REF ORT RESUMES ED 015 469 49 AL 099 994 ‘A GRIEF ‘INDI REFERENCE GRAMMAR. PRELIMINARY VERSION. BY- GUMPERZ, JOHN J, MISRA, VIDYA NIWAS CALIFORNIA UNIV. BERKELEY REPORT NUMBER NOEA-VI-215 PUB DATE 6 CONTRACT OEC~SAE-9825, EDRS FRICE MF-$9.25 HC-$2.36 57. i DESCRIFTORS- GRAMMAR, SHINO, #REFERENCE MATERIALS, SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING, CESCRIFTIVE LINGUISTICS, #STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, DISTINCTIVE FEATURES, NOMINALS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, FORM CLASSES (LANGUAGES), SENTENCE STRUCTURE. FHRASE STRUCTURE. PHONOLOGY + THIS GRIEF OUTLINE OF HINDI PHONOLOGY AND GRAMMAR IS INTENDED FoR FIRST AND SECONC YEAR STUDENTS OF HINDI WHO HAVE SOME PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE OF THE ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE BUT WHO HAY HAVE HAC NO PREVIOUS TRAINING IN LINGUISTIC TERMINOLOGY. THE AUTHORS HAVE THEREFORE EMPHASIZED SIMPLICITY AND READABILITY RATHER THAN EXHAUSTIVENESS OR ORIGINALITY OF ANALYSIS. ALTHOUGH NOT A LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK. THIS GRAMMAR MAY BE USED To SUFFLEMENT A CLASSROOM TEXT AS A REFERENCE GUIDE FOR INDIVIDUAL READING OR FOR GRAMMAR REVIEW. THE BRIEF INTRODUCTION TRACES THE HISTORY AND CURRENT USE OF HINDI-URDU IN MODERN INDIA. FOLLOWING CHAPTERS INCLUDE A DESCRIFTION OF THE PHONOLOGY, GENERAL SENTENCE STRUCTURE, PHRASES, FORM CLASSES, AND VERBS AND VERB CONSTRUCTIONS. A ROMAN TRANSLITERATION OF THE DEVANAGARI SCRIPT IS USED THROUGHOUT. 0) aContract suB-8625 A BRIEF HINDI REFERENCE GRAMMAR (Preliminary Version| by John J. Gumpers and Vidya Niwas Misra The University of California Berkeley 1963 ‘The research reported herein was performed pursuent to a contract with the U. Se Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare under provisions of Section 602, Title VI, of the National Defense Education Act LS, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELEARE COFICE OF EDUCATION FROM THE [DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED 70 ‘OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING I POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION ‘POSITION OR POLICY. AL 000 894 eee eneThe present booklet is intended for first and second year students of Hindi and may te enployed either in a regular Language course for grammar revicw or as a reference guide for individual reading and translation, It attempts to summarize the nost important aspects of Hindi grammar in a manner comprehensible to individuals who have some previous oral and written knovledge of the language, but who have had no previous training in grarmatical or linguistic terminology. No effort is made to go beyond the materials covered in traditional grammars, Whenever our artangenent differs fron that of previous texts, our aim is simplicity and readability rather than exhaustiveness or originality of analysis.‘INTRODUCTION Hindi-Urda in Modern India Hindi-Urdu is the most widespread of the many Languages of the South Asian subcontinent. It is spoken in the greater part of North India, in the states of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rajesthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and in parts of Bast Punjab, as well as in large North and Central Indian cities such as Bonbay, Calcutta, and Abnedabad; and in Karachi and Lahore in West Pakistan, Statistics show between 150 and 200 million speakers, thus mal:ing it one of the najor Languages of the vorld, Mistorically Hindi-Urdu is a menber of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European family of lunguages, which also includes most of the modern European tongues, ‘The best known ancient representative of Indo-Aryan is Sanskrit, vhich, although no longer spoken, continues to occupy a position as the language of the sacred Hindu texts and serves as a source of Learned vocabulary in much the same way as do Latin and Greek in Modern Hurope, Aside from Hindi-Urdu, the Indo- Aryan language fanily also clains most of the other regional Languages of Northern and Central India: Sindhi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, and the Sinhalese tongue of Ceylon. ‘the Languages of the South of India--Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian language family, vhich is not related to Indo-Aryan, Although the political predominance of Hindi-Urdu is relatively recent, its origin is contemporary with the high Middle Ages in Western Europe. The earliest form of Hindi-Urdu for which we have evidence is the trade jargon which bocaue current after the see eee eeeMuslin conquest of Delhi in the twelfth century. ‘This idion, based on the speech of the rural districts around Heerut but also showing many influences of the Rajasthani dialects to the South and the Punjabi dialects to the West, was first employed p-inarily in the cities and fortified camps of the armies of the Delhi Sultanate. The name Urdu is derived from the expression zabaan-{-urdu, the language 1 of the camp, thus reflecting its original function, for a large traveling bazaar was usually part of the train of a military camp, Conmencing in the thirteenth century a style called KhaRi Boli, and related to this trade jargon came to be employed in the devotional poetry of the poet-saints of the bhakti or Faith Movenent, a popular religious niovenent vhose aim was to attract Large numbers of people to the worship of a personal god, and also in the ballads of the minstrels vho wandered from court to court, Poetry in a similar style called Urdu began to appear in the sixteenth century, strangely enough in the Muslin-ruled state of Golconda near Hyderabad city (Andhra State), whore the present Language is Yelugu. ‘This type of court poetry then spread to the Muslim ccurts of Delhi and Lucknow in the North. In spite of the inportance of Urdu and KhaRi Boli as literary languages, their function in medieval Indian society was hardly comparable to that of the so-called standard languages like English, French, Gorman, or Spanish, These latter sorve as the sole nedia of literary and aduinistrative communication in their respective regions. The bulk of the population in these regions is literate. Rules of grammar and of good style are generally agreed upon and are widely taught through public school systens. In North India, before 2: eevee iii edthe British conquest, on the other hand, literacy tended to be confined to a snall elite of officials, scribes, bards, pricsts, and members of religious orders. Writing skills, far from being accessible to all, were jealously guarded fron outsiders somewhat in the vay that artisans may attempt to keep their trade secrets from outsider- ~1terati employed not one but a variety of written ‘languages and styles, each associated with certain activities and considered inappropriate for others. Official records of the chanceries of Muslim rulers and o. Muslim law courts were kept 4. Persian, Sanskrit was employed in Hindu religious ceremonies and in the separate Hindu law courts, In the realm of literature aside from Urdu and KhaRi Boli, other Languages vere used, such as the Braj Bhasa dialect, based on the rural speech current around Agra which served for lyric and court poetry and Awadhi reflecting the local dialects of the Lucknow area as the predominant medium of narrative poetry. ‘Tho Linguistic differences between all the above literary styles and the spoken idiom of the rural districts and the small town bazaars were cons! able--greater, for example, than those between literary and conversational styles of English. The resulting Language learning difficulties served to maintain the isolation of local population and prevent participation in national and literary affairs, Traditional India thus presents a picture of linguistic and social isolation. the bulk of the population consisted of snall groups speaking only their own dialects, Supra-Local conmercial, Literary, and administrative communication was carried on by self-contained guild-like groups of specialists, who communicated in special languages which, in contrast to the readily accessible standard Languages of modern Europe, tended to reaain unknown to all but the initiated.These conditions continued throughout the early years of the British regime. It was not until after 1835, several decades after the British occupation of North India, that the new rulers, realizing the need for a Language of local administration which could be understood over a wide area, replaced Persian with the then-current form of the bazaar language for purposes of local and district adninistration. This trade idion, a direct descendent of the medieval zabaan-i~ urdu, never important as a literary medium, had by then developed into the principal spoken lingua franca of urban North India, Hence the nane Hindustani, ‘the Language of the Hindustan bazaars, When Hindustani was employed in official documents, it was written in the Persian script, the script which was also cnployed for Urdu court poctry at the courts of the former Mughal rulers, now pensioned off. As a consequence, the terms Urdu and Hindustani came to be used synonymously. ‘The new Language policy led to the organization of Urdu schools, and Urdu became widely studied by those who aspired to government positions. Soon after this, prose literature in Urdu also began to appear. ‘The nev idion did not, hovever, gain complete acceptance, As an official Language it was second to English, which served as the medium of higher education: and of the higher government offices. While Hindus enployed Urdu for business and aduinistrative puxposes, they did not fully accept its use for fiction and poetry because of the Persian script in which it was vritten. The result was the development of a second nev literary prose style, called Hindi, written in the Devanagari adapted from Sanskrit script, In this style, many of the words which had cone into the Language from Persian and Arabic sources were replaced by others derived from Sanskrit. The grammar, hovever, was identical with Urdu. ‘The mostimportant of the early Iindi writers, Bharatendu, was active about the middle of the nineteenth century; but his interests and those of others like hin were at first purely literary. Later on, however, with the growth of political movements in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Hindi and Urdu became associated with the conflicting aspirations of communal groups. The cause of Hindi was taken up by several of the Hindu revival and reform move~ ments such as the Arya Samaj (founded in 1875). Special societies for the propagation of Hindi in the Devanagari script were established. Hindi, schools were opened in nny localities and a movement arose for the replace~ ment of Urdu as an official language. Other probleas arose from demands for Language reform. Extrenists on the Hindi side called for expurgation of all supposedly foreign words. This resulted in the replacement of many extremely frequent items including conmonly used conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, and the like by new borrowings from Sanskrit. ‘Those on the other side retaliated with the sane denands for new Persian borrowings. As a consequence, the two styles tended to draw apart both in syntax and in vocabulary, Furthermore, the gap between spoken and vritten Language, which had vanished with the abandonnent of the old literary styles was in danger of reappearing. When Gandhi began his campaign for national unity, he attempted to minimize the Hindi-Urdu polarization, calling for a return to a sinple literary style for which he revived the name Hindustani. This was to be based on the spoken language, avoiding the most artificial borrowing fron Sanskrit on the one hand and Persian and Arabic on the other. Gandhi's Hindustani could be written cither in Persian or in Devanagari script and was widely used for a tine by his followers. It did not, however, gain general acceptance. SEEEeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeEeeeeeee iAeon eenntt geese eeenn nnn With the establishuent of the separate states of India and Pakistan, however, the name Mindustani was dropped, Hindi, written in Devanagari script, was accorded equal status with English as the eventual national Language of India. Urdu, written in Persian script, was given separate status. At present, both Hindi in India and Urdu in Pakistan are in the process of change fron Literary styles cultivated by relatively small groups of literati into media of general conmunication for the people of a growing, developing area, Forms of speech vaich formerly were used primarily in poetry and in high Literary prose must now accommodate speakers from an ever-increasing range of social and educational backgrounds and must serve the needs of a modern state. This change in function has created many problens. New technical and Legal vocabulary must be coined, spelling standardized, and new dictionaries prepared. Kducation in the standard must spre“? among speakers of highly divergent local dialects. Sinilar problous of standardization also occurred in Western countries, but they were settled over a period of several hundred years and have been forgotten, Standardization in most of the countries of Western Europe and in the United States has by now becoue so general that we tend to take it as the normal state of affairs. We expect standard Languages to be universally accepted and their rules of grammar to be generally agreed upon, Hindi and Urdu, however, in view of the many changes which they have recently undergone and which they are still undergoing, fall someviiat short of these expectations. One still finds considerable disagreement as to what constitutes good style. Conventions of spelling, syntax, and vocabulary usage are still in flux and are likely to remain so until the linguistic situation has becoue nore stabilized. ~6ALL this-creates constdorable problems’ for. the-grammarian and textbook writer. Choice of style becomes crucial and no short booklet can lay claim to universal validity. Our grammatical statements in what follow apply primarily to simple literary prose such as is found in modern short stories and essay literature and is ewployed in discussions among modern educated Indians. Rules of inflection and pronunciation apply to all forms of Hindi and Urdu. Our treatment of syntax and vocabulary is somewhat weighted in favor of Hindi,THE SOUNDS OF HIND The sounds of Hindi are listed below in Ronan transcription. The arrangement of vowels and consonants is that of the Devanagari alphabet of Hindi, Vowels a aa i iow ow e ec ai 8 00 au Consonants ky () kh (gh) gs (e) oh © ch j (2) jh r th D oR dh th W t th a ah 2 P ph (£) bh a y eee wo Bos ob The chief features of Hindi pronunciation and the points at which it differs from English are illustrated below. Here we will present a few remarks concerning our transcription. We use anh after a consonant to indicate aspiration. Though written as tvo letters (ph, ‘bh, th, gh), aspirate consonants function as single units in pronunciation. Capital letters indicate the so-called retroflex consonants (see below). The N is regularly pronounced as such in combination with other retroflex consonants (ND); but at the end of a word or between vowels, it is regarded a Hindi sound, used largely in formal contexts. Many speakers substitute a dental n ‘n colloquial style. A dot under (i), (kh), and (g), indicates the special "Urdu" pronunciation of these letters just as it does in the Devanagari alphabet. In informal conversation, k, kh, and 5 are often used in their place. (£) and (z) are also regarded as Urdusounds by some, but most educated speakers use them even in informal speech. Double symbols (11, ee, aa, uu, 90) indicate long vowels. These function as single units in pronunciation, ‘The pronunciation of ai and au varies considerably; they are sometimes pronounced as single units, in other cases as combinations of two vowels, or diphthongs. ‘The consonants y and y are pronounced as in English when they appear at the beginning of a word. After vowels, in words such as samay ‘time', and between vowels, pronunciation varies. Our practice in trans- eribing has been to follow the Devanagari speliing whenever it presents a possible pronunciation, hen it does not, we have used our ovn trans- eription. We suggest that the student follow the pronunciation of his instructor in these and all other sounds. In discussing the pronunciation of the above sounds it is important to emphasize thatHindi-Urdu discriminates among many types of sounds which are not kept distinct in English. We find, for example, two sets of Hindi-Urdu consonants, illustrated by k-kh, g-gh, one of which is aspirated (i.e, followed by strong breathing), another of which is unaspirated. In English, there is aspiration in words like "key" where the initial k is aspirated, but some English consonants--for example g-- axe never aspirated; furthermore, the presence or absence of aspiration does not change the meaning of the word. "Key" is readily understood even if the k is pronounced without the puff of air, In Ilindi-Urdu the Presence or absence of aspiration is an integral part of the structure of the word. Its presence or absence may change a word into another: thus kaanaa means ‘one-eyed' while haanaa means "food" or 'to eat'; gitnaa means ‘to fall' while ghirnaa neans 'to be surrounded.' Some distinctions between sound types are coumon to both languages, as for example, that ~9-between voiced consonants (e.g., b, d,s), and voiceless consonants (e.g, Bs £, k)+ But there are many other important Hindi distinctions, such as that between nasalized and non-nasalized vowels, dental and retroflex consonants, which English does not share, These will present the main points of difficulty. In order to bring out the characteristic features of Hindi pronunciation, our explanation will be organized around distinctive, or contrastive, sets of sounds. ~10- i |Le 2 Gonsonants Aspirated and unaspirated These sounds differ by the presence or absence of a puff of air after the initial consonant, ph- Pp th-t Th-T ch-e kh =k phaeg thaat ThaaT chaap khaan ~ paag + taat ~ TaaT caap + kaan Voiéed and unvoiced h represents the puff of air. bh ah Dh jh gh b a bhaag - baag dhaan - daam Dhaal ~ Daal jhaal = jaal ghaan - gaan baRhaa ~ baRaa These sounds differ by the presence or absence of voicing, vibration of the vocal cords. are voiced; those in the right are unvoiced. of voicing can be pronouncing z and be a P t k baas daal Daal jaam gaan Those in the left column of ‘The presence that is, each set or absence determined by putting your hand on your throat while g alternately. paas taal, ‘Taal caan kam bh -1l- is voiced, s is unvoiced. ph th Th ch kh bhaag ~ phaag dhaan = thaan Dhaal = Thaan jhan ~ chan ghaan - khaancurrent is completely stopped at some point, while in the production of the fricatives, or spirants, in the right column, the passage Stop and fricative In the production of the stops in the left colunn of cach set, the is constricted; leaving only a narrow aperture for the air current to squeeze through. ph - £ saphal - safar j-2 jaraa - zaraa } kh + kh haa = khaas garan - galat 4, Labial and dental ‘The sounds in the left column of each set are produced with the lips, while those in the right column are produced with the tip of the | tongue placed behind the upper teeti. pet paak - taal ph - th phal - thal bed baad - daad bh - dh bhuup - dhuup men maataa ~ naataa f-s faakaa ~ saakaa 5. Dehtal and retrofle: The retroflex consonants in the right column are pronounced with the | tongue somewhat retracted and curved up and back, as it is for general Anerican x, | t-T tap - Tap n-N baan ~ baaN | th - Th thap - Thap r-R haarii ~ naaRii a-D daal - Daal L-R bhall ~ bhaoR i dh - Dh hak - Dhak w12- eH PEPE reer ere ere ere ere Heer rr eee eee eee eeeeee eeveeDental and palatal Yor the palatal consonants on the right the articulator is the front of the tongue; the point of articulation is the hard palate directly ahove it, tee taal - caal th- ch — thaal - chal dag daal ~ jaal dh = jh dhar ~ ghar 5-8 saal ~ ¥oal Retroflex and palatal Sce 5 and 6 above, Tec Taal ~ caal Th ch Thaan ~ chaan D=i Daal ~ jaal Dh = jh Dhol - jhool 8. Palatal and velar For the velar consonants on the right, the articulator is the back of | the tongues the point of articulation is the soft palate, or velum, in the back of the nouth, eck cal = kal | je Jal = gal | 9, Velar and post~velar The post-velar k differs from velar k in that it is produced further back in the mouth. kek kadam - kadan +13 Leer Peer nnn10. ne Lateral and flap In the production of the lateral 1, the tip of the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth and the air stream passes out on either side of the tongue. In the production of the flap x, the passing air current causes the tip of the tongue to vibrate against the back of the upper teeth one or wore times. Ler laanaa ~ raanaa Short and long consonants ‘The sounds in the right column are held longer and pronounced with nore emphasis than those in the left column. p> pp Tapaa - Tappaa ph - pph phaphiiiid - phupphus te tt — patea = pattaa th + tth kathaa ~ katthaa T+1T —paTaa = paTTaa Th- (Th mi{Thid - citrhit e- cc — bacaa ~ baccan ch = cch puuchaa ~ acchaa kek pakaa = pakkaa kh = kh ralthaa ~ makkhan be bb — cabaa ~ abbaa d- dd — gadaa ~ gaddaa J+ 35 sajaa - sajjoa = 96 lagaa = Laggaa a n= nn panaa = pannaa moa = amaa = anmaa L-11 — balaa ~ ballad “LsVowels 1. Short and Long ‘The sounds in the right column are held longer than those in the Legt column. dedi din ~ diin a-aa dan - daan usu 9 dum = duun ! 2, Nasalized and unnasalized The vowels in the left column are pronounced with the air stream coming out the nose, Those in the xight column are pronounced with the air stream coming out the mouth. if - di kahfT = kahit @- ce kah@ - kahee af - ai hat ~ hai BG - aa kaha - kahaa 85-00 hd ~ hoo ai au Aidaa - outa @@- uu karGi - sarun “1+The Hakeup of Hindi Sentences The beginning student faced with a new language like Hindi usually visualizes his learning task in terms of vocabulary menorization. This, however, is only half the problem, and at least in the beginning, not the most important half. In Hindi, as in all other languages, the words within a sentence are never strung together randomly, but combine into granmatically significant subunits called phrases, It is the function of the individual word items within these larger units which determine their actual or contextual meaning and that of the entire utterance, This contextual meaning is often quite different from the listings given in an ordinary dictionary, In fact, it is quite often Possible to I:now the dictionary meanings of all vords within a sentence without understanding the utterance as a whole. Thus, acchaa, listed in the dictionary as ‘good', is translated as ‘good’ in the sentence acchaa keelaa deenaa 'give me a good banana’, But its meaning is 'o,k' in the sentence acchaa tiin decnaa 'o.k., give me three’, The difference in translation is due to the difference in the grammatical structure of the two sentences. We recognize structure through grammatical markers (i.e., case, number, and gender suffixes, features of noun-adjective agreement, word order, etc.). In the first example acchaa is part of the noun phrase acchaa keclaa since it precedes @ noun and shows the suffix -aa (rather than -ee or -ii) in agreement with keclaa, In the second example acchaa precedes the number tiin, which does not ordinarily take adjectives. Furthermore, the singular suffix -aa does not agree with tiin which is plural and hence there is no grammatical agreement. agcchaa here is a separate phrase. -16-Similarly, kyaa may mean ‘what in the sentence yee kyaa hai, but in the sentence kyaa yee hai the verb phrase is yoo hai, and kyaa is simply a question marker which has no direct English translation equivalent, Proper conmand of Hindi, therefore, requires an under~ standing of the internal structure of sentences, and of the grammatical markers which characterize the constituont phrases and the relationship among then, “17Hindi Phrase Types ‘A phrase may consist of one or tore words. {lithin a sentence phrases are arranged hierarchically, in such a way that larger entities are in turn divisible into smaller ones, etc. Thus the sentence baccee-kee KapRee dashinee haath-par miltee hai ‘children's clothes are available on the left' falls into baccee-kee kapRee ‘children's clothes’ and daahinee haath-par miltce hai ‘are available on the left', which in turn divides into baccee-kee ‘children’ and kapRee ‘clothes’ and dashinee ‘haath~par 'on the left! and piltee hai 'are available’ respectively. Hindi phrases are classified from three perspectives: 1, in terms of their internal structure, 2, in terms of their grammatical relationship to other phrases vithin the utterance, and 3, in terms of their grammatical meaning. All three perspectives are inportant for an understanding of the total structure of the sentence. By internal structure we mean the inflectional characteristic of constituent forms, We talk of noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, or adverbial phrases depending on vhether the head, i.e, the uain iten vithin the phrase, has the inflectional characteristics of a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, In several word phrases the head is the iten with which all others are in agreement, usually the last in a sequence. ‘Thus in baccee-kee kapRoe the head kapRee, a noun, determines the ending of what precedes, ‘he entire phrase is a noun phrase. Ldecee-kee, on the other hand, is an adjective phrase because ~kee is inflected like an adjective such as acchaa 'good', The fact that baccee is also a noun becoues velevant only on further subdivision of the adjective phrase into baceee and the post~position Our second classification deals with the relationship of separate phrases within an utterance, A verbal phrese is that part of the sentence “18= eI eee dae ee eee nn iwhich \s inflected for tense, e.g. daahinee haath-par miltee hat. A noun phrase which determines the case and number agrecuent of a verbal phrase is called a subject phrase, A noun phrase which immediately precedes the verb but docs not agree with it is an object phrase, e.g. Daccee-kee kapRee which determines the ~ee hai part of piltee hai, An adverbial phrase consists either of one of a limited nunber of adverbs such as yah 'here' or of a noun construction which ends in one of a group of post-positions as in daahinee haath-par (Literally, 'on the left hand'). A modifier phrase is alvays part of a Larges noun phrase with which if agrees in number and gender. Although terns such as subject and object are frequently used to refer to the meaning of phrases, an examination of Hindi sentences soon xeveals many instances vhere ueanings and grammatical relationships 8 we have defined then above do not coincide, In the sentence mujhe hindit, nahfY agtit the thing talked about is the grammatical subject while the person’ vho males the statement is indicated by a post-positional phrase. We, therefore, find it useful to separate gramatical meaning and inter-phrasal relationships. We use the teru actor to indicate the performer or the person or thing a statement is about. ‘The term action indicates what is performed or indicated by a statement. ‘The term goal indicates what the statement applies to. The term modifier refers to any phrase which modifies the weaning of an actor or goal phrase. +19Noun Infiection Gonder Hindi nouns fall into avo gender classes: masculine and feminine. Since nouns xeferring to male animate beings are masculine and those signifying fenales are feminine, there is sone correlation between gender and sex. But the significance of gender is granmatical rather than senantic, It determines the shape of number and case suffixes and the endings of adjectives and verbs which show grammatical agreement with the noun in question, Marked and Unmarked Nouns Some common masculine nouns, e.g, keelaa ‘banana’ have the ending -aa (zee in the plural), while some common feminine nouns, e.g. rooTii 'bread' show -ii, ‘These endings serve as characteristic gender markers, and nouns vhich have these markers are called marked nouns. A few marked masculine nouns in -aa also have feminine equivalents in rii, e.g. LaRkaa 'boy' laRikit 'girl'. Nouns which end in consonants or vowels other than -aa or -ii may be either masculine or feminine in gender. Furtherwore, ve find many masculine nouns ending in -ii, e.g. shoobii 'vasherman', and feminine nouns such as kaannaa 'felicitation in zaa which do not teke the -ce plural and oblique ending. Other masculine nouns such as raajaa ‘king’ also do not take the -ee oblique and plural ending. All these are called unmarked nouns. The majority of Hindi nouns are unmarked, We must conclude, therefore, that in spite of the existence of the markers -aa and ~ii, Hindi gender is in general un- predictable either from the meaning or from the ending of most nouns and must be Learned separately. -20=Case and Number Inflection Hindi nouns have two nunbers: singular and plural; and three cases: direct, oblique, and vocative, A noun is marked granmatically through a suffix vbich indicates case and number. The direct case is the form in which the noun is ordinarily quoted. The oblique occurs primarily before post-positions and in adverbial phrases. The vocative is employed in calling to a person or an animal and is relatively rare. HWarked masculine nouns show the ending -aa in the singular direct case and -ee in the singular oblique case as well as in the vocative singular and direct plural, -38 in the oblique plural and -oo in the vocative plural vherever it occurs. Marked feminine nouns have -ii in all cases of the singular, ciy&M in the direct plural, -iy68 in the oblique plural, and -iyoo in the vocative plural. Unmarked feminine nouns add -ee in the plural direct, 1-88 in the plural oblique and -oo in the plural vocative. The shape of the noun stem (i.e. the part to which the suffix is added) remains unchanged except in words such as aurat ‘voman', These contain a long vowel in the first syllable followed by consonant, short , consonant in the next syllable. In such stems the a is dropped before case-number suffixes. Mase. Fen. ging. sing. ph. Dix, LaRkas ‘boy! LaRkee ‘boys’ laRkid 'girl' laRkiyad ‘girls! mard ‘man’ nard ‘men’ — aurat/ ‘woman’ aurt@é ‘women’ Obl, laRkee LaRkdd LaRkii laRki yds mard mard55 aurat aurtod Voc. 1aRkee LaRk:oo aR LaRkiyoo mard mardoo aurat aurtoo -21- EsnetieceteeePronouns Pronouns constitute a special class of nouns, ‘Their function within a sentence is sinilar to that of nouns except for the fact that they are not preceded by adjectives. Like nouns they are inflected for case and number, There are no special grammatical gender markers for pronouns, but verbs show gender agreement with pronouns in accordance with the gender of the noun the pronoun refers to, When no noun is indicated, the gender is masculine. Pronouns fall into several classes ! in accordance with their meaning and grammatical function. Demonstrative pronouns refer to persons or objects somewhat like English 'this' and 'that', They appear in two forms, The proximate i yah marked by an initial y- indicates something that is close by or inmediately preceding. The distant wah marked by initial y- refers to sonething not directly at hand or not immediately preceding. The latter is more frequent and is used when there is no need to make the distinction | between proximity and distance. yah and yah have the colloquial equivalents yee and yoo, which are used in speaking only, not in writing. The direct plural forms of yah and wah are yee 'these' and wee 'those'. The colloquial forms romain unchanged in the plural, ‘The oblique singular is is and us and the oblique plural is in and un for all forms. Interrogative-indefinite pronouns are characterized by an initial ke. They include kyaa 'vhat' and kaun 'who'. The direct plural is not marked. The oblique singular for both forns is kis, e.g. kis-koo | "to whom! or 'to what", The oblique plural is kin, e.g. 'to whon', plural, or ‘to what", plural. Interrogatives are used in questions, e.g. yee kyaa hai ‘what is that?', or in exclamations, kyaa hooSyaarii 'what cleverness", 7 |The forus kooii "someone" and kuch ‘sone’ are used as in- definites only. kooii has the oblique kisti; kuch does not change. Relative pronouns begin with j-: joo ‘who, which’ has oblique singular jis and oblique plural jin, The relative is used to refer to someone or something in a preceding or following phrase. Direct Oblique ple sing. ph. yee this is in wee that us un kyaa what kis kin kaun who kis kin kooii someone kisii kuch some kuch joo who, which jis jin Host of the above have special forms in the oblique plural before the post-position -nee: yah has inhO8, wah has unhOS, kyaa and kaun have kinhd8, joo has jinhdd. Personal pronouns refer to persons, mat 'I' has the oblique form mujh; ham 'we' does not change; tuu 'you', intimate, has oblique tujh; tun 'you', familiar, does not change; aap ‘you’, polite, does not change. yeh and wah can also be used as personal pronouns, to indicate 'he' and 'she', Here again wah is the general term while yah is used only when it becomes necessary to specify someone who is close by. A verb showing gender-number agreement with han always appears in the masculine plural, even though ham may refer to wonen or may, as is often the case, refer to one person only. -23= eeeDirect ham tuu tum aap “24= mujh ham tujhe ‘cum aap-Adjectives are a special class of nouns which nay appear in two positions: (1) as noun modifiers before a noun, or (2) as predicates before a form of the auxiliary hai. 4 Adjectives (1) acchaa LaRkaa acchii LaRkii acchee iaRkee acchii LaRkiyaa (2) 1aRkea acchaa hai. laRkii acchii hai. laRkee acchee ha. LaRkiya® acchit hat, In both cases adjectives agree nouns they modify, "a good boy" "a good girl! "good boys" "good girls' "the boy is good." "The girl is good." "The boys are good.! “The gitls are good.' in gender, number, and case with the As with nouns, we distinguish between two classes of adjectives--marked and unmarked. Marked adjectives take -ag before masculine singular nouns in the direct case; -ee before masculine plural direct, masculine singular oblique and plural oblique; and -if, before feminine nouns in singular or plural, direct or oblique. acchaa laRkaa acchee LaRkee-koo acchee LaRk88-koo acchiid Ladi acchii LaRKii-koo acchii Lakkiy88-koo "a good boy’ "to the good boy" "to the good boys" "a good girl! "to the good girls’ "to the good girls’ Unnarked adjectives do not change. As is the case with nouns, all adjectives ending in a consonant and many ending in a vowel are unmarked, Pere pectic -25~kaafit paisaa kaafii miThaaii Kharaab paisaa Kharaab miThaaii All Hindi words functioning as "enough money’ "enough candy! "bad money" "bad candy! adjectives may also be used as regular nouns, in which case they are inflected like nouns, Their gender is that of the noun referred to. from pronouns. eek acchaa deenaa, eek acchii deenaa. chooTS-kaa daa kyaa hai. chooTiy88-kaa daam kyae hai. "Give me a good one.! (referring to a masculine object) ‘Give me a good one.! (referring to a feminine object) ‘what's the price of the little ones?" (referring to masculine objects) ‘what's the price of the little ones?' (referring to feminine objects) Possessive adjectives are a special class of adjectives derived relevant pronouns: Following is the complete list together with the Pronoun Possessive adjective nat neeraa ny hon hanaaraa our, my tuu teeraa your (intimate) tum tumhaaraa your (familiar) aap aap-kea your (polite) woo, yee (singular) us-kaa, isekaa his, her, its woo, yee (plural) un-kaa, in-kaa their apnaa (one's) own 266 Wniocsssttispesecet The possessive adjectives are marked. Note, however, that as in English, when a noun phrase contains a regular adjective as well as a possessive, the possessive appears first: meeraa kaalaa bakas ‘nv black box! tushaaree kaalee juutee "your black shoes’ us-kii duusrii dukaan "his other store’ us-kii naii mooTar-méé ‘in his new car’ ‘apna, ‘one's own’, has no direct English equivalent. It is used whenever the possessive pronoun which modifies the object refers to the same person as the subject pronoun. ma is-koo apnee-saath rakhtiti-haa. I'll keep it with me (i.e., with myself) mG apnid mooTar-mee jaataa hit. © I go in my (own) car. yoo apnaa bakas ¥Thaataa hai, He lifts his own box (1.e., not some= one else's) woo apnec saamaan lee aatee hat. They bring their own luggage (i.e., not someone else's) Note that in contrast to English where the ‘own', ‘myself’, ‘himself', etc., may or may not be used, in Hindi the apnaa is alvays required. ‘This might seem redundant with first or second person pronouns, but with third person pronouns (he, they) it enables the Hindi speaker to | make a distinction which is more cumbersome to express in English, apnea is sometimes used when no other pronoun is present in the sense my (your, his, etc.) own or my (your, his, etc.) self. | | yee kaalaa bakas apnee saath nahii jaaeegaa. ‘This black box doesn't go with me (myself)! afuaa kaen karoo. "Do your oun work! yee apnaa-hii hai. “this is py own.' 27"eevee Postpositions and Postpositional Constructions Hindi postpositions indicate relationships anong words wituin a Hindi sentence similar to those indicated by propositions in an English sentence, e.g. yoo dillii-see haf, "They are from Delhi.,' Postpositions are pronounced as if they were scparate words, but they can only occur following nouns. Just as in English ve use either single-vord prepositions such as to, for, or prepositional phrases such as in place of, with respect to, Hindi has both single-word postpositions and-postpositional phrases. Single-vord postpositions are Limited in nunbor. They are listed below, ckaa "belonging to! zsee, "Exon", "by! oS ‘in! zper ton! tak ‘until', ‘up to! ko "to! znee "agent" (in past constructions) ckaa changes its ondings in the same way as does an adjective to agree with the gender, number, and case of the following noun, e.g. us-kea naam, ‘his name’, us-kit mooTar, ‘his car’. ALL the rest of se, unlike -kaa do not change their endings. Note that -tak is used with adverbs as well as with nouns and pronouns. Postpositions are always preceded by nouns ox pronouns in the oblique case, singular or plural. us-kaa daan yaa hai, “what's the price of that?" Papiiteerkaa daca kyaa hai, © ‘What's the price of a papaya?! 28+papiitd3-kaa daan kyaa hai, "What's the price of the papayas?! miThaaiyoo-aa daam kyaa hai, ‘What's the price of the candies?! The underlined suffix in isee and mujhee is an alternate of skoo, This suffix takes the form ee after words ending in h or = or with words starting with h-, and it has the form hee after all other consonants. It occurs only with the following pronouns: direct oblique singular oblique plural yee isee inhee ‘woo usee unhee han hanee nat mujhe tuu tujhee With all these pronouns @ may also be used, but -koo sounds | slightly more formal and is less frequent in conversation. The formal Pronoun aap has only the form aap-koo. Postpositional phrases A large variety of postpositional phrases occur in Hindi, These phrases may consist either of two words --= skee plus a noun, or of three words -- -kce plus a noun plus a postposition. In the examples below postpositional phrases and the nouns they follow axe underlined, aaj raatrkee pahlee "before tonight! ysckee uupar hai. "It's on top of it.' aaprkee liyee biis rupacc. ‘For _you, twenty rupecs.' us kid tarag "towards it! mooTar-kee plichee-sec saamaan nikaaloo, ‘Take the luggage out of the back of the car." imaart8S-kee baaree-m88 bataaiyee. ‘Tell me about tho buildings.’ +29- PoNote that before taraf the postposition takes the feminine form -kdi. The reason for this is that taraf is a feminine noun. There are a fev other such feminine nouns occurring in postpositional phrases, and these will have to be menorized separately,Special Prefixes Several sets of Hindi pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs corresponding in ueaning to English expressions of time, quantity, and manner are characterized by prefixes which mark their meaning as interrogative, relative, proximate or distant. The pronouns yah ‘this’, wah 'that', kyaa 'vhat', joo ‘who, what’ (relative pronoun) belong in this series. Others are the marked adjectives: itnaa "this much" utnaa "that much" “Icktnaa "how rach" jitnaa "as much" aisaa "Like this" vaisaa "Like that! kaisaa "nou! jaisaa tas! ‘The adverbs: yahda "here! waht ‘there! eahatt "whore! jana ‘where’ (relative) idhar "here! udhar "there! kidhar ‘where! ab ‘now! kab ‘when dab ‘when' (relative) The last two series are incomplete since only three of four possible forms occur. 31Noun Phrases Noun phrases have a noun as the "head! or principle element. They consist either of a single noun or pronoun or of a noun preceded by one or more adjectives or other noun modifiers. Some examples are: 1, acchaa keelaa good banana 2. eek acchaa keelaa a good banana 3, Sahar-kaa makaan a building of the city | 4. is Sahar-kaa ma8huur makaan a famous building in this city 5. eek deekhaa huwaa aadmii A man who was seen 6. eek ddekhtaa huvaa andi A seeing man (1.e., vho sees) 7. meeree yee doo itnee acchee These two so good shoes of mine. juutee In addition to regular adjectives, possessives, numerals, Pronouns and verbal participles may serve as noun modifiers, Any noun can be transformed into an adjective phrase by addition of ckaa (zee, -ii). In a few cases as in meeree bhaaii-kaa ghar 'ny brother's house’, these derived adjectives correspond to the English ' direct translation equivalent. * possessives. In example three, however, there is no Perfective and inperfective verbal participles also serve as noun phrase modifiers. As a rule in such constructions huvaa is added to the verb forn, which is however not translated. Note the difference in meaning between the perfective and imperfective participle in exanples five and six above. ‘The former is passive Different types of modifiers always precede the noun in fixed relative order, This order is illuetrated in the last example. while the latter is active in meaning. | 732-Possive adjectives coue first, followed by pronouns, nunerals, words of the itnaa, aisaa class, and regular adjectives, -kaa constructions or verbal participles. When two or more of the latter group occur, the item referring to a quality most closely associated with the noun immediately precedes it, e.g+ yahaa-kaa acchaa keelaz a good banana from around here acchaa yah®a-kaa keelaa a good local banana Woun uodifiers alvays agree 4h case, nunber, and gender with the phrase head. Thus marked adjectives end in -aa with direct case masculine heads in -ee when the head is in the plural and oblique case and in +ii when the head is feminine. Pronouns appear in the oblique singular or plural before oblique singular and plural nouns respectively. For example: is Bahar-kaa in (of) this city meeree in doo itnee to these so good shoes of mine acchee juut so-Ioo Note that agreement holds even though several words may intervene between the modifier and the noun.Verbs Hindi verb constsuctions may be either sinple or complex. Simple verb constructions consist of a verb root followed by an inflectional suf! as in aap Kthaa8é "you should eat' (here khaa- is the root of the verb 'to eat’ and -8@ the inflectional ending), or of an auxiliary as in yah hOG 'I am here' vhere GG is the first person present form of the auxiliary hai. Complex verb constructions consist of one or wore of the basic verb forms listed below ordinarily followed by an auxiliary as in nif hindi paRhtaa Wii 'T study Hindi' where pathtaa is the imperfective participle form formed from the root paRh ‘learn, Basic Vorb Forms Except for simple auxiliaries, Hindi verb constructions are based on one of the following five basic forms: root, infinitive, imperfeetive participle, perfective participle and invariant participle. In the dictionary verbs are listed in the infinitive forn, characterized by =n- followed by the marked n-un endings -aa, wee, or =i1; e.g. bool-n-aa ‘to speak", ‘The root is the part of the verb vhich precedes the e.g. bool. ‘The inpe::fective participle 2s formed by addition of -t- to the root, followed by the marked noun endings -aa, -ec for masculine singular oblique and plural and -ii, “22 for feminine singular and plural, e.g. bool geaa, opeaking'. The feminine plural forms drop the nesalization and become “ii when folloved by the plural auxiliary Zt, or vhit. ‘The perfective participle consists of the root plus the narked adjective endings given above. The following verbs have irregular perfective participlies: =34~Infinitive Perfective Participle deenaa diyaa, diyee, dii, dtt leenaa liyaa, Liyee, lit, Lft karnaa / kiyaa, kiyee, kid, ktt Cae Verb roots ending in a vowel add a -y- before the marked adjective endings? Infinitive Perfective Participle aanaa aayaa soonaa sooyaa piinaa piyaa Note that in verbs like piinaa the -y- replaces the second -i-. The invariant participle is like the -aa form of the imperfective participle, e.g., booltaa. As its name suggests, it does not change in forn. The Auxiliary The auxiliary appears in prer-nt, past, and subjunctive forms, ‘The present endings vary with person and number (but not with gender) as follous: (ar) hog (D an (tu) hai, (you intimate) are | (tum) hoo (you familiar) are (woo [or] wah) hai (he, she, it) is (ham) >) (we) are (aap) t hai (you formal) are \ (wee) ) (they) are The past forn of the auxiliary reflects only tre number and gender of the subject, not the person. estar teeter tee EES amat I tu thaa you was (were) wah he nat I tu / this you was (were) vah § she ; han» ve cap { “ you (pol) ; thee were tun you (fan) wee ) they han we ; aap you (polite) ener tun you (familiar) vere Subjunctive forns of the auxiliary are: hoo with singular subject and hd with plural subjects. The future form of the auxiliary is fore particle -gaa, ec, ii, to the subjunctive verbs. wah acchaa hoo Lt is probably a! wah acchaa hoo-gaa It will be all right wah acchii hoo-git She will be all xig wee acchee hdd-gee They will be all ri; veo acchii h8B-git They (fen) will be 36+ d by adding the right. te he. ght. all right.Finite Verb Constructions A finite verb construction is the head of a verb phrase. Finite verb constructions nay be simple, i.e. consisting of a verb stem plus suffix, or couplex, i.e. consisting of one or more basic forns plus an auxiliary. The following simple finite verb constructions occur: Request forms a. Formal or polite requests consist of sten plus ~iyee endings: aiyee saahab please come, sir b. Informal requests, used with servants, young people and friends: aaco bhaaii come, fellow c. Familiar requests, used with enimals, snall children, and very close intimates: aa come Neutral requests, used with strangers to avoid having to choose among the above three, equivalent to the infinitive (stem) plus -naa: santree Laanaa bring sone oranges ‘The verbs lecnaa, deenaa, karnaa, piinaa have irregular formal request forms liijiyee, diijiyee, kiijiyee, piiiiyee and the irregular informal request forms loo and doo. Subjunctive and Future Forns Subjunctive verb fozns are derived by addition of the subjunc- tive person endings--sinilar to those found with the auxiliary hai- to the verb root. Here is a list of various forns for the verb deelkhnaa "see'. The endings arc set off from the root by a hyphen. Ast person 2nd person (intimate) deekh-ec2nd person (plural and informal) deekkh-00 3xd person (singular) deckh-ce 3xd person (plural) deekh-8é Subjunctive forms are used to indicate uncertainty or suggested action, Here are some illustrative examples: ¥Yayad woo kal jaaee maybe he'll go tonorrow agar woo kal jaaee too Thiik hai if he should go tomorrow it will be all right maf kyaa karti what should I do? kuch baat karéé let's talk a little ‘The future consists of the subjunctive plus the particle =gaa. (eg, 41). =gaa Like the postposition -kaa agrees with the nunber and gender of the subject. It indicates an action which is probable or is expected to occur. Here are some illustrative examples: woo kal jaaéégeo he will go tomorrow agar woo kal aacogity. too Thiik hai If she comes tomorrow it is o ¥ayad woo kal jaaee-gea Maybe he will go tomorrow Note that future and subjunctive may be used in many of the same contexts. The differonce is in the degree of probability, The subjunctive indicates greater uncertainty. -38-Wee ALl additional verb constructions constitute scveral-word phrases made up of one or more of the basic verb forms listed above plus auxiliaries. The verb forms agree with the gender and number of the grammatical subject, while the auxiliaries reflect number and person agreement. The most common such verb constructions consist of a perfective or imperfective participle plus an auxiliary, The following examples will illustrate the possibilities: Simple verb constructions: raam hind{i booltaa hai. Ram speaks Hindi, raam hindii booltaa thaa. Ran used to speak Hindi, raam hindii booltaa hoo. Ram might speak Hindi. raam hindii booltaa hoogaa. Ram probably speaks Hindi. vaam hindii boolaa. Ram spoke Hindi. aan hindii boolaa hai. Ram has spoken Hindi, aan hindii boolaa thaa. Ram had spoken Hindi. raam hindii boolaa hoo. Ram might have spoken Hindi. raam hindii boolaa hoogaa. Ram probably spoke Hindi. Note that the simple past construction boolaa does nat require the auxiliary. The Meaning of Hindi Tonse Forms All of the tenses of Hindi are listed on the chart on page 42 The tenses may be named by giving the row and col mn design tions: e.g. kartaa hoogaa is future imperfect, kiyas hoo is conditional, erfect, kdyaa simple past, while kartaa is the unreal, These names are also descriptive of the ucanings of the tenses and of the dis- tinctive differences between them. For a clear understanding of the tenses it is necessary to understand first the basic categories and concepts underlying this description, ~39- eeeTIME The basic horizontal division on the chart is between temporal and non-temporal tenses. Temporal, as the name indicates, refers to the time of the action in the familiar past, present, or future divisions. Non-temporal tenses are without any indication of time. Instead they indicate differing degress of certainty. 1) The conditional indicates the possible happening of an action, either as an independent statement, e.g. Saeyad woh jaace ‘Maybe he will go', or as a condition whose fulfillment is possible, e-8. agar baari¥ hoo too ham andar rah@@gee, 'If it rains we will stay inside." 2) The presumptive indicates the probable occurrence of an action, the presumption that something has taken place, c.g. aap-nee yah Icltaab paRhii hoogii, 'You have probably read this book,! 3) The unreal indicates the assumption of an unreal condition, a condition contrary to fact, e.g. agar wah yah#@ hootaa too acchaa hootaa, 'If he were here it would be good.' Since the non-tenporal tenses are without any specific reference to time, they can refer to the past, present, or the future depending on the context. This can be well illustrated with the unreal form although it holds equally for the conditional and presumptive. The statement in parentheses is the real situation about which an unreal supposition is being nade, yadii ham dilliiwm@é hootee too Kkilaa deekh saktee Past: (ham dillii-né% nahff thee) ‘If we had been in Delhi we would have been able to see the Red Fort." Present: (han dillii-m@é nahYt hat) 'I£ we were in Delhi we would be able to sce the Ked Fort.! “40- ete tttfuture: (ham dilldi-n€@ nohTE hoog®¥) ‘LE ve.woxe to be in Delhi we would be able to see the Red Fort.' ‘The tenporal auxiliaries are hat, thaa, and hoogaa, and the non-temporal auxiliaries are hoo, hoogaa, and hootaa, It will be noticed that hoogaa occurs on both lists. The teuporal hoogaa indicates simply future time, while the non-temporal hoogaa indicates Probability with no reference to time. This may give rise to a certain ambiguity which, however, is usually made clear by context. For example: (temporal) ‘He will be there.* wah_wahia hoogaa ‘He 18 probably there’, (non-temporal) ‘He will probably be there.' ASPECE The fundamental vertical categories on the chart are aspectual (imperfect and perfect) and non-aspectual. ‘the imperfective aspect indicates that the action is not completed, that,is, has been started and isstill going on at the time in question or that it has not yet begun, ‘he perfective aspect indicates that the action is completed at the time in question. ‘These aspects must not be confused with time, As the chart shows, both imperfective and perfective foras occur in the past, present, and future. The marker of the imperfective forms, -taa, should probably be called the imperfect(ivo) participle instead of the present participle, Likewise, vhat is usually called the past participle could better be called the perfect(ive) participle. However, the terms present and past participles are well entrenched in Hindi granmatical discussions and may be used if it is remembered that they really indicate aspect, not tine differences. 41 eee etparticiple plus auxiliary, kartaa thaa, kiyaa hoo, etc. Aspect is marked only in those forms consisting of a For the non- auxiliary forns, kiyaa kartaa karee kareegaa, aspect is not relevant and hence they are called non-aspectual. By ‘not relevant! it is meant that attention is not focused on whether the action is completed or not, but merely on vhether it is past, future, conditional or unreal. I£ this emphasis is desired or if the non-aspectual forns are lacking, the aspectual forms must of course be used. NON-TEMNPORAL TEMPORAL L NON-ASPECTUAL _ASPECTUAL ‘TMPERFECTIVE | PERFECTIVE | kiyaa hat ‘A, PRESENT kartaa hai B. PAST Ikdyaa kartaa thaa kiyaa thaa Cc. FUTURE kareoga kartaa hoogaa | kiyaa hoogaa Dy E Fr, CONDITIONAL, PRESUMPTIVE UNREAL “t= kartaa hoo kartaa hoogaa ketyaa hoo Ietyaa hoogaa kartaa hootaa | kiya hootaaConplex, Participial and Infinitive Constructions In constructions of this type a regular vorb such as jaanaa, 'go', rahnaa, 'stay', is used as an auxiliary, This auxiliary iaanaa, 'go', rahnaa, may in turn appear in constructions such as those listed in the preceding pages. a Inperfective (present) participle + rahnaa Meaning: to keep on doing something, to go on doing; it may also refer to the continued action at separated intervals of time. (2) Tenses of rahnaa: all Examples: wah jaataa rahtaa hai. ‘He keeps on going.' baceii ghaNTOé-tak rootii rahtii thi. "Zhe child used to go on crying for hours.' aaduii saarii reat juvaa Icheltee rahee. "The men kept on ganbling all night.! LaRkaa kaam kartaa rahtaa hai. 'The boy goes on working ' Inperfective (present) participle + jaanaa Meaning: to keep on doing something, to go on doing. The meaning is similar to (1) but with jaanaa the continued action is limited to a single occasion. Tonses of jaanaa: except gayaa thaa Examples: wah booltaa jaataa hai, 'He keeps on talking.! us nee caahee manaa iiyaa mai kaa kartaa, ‘Although he forbade no, I kept on vork~ ing." “43~(3) «) o) Perfective (past) participle + jaanaa Meaning: the passive Tenses of jaanaa: All Auxiliary which could cone after this jaa -(passive)- a) rahnaa gulsnaa Examples: yah imaarat banaayii jaa rahii hai. oe building is being uilt.! hindustaan-m@é bahut sii bhaa¥aa8€ boolii jaatii haz. "In India many Languages are spoken." Jaisee likhaa gayaa hai. 'As it has been written,’ yah kaam kiyaa jaacegaa, 'This work will be done.’ Invariant Past Participle + kartaa Heaning: habitual action, to be in the habit of ...,ing Tenses of karyaa: I + IT Examples? wah dillii jaayaa kartaa thaa. ‘He was in the habit of going to Delhi.' LaRkid guRiyaa see Kheelaa kartii thii. ‘The girl is in the habit of playing with dolis.! Invariant Past Participle -+ caahnaa Meaning: imminent action, to be about to . Tenses of cashnaa: II Examples: gaaRii aayaa caahtii hai. ‘The train is about to come," phal peeR see giraa caahtee thee. ‘The fruit vas about to fall." hha(6) Oblique Past Participle + jaanaa Meaning: to keep on, to go on doing souething: with the added sense that something is going on at the same tine, possibly tending to hinder it. Tenses of jaanaa: I 4 IZ except Past Part (BI) Examples: aan naam raTee jaaoo. ‘Keep on repeating Ram's name. wah baat® kiyaa jaatii thii, 'She kept on talking," (7) Infinitive + caahnaa Meaning: to want (desire) to do something Tenses of cashnaa: All Examples: woo paanii piinaa cacitaa hai, 'He wants to drink water.’ ! woo idhar-see jaanaa caahaa, ‘He intendal to go away from here." (8) Infinitive + hai Meaning: to ‘have to' do something Tenses of hai: All Examples: abhii jaanaa hai, 'We must go now." kal sinena jaanaa hoogaa, ‘We will have to go to the movie tomorrow. * | (9) Infinitive + caahiyee Meaning: to be expected to (ought to) do sonething (sonewhat stronger obligation than the previous construction) Tenses : cachiyce is an invariant forn, It ordinarily reflects present tense. Past and future nay be expressed by addition of thaa (eg, it) or hoo-gaa (ce, ii) respectively. =45-(to) Examples? abhii too jaanaa cashiyee, ‘But now (we) have to go.' kal udhar jaanaa caahiyee thaa. '(He) should have gone there." Infinitive +. paRnaa Meaning: to be under an obligation to (do something), have to. Tenses of paRnaa: All Examples: kkaam too karnaa peRtaa hai, 'Uork has to be done." hamee kal jaanaa paReegaa. ‘Tomorrow it will be necessary for us to go.! Note that in paRnaa, cashiyce, as well as in infinitive plus hai, constructions the agent or principle of the action is expressed by an oblique noun or pronoun followed by -koo. This is characteristic of many Hindi sentences and will be discussed later. ay az) Oblique infinitive + lagnaa Meaning: to begin doing something, set out to do something Tenses of lagnaa: ALL Examples? woo boolnee lagaa. ‘He started to speak.' woo kal kaam karnee lageegaa. ‘He'll start vorking tomorrow." Oblique infinitive + deenaa Meaning: to allow someone (give permission) to do something Tenses of decnaa: ALL Exauples: woo mujhee andar jaanee nahfi deetaa. ‘He won't let me go inside.’ kal kaam karnee d&é-gee. “Tomorrow they will give permission to work.! ~46-Stem Expansions Aside fron the addition of auxiliaries to cxpress degrees of meaning such as are usually referred to as tense and aspect, it is also possible to modify the meaning of the main verb itself, Derived stems are formed by three processes: affixation, compounding, and formation of couplex stems consisting of an adverb or noun plus auxiliary. Verb Sten Affixes Affixes are most commonly used in the formation of causative verbs. In some cases the affix is added to the root and precedes the infinitive or participial endings, e.g-, bannaa ‘to be nade’; banaanaa ‘to make', With other verbs the causative is formed by lengthening and/or j changing the stem vowels, e.g. dikhnaa 'to seen’, dcclhnaa 'to see’ khulnaa 'to be open’, khoolnaa, 'to open’; nilalnaa 'to be removed", nikaalnaa 'to renove!, Many verbs have a second type of affix -vaa indicating a higher degree of causation. Some common examples are: karnaa "do! karaanaa “have soneone do! karwaanaa ‘cause to be done’ (by a thixd party) bannaa "to be made! banaanaa “to make" banwaanaa have soncone else make! Khulna "to be opened’ khoolnaa "to open’ Ihulwaanaa "to have someone open’ : -47- |The use of causative affixes, however, is by no means general, It is restricted only to certain verbs which are usually listed separately in the dictionary and should be learned item by item, Complex Verb Stens Hindi has a Large number of complex verb stens such as kaam karnea 'to work', band karnaa 'to close (make closed)’, in which the action is indicated by a noun or adverb followed by an auxiliary such as karnaa. Combinations of adverb with verbal auxiliaries are extremely common, In most cases they appear in pairs such as band karnaa 'to close’, band hoonaa 'to be closed’. Hore are some other exauples: khatam karnaa kal khatam kar8égee. Khatam hoonaa kal khatan hoogaa. Thiik karnaa kal Thiik karéégee. Thiik hoonaa kal Thiik hoogaa. ‘The adverb plus karnaa or hoonaa to finish They will finish tomorrow. to be finished It will be finished tomorrow, to fix We'll fix it tomorrow. to be fixed It will be fixed tomorrow. constructions are extremely productive and are also frequently used to make indi verbs fron loan words, e.g. ripaix karnaa 'to repair’; oil karnaa 'to oil', etc. well 4 deenaa frequently appear as auxiliaries, e In noun plus verbal auxiliary constructions karnaa and hoo dibhaaii deena "to appear! yoo aaj kal dikhaaii nahit deetaa. 'He doesn't appear nowadays! kaan karnaa woo bahut kaan kartaa hat, 436 Cetera ‘to work! ‘He works a lot.!Ene daawat karnaa "to invite to a feast! kal han us-kii daavat kareengee. ‘Tomorrow we will invite hin.' Noun plus karnaa constructions as a rule have passive equivalents with hoonaa, Thus the above sentence could have been rendered: kal us-kii daavat hoogii, ‘Tomorrow he will be invited." Noun plus auxiliary and adverb plus auxiliary constructions differ in the grammatical treatment of the person or thing which under- goes the action. Compare us-Kii daawat karé@gee, ‘We vill invite him’, with us-koo band kartipee, 'We will close it.’ In the former sentence the English object 'him' is rendered by the modifier phrase us-kii, while in the latter the English'it’ corresponds to an oblique -koo phrase. Verb Coupounding A third extremely common stem expansion process is illustrated by constructions like 1ikh lidiiyee ‘please write dovn', andar aa jaaiyee, "please come in', woo gir paRaa, ‘he fell somchow.' In these constructions one of a limited series of compounding auxiliaries is added to the verb root. the verb root is uninflected, while the auxiliary may appear in any of the tense forms listed above. The most conmon compound~ ing auxiliaries are: decnaa ‘give’, leenaa 'take', paRnaa ‘fall', baiThnaa "sit", Daalnaa ‘pour’, jaanaa 'go,' Compound stem formation in Hindi as a rule is limited to particular sets of verbs which mist be Learned separately, Similarly, meanings of compounds are frequently quite idiomatic, e.g. maarnaa ‘strike’, maar Daalnaa 'kill}' ‘here‘are, however, certain regularities which can be printed out below. ‘The auxiliary salnaa conbines with all verbs to indicate ability to perform an action. mai kaan kar saktaa hod. am able to work. -49~¥aayad voo bhii aa gakee, Maybe they can also come. raahaa (ee, ii), the inperfective participle of rahnaa combines with all verb roots to indicate an action in progress. wah kaam kar rahaa hai. He is working. wah kaam kar rahaa thaa. He was working. wah kyaa kar rahaa hoogaa? What do you suppose he is doing? jaanaz, usually combines only with intransitive verbs (i.e., verbs that cannot take a direct object). For example: baith jaanaa "to sit doun! aa jaanaa "to arrive! (get there) uth jaanaa "to get up! ‘The meanings of these jaanaa compounds usually correspond to Fnglish verb constructions like get up, get down, sit down, ete. deenaa and Leena are used primarily with transitive verbs (i.e, verbs that take an object). deenaa indicates that an action is performed for someone else. leenaa refers to action performed for the actor's own benefit, e.g. apnaa kaam kar Liijiyee do your own work saahab-kaa kaan kar diijiyee. Do the gentleman's work. is-koo abhii likh Liitigaa. I'll write it down now.(for ny own benefit) is-koo abhid Likh ditgaa. I'LL write Lt now. (supposedly for someone else's benefit) paRnaa indicates an action that somehow happened, unintentionally. woo gir paRaa. He fell somchow. woo udhar aa paRaa. Somehow he got there. 50"Adverbial Phrases The action of the verb is frequently modified by independent phrases indicating tine, place and manner, which arc not part of immediate finite verb constructions. We call these adverbial phrases since they correspond to what we refer to as adverbs in English. Adverbial phrases way consist either of a single word or of several vord constructions consisting of a noun phrase followed by a post-position: ebhii aace-gaa. He'11 cone now. eek haftee-né@ aaftigaa, I'LL come in a week. is Sshar-néé bahut mashuur makaan h@f. In this city there are many famous buildings. Sometimes with verbs of motion or with conmon phrases the postposition is left out, for example: ham us-kee ghar jaa’égec. We'll go to his house. baatf taraf jaaiyee. Go to the left. Conmon single word adverbs like yah 'here', siidhee ‘straight’ are also nouns in the oblique case. They are frequently uced with regular noun modifiers as in meeree yahdd ‘in my home.! Sirilarly, cormion postpositional constructions such as ~kee | Liyee, 'for', -kee baaree~neo, -kee saath ‘vith’ are ultimate oblique case noun constructions, “5L=Particles and Conjunctions Aside from subjects, finite verb phrases and their objects, all other components of Ilindi sentences are adverbial phrases indicating such things as the time, place or manner in which the action is performed, Particles and conjunctions, although adverbs in terms of their internal granmatical structure forn a category somevhat apart from those discussed so far. Within the sentence they function as connectives, tying together two or more phrases or complete sentences. ‘hey fall into several subclasses depending on the nature of the items they connect. Items such as aur 'and' and yaa ‘or! conbine tvo nouns or tvo verbs into a single phrase or tuo sentences into a single sentences paanii aur duudh diijiyee. Please give us water and milk. woo gaysa hoo yaa nahft gayaa hoo. He might or might not have cone. nagar ‘if, but', phix 'then', par ‘but’, too ‘then introduce whole sentences and connect them with vhat precedes, nagar kal gauur aanaa but tomorrow you must certainly come pax kal nahf{ aayaa but he did not come yesterday phir baad-m@@ bachar jaa@@gee, ‘Then afterwards we'll go outside. agar '1£", yadi 'i£' introduce main statements which are followed by dependent clauses. As a rule these conjunctions are paired with too. agar aap aa&@, too m&f bhii aatGgaa Sinilar pairs of conjunctions are yaa .... yaa ‘either...or', and na +a ‘neither ... nor’, yaa paanii yaa duudh diijiyee. Give me either water or milk. na paanii na duudh diyaa. He gave (me) neither water “Boe 7 =Hindi Sentence Structure With the exception of interjections such as acchaa '0. Baabaa¥ ‘well done', haa 'yes', etc., Hindi sentences consist of a finite verb phtase which is usually but not always preceded by one or more noun phrases, Here are some common examples: 1, jaaee-git. She'll go. 2, ‘ThaND lagaa. It was cold, 3. mujhee kuch kaam thaa. I had sone worl. 4, mit gaads jaatt-gaa. I'LL go to the village. 5, ham kal Baam-koo sinema Last night we went out to declhnee-kee liyee see a movie. baahar gace thee. » tieeraa bhaaii kal subah My brother will give him the . baazaar jaanee-kee money tonorrow after going baad us-koo paisee dee-gaa. to the bazaar. Hindi sentences are divided into two principal parts, the subject and the predicate. the subject is the pronoun or direct case noun phrase which agrees with the finite verb in gender, number and person. For example, nif 'I', han 'we', mecraa bhaaii ‘ny brother! are the subjects in exanples 4, 5, and 6, The predicate consists of the finite verb along with its ancillary modifying phrases such as direct and indirect object, and expressions of time, place, manner. Sentences 4, 5, and 6 are equivalent to their English trans= lation equivalents in that the subject phrase refers to the ‘actor! or principal of the action. ‘There are, hovever, a number of Hindi phrases where this is not the case. Thus in ThaND lanaa and mujhee Kaan thaa the subjects are quay. and kaam respectively, and they refer to what in the English translation appears as the goal or end of the action, In item 3 the principal of the action is expressed by -53- te eethe postpositional phrase mughee ‘to we' which syntactically forms part of the predicate. In iten 2 no actor is expressed in the Hindi phrase, while the English has the dummy subject ‘it.' Compare this with example 1 in which the finite verb phrase inplics an agent 'she,' Verbs like jaanaa which inply an agent are called agent verbs. Verbs which, Like lagnaa do not imply an agent are called non-agent verbs. Among the most conmon non-agent constructions are (a) those with finite verbs such as Lagnaa "be applied’, 'be felt", dikhnea 'seen', that have equivalents with the causative suffix aa, e.g., lagaanaa "install", dithaanaa 'show': us-koo acchaa dikhtaa hai. It seems all right to hin. mujhee dundh acchaa Lagtaa. I Like ail. (b) constructions with aanaa: mujhee hindi nahTf aati, I don't know Hindi. us-koo paRhnaa aataa hai. He can read. (c) constructions with the special verb caahiyce: yaa aap-koo paanii cashiyee. Do you need water? usee paisee caahiyéé. He needs roney. hamee jaanaa caahiyéé. We have to 50+ (4) infinitive plus hai constructions: abhii hamee jaanaa hai. Now we must go. This construction is cormonly used as a neutral conmand. (e) noun plus hai constructions, indicating possession of an abstract quality, e.g. kaam ‘work, pataa 'knowledge', etc. usee bahut kaon hai. We has a Lot of work. nujhee pataa nahit, I don't know.With a nunber of verbs similar to those in part (a) the agent is followed by -scet mujhee-see nahif uThtaa. I can't get up. The nee past ‘A large number of agent verbs form a special past tense construction, structually sinilar to the non-agent constructions discussed above, consisting of the inperfective participle, preceded by the agent construction with the postposition =nee in which the subject indicates the goal of the action, e.g. hamenee Sahar deekhaa. We saw the city. ham-nee us-loo paisee diyee. We gave hin the money. Agent constructions Agent verbs fali into two general groups, transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs are verbs which may take objects. ‘An object is a special kind of noun construction either in the direct case ox in the oblique folloved by koo which normally inmediately precedes the verb, Intransitive verbs do not take an object, Here ave sone cxanples: 1, mai jaafitigea, I'LL go. 2, mai kaan kartaa hid, T'LL work. 3, woo saahab-loo paanii deo»gaa. He'll give the sashab water. Jaanag in example 1 4s an intranuitive verb, In example 2 karnaa is a transitive vorb and kaa is its object. deenag, the transitive verb in exanple 3 takes two objects; the one which precedes immediately, paanii, is called the direct object. ‘The second object, saahab: 0 is called the indirect object. Only the former may appear in the direct case, Indirect objects are always preceded by -koo. +§5- ite SND)