Pala Empire

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pala_Empire

For other uses, see Palas (disambiguation).

Pala Empire

8th century–12th century

The Pala Empire in Asia in 800 CE

Capital List

Common languages Sanskrit,[3] Proto-Bengali[4]

Religion Mahayana Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism, Shaivism[5]

Government Monarchy

Emperor

• 8th century Gopala

• 12th century Madanapala

Historical era Post-classical

• Established 8th century

• Disestablished 12th century

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 Preceded by Succeeded by

Gauda Kingdom Chero dynasty

Sena dynasty

Today part of Bangladesh

India
Nepal
Pakistan

The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the post-classical period in the Indian
subcontinent,[6] which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling
dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix Pala ("protector" in Sanskrit).
They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. The empire was
founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE.[7] The Pala
stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of
Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Gauda, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramvati (Varendra), Tamralipta
and Jaggadala.

The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its
vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the
Bay of Bengal. They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura
Mahavihara, and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The
Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule. The empire enjoyed relations with the
Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Abbasid coinage
found in Pala archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to
flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad
absorbed the mathematical and astronomical achievements of Indian civilisation during
this period.[8]

At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the
northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic plain to
include parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and northeastern India, Nepal
and Bangladesh.[7][9] The empire reached its peak under Emperors Dharmapala and
Devapala. The Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence under Atisa in Tibet, as well
as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they
struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kannauj
and were defeated. After a short lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial
bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala
was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire
was considerably weakened by the 11th century, with many areas engulfed in rebellion.

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The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending
the reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala
period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history.[10][11] The Palas brought
stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions.
They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding
works of arts and architecture. They laid the basis for the Bengali language, including its
first literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.

History

Origins
According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala was the
son of a warrior named Vapyata. The Ramacharitam attests that Varendra (North
Bengal) was the fatherland (Janakabhu) of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty
are unknown, although the later records claim that Gopala was a Kshatriya belonging to
the legendary Solar dynasty. The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a
claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram
Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala (both written in the 16th century CE). The
Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya. Claims
of belonging to the legendary Solar dynasty are unreliable and clearly appear to be an
attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty.[11] The Pala dynasty has also been
branded as Śudra in some sources such as Manjushri-Mulakalpa; this might be because
of their Buddhist leanings.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18] According to Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (in
Ain-i-Akbari), the Palas were Kayasthas. There are even accounts that claim Gopala may
have been from a Brahmin lineage.[19][20]

Establishment
After the fall of Shashanka's kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There
was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The
contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a
situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first
Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the prakriti
(people) of the region made him the king.[11] Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later,
also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his
account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend
mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all
of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on the night following their
election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne.[21] The
historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a
group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies
of the region.[11][21]

Gopala's ascension was a significant political event as the several independent chiefs
recognised his political authority without any struggle.[10]

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Expansion under Dharmapala and Devapala
Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son
Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala. Dharmapala
was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja.
Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both
Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for the
Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in
the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of
Kannauj, and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha
on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states
in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty. Soon,
his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son
Nagabhata II, who conquered Kannauj and drove away
Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to An illustration of the Kannauj
Munger and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. triangle
Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek
alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III, who then intervened by invading
northern India and defeating Nagabhata II.[22][23][24] The Rashtrakuta records show that
both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice,
Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He
adopted the title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.[10]

Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful
Pala ruler.[10] His expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day
Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day
Orissa) whose king fled from his capital city.[25] The inscriptions of his successors also
claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are highly exaggerated (see the
Geography section below).[11][26]

First period of decline

Following the death of Devapala, the Pala empire gradually started disintegrating.
Vigrahapala, who was Devapala's nephew, abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and
became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak
ruler. During his reign, the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha defeated the Palas.
Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles and
the Sailodbhavas established their power in Orissa.[10]

Naryanapala's son Rajyapala ruled for at least 12 years, and constructed several public
utilities and lofty temples. His son Gopala II lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then
ruled only Bihar. The next king, Vigrahapala II, had to bear the invasions from the
Chandelas and the Kalachuris. During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into
smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern
and southern Bengal) also assumed the title Maharajadhiraja, and established a separate
kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty.[10] The Gauda state (West and North
Bengal) was ruled by the Kamboja Pala dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty also bore

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names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala). However,
their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala
official who usurped a major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital.[10][11]

Revival under Mahipala I

Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal
within three years of ascending the throne in 988 CE.
He also recovered the northern part of the present-day
Burdwan division. During his reign, Rajendra Chola I
of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from
1021 to 1023 CE to get Ganges water and in the
process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring Coin of the Pala Empire, Mahipala
I and later. Circa 988-1161 CE
considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were
defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur
and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala
Dynasty.[27] Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king
"elephants of rare strength, women and treasure".[28] Mahipala also gained control of
north and south Bihar, probably aided by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, which
exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered
Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook
construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri
king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which could have
been Mahipala I.[10]

Second period of decline

Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of
Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation
of the Buddhist scholar Atiśa. During the reign of Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna
once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and
Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III was later defeated
by the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. The invasion of Vikramaditya VI saw
several soldiers from South India into Bengal, which explains the southern origin of the
Sena Dynasty.[29] Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the Somavamsi king
Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced
the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign.[10][11]

Mahipala II, the successor of Vigrahapala III, brought a short-lived reign of military glory.
His reign is well-documented by Sandhyakar Nandi in Ramacharitam. Mahipala II
imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were
conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a rebellion of vassal chiefs from the
Kaibarta (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the
Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and
Bhima. Surapala II escaped to Magadha and died after a short reign. He was succeeded by
his brother Ramapala, who launched a major offensive against Divya's grandson Bhima.

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He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as
several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala conclusively
defeated Bhima, and killing him and his family in a cruel manner.[10][11]

Revival under Ramapala

Maitreya and scenes from the Buddha's life. Folios were probably from the Pala period under
Ramapala, considered the last great ruler of the Pala dynasty.

After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala empire with limited
success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until
the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public
utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of
east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of
present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death.
Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support
against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check,
but lost Mithila to a Karnataka chief named Nanyuadeva. He also held back the aggressive
design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a matrimonial alliance.[10][11]

Final decline

Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out in
Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva,
but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom.[10]
According to Ramacharitam, Kumarapala's son Gopala III was murdered by his uncle
Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared
independence, and the Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala
captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained
control of southern and eastern Bengal. A ruler named Govindapala ruled over the Gaya
district around 1162 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about his relationship to the
imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the Sena dynasty.[11]

Geography
The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating
throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a
vast region in North India at one time, they could not
retain it for long due to constant hostility from the
Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less
powerful kings.[30]
Coin of the Palas, Bengal.
Jagaddeva. 12th-13th centuries.

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No records are available about the exact boundaries of
original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the
Bengal region.[10] The Pala empire extended substantially under Dharmapala's rule. Apart
from Bengal, he directly ruled the present-day Bihar. The kingdom of Kannauj (present-
day Uttar Pradesh) was a Pala dependency at times, ruled by his nominee Chakrayudha.
[10]
While installing his nominee on the Kannauj throne, Dharmapala organised an
imperial court. According to the Khalimpur copper plate issued by Dharmapala, this court
was attended by the rulers of Bhoja (possibly Vidarbha), Matsya (Jaipur region), Madra
(East Punjab), Kuru (Delhi region), Yadu (possibly Mathura, Dwarka or Simhapura in the
Punjab), Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara and Kira (Kangra Valley).[11][23] These kings accepted
the installation of Chakrayudha on the Kannauj throne, while "bowing down respectfully
with their diadems trembling".[31] This indicates that his position as a sovereign was
accepted by most rulers, although this was a loose arrangement unlike the empire of the
Mauryas or the Guptas. The other rulers acknowledged the military and political
supremacy of Dharmapala, but maintained their own territories.[11] The poet Soddhala of
Gujarat calls Dharmapala an Uttarapathasvamin ("Lord of the North") for his suzerainty
over North India.[32]

The epigraphic records credit Devapala with extensive conquests in hyperbolic language.
The Badal pillar inscription of his successor Narayana Pala states that by the wise counsel
and policy of his Brahmin minister Darbhapani, Devapala became the suzerain monarch
or Chakravarti of the whole tract of Northern India bounded by the Vindhyas and the
Himalayas. It also states that his empire extended up to the two oceans (presumably the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal). It also claims that Devpala defeated Utkala (present-
day Orissa), the Hunas, the Kambojas, the Dravidas, the Kamarupa (present-day Assam),
and the Gurjaras:[10]

The Gurjara adversary may have been Mihira Bhoja, whose eastward expansion was
checked by Devapala
The identity of the Huna king is uncertain.
The identity of the Kamboja prince is also uncertain. While an ancient country with
the name Kamboja was located in what is now Afghanistan, there is no evidence that
Devapala's empire extended that far. Kamboja, in this inscription, could refer to the
Kamboja tribe that had entered North India (see Kamboja Pala dynasty).
The Dravida king is usually identified with the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha.
Some scholars believe that the Dravida king could have been the Pandya ruler Shri
Mara Shri Vallabha, since "Dravida" usually refers to the territory south of the
Krishna river. According to this theory, Devapala could have been helped in his
southern expedition by the Chandela king Vijaya. In any case, Devapala's gains in
the south, if any, were temporary.

The claims about Devapala's victories are exaggerated, but cannot be dismissed entirely:
there is no reason to doubt his conquest of Utkala and Kamarupa. Besides, the
neighbouring kingdoms of Rashtrakutas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas were weak at the
time, which might have helped him extend his empire.[26] Devapala is also believed to
have led an army up to the Indus river in Punjab.[10]

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The empire started disintegrated after the death of Devapala, and his successor
Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. He also briefly lost control over Magadha
and north Bengal. Gopala II lost control of Bengal, and ruled only from a part of Bihar.
The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II.
Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal and Bihar. His successors lost Bengal again. The last
strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa.
[10] By the time of Madanapala's death, the Pala kingdom was confined to parts of central

and east Bihar along with northern Bengal.[10]

Administration
The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would
adopt imperial titles like Parameshwara, Paramvattaraka, Maharajadhiraja. Pala kings
appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the
Palas for 100 years.

Garga
Darvapani (or Darbhapani)
Someshwar
Kedarmisra
Bhatta Guravmisra

Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into
Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga,
Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass
root level to the imperial court.[33]

The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts:[34]

Raja
Rajanyaka
Ranaka (possibly subordinate chiefs)
Samanta and Mahasamanta (Vassal kings)
Mahasandhi-vigrahika (Foreign minister)
Duta (Head Ambassador)
Rajasthaniya (Deputy)
Aggaraksa (Chief guard)
Sasthadhikrta (Tax collector)
Chauroddharanika (Police tax)
Shaulkaka (Trade tax)
Dashaparadhika (Collector of penalties)
Tarika (Toll collector for river crossings)
Mahaksapatalika (Accountant)
Jyesthakayastha (Dealing documents)
Ksetrapa (Head of land use division) and Pramatr (Head of land measurements)
Mahadandanayaka or Dharmadhikara (Chief justice)
Mahapratihara

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 Dandika
Dandapashika
Dandashakti (Police forces)
Khola (Secret service).
Agricultural posts like Gavadhakshya (Head of dairy farms)
Chhagadhyakshya (Head of goat farms)
Meshadyakshya (Head of sheep farms)
Mahishadyakshya (Head of Buffalo farms) and many other like Vogpati
Vishayapati
Shashtadhikruta
Dauhshashadhanika
Nakadhyakshya

Culture

Religion
The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. A few
sources written much after Gopala's death mention
him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true.[35]
The subsequent Pala kings were definitely Buddhists.
Taranatha states that Gopala was a staunch Buddhist,
who had built the famous monastery at Odantapuri.[36]
Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher
Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established the
Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura Nalanda is considered one of the
Mahavihara. Taranatha also credits him with first great universities in recorded
establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising history. It reached its height under
the Buddhist author Hariibhadra. Devapala restored the Palas.

and enlarged the structures at Somapura Mahavihara,

which also features several themes from the epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata. Mahipala I also ordered
construction and repairs of several sacred structures at
Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.[10] The Mahipala
geet ("songs of Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about
him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal.

The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings,

such as the Vikramashila and the Nalanda universities.
Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities
in recorded history, reached its height under the
patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from
the Pala period include Atisha, Santaraksita, Saraha,
Tilopa, Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra,

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Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Atisha was a Buddhist teacher, who
Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree helped establish the Sarma lineages
of Tibetan Buddhism.
and Virachan.

As the rulers of Gautama Buddha's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the
Buddhist world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him,
asking for a grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda.[37] The
request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara,
present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet
Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka), was in his court.[10] The Buddhist scholars
from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism.
Atisha, for example, preached in Tibet and Sumatra, and is seen as one of the major
figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana Buddhism.

The Palas also supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-
Math.[38] Narayana Pala himself established a temple of Shiva, and was present at the
place of sacrifice by his Brahmin minister.[39] Queen of King Madanapaladeva, namely
Chitramatika, made a gift of land to a Brahmin named Bateswara Swami as his
remuneration for chanting the Mahabharata at her request, according to the principle of
the Bhumichhidranyaya. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu,
Siva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule.[40]

Literature

The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The
Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist
Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides the Buddhist
scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi,
Madhava-kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the other notable scholars
from the Pala period.[10]

The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya
Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts
on medicine include

Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika, Bhanumati, Shabda Chandrika and Dravya

Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Datta
Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana

Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century) is an important

source of Pala history.

A form of the proto-Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapadas composed during
the Pala rule.[10]

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Art and architecture
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is
noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors.[41] It is influenced by the Gupta art.
[42]

The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the Sena Empire. During this
time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was
widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in
posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often
heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing
them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a
slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by
smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the
style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high,
with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.[43]

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than
from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were
mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu
figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian
Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.[44]

A basalt statue of Lalita flanked by Gan ̣eśa and Kārttikeya

Carved shankhas

Sculpture of Khasarpana Lokesvara from Nalanda

Sculpture of Varaha avatar of Lord Vishnu

Jina Rishabhanatha

As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred
structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh is a
World Heritage Site. It is a monastery with 21 acre (85,000 m²) complex
has 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary
buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including
Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of
the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of
Bakhtiyar Khalji as fortified castles and were demolished. The art of Bihar
and Bengal during the Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of Nepal,
Burma, Sri Lanka and Java.[45]

Somapura Mahavihara, a World Heritage Site, was built by

Dharmapala

Central shrine decor at Somapura

Ruins of Vikramashila

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List of Pala rulers
Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without
any well-known calendar era. Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to
determine.[46] Based on their different interpretations of the various epigraphs and
historical records, different historians estimate the Pala chronology as follows:[47]

RC AM D. K.
Majumdar Chowdhury BP Sinha DC Sircar Ganguly
(1971)[48] (1967)[49] (1977)[50] (1975–76)
[51] (1994)[46]

Gopala I 750–770 756–781 755–783 750–775 750–774

Dharmapala 770–810 781–821 783–820 775–812 774–806

Devapala 810–c. 821–861 820–860 812–850 806–845

(circa) 850

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 Mahendrapala NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively 845–860
established through a copper-plate charter discovered
later.)

Shurapala I 850–853 861–866 860–865 850–858 860–872

Vigrahapala I 858–60 872–873

Narayanapala 854–908 866–920 865–920 860–917 873–927

Rajyapala 908–940 920–952 920–952 917–952 927–959

Gopala II 940–957 952–969 952–967 952–972 959–976

Vigrahapala II 960–c. 969–995 967–980 972–977 976–977

(circa) 986

Mahipala I 988–c. 995–1043 980–1035 977–1027 977–1027

(circa) 1036

Nayapala 1038–1053 1043–1058 1035–1050 1027–1043 1027–1043

Vigrahapala III 1054–1072 1058–1075 1050–1076 1043–1070 1043–1070

Mahipala II 1072–1075 1075–1080 1076– 1070–1071 1070–1071

1078/9
Shurapala 1075–1077 1080–1082 1071–1072 1071–1072

Ramapala 1077–1130 1082–1124 1078/9– 1072–1126 1072–1126

1132

Kumarapala 1130–1125 1124–1129 1132–1136 1126–1128 1126–1128

Gopala III 1140–1144 1129–1143 1136–1144 1128–1143 1128–1143

Madanapala 1144–1162 1143–1162 1144– 1143–1161 1143–1161

1161/62

Govindapala 1155–1159 NA 1162–1176 1161–1165 1161–1165

or 1158–
1162

Palapala NA NA NA 1165–1199 1165–1200

Note:[47]

Earlier historians believed that Vigrahapala I and Shurapala I were the two names of
the same person. Now, it is known that these two were cousins; they either ruled
simultaneously (perhaps over different territories) or in rapid succession.
AM Chowdhury rejects Govindapala and his successor Palapala as the members of
the imperial Pala dynasty.
According to BP Sinha, the Gaya inscription can be read as either the "14th year of
Govindapala's reign" or "14th year after Govindapala's reign". Thus, two sets of
dates are possible.

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 Outline of South Asian history

National histories

Regional histories

Specialised histories

Military
The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the Mahasenapati (commander-in-
chief). The Palas recruited mercenary soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including
Malava, Khasa, Huna, Kulika, Kanrata, Lata, Odra and Manahali. According to the
contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas
had the finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab merchant
Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the
Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that
the Pala army employed 10,000–15,000 men for fuelling and washing clothes. He further

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claims that during the battles, the Pala king would lead 50,000 war elephants. Sulaiman's
accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; Ibn Khaldun mentions the number of
elephants as 5,000.[52]

Since Bengal did not have a good native breed of horses, the Palas imported their cavalry
horses from the foreigners, including the Kambojas. They also had a navy, used for both
mercantile and defence purposes.[53]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pala Empire.

Sources
The main sources of information about the Pala empire include:[54]

Pala accounts

Various epigraphs, coins, sculptures and architecture

Ramacharita, a Sanskrit work by Abhinanda (9th century)
Ramacharitam, a Sanskrit epic by Sandhyakar Nandi (12th century)
Subhasita Ratnakosa, a Sanskrit compilation by Vidyakara (towards the end of the
Pala rule)

Other accounts

Silsiltut-Tauarikh by the Arab merchant Suleiman (951 CE), who referred to the
Pala kingdom as Ruhmi or Rahma
Dpal dus khyi 'khor lo'i chos bskor gyi byung khungs nyer mkh (History of
Buddhism in India) by Taranatha (1608), contains a few traditional legends and
hearsays about the Pala rule
Ain-i-Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl (16th-century)

References
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2. ^ Huntington 1984, p. 56.
3. ^ Sengupta, Nitish Kumar (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from
the Mahabharata to Mujib. New Delhi: Penguin Books India. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-
14-341678-4.
4. ^ Bajpai, Lopamudra Maitra (2020). India, Sri Lanka and the SAARC Region:
History, Popular Culture and Heritage. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. p. 141.
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 5. ^ The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval
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International. pp. 280–. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
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International. pp. 280–. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
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of the Magadha Kings". The Indian Antiquary. IV: 365–66.
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Indian Historical Quarterly. IX (2): 487–90.
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New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 177. ISBN 978-81-7017-059-4. "Dharmapāla
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who was a vassal king of Kanuaj subordinate to Dharmapāla ... Dharmapāla was
thus acknowledged paramount ruler of almost whole of North India as the Bhojas
of Berar, Kīra (Kangra district), Gandhāra (West Punjab), Pañcāla (Ramnagar
area of U.P.), Kuru (eastern Punjab), Madra (Central Punjab), Avanti (Malwa),
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Rajputana) were his vassals."

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23. ^ Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha. New Delhi:
Abhinav Publications. p. 179. ISBN 978-81-7017-059-4. "Nāgabhata-II ̣ defeated
Cakrāyudha and occupied Kanauj ... battle between the king of Vaṅga and
Nāgabhatạ in which the latter emerged victorious ... may have been fought at
Mudgagiri (Monghyr in Bihar). If so, it shows the utter humiliation of
Dharmapāla and strengthens the suspicion that as a revenge he might have
surrendered to and welcomed Govinda III when he invaded North India."
24. ^ Jump up to: a b Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha.
New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 185. ISBN 978-81-7017-059-4.
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3797-5.
27. ^ John Andrew Allan; Sir T. Wolseley Haig (1934). The Cambridge Shorter
History of India. Macmillan Company. p. 10.
28. ^ Bagchi 1993, p. 4.
29. ^ Paul 1939, p. 38.
30. ^ Bagchi 1993, p. 39–40.
31. ^ Paul 1939, p. 122–124.
32. ^ Paul 1939, p. 111–122.
33. ^ Huntington 1984, p. 39.
34. ^ Taranatha (1869). Târanâtha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien [History of
Buddhism in India] (in German). Translated by Anton Schiefner. St. Petersburg:
Imperial Academy of Sciences. p. 206. hdl:2027/uva.x004196825. "Zur Zeit des
Königs Gopâla oder Devapâla wurde auch das Otautapuri-Vihâra errichtet."
35. ^ P. N. Chopra; B. N. Puri; M. N. Das; A. C. Pradhan, eds. (2003). A
Comprehensive History of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set). Sterling. pp. 200–202.
ISBN 978-81-207-2503-4.
36. ^ Bagchi 1993, p. 19.
37. ^ Bagchi 1993, p. 100.
38. ^ Krishna Chaitanya (1987). Arts of India. Abhinav Publications. p. 38. ISBN 978-
81-7017-209-3.
39. ^ Chowdhury, AM (2012). "Pala Dynasty". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A.
(eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic
Society of Bangladesh.
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sculpture. Taraporevala. p. 21. ISBN 9780865900479.
41. ^ Harle, 212-216; Craven, 170, 172-176
42. ^ Harle, 212; Craven, 176
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Kramrisch. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. p. 208. ISBN 978-81-208-1208-6.
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Asiatic Society of Pakistan. pp. 272–273.
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A.D. Abhinav Publications. pp. 253–. ISBN 978-81-7017-059-4.
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50. ^ Paul 1939, p. 143–144.
51. ^ Bagchi 1993, pp. 2–3.

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Cir. 750 A.D.–cir. 1200 A.D. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-301-4.
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