`MOUNTBATTEN PLAN

 Sanctioned by 3 leaders  Nehru, Jinnah and Sardar Baldev Singh (representing the Sikh
community)
 Third June Plane June 3, 1947
 Muslim majority provinces in the British India NWFP (Punjab, Pakistan, Baluchistan) were asked
if they wished to have a future constituent assembly of their own or would join the existing
constituent assemble for independent India,
 Provision for Referendum in NWFP Reason: some wanted to be a part of India, especially the
group led by Abdul Gaffar Khan
 The whole referendum was manipulated by Pakistan (the group led by Abdul Gaffar Khan boycotted
it).  end result which happened later on
 DIVIDING CRITERIA (for Bengal and Punjab)
 Majority-Minority ratio.
 Division done district wise
 In Bengal, a referendum was kept in Sylhet which was a Muslim majority province because
some wanted to be a part of India.
 A Boundary Commission was to be constituted for both Bengal and Pakistan which would
demarcate the boundaries between India and Pakistan, after the division takes place. This was
also called the Boundary Award.

RADCLIFFE BOUNDARY AWARD

 Cyril Radcliffe
 Burnt all his papers while leaving India as he was aware about the dangerous results
Ramchandra Guha
 He did not have much experience in India and he was chosen so that an unbiased decision
could be reached.
 He was given 5-week time.
 EAST BENGAL: 54,500 sq. miles | 40 million (population) | 27 % Non-Muslims (95 % of this 27 %
were Hindus and some tribes)
WEST BENGAL: 28,000 sq. miles | 21 million (population) | 29 % Non-Hindus
Therefore, India received less population and territory than Pakistan. Later migrants from Pakistan
impacted the division negatively.
 EAST PUNJAB: 37,000 sq. miles | 12.5 million | 35% Muslims
WEST PUNJAB: 63,000 sq. miles | 16 million | 25% Hindus and Sikhs
Large part of Punjab went to Pakistan (West Punjab). They had developed a hydraulic society, the
seven-rivers region made it a very good site for irrigation. Most of these canal colonies went to
 Pakistan and East Punjab received very less of these colonies. This was one bane from the India
perspective.
 Muslim and Non-Muslim enclaves (more than 1/4th remained minorities) for both India and Pakistan
 Gurdaspur (Punjab): 50.2 % Muslims wanted to go to Pak but remained in India
 Nadia and Murshidabad (Bengal) Muslim majority wanted to go to Pak but remained in India.
 JINNAH AND MUSLIM LEAGUE SAID IT WAS IN INDIA’S FAVOUR
 Muslim majority provinces came to India.  Gurdaspur, Nadia and Murshidabad.
 Kashmir was an undecided issue and Gurdaspur was the only land route through which India
could reach J&K.
 Nehru’s relationship with Lady Mountbatten and the resultant influence.
 Chittagong and Khulna, in spite of being Hindu majority provinces, went to Pakistananother
controversy
 DECLARATION OF AWARD AFTER INDEPENDENCE
 Led to massive killings.
 These killings could’ve been avoided if it was declared before
 Book: Divide and Quit by Penderel Moon shift the blame of massacres on the new Indian
Government

CONSEQUENCES

1. Biggest Refugee Migration More than 18 million people got uprooted (including Hindus, Muslims
and Sikhs) | 1.4 million Muslims and Sikhs got uprooted from Punjab | 5.5 million Muslims got
uprooted from Punjab region.
2. Destruction of Property 1.5 billion rupees (1947 price)
3. Delinking of canals from their head works cotton field and controlling stations separated; thus
water related problem unravelled | Indus Water Treaty (1960)
4. Destruction of Families couldn’t meet for years and decades. Example of the famous Sehgal sisters
5. Destruction of Communities Ganganagar in Rajasthan very susceptible to communal riots:
communal violence of anti-Muslim refugees.

SITUATION OF EAST/INDIAN PUNJAB

 East Punjab receive 45% of the population of the entire Punjab and received 31% of the total
irrigated and fertile land of the total land area of Punjab. Also, it received 30% of the total income of
Punjab.
 In West Punjab the Hindu and Sikh refugees left 67 lakh acres of land. In East Punjab the Muslim
refugees had left only 47 lakh acres of land. This was another handicap for India.
 There was also food deficit issue which arose in East Punjab.
 TEMPORARY PHASE OF SETTEMENT OF THE REFUGEES (1947-49)
  When the refugees had started coming, the first need that arose was construction of camps but
gradually the refugees started increasing. This resulted in a problem of congestion.
 To tackle the problem of congestion, the exodus of the refugees was diverted to the
neighbouring provinces.
 Psychological Rehabilitation: “Train to Pakistan” by Khushwant Singh suffering of
refugees due to migration; Ramchandra Guha: train from Peshawar to Delhi, there were
hardly any survivors; almost all got killed. There were rampant killings. Almost 18 million
people got uprooted. This led to psychological devastation of people. Thus something had to
be done by the government towards
1. There were 2 kinds of refugees- Rural Refugees and Urban Refugees. Their first priority
was to settle the rural refugees on the vacuum land. (47 acres of land)
2. Second effort was to settle friends and families together to bring a sense of belongingness
and protection.
3. They could also work together and share the implements.
 Food loans were provided, mainly for the purpose of sinking wells.
 Other than agriculturists, there were also artisans such as blacksmiths, etc. They were also
provided loans.
 These loans were mostly interest free and they had to return these loan only after they had
started earning.
 PERMANENT PHASE OF SETTEMENT OF THE REFUGEES (1949 onwards)
 Land Records: Most refugees were without any land records. The problem that the
government faced was that on what basis lands were to be allotted to the families. This
problem was solved by the village panchayat. The idea was that villagers would have a rough
idea regarding the amount of land that a person would possess. The government thus called
the village panchayat which existed in the earlier localities, along with the villagers who were
to be allotted land to ensure the veracity of their statements and through this process they
created proper land records.
 Land Allotment: The allotment of land was done on the basis of the following 2 concepts:
 Concept of Standard Acre Trilok Singh had come up with this concept of standard
acre. One standard acre was considered to be that area of land which could produce 4
to 5 quintals of wheat or grains. This concept was brought taking into consideration
the varying degrees of fertility and productivity of the various lands.
 Concept of Graded Cut Higher the area of land, higher would be the rate of cut.

Grade (Standard Acre) Rate of Cut Allotment

0-10 25% 7.5
10-30 30% 21
40-50 50% 25
Above 1000 95% 50
 Idea was to remove the problem of feudalism.
Idea was also to end Absentee Landlordism.
Thus the aim was mainly towards the furtherance of social justice.
 EFFECTS OF THE ABOVE DICUSSED PERMANENT SETTLEMENT
 Levelling of Holding: In 1948 the government passed the East Punjab Holdings
Consolidation and Fragmentation Act: large areas of lands got consolidated into blocks. If
there are small areas of land, the use of higher technologies can be facilitated. As a result of
this the area of agriculture lands increased.
 Bhakra Nangal Dam was started in 1948 and was completed in 1963. On the opening of this
dam, Nehru made the famous quote “Dams are the temples of modern India”. This was the
largest dam in India. The entire Punjab region which was a deficit region was transformed
into a surplus region. Water was used for irrigating 3.5 million acres of land and tube well
sinking was made possible because of the production of electricity. Thus came about the tube
well revolution as well as the mechanisation of agriculture and the use of HYV seed. Role of
M.S. Swaminathan was also of a lot of significance.
 This damn was largest till SSP was formed. Today also it is highly sensitive zone because of
its influence on the surrounding areas. They are more dangerous than nuclear missiles
(Arundhati Roy). Total masonry work is 5 times more than the largest dam in the world. It
was this dam which made the green revolution possible
 Punjab was chosen for Green Revolution because:
 The main reason was the availability of large holdings of land.
 Historically Punjab had a Mehalwari system where land ownership was with the
village and there was no individual ownership. As a result, there were large areas of
land and thus Punjab was chosen for the Green Revolution project.
 Deficit region got transformed into a surplus region. Punjab became the great basket
of the country
 Farmers reinvested their incomes into agriculture only and this contributed towards
the agricultural boom.
 Salinization of soil and water logging were the challenges faced by Punjab in the aftermath of
the revolution. Use of more and more pesticides had a great detrimental effect. Certain
regions in Punjab became prone to cancer diseases.

INDUS WATER TREATY

 It was a pursuit for India from 1947 itself.

 The agreement got cancelled because of the war.
 Indian hasn’t stopped the flow of water because of the effect it could have on the people.
 In 1960, the treaty was signed between Ayub Khan and Nehru
 It is a treaty of 6 rivers. 3 eastern flowing (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) and 3 western flowing rivers (Chenab,
Jhelum, Indus)
 EFR: these rivers pass through Pakistan but flows towards India.
 WFR: Passes through Indian territory but flow towards Pakistan
 Due to the above factors EFR were allotted to India and WFR were allotted to Pakistan.
 India is the Upper Riparian in case of WFR and Pakistan is the Upper Riparian in case of EFR
 Condition for the treaty:
1. UR states can use the water for the purpose of navigation.
2. UR can also use the water for drinking
3. Both the nations will exchange the information. If one nation starts a hydro project, it should
share all the data with the other nation for the purpose of transparency.
 World Bank played a very important role in this treaty. It has been found recently that WB just
facilitated the treaty but is not the guarantor of the treaty.
 At the time of this treaty, India agreed to grant a compensation of 100 crores to Pakistan.
 Provision of conflict resolution:
 Multi-tier resolution system
 Lower Level: Indus Commission it will comprise of various commissioner from both the
nations and these commissioner will observe the entire. If any dispute regarding the flow of
water, the issue will first go to the IC. There will be a join sitting of the IC of India and that
of Pakistan. IC is an autonomous commission.
 Governmental Level consisting of 3 tier system: Foreign Secretary  Foreign Minister
Prime Minister
 Conflict resolution through international arbitration. Here the role of WB becomes important
as the matter will go to the WB for arbitration. WB will appoint a neutral expert.
(Scandinavian countries are a good example from where neutral expert can be appointed).
Neutral Expert will prepare a report after visiting the site. He can judge the matter as a
“difference” or as a “dispute” on the basis of the report.
 If it is declared to be a difference, WB’s decision will be final. If it is declared to be a dispute,
it will go to International Arbitration (ICJ). Examples: Tulbul Navigation Project (India
started making a large hydro power project), Baglihar Dispute and Kishanganga (big hydro
power projects constructed by India but India was able to get award in its favour)
 3 ISSUES
I. Tulbul Navigation Project
 This project was started by India in 1984 on Jhelum.
 This was meant for navigation purposes. (apples from Baramulla to Srinagar)
 Pakistan put forth their objections on many grounds in 1987:
 1. This was violation of the Indus water treaty because it clearly says that the flow of
water should not get affected. This was a large project and it would definitely affect
flow of water
2. Secondly, Jhelum flows into Punjab province of Pakistan. The project would thus
affect agricultural activities in this region.
3. Since Jhelum is an important tributary of Indus, this would affect agricultural activities
in the Sindh region as well because the flow of Indus river will get affected.
 Thus started the negotiations between the 2 countries.
 By 1989, India had forgone its right to go ahead with the project because the project would
actually affect the flow of water and it was evident that at the forum of International
Arbitration, the award would go in favour of Pakistan. This issue was resolved between
the foreign secretaries and it didn’t go further.
 The project has been in limbo till date.
 It was a 3 lakh acre feet project and once there was realisation about the flow of water,
India became careful in the subsequent projects.

II. Baglihar Hydropower Dispute

 This was started by India in 1992 on river Chenab which is also a western flowing river.
India was Upper Riparian and Pakistan was Lower Riparian for Chenab.
 450 MW was the capacity of electricity to be produced.
 Pakistan put forth the following objections:
1. It is a large project and is violating the Indus Water Treaty.
2. Chenab is an important river and if the flow gets affected, the agricultural activities
could be affected.
3. The project had the capability of causing flood in Pakistan and it was a security
problem.
 Negotiations began at the 3 tier level. The talks continued for 7-8 years but no solutions
could be reached even at the summit level.
 In 2005, after almost 13 years, Pakistan referred this matter to the neutral expert. The
neutral expert was then appointed by WB. The NE visited the site and they observed the
flow of water for almost a year and collected technical details.
 In 2007, it was referred as a difference. This itself was an important victory for India. Thus
the NE’s award would be final and binding.
 After a few months they said that India had not violated the treaty. The height of the dam,
which was 144 mitres, was to be reduced by 1.5 mitres and the bondage capacity
(measured in acre feet) was to be reduced by 13%. India was finally allowed to go ahead
with the project.
  The capacity of this dam was 37.5 million acre feet. IVT says that 10,000 acre feet should
be the limit unless it would affect the flow of water. India had realised that the technical
aspect to be kept it mind was the flow of water and not the 10,000 acre feet limit. India had
learnt from the western technique of Sediment Management, through which sediments can
be pushed out. This is what the NE had observed that India was able to maintain the
prescribed flow of water and thus the award was given in India’s favour.
 Pakistan committed to not further raising the issue at any other international forum.

III. Kishanganga Project

 Kishanganga is a tributary river of Jhelum. It is also known as Neelam river in Pakistan.
 Both India and Pakistan started constructing dams on this river in 2007. It was to be
completed between 2007-2016 but it was subjected to a lot of delay.
 The projected capacity of this dam is 330 megawatts.
 Negotiation talks began between the 2 countries at the 3 tier level.
 The case went to the neutral expert and after collecting the details of both the projects,
NE termed it as a dispute.
 In 2010, the case went to ICJ. The first reaction of ICJ was to turn down the application
by Pakistan. But after further pleadings the case was accepted by ICJ for adjudication.
 Because India was constructing a large dam, it would affect the flow of Neelam river and
their project would fail.
 An investigating team was formed to look into the project.
 India was to stop the construction of the project till the result of investigation comes out.
 This came as a blow to India.
 In 2011, both the sites were visited and the flow of water was observed. The technical
data was collected. ICJ gave a partial award in 2013 which was a great relief for India. It
said that India had not violated IVT and as per the IVT India (UR State) could divert the
water for non-consumption purpose, that is for the generation of electricity. Thus India
could continue with the project.
 The final award came in December 2013 and the Court specified conditions on which the
project could be made:
1. The flow of water should not go below 9 cubic metre per second. This tab was much
lower than what Pakistan was claiming (100 cubic metre per second). Thus the award
was very convenient for India.
2. Height of the dam should be 37 mitres and not more than that. India was under the
process of construction and so it was not problematic for India.
 After this, India went on to build projects on Jhelum and Chenab and we plan on making
more projects in future.
  Unlike Baglihar, this issue received a lot of media attention and protests had emerged in
both the countries.

GANGA WATER SHARING ISSUE

 This was a geo-political issue between India and East Pakistan, where Ganga was called Padma.
 This issue as old as 1951 and arose in the aftermath of partition.
 India planned to construct a barrage in Farakka and the purpose was to flush the sediments from the
Calcutta Port to make it more navigable. Sediments not only kills dams but also negatively affects
the ports.
 East Pakistan raised an objection. Like Ganga is revered in India, Padma was also revered in
Bangladesh.
 The plan came about in 1951 but the project was started in 1961 and in 1975 the barrage was
completed.
 When Bangladesh emerged in 1975, although we had good relations with Bangladesh, it raised an
objection keeping water sharing in mind. The barrage could stop the flow of water and kill various
forms of life in Bangladesh
 A temporary settlement was reached wherein a temporary treaty came into being, which was to be
renewed after every 2 years.
 However, the need for a permanent treaty has always been there.
 1997- H.D. Devgowda was the PM of India at that time and Sheikh Haseena was the PM of
Bangladesh. During his period the treaty came into being. Bengal’s CM, Jyotibasu, played a very
important role in this permanent treaty. [West Bengal had always objected this treaty and so due to
that the treaty was delayed];
 The treaty was to deal with certain important areas
1. Flood Management: this is a constant problem for both Bangladesh and West Bengal. Thus both
the nations were to deal with these flood problems. Bangladesh had made the Harding barrage
(Ganges Barrage) and India had the Barakka barrage for dealing with floods.
2. Irrigation
3. Generation of Electricity- hydropower
4. Navigation and Fishing
 Provisions of the treaty:
1. Period: water sharing arrangement was not for the entire period. It was to be from 1 st January to
31st May. This period was chosen because this is the lean period where there is water scarcity.
After this period there are constant rainfalls and thus water sharing is not needed.
 2. 10 Days’ Basis: water was to be shared on a 10 days’ basis. Every month was divided into three
parts of 10 days each and after every 10 days, experts will examine the flow of water. If during
lean period water falls below 5000 cusecs, it will be declared as an emergency and there would
be subsequent meetings to deal with the emergency.
3. Joint Committee: it would comprise technicians from both the countries. first function was to
observe the flow of water on 10 days’ basis and if the flow goes below the prescribed limit then it
has to report to the respective authorities. They were to regularly send data to the governments of
both the countries. it was also responsible for implementing the treaty.
4. Indo Bangladesh Joint River Commission: this comprised commissioners from both the
countries. Joint Committee was to report to the Joint River Commission and the Commission was
to send the report to the respective Governments. Everything was to be filtered and then finally
sent to the government. Thus there was a 3 tier system.
5. After every 5 years either of the nations can go for a review of the treaty and either party can
seek the first review and through this review they can suggest for measures to be deleted or
added. This is again subjected to agreement between both the nations.
6. There was no provision for international arbitration. Issue were to be settled bilaterally.
 It is to continue for 30 years. It is to continue till 2027.
 After the period of 30 years the treaty can be further renewed by mutual consent.
 There was great bonhomie between the nations and rejoicing in both the nations in the aftermath of
signing of the treaty. It was a confidence building measure between India and Bangladesh.

SIACHEN ISSUE

 Literal meaning of the term “Siachen”- the land of wild roses.

 It was a no man’s land before the Indo-China War.
 NJ9852- the last point where LOC ends and on that point the Siachen glacier is located. It is 73 km
long and 3 to 5 km wide. It is located on Karakoram range of the Himalayas. Soltoro Range is the
range in Karokoram where Siachen is located.
 After the 1962 Indo-China war, China started gaining interest in the region.
 1970 onwards Pakistan was sending a number of mountaineering expeditions comprising
international trekkers to Siachen. The primary motive was to establish its claim on the region When
India noticed this, India sent its first trekking mission in 1978. It was a civilian mission and school
children were also made a part of it. It was led by army commander but most of the people were
civilians.
 In 1984, the conflict originated. India got some intelligence report by RAW and some foreign
agencies that Pakistan had ordered for some mountaineering equipments and clothing. Thousands of
orders were made by Pakistan and India, alarmed by this, launched the Operation Meghdoot
 beginning in 1984. Mission of the operation was to get rid of Pakistan’s acquisition of the post.
Subedar Bana Singh led the operation. Quaid post was occupied and was called the Bana post.
 Height of permafrost- 6000 metres and Siachen is even above that. The average height of Siachen
glacier is between 6000 and 7000.
 Two third of the glacier is in India’s possession and one third is with Pakistan. India has the strategic
advantage.
 India has around 7 battalions and Pakistan has around 3 battalions.
 Siachen is called as the highest and the costliest battlefield in the world. Costliest in the sense that as
per the estimate, every day we are investing more than 50 million rupees for the maintenance of the
troops in Siachen.
 If Pak acquires Siachen then it will gain control over Leh and Ladakh and here lies the strategic
importance of the region. This is why India is spending so much on the region by stationing the
troops.
 Temperature dips to -50 degree Celsius and that’s why there are high energy requirements for the
soldiers. We have drilled a pipeline, which is 250 mitres long, to supply kerosene to the troops in
Siachen. Cost of making one chapatti in Siachen is more than 1000 bucks. Also everything has to be
airlifted and thus more are the costs.
 The only PM who has gone to Siachen is Manmohan Singh. He went there in 2005 and said that we
want to declare the area as a region of peace. There are also proposals by international organizations
to open the area for trekkers to relax the tensions.
 But the Siachen issue is creating a lot of ecological issue. The melting of the glacier gives rise to
Shyak river which falls into Indus river. All the human waste and the chemicals resulting from
shelling are contaminating the water. This has caused serious issues from ecological point of view.
 There is also a lot of threat to biodiversity of the region. Flora and fauna is getting negatively
affected by human settlements in the region.
 The glacier is also meting very fast due to the human presence.
 The northern-most point of Siachen is called the Indira Col.

INTEGRATION OF STATES

At the time of partition, we had around 600 princely states. There was reluctance to unify amongst some
states.

FOUR STAGES

I Stage: The first stage was in April 1947. By April 1947, a lot of States were joined to the constituent
assembly. A lot of states were still in a limbo.
II Stage: In June 1947, Sardar Patel, along with V.P. Menon were made in charges of integration. They had
issued a warning to the rulers to join the State. By August 15, 1947, Patel had sent a strict warning to the
rulers which is why most states joined the assembly.

III Stage: By 1948, Junagarh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Hyderabad- three bad apples as said by Guha. These
states also got integrated.

IV Stage: In 1961, Goa, Daman and Diu, Pondicherry (Portuguese and French states) got integrated.

WHY DID THEY JOIN (DESPITE KNOWING THAT THEIR AUTONOMY WOULD BE TAKEN)?

1. Mountbatten Plan

Only two choices- India and Pakistan. They understood the ground reality that sooner or later they would
have to accede.

2. State People’s Movement

Most of these princely states had movements within their states. People had learnt the ideas of liberalism,
constitutionalism, democracy. People realised that their lives would be better if they were able to ensure that
they joined India. They no more wanted to bear the authoritarian and oppressive rule of Rajas. This put
pressure on the rulers.

3. The Patel factor

Sardar Vallabhai Patel was known for his firmness and dutiful attitude; and he issued continuous warnings
to the State. People knew that he would do what he said. Nehru was a liberal but Patel was not.

JUNAGARH

Junagarh was located in the Saurashtra region and Junagarh was very prominent. It was a large territory. It
had a majority population of Hindus. The Nawab was Mahawat Khan. He was known for being weirdly
obsessed with his dogs, and being a weak ruler.

He decided to accede to Pakistan, however, the population was reluctant to join Pakistan. He was not a
popular ruler and he finally fled to Pakistan with his dogs and left his Queen.

The Diwan was Shah Nawaz Bhutto- grandfather of Benazir Bhutto. He invited India to intervene and then,
in that condition, in February 1948- the Indian army marched to Junagarh and they acceded.

After this, a plebiscite took place. More than ninety percent of the people decided to accede to India. The
plebiscite took place to nullify the effect of the ruler’s declaration to accede to Pakistan.

HYDERABAD

Ruled by a Muslim ruler, and occupied. There was Nizam Shahi existent since the 18 th century. Osman Ali
Shah was the last Nizam. The Nizam at the time was the richest person on the planet.
He didn’t make up his mind to accede to India. He desired independent status, but as per the Mountbatten
plan you have to accede to either India or Pakistan. Pakistan was willing to help the Nizam.

There was a secret commitment signed with India- as part of which, he promised that he would not accede to
Pakistan.

After this, a standstill agreement was signed in November, 1947. As part of the Standstill agreement, (1)
status quo would be maintained, (2) a representative government would be formed and (3) reforms will be
introduced.

The Nizam’s actual plans were different. All this commitment and agreement was to buy time, so he could
build up an army which would be sponsored by Pakistan, and force India to acknowledge Hyderabad as an
independent state.

Reasons why Hyderabad joined India- Certain political developments took place.

1. Militant Groups: Razakars were loyalists of the Nizam. Many former soldiers and fundamentalists
formed a militant group. They had realised that they would lose the influence they had enjoyed for so
long. This militia was in order to attack on the liberal groups or Hindus. Unleashed a reign of terror
in Hyderabad, including those groups that were in favour of Hyderabad acceding to India.
2. Satyagraha: The State Congress unit launched a Satyagraha. This was suppressed by the armed
groups.
3. Refugee Problem: They developed a refugee problem because due to suppression by the Razakars,
people started fleeing the state and started taking refuge in India in the neighbouring states.
4. Patel gave a firm warning to Hyderabad . The State Congress took up arms, in order to protect
themselves from the Razakars. This was also a significant development, because never before had
this happened.
5. Communist Groups: There were also some Communist groups, who started organising the peasantry
class. The peasantry was badly suppressed by the landlords. Congress started regrouping them under
their banner. Peasants started killing the feudal lords, destroying land records and so on.
Feudual elements were protected by the Razakars, and this led to conflict. There was utter chaos and
anarchy in the State.

“Cancer in the belly of India”- Patel, referring to Hyderabad.

Finally, on 13th September 1948- the Indian army marched to Hyderabad and Hyderabad was liberated. The
Nizam had to surrender after a fight. The Nizam was now allowed to keep most of his property and given a
privy purse of 5 million rupees annually. It was finally ended by Indira in 1972-73.

No question of plebiscite arose because the Nizam had not acceded to Pakistan.

KASHMIR- “A valley bloody and beautiful”

The dilemma was that Sheikh Abdulla was the most popular leader in Kashmir. He realised that he would be
completely removed from power.

When the Qawai? raiders attacked the valley, he was left with no option.

In his entire life, he has not seen such a great airlift. 1 lakh troops sent to the valley.

They would have occupied the valley- and one dancing girl? was able to delay them for 48 hours?