length. Planning the test begins with
development of a blueprint or test specifications for the test structured on the learning outcomes or
instructional objectives to be assessed by the test instrument. For each learning outcome, a weight should
be assigned based on the relative importance of that outcome in the test. The weight will be used to
determine the number of items related to each of the learning outcomes.

7.1.1 Test Specifications

When an engineer prepares a design to construct a building and choose the materials, he intends to use in
construction, he usually know what a building is going to be used for, and therefore designs it to meet the
requirements of its planned inhabitants. Similarly, in testing, table of specification is the blueprint of the
assessment which specifies percentages and weightage of test items and measuring constructs. It includes
constructs and concepts to be measured, tentative weightage of each construct, specify number of items
for each concept, and description of item types to be constructed. It is not surprising that specifications
are also referred to as „blueprints‟, for they are literally architectural drawings for test construction.
Fulcher & Davidson (2009) divided test specifications into the following four elements:
 Item specifications: Item specifications describe the items, prompts or tasks, and any other
material such as texts, diagrams, and charts which are used as stimuli. Typically, a specification
at this sub-level contains two key elements: samples of the tasks to be produced, and guiding
language that details all information necessary to produce the task.
 Presentation Model: Presentation model provides information how the items and tasks are
presented to the test takers.
 Assembly Model: Assembly model helps the test developer to combine test items and tasks to
develop a test format.
 Delivery Model: Delivery Model tells how the actual test is delivered. It includes information
regarding test administration, test security/confidentiality and time constraint.

Table 7.1: Table of Specifications for Social Studies Class VI

Objectives/ Knowledge Understanding Application Percentage
Contents LA SA MCQ LA SA MCQ LA SA MCQ
Climate 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 25%
Resources 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 25%
Population 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 25%
Society 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 25%
Total 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 100%
LA: Long Answer, SA: Short Answers, MCQ: Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Number of items/questions and percentage may be changed according to the objectives/contents
and hierarchy of learning.

7.2 General Consideration in Constructing Objective Test Items

The second step in test planning is determining the format and length of the test. The format is based on
the different types of items to be included in the test. The construction of valid and good test items is a
skill just like effective teaching. Some rules are to be followed and some techniques are to be used to
construct good test items. Test items can be used to assess student‟s ability to recognize concepts or to
recall concepts. Generally there are two types of objective test items:-
i. Select type.
ii. Supply type.

7.2.1 Select Type Items

A. Matching Items
According to W. Wiersma and S.G. Jurs (1990), the matching items consist of two parallel columns. The
column on the left contains the questions to be answered, termed premises; the column on the right, the
answers, termed responses. The student is asked to associate each premise with a response to form a
matching pair. For example
Column “A” Capital City Column “B” Country
 Islamabad Iran
Tehran Spain
Istanbul Portugal
Madrid Pakistan
Hague Netherlands
Turkey
West Germany

According to W. Wiersma and S.G. Jurs (1990) in some matching exercises the number of premises and
responses are the same, termed a balanced or perfect matching exercise. In others, the number and
responses may be different.

Advantages
The chief advantage of matching exercises is that a good deal of factual information can be tested in
minimal time, making the tests compact and efficient. They are especially well suited to who, what, when
and where types of subject matter. Further students frequently find the tests fun to take because they have
puzzle qualities to them.

Disadvantages
The principal difficulty with matching exercises is that teachers often find that the subject matter is
insufficient in quantity or not well suited for matching terms. An exercise should be confined to
homogeneous items containing one type of subject matter (for instance, authors-novels; inventions
inventors; major events-dates terms – definitions; rules examples and the like). Where unlike clusters of
questions are used to adopt but poorly informed student can often recognize the ill-fitting items by their
irrelevant and extraneous nature (for instance, in a list of authors the inclusion of the names of capital
cities).
Student identifies connected items from two lists. It is Useful for assessing the ability to discriminate,
categorize, and association amongst similar concepts.

Suggestions for Writing Matching Items

Here are some suggestions for writing matching items:
i. Keep both the list of descriptions and the list of options fairly short and homogeneous – they
should both fit on the same page. Title the lists to ensure homogeneity and arrange the
descriptions and options in some logical order. If this is impossible, you‟re probably including
too wide a variety in the exercise. Try constructing two or more exercises.
ii. Make sure that all the options are plausible distracters for each description to ensure homogeneity
of lists.
iii. The list of descriptions on the left side should contain the longer phrases or statements, whereas
the options on the right side should consist of short phrases, words or symbols.
iv. Each description in the list should be numbered (each is an item), and the list of options should be
identified by letter.
v. Include more options than descriptions. If the option list is longer than the description list, it is
harder for students to eliminate options. If the option list is shorter, some options must be used
 more than once. Always include some options that do not match any of the descriptions, or some
that match more than one, or both.
vi. In the directions, specify the basis for matching and whether options can be used more than once.

B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ’s)

Norman E. Grounlund (1990) writes that the multiple choice question is probably the most popular as
well as the most widely applicable and effective type of objective test. Student selects a single response
from a list of options. It can be used effectively for any level of course outcome. It consists of two parts:
the stem, which states the problem and a list of three to five alternatives, one of which is the correct (key)
answer and the others are distracters (“foils” or incorrect options that draw the less knowledgeable pupil
away from the correct response).
The stem may be stated as a direct question or as an incomplete statement. For example:

Direct question
Which is the capital city of Pakistan? -------- (Stem)
A. Lahore. -------------------------------------- (Distracter)
B. Karachi. ------------------------------------- (Distracter)
C. Islamabad. ---------------------------------- (Key)
D. Peshawar. ----------------------------------- (Distracter)

Incomplete Statement
The capital city of Pakistan is
A. Lahore.
B. Karachi.
C. Islamabad.
D. Peshawar.

RULES FOR WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Use Plausible Distracters (wrong-response options)
 Only list plausible distracters, even if the number of options per question changes
 Write the options so they are homogeneous in content
 Use answers given in previous open-ended exams to provide realistic distracters

2. Use a Question Format

 Experts encourage multiple-choice items to be prepared as questions (rather than incomplete
statements)
Incomplete Statement Format:
The capital of AJK is in-----------------.
Direct Question Format:
In which of the following cities is the capital of AJK?
3. Emphasize Higher-Level Thinking
 Use memory-plus application questions. These questions require students to recall principles,
rules or facts in a real life context.
 The key to prepare memory-plus application questions is to place the concept in a life situation or
context that requires the student to first recall the facts and then apply or transfer the application
of those facts into a situation.
 Seek support from others who have experience writing higher-level thinking multiple-choice
questions.

EXAMPLES:
Memory Only Example (Less Effective)

Which description best characterizes whole foods?

a. orange juice
b. toast
c. bran cereal
d. grapefruit

Memory-Plus Application Example (More Effective)

Sana‟s breakfast this morning included one glass of orange juice (from Concentrate), one slice of toast, a
small bowl of bran cereal and a grapefruit. What “whole food” did Sana eat for breakfast?
a. orange juice
b. toast
c. bran cereal
d. grapefruit
Memory-Plus Application Example

Ability to Interpret Cause-and-Effect Relationships Example

Why does investing money in common stock protect against loss of assets during inflation?
a. It pays higher rates of interest during inflation.
b. It provides a steady but dependable income despite economic conditions.
c. It is protected by the Federal Reserve System.
d. It increases in value as the value of a business increases.

Ability to Justify Methods and Procedures Example

Why is adequate lighting necessary in a balanced aquarium?
a. Fish need light to see their food.
b. Fish take in oxygen in the dark.
c. Plants expel carbon dioxide in the dark.
d. Plants grow too rapidly in the dark.

4. Keep Option Lengths Similar

 Avoid making your correct answer the long or short answer

5. Balance the Placement of the Correct Answer

 Correct answers are usually the second and third option

6. Be Grammatically Correct
 Use simple, precise and unambiguous wording
 Students will be more likely to select the correct answer by finding the grammatically
correct option

7. Avoid Clues to the Correct Answer

 Avoid answering one question in the test by giving the answer somewhere else in the test
 Have the test reviewed by someone who can find mistakes, clues, grammar and
punctuation problems before you administer the exam to students
 Avoid extremes – never, always, only
 Avoid nonsense words and unreasonable statements

8. Avoid Negative Questions

 31 of 35 testing experts recommend avoiding negative questions
 Students may be able to find an incorrect answer without knowing the correct answer

9. Use Only One Correct Option (Or be sure the best option is clearly the best option)
 The item should include one and only one correct or clearly best answer
 With one correct answer, alternatives should be mutually exclusive and not overlapping
 Using MC with questions containing more than one right answer lowers discrimination
between students

10. Give Clear Instructions

Such as:
 Questions 1 - 10 are multiple-choice questions designed to assess your ability to
remember or recall basic and foundational pieces of knowledge related to this course.
 Please read each question carefully before reading the answer options. When you have a
clear idea of the question, find your answer and mark your selection on the answer sheet.
Please do not make any marks on this exam.
 Questions 11 – 20 are multiple-choice questions designed to assess your ability to think
critically about the subject.
  Please read each question carefully before reading the answer options.
 Be aware that some questions may seem to have more than one right answer, but you are
to look for the one that makes the most sense and is the most correct.
 When you have a clear idea of the question, find your answer and mark your selection on
the answer sheet.
 You may justify any answer you choose by writing your justification on the blank paper
provided.

11. Use Only a Single, Clearly-Defined Problem and Include the Main Idea in the Question
 Students must know what the problem is without having to read the response options

12. Avoid “All the Above” Option

 Students merely need to recognize two correct options to get the answer correct

13. Avoid the “None of the Above” Option

 You will never know if students know the correct answer

14. Don’t Use MCQ When Other Item Types Are More Appropriate
 Limited distracters or assessing problem-solving and creativity

Advantages
The chief advantage of the multiple-choice question according to N.E. Gronlund (1990) is its versatility.
For instance, it is capable of being applied to a wide range of subject areas. In contrast to short answer
items limit the writer to those content areas that are capable of being stated in one or two words, multiple
choice item necessary bound to homogeneous items containing one type of subject matter as are matching
items, and a multiple choice question greatly reduces the opportunity for a student to guess the correct
answer from one choice in two with a true – false items to one in four or five, there by increasing the
reliability of the test. Further, since a multiple – choice item contains plausible incorrect or less correct
alternative, it permits the test constructor to tine tune the discriminations (the degree or homogeneity of
the responses) and control the difficulty level of the test.

Disadvantages
N.E. Gronlund (1990) writes that multiple-choice items are difficult to construct. Suitable distracters are
often hard to come by and the teacher is tempted to fill the void with a “junk” response. The effect of
narrowing the range of options will available to the test wise student. They are also exceedingly time
consuming to fashion, one hour per question being by no means the exception. Finally they generally
take student longer to complete (especially items containing fine discrimination) than do other types of
objective question.

Suggestions for Writing MCQ’s Items

Here are some guidelines for writing multiple-choice tests:
I. The stem of the item should clearly formulate a problem. Include as much of the item as
possible, keeping the response options as short as possible. However, include only the material
needed to make the problem clear and specific. Be concise – don‟t add extraneous information.
II. Be sure that there is one and only one correct or clearly best answer.
III. Be sure wrong answer choices (distracters) are plausible. Eliminate unintentional grammatical
clues, and keep the length and form of all the answer choices equal. Rotate the position of the
correct answer from item to item randomly.
IV. Use negation questions or statements only if the knowledge being tested requires it. In most
cases it is more important for the student to know what a specific item of information is rather
than what it is not.
V. Include from three to five options (two to four distracters plus one correct answer) to optimize
testing for knowledge rather than encouraging guessing. It is not necessary to provide additional
distracters from an item simply to maintain the same number of distracters for each item. This
usually leads to poorly constructed distracters that add nothing to test validity and reliability.
VI. To increase the difficulty of a multiple-choice item, increase the similarity of content among the
options.
VII. Use the option “none of the above” sparingly and only when the keyed answer can be classified
unequivocally as right or wrong.
VII. Avoid using “all of the above”. It is usually the correct answer and makes the item too easy for
students with partial information.

II. Supply Type Items

A. Completion Items
Like true-false items, completion items are relatively easy to write. Perhaps the first tests classroom
teachers‟ construct and students take completion tests. Like items of all other formats, though, there are
good and poor completion items. Student fills in one or more blanks in a statement. These are also known
as “Gap-Fillers.” Most effective for assessing knowledge and comprehension learning outcomes but can
be written for higher level outcomes. e.g.
The capital city of Pakistan is -----------------.

Suggestions for Writing Completion or Supply Items

Here are our suggestions for writing completion or supply items:

I. If at all possible, items should require a single-word answer or a brief and definite statement.
Avoid statements that are so indefinite that they may be logically answered by several terms.
a. Poor item:
Motorway (M1) opened for traffic in ____________.
b. Better item:
Motorway (M1) opened for traffic in the year______.
II. Be sure the question or statement poses a problem to the examinee. A direct question is often
more desirable than an incomplete statement because it provides more structure.
III. Be sure the answer that the student is required to produce is factually correct. Be sure the
language used in the question is precise and accurate in relation to the subject matter area being
tested.
IV. Omit only key words; don‟t eliminate so many elements that the sense of the content is impaired.
 a. Poor item:
The ____________ type of test item is usually more _________ than the _____ type.
b. Better item:
The supply type of test item is usually graded less objectively than the _________ type.
V. Word the statement such that the blank is near the end of the sentence rather than near the
beginning. This will prevent awkward sentences.
VI. If the problem requires a numerical answer, indicate the units in which it is to be expressed.

B. Short Answer
Student supplies a response to a question that might consistent of a single word or phrase. Most effective
for assessing knowledge and comprehension learning outcomes but can be written for higher level
outcomes. Short answer items are of two types.
 Simple direct questions
Who was the first president of the Pakistan?
 Completion items

The name of the first president of Pakistan is ___________.

The items can be answered by a work, phrase, number or symbol. Short-answer tests are a cross between
essay and objective tests. The student must supply the answer as with an essay question but in a highly
abbreviated form as with an objective question.

Advantages
Norman E. Gronlund (1990) writes that short-answer items have a number of advantages.
 They reduce the likelihood that a student will guess the correct answer
 They are relatively easy for a teacher to construct.
 They are will adapted to mathematics, the sciences, and foreign languages where specific types of
knowledge are tested (The formula for ordinary table salt is ________).
 They are consistent with the Socratic question and answer format frequently employed in the
elementary grades in teaching basic skills.

Disadvantages
According to Norman E. Grounlund (1990) there are also a number of disadvantages with short-answer
items.
 They are limited to content areas in which a student‟s knowledge can be adequately portrayed by
one or two words.
 They are more difficult to score than other types of objective-item tests since students invariably
come up with unanticipated answers that are totally or partially correct.
 Short answer items usually provide little opportunity for students to synthesize, evaluate and
apply information.

7.3 General Consideration in Constructing Essay type Test Items

Robert L. Ebel and David A. Frisbie (1991) in their book, write that “teachers are often as concerned with
measuring the ability of students to think about and use knowledge as they are with measuring the
knowledge their students possess. In these instances, tests are needed that permit students some degree of
latitude in their responses. Essay tests are adapted to this purpose. Student writes a response to a
question that is several paragraphs to several pages long. Essays can be used for higher learning outcomes
such as synthesis or evaluation as well as lower level outcomes. They provide items in which students
supply rather than select the appropriate answer, usually the students compose a response in one or more
sentences. Essay tests allow students to demonstrate their ability to recall, organize, synthesize, relate,
analyze and evaluate ideas.

Types of Essay Tests

Essay tests may be divided into many types. Monree and Cater (1993) divide essay tests into the many
categories like Selective recall-basis given, evaluation recall-basis given, comparison of two things on a
single designated basis, comparison of two things in general, Decisions – For or against, cause and effect,
explanation of the use or exact meaning of some word, phrase on statement, summary of some unit of the
text book or article, analysis, statement of relationships, Illustration or examples, classification,
application of rules, laws, or principles to new situation, discussion, statement of an author‟s purpose in
the selection or organization of material, Criticism – as to the adequacy, correctness or relevance of a
printed statement or to a class mate‟s answer to a question on the lesson, reorganization of facts,
formulation of new question – problems and question raised, new methods of procedure etc.

Types of Constructed Response Items

Essay items can vary from very lengthy, open ended end of semester term papers or take home tests that
have flexible page limits (e.g. 10-12 pages, no more than 30 pages etc.) to essays with responses limited
or restricted to one page or less. Thus essay type items are of two types:-
 Restricted Response Essay Items
 Extended Response Essay Items

I. Restricted Response Essay Items

An essay item that poses a specific problem for which a student must recall proper information, organize
it in a suitable manner, derive a defensible conclusion, and express it within the limits of posed problem,
or within a page or time limit, is called a restricted response essay type item. The statement of the
problem specifies response limitations that guide the student in responding and provide evaluation criteria
for scoring.

Example 1:
List the major similarities and differences in the lives of people living in Islamabad and Faisalabad.

Example 2:
Compare advantages and disadvantages of lecture teaching method and demonstration teaching method.

When Should Restricted Response Essay Items be used?

Restricted Response Essay Items are usually used to:-
 Analyze relationship
 Compare and contrast positions
 State necessary assumptions
 Identify appropriate conclusions
 Explain cause-effect relationship
 Organize data to support a viewpoint
 Evaluate the quality and worth of an item or action
 Integrate data from several sources

II. Extended Response Essay Type Items

An essay type item that allows the student to determine the length and complexity of response is called an
extended-response essay item. This type of essay is most useful at the synthesis or evaluation levels of
cognitive domain. We are interested in determining whether students can organize, integrate, express, and
evaluate information, ideas, or pieces of knowledge the extended response items are used.

Example:
Identify as many different ways to generate electricity in Pakistan as you can? Give advantages and
disadvantages of each. Your response will be graded on its accuracy, comprehension and practical ability.
Your response should be 8-10 pages in length and it will be evaluated according to the RUBRIC (scoring
criteria) already provided.

Scoring Essay Type Items

A rubric or scoring criteria is developed to evaluate/score an essay type item. A rubric is a scoring guide
for subjective assessments. It is a set of criteria and standards linked to learning objectives that are used to
assess a student's performance on papers, projects, essays, and other assignments. Rubrics allow for
standardized evaluation according to specified criteria, making grading simpler and more transparent. A
rubric may vary from simple checklists to elaborate combinations of checklist and rating scales. How
elaborative your rubric is, depends on what you are trying to measure. If your essay item is a restricted-
response item simply assessing mastery of factual content, a fairly simple listing of essential points would
be sufficient. An example of the rubric of restricted response item is given below.

Test Item:
Name and describe five of the most important factors of unemployment in Pakistan. (10 points)
Rubric/Scoring Criteria:
(i) 1 point for each of the factors named, to a maximum of 5 points
(ii) One point for each appropriate description of the factors named, to a maximum of 5 points
(iii) No penalty for spelling, punctuation, or grammatical error
(iv) No extra credit for more than five factors named or described.
(v) Extraneous information will be ignored.
However, when essay items are measuring higher order thinking skills of cognitive domain, more
complex rubrics are mandatory. An example of Rubric for writing test in language is given below.

Table 7.2: Scoring Criteria (Rubrics) for Essay Type Item for 8th grade
Sr. No. Criteria Unsatisfactory Proficient Advance
 Length of Text will be Length of Text will Length of Text will
1 Length according to the Prompt be according to the be according to the
Prompt Prompt
Writing is not according to the Writing is according Writing is
provided format to the provided completely
2 Layout
format to some according to the
extent provided format
Expected KEY WORDS* are Expected KEY Expected KEY
3 Vocabulary not used WORDS* are used WORDS* are used
to some extent mostly
Spellings of most words are Spellings of some Spellings of all
4 Spelling
incorrect words are incorrect words are correct

Selection and Few ideas are relevant to the Some ideas are Almost all ideas are
task and the given task relevant to the task relevant to the task
5 Organization of organization and the given task and the given task
Ideas organization organization
Very few Punctuation Marks Some Punctuation Almost all
6 Punctuation are used Marks are used Punctuation Marks
are used
Use of some basic RAMMAR Occasional use of Use of some basic
7 Grammar RULES** basic GRAMMAR GRAMMAR
RULES** RULES**
* KEY WORDS: Expected Key Words will be provided for each Writing Prompt

Advantages of Essay Type Items

The main advantages of essay type tests are as follows:
(i) They can measures complex learning outcomes which cannot be measured by other means.
(ii) They emphasize integration and application of thinking and problem solving skills.
(iii) They can be easily constructed.
(iv) They give examines freedom to respond within broad limits.
(v) The students cannot guess the answer because they have to supply it rather than select it.
(vi) Practically it is more economical to use essay type tests if number of students is small.
(vii) They required less time for typing, duplicating or printing. They can be written on the blackboard
also if number of students is not large.
(viii) They can measure divergent thinking.
(ix) They can be used as a device for measuring and improving language and expression skill of
examinees.
(x) They are more helpful in evaluating the quality of the teaching process.
(xi) Studies has supported that when students know that the essay type questions will be asked, they
focus on learning broad concepts and articulating relationships, contrasting and comparing.
(xii) They set better standards of professional ethics to the teachers because they expect more time in
assessing and scoring from the teachers.
 Limitations of Essay Type Items
The essay type tests have the following serious limitations as a measuring instrument:
(i) A major problem is the lack of consistency in judgments even among competent examiners.
(ii) They have Halo effects. If the examiner is measuring one characteristic, he can be influenced in
scoring by another characteristic. For example, a well behaved student may score more marks on
account of his good behaviour also.
(iii) They have question to question carry effect. If the examinee has answered satisfactorily in the
beginning of the question or questions he is likely to score more than the one who did not do well
in the beginning but did well later on.
(iv) They have examinee to examinee carry effect. A particular examinee gets marks not only on the
basis of what he has written but also on the basis that whether the previous examinee whose
answered book was examined by the examiner was good or bad.
(v) They have limited content validity because of sample of questions can only be asked in essay type
test.
(vi) They are difficult to score objectively because the examinee has wide freedom of expression and
he writes long answers.
(vii) They are time consuming both for the examiner and the examinee.
(viii) They generally emphasize the lengthy enumeration of memorized facts.

Suggestions for Writing Essay Type Items

I. Ask questions or establish tasks that will require the student to demonstrate command of essential
knowledge. This means that students should not be asked merely to reproduce material heard in a
lecture or read in a textbook. To "demonstrate command" requires that the question be somewhat
novel or new. The substance of the question should be essential knowledge rather than trivia that
might be a good board game question.
II. Ask questions that are determinate, in the sense that experts (colleagues in the field) could agree
that one answer is better than another. Questions that contain phrases such as "What do you
think..." or "What is your opinion about..." are indeterminate. They can be used as a medium for
assessing skill in written expression, but because they have no clearly right or wrong answer, they
are useless for measuring other aspects of achievement.
III. Define the examinee's task as completely and specifically as possible without interfering with the
measurement process itself. It is possible to word an essay item so precisely that there is one and
only one very brief answer to it. The imposition of such rigid bounds on the response is more
limiting than it is helpful. Examinees do need guidance, however, to judge how extensive their
response must to be considered complete and accurate.
IV. Generally give preference to specific questions that can be answered briefly. The more questions
used, the better the test constructor can sample the domain of knowledge covered by the test. And
the more responses available for scoring, the more accurate the total test scores are likely to be. In
addition, brief responses can be scored more quickly and more accurately than long, extended
responses, even when there are fewer of the latter type.
V. Use enough items to sample the relevant content domain adequately, but not so many that
students do not have sufficient time to plan, develop, and review their responses. Some
instructors use essay tests rather than one of the objective types because they want to encourage
and provide practice in written expression. However, when time pressures become great, the
essay test is one of the most unrealistic and negative writing experiences to which students can be
exposed. Often there is no time for editing, for rereading, or for checking spelling. Planning time
is short changed so that writing time will not be. There are few, if any, real writing tasks that
require such conditions. And there are few writing experiences that discourage the use of good
writing habits as much as essay testing does.
 VI. Avoid giving examinees a choice among optional questions unless special circumstances make
such options necessary. The use of optional items destroys the strict comparability between
student scores because not all students actually take the same test. Student A may have answered
items 1-3 and Student B may have answered 3-5. In these circumstances the variability of scores
is likely to be quite small because students were able to respond to items they knew more about
and ignore items with which they were unfamiliar. This reduced variability contributes to reduced
test score reliability. That is, we are less able to identify individual differences in achievement
when the test scores form a very homogeneous distribution. In sum, optional items restrict score
comparability between students and contribute to low score reliability due to reduced test score
variability.
VII. Test the question by writing an ideal answer to it. An ideal response is needed eventually to score
the responses. It if is prepared early, it permits a check on the wording of the item, the level of
completeness required for an ideal response, and the amount of time required to furnish a suitable
response. It even allows the item writer to determine if there is any "correct" response to the
question.
VIII. Specify the time allotment for each item and/or specify the maximum number of points to be
awarded for the "best" answer to the question. Both pieces of information provide guidance to the
examinee about the depth of response expected by the item writer. They also represent legitimate
pieces of information a student can use to decide which of several items should be omitted when
time begins to run out. Often the number of points attached to the item reflects the number of
essential parts to the ideal response. Of course if a definite number of essential parts can be
determined, that number should be indicated as part of the question.
IX. Divide a question into separate components when there are obvious multiple questions or pieces
to the intended responses. The use of parts helps examinees organizationally and, hence, makes
the process more efficient. It also makes the grading process easier because it encourages
organization in the responses. Finally, if multiple questions are not identified, some examinees
may inadvertently omit some parts, especially when time constraints are great.

7.4 Administering the Test

I. Test Assembly
We have discussed various aspects of test planning and construction. If you have written instructional
objectives, constructed a test, and written items that match your objectives, then more than likely you will
have a good test. All the “raw material” will be there. However, sometimes the raw material, as good as it
may be, can be rendered useless because of poorly assembled and administrated test. By now you know it
requires a substantial amount of time to write objectives, put together a test blueprint, and write items. It
is worth a little more time to properly assemble or packages your test so that your efforts will not be
wasted. Assembly of the test comprises the following steps:-

(i) Group together all item of similar format e.g. group all essay type item or MCQ‟s in one group.
(ii) Arrange test items from easy to hard
(iii) Space the items for easy reading
(iv) Keep items and their options on the same page of the test
(v) Position illustrations, tables, charts, pictures diagrams or maps near descriptions
(vi) Answer keys must be checked carefully
(vii) Determine how students record answers
(viii) Provide adequate and proper space for name and date
(ix) Test directions must be precised and clear
(x) Test must be proofread to make it error free
(xi) Make all the item unbiased (gender, culture, ethnic, racial etc)
II. Reproduction of the Test
Most test reproduction in the schools is done by photocopy machines. As you well know, the quality of
such copies can vary tremendously. Regardless of how valid and reliable your test might be, poor
printing/copies will not have a good impact. Take the following practical steps to ensure that time you
spent constructing a valid and reliable test does not end in illegible printing.
 Manage printing of the test if test takers are large in number
 Manage photocopy from a proper/new machine
 Use good quality of the paper and printing
 Retain original test in your own custody
 Be careful while making sets of the test (staple different papers carefully)
 Manage confidentiality of the test

III. Administration of the Test

The test is ready. All that remains is to get the students ready and hand out the test. Here are some
suggestions to help your students psychologically prepared for the test:-
 Maintain a positive attitude for achievement
 Maximize achievement motivation
 Equalize advantages to all the students
 Provide easy, comfortable and proper seats
 Provide proper system of light, temperature, air and water.
 Clarify all the rules and regulations of the examination center/hall
 Rotate distributions
 Remind the students to check their copies
 Monitor students continuously
 Minimize distractions
 Give time warnings properly
 Collect test uniformly
 Count the answer sheets, seal it in a bag and hand it over to the quarter concerned.

IV. Test Taking Strategies

To improve test-taking skills, there are three approaches that might prove fruitful. Students need to
understand the mechanics of test-taking, such as the need to carefully follow instructions, checking their
work, and so forth. Second, they need to use appropriate test-taking strategies, including ways in which
test items should be addressed and how to make educated guesses. Finally, they need to practice their test-
taking skills to refine their abilities and to become more comfortable in testing situations. By acting upon
the following strategies the students may enhance their test taking strategies:-
 Students need to follow directions carefully.
 Students need to understand how to budget their time.
 Students need to check their work.
 For each item, students need to read the entire test item and all the possible answers very
carefully.
 Answer the easier questions first and persist to the end of the test.
 Students need to make educated guesses.
 Use test item formats for practice.
 Review the practice items and answer choices with students.
 Practice using answer sheets.

V. Steps to Prevent Cheating

Cheating is a big issue while administering tests to get reliable and valid data of students learning
achievement. Following steps can be followed to prevent cheating:-
i. Take special precautions to keep the test secure during preparation, storage and administration.
ii. Students should be provided sufficient space on their desks to work easily and to prevent use of
helping material.
iii. If scratch paper is used have it turned in with the test.
iv. Testing hours must be watched carefully. Walk around the room periodically and observe the
students what are they doing.
v. Two forms of the tests can also be used or use some items different in the test to prevent cheating.
vi. Use special seating arrangements while placing the students for the test. Provide sufficient empty
spaces between students.
vii. Create and maintain a positive attitude concerning the value of tests for improving learning.

7.5 Scoring the Test

Scoring Objective Test Items
If the student‟s answers are recorded on the test paper itself, a scoring key can be made by marking the
correct answers on a blank copy of the test. Scoring then is simply a matter of comparing the columns of
the answers on this master copy with the columns of answers on each student‟s paper. A strip key which
consists merely of strips of paper, on which the columns of answers are recorded, may also be used if
more convenient. These can easily be prepared by cutting the columns of answers from the master copy of
the test and mounting them on strips of cardboard cut from manila folders.
When separate answer sheets are used, a scoring stencil is more convenient. This is a blank answer sheet
with holes punched where the correct answers should appear. The stencil is laid over the answer sheet,
and the number of the answer checks appearing through holes is counted. When this type of scoring
procedure is used, each test paper should also be scanned to make certain that only one answer was
marked for each item. Any item containing more than one answer should be eliminated from the scoring.
As each test paper is scored, mark each item that is scored incorrectly. With multiple choice items, a good
practice is to draw a red line through the correct answers of the missed items rather than through the
student‟s wrong answers. This will indicate to the students those items missed and at the same time will
indicate the correct answers. Time will be saved and confusion avoided during discussion of the test.
Marking the correct answers of the missed items is simple with a scoring stencil. When no answer check
appears through a hole in the stencil, a red line is drawn across the hole.
In scoring objective tests, each correct answer is usually counted as one point, because an arbitrary
weighting of items make little difference in the students‟ final scores. If some items are counted two
points, some one point, and some half point, the scoring will be more complicated without any
accompanying benefits. Scores based on such weightings will be similar to the simpler procedure of
counting each item on one point. When a test consists of a combination of objective items and a few,
more time-consuming, essay questions, however, more than a single point is needed to distinguish several
levels of response and to reflect disproportionate time devoted to each of the essay questions. When
students are told to answer every item on the test, a student‟s score is simply the number of items
answered correctly. There is no need to consider wrong answers or to correct for guessing. When all
students answer every item on the test, the rank of the students‟ scores will be same whether the number
is right or a correction for guessing is used.
A simplified form of item analysis is all that is necessary or warranted for classroom tests because most
classroom groups consist of 20 to 40 students, an especially useful procedure to compare the responses of
the ten lowest-scoring students. As we shall see later, keeping the upper and lower groups and ten
students each simplifies the interpretation of the results. It also is a reasonable number for analysis in
groups of 20 to 40 students. For example, with a small classroom group, like that of 20 students, it is best
to use the upper and lower halves to obtain dependable data, whereas with a larger group, like that of 40
students, use of upper and lower 25 percent is quite satisfactory. For more refined analysis, the upper and
lower 27 percent is often recommended, and most statistical guides are based on that percentage.
To illustrate the method of item analysis, suppose we have just finished scoring 32 test papers for a sixth-
grade science unit on weather. Our item analysis might then proceed as follows:
1. .... Rank the 32 test papers in order from the highest to the lowest score.
2. .... Select the 10 papers within the highest total scores and the ten papers with the lowest total scores.
3. .... Put aside the middle 12 papers as they will not be used in the analysis.
4. .... For each test item, tabulate the number of students in the upper and lower groups who selected each
alternative. This tabulation can be made directly on the test paper or on the test item card.
5. .... Compute the difficulty of each item (percentage of the students who got the item right).
6. .... Compute the discriminating power of each item (difference between the number of students in the
upper and lower groups who got the item right).
7. .... Evaluate the effectiveness of distracters in each item (attractiveness of the incorrect alternatives).
Although item analysis by inspection will reveal the general effectiveness of a test item and is
satisfactory for most classroom purposes, it is sometimes useful to obtain a more precise estimate of item
difficulty and discriminating power. This can be done by applying relatively simple formulas to the item-
analysis data.

Computing item difficulty:

The difficulty of a test item is indicated by the percentage of students who get the item right. Hence, we
can compute item difficulty (P) by means of following formula, in which R equals the number of students
who got the item right, and T equals the total number of students who tried the item.
P=(R/T)x 100
The discriminating power of an achievement test items refers to the degree to which it discriminates
between students with high and low achievements. Item discriminating power (D) can be obtained by
subtracting the number of students in the lower group who get the item right (RL) from the number of
students in the upper group who get the item right (RU) and dividing by one-half the total number of
students included in the item analysis (.5T). Summarized in formula form, it is:
D= (RU-RL)/.5T
An item with maximum positive discriminating power is one in which all students in the upper group get
the item right and all the students in the lower group get the item wrong. This results in an index of 1.00,
as follows:
D= (10-0)/10=1.00
An item with no discriminating power is one in which an equal number of students in both the upper and
lower groups get the item right. This results in an index of .00, as follows:
 D= (10-10)/10= .00

Scoring Essay Type Test Items

According to N.E. Gronlund (1990) the chief weakness of the essay test is the difficulty of scoring. The
objectivity of scoring the essay questions may be improved by following a few rules developed by test
experts.
a. Prepare a scoring key in advance. The scoring key should include the major points of the acceptable
answer, the feature of the answer to be evaluated, and the weights assigned to each. To illustrate,
suppose the question is “Describe the main elements of teaching.” Suppose also that this question
carries 20 marks. We can prepare a scoring key for the question as follows.
i. Outline of the acceptable answer. There are four elements in teaching these are: the
definition of instructional objectives, the identification of the entering behaviour of
students, the provision of the learning experiences, and the assessment of the students‟
performance.
ii. Main features of the answer and the weights assigned to each.
- Content: Allow 4 points to each elements of teaching.
- Comprehensiveness: Allow 2 points.
- Logical organization: Allow 2 points.
- Irrelevant material: Deduct upto a maximum of 2 points.
- Misspelling of technical terms: Deduct 1/2 point for each mistake upto a maximum
of 2 points.
- Major grammatical mistakes: Deduct 1 point for each mistake upto a maximum of 2
points.
- Poor handwriting, misspelling of non-technical terms and minor grammatical errors:
ignore.
Preparing the scoring key in advance is useful since it provides a uniform standard
for evaluation.
b. Use an appropriate scoring method. There are two scoring methods commonly used by the
classroom teacher. The point method and the rating method.
In the point method, the teacher compares each answer with the acceptable answer and assigns a given
number of points in terms of how will each answer approximates the acceptable answer. This method is
suitable in a restricted response type of question since in this type each feature of the answer can be
identified and given proper point values. For example: Suppose that the question is: “List five hypotheses
that might explain why nations go to wars.” In the question, we can easily assign a number of point values
to each hypothesis and evaluate each answer accordingly.
In the rating method, the teacher reads each answer and places it in one of the several categories
according to quality. For example, the teacher may set up five categories: Excellent – 10 points, good – 8
points, average – 6 points, weak – 4 points and poor – 2 points. This method is suitable in an extended
response type of question since in this type we make gross judgment concerning the main features of the
answer. It‟s a good practice to grade each feature separately and then add the point values to get the total
score.
a. Read a sampling of the papers to get a „feel‟ of the quality of the answers. This will give you
confidence in scoring and stability in your judgment.
b. Score one question through all of the papers before going on to the next question. This procedure
has three main advantages. First, the comparison of answer makes the scoring more exact and
just, second, having to keep only one list of points in mind saves time and promotes accuracy and
 third, it avoids halo effect. A halo effect is defined as the tendency in rating a person to let one of
its characteristics influence rating on other characteristics.
c. Adopt a definite policy regarding factors which may not be relevant to learning outcomes being
measured. The grading of answer to essay questions is influenced by a large number of factors.
These factors include handwriting, spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, style, padding of
irrelevant material, and neatness. The teacher should specify which factor would or would not be
taken into account and what score values would be assigned to or deducted from each factor.
d. Score the papers anonymously. Have the student record his name on the back or at the end of the
paper, rather than at the top of each page. Another way is to let each student have a code number
and write it on his paper instead of his name. Keeping the author of the paper unknown will
decrease the bias with which the paper is graded.

7.6 Activities
 Suppose you are a teacher and you intend to have a quarterly test of grade 5 students in the
subject of General Science. Prepare a Table of Specification highlighting hierarchy of knowledge,
contents, item types and weightage.
 Locate a question paper of Pakistan Studies for class X of last year board exams and evaluate its
MCQs test items with reference to the guidelines you have learnt in this unit and mention short
comings.
 Develop an essay type question for class VIII students in the subject of Urdu Language to assess
higher order thinking skills and prepare guidelines or scoring criteria (rubrics) for evaluators to
minimize the biasness and subjectivity.

7.7 Self Assessment Questions

 What strategies will you adopt to plan an annual exam of your class?
 Write down your preferences of selecting Multiple Choice Questions rather than True-False test
items.
 “It is difficult to minimize subjectivity or biasness while scoring/ evaluating constructed response
test items”. Give your point of view to support this statement.
 Write down an instructional objective of Social Study Grade V and develop an Essay type test
item with rubric, a Multiple Choice Question and a short question.
7.8 References/Suggested Readings
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing (6th ed.). New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Company.
Burke, K. (2005). How to Assess Authentic Learning. Califonia: A Sage Publication Company
Butler, S. M. & McMunn, N. D. (2006). Classroom Assessment. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass
Case, B. J., Jorgensen, M. A. & Zucker, S. (2004). Alignment in Educational Assessment. Harcourt
Assessment, Inc. Retrieved from
Cook, H. G. (2005). Aligning English Language Proficiency Tests to English Language Learning
Standards: Retrieved on June 06, 2007, fromhttp//:
www.ccsso.org/content/pdfs/ELPAlignmentFinalReport.pdf
Davidson, F. & Lynch, B. K. (2002). Test Craft: a Teacher's Guide to Writing and Using Language Test
Specifications. Yale University Press
Davidson, F. and Fulcher, G. (2007). "The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and the
Design of Language Tests: A Matter of Effect." Language Teaching 40, 3, 231 - 241.
Fulcher, G. & Davidson, F. (2007). Language Testing and Assessment: An Advanced Resource Book.
Routledge
Fulcher, G. & Davidson, F. (2009). Test Architecture, Test Retrofit. Language Testing. 26 (1) 123–144
Gronlund, N. E. & Linn, R. L. (2005). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. New Delhi: Baba
Barkha Nath Printers.
Haladyna, T. M., (1997). Writing Test Items to Evaluate Higher Order Thinking: USA: Allyn & Bacon
Kehoe, Jerard (1995). Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items. Practical Assessment, Research &
Evaluation, 4(9). Retrieved on December 27, 2008 from
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Kline, T. J. B. (2005). Psychological Testing: A practical Approach to Design and Evaluation. New
Delhi: Sage Publications, Inc.
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2003). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and
Practice (7th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Linn, R. L. & Gronlund, N. E. (2003). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching (8th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Livingstone, S. A. (2009). Constructed-Response Test Questions: Why we use them; how we score them.
R&D Connections 11. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved on September 2009
from
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Loewenthal, K.M. (2001). An Introductionto Psychological Tests and Scales (2nd ed). USA: Taylor &
Francis.
McMunn, N. D. & Butler, S. M. (2006). A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Assessment: Understanding
and Using Assessment to Improve Student Learning. USA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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